Annual Solar OUTLOOK 2023: A Country-By-Country Review of The Status of Solar Energy in Africa

ANNUAL SOLAR
OUTLOOK 2023
A country-by-country review of the
status of solar energy in Africa.
OFFICIAL EVENT PARTNER:

© 2023 AFSIA. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
BROUGHT TO YOU BY: ALONGSIDE OUR PARTNERS:
3
WORDS OF
GRATITUDE
For the 3rd year in a row, I am delighted to present to you AFSIA’s
Annual Solar Outlook report. Since the 1st edition, many of you have let
me know how instrumental this report has been in their daily work,
being the ideal “desk companion” for any small detail or major piece
of information about anything solar across the continent. These
gestures of appreciation of AFSIA’s work mean a lot to me, and I would
like in return to share my sincere thanks to the individuals and
companies who have contributed to what I believe is one of the best
reports of the African solar industry.
First and foremost, I would like to congratulate Ines Rachel Dushime

and Aline Uwimana for the amazing work they have delivered to make
this report a reality. They have relentlessly collected and analyzed all
solar updates possible throughout the year, to bring it to you in this
summarized version which I hope will help you save a lot of time in
your daily work. Congratulations ladies for your comprehensive work
and permanent attention to detail.
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Anyone who has endeavored to produce a similar report knows
who much effort, time and resources this requires. And the AFSIA
team would not have been able to bring you this report without
the support of our growing group of partners.
I would like to extend a warm thank you to WFES – the World

Future Energy Forum - for giving us a global platform for the
release of this important report. Your continued support means
a lot to us.
I also thank the partners of this year’s edition. It is a great honor

to benefit from your support to and trust in this report which we
designed to be the reference in our industry. It is a pleasure
working with you, not only for this report but also throughout the
year, to further promote the use of solar energy across the
continent. Special thanks to LONGi, JinkoSolar, meteocontrol,
Trina Solar, ecoligo, JA Solar, Gridtech Infrastructure and
GET.invest.
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This year’s report is an even more collective effort than ever
before as we have invited the best experts globally to share
their insights and knowledge.
First, I would like to thank those who accepted the invitation to

contribute an article and provide exclusive market intelligence
about key aspects of our industry. I am thinking here specifically
of Dr. Svet Bajlekov, Sergio Montoro, Claire Le Ster, Aashna
Aggarwal, Gillian-Alexandre Huart, Terje Osmundsen, Andrea
Renzulli, Iarina Ciceu, Léandre Berwa, Jean-Philippe Seya and
Kathleen Jean-Pierre.
And I would also like to thank our amazing group of peer

reviewers who accepted the challenging mission of reviewing
and correcting the information provided in this report. You may
find the entire list here. I am extremely grateful for your
assistance with this important piece of work of AFSIA. Being able
to count on a network of experts like you is the essence of what
we are creating at AFSIA and I look forward to many more years
of mutual support.
JOHN VAN ZUYLEN
Credit: Distributed Power Africa 6

ANOTHER RECORD YEAR FOR
SOLAR GLOBALLY,
COMBINED WITH PROMISING
DEVELOPMENTS ACROSS AFRICA
The world has added between 220-260 GW in 2022
In 2022, the world has added an estimated 220-260 GW of new solar PV installations.
No official figures are available yet and this range is based on the estimations of
various sources. This brings the total global solar installed capacity at a whopping 1.15
TWp, a symbolic threshold which we indicated would be crossed in AFSIA’s 2022
Annual Outlook report.
This 2022 capacity addition is equivalent to 24%-29% of all the solar PV that had been
installed historically. In comparison, in 2021, 191 GW were added globally, which at that
time represented 27% of all historically installed capacity.
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2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Annual Installed 41.6 32.3 30.1 37 39 47.7 71.9 94.9 94.2 101.3 126 191 240
Y-O-Y Growth -22% -7% 23% 5% 22% 51% 32% -1% 8% 24% 52% 26%
Cumulative 41.6 73.9 104 141 180 227.7 299.6 394.5 488.7 590 716 907 1147
Growth Vs History 78% 41% 36% 28% 27% 32% 32% 24% 21% 21% 27% 26%
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While being an excellent year, 2022 however shows a little slow-
down in year-on-year growth compared to 2021. At end of 2021,
IRENA identified the total global installed capacity at 907 GW,
with an addition of 191 GW during that year. That was a 52% y-
o-y growth of installed capacity compared to 2020 and the
best year of global solar ever.
And based on the estimated range mentioned above as

reference, 2022 thus saw a y-o-y growth of “only” 15%-36%. This
puts 2022 at the 4th rank of biggest annual increase since 2010
but nevertheless confirmed 2022 was a solid year for solar
across the globe.
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GLOBAL ANNUAL INSTALLED CAPACITY
300
250
200
150
100
50
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
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AFRICA HAS ADDED 0.9 GW,
AND AFSIA HAS MANAGED TO
UNIQUELY TRACE 10 GW OF
PROJECTS
If we zoom in on Africa, we notice that 2022 has been slightly less
exceptional than at global level, but it has been a good year for solar
nevertheless.
In 2022, the continent saw the installation of almost 1 GW of new PV

capacity (949 MW), a 14% y-o-y growth compared to 2021 (833 MW, based
on revised AFSIA figures).
As highlighted in last year’s report, AFSIA’s figures differ slightly from IRENA’s
figures when it comes to Africa. This is mostly based on a different
methodology to track installed capacity (importation figures for IRENA vs.
documented actual projects for AFSIA). While AFSIA’s figures are of course
underestimating the real total installed capacity across Africa (not all
projects are documented and we do not track residential installations), our
data offers an alternative look at the solar reality in Africa with more
granularity and more info on specific projects when available.
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As a result, the global trend is fairly similar but variations may be
identified for specific years between IRENA’s and AFSIA’s records.
In total, a gap of 2 GW still needs to be filled between our
respective databases (12.4 GW total for IRENA vs. 10.5 GW total for
AFSIA), while 1.8 GW worth of confirmed operational projects still
need to be assigned to a specific year of commissioning in the
AFSIA database.
The positive news despite these discrepancies is that no matter

which data source is being considered, Africa is now home to
more than 10 GW of identified solar projects and this is another
symbolic milestone for the continent!
As a result, the global trend is fairly similar but variations may be

identified for specific years between IRENA’s and AFSIA’s records.
In total, a gap of 2 GW still needs to be filled between our
respective databases (12.4 GW total for IRENA vs. 10.5 GW total for
AFSIA), while 1.8 GW worth of confirmed operational projects still
need to be assigned to a specific year of commissioning in the
AFSIA database.
The positive news despite these discrepancies is that no matter

which data source is being considered, Africa is now home to
more than 10 GW of identified solar projects and this is another
symbolic milestone for the continent!
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2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Annual Installed (IRENA) 0.09 0.08 0.31 1.01 0.53 1.14 1.8 2.9 1.3 1.2 0.8 0.9
Y-O-Y Growth -11% 288% 226% -48% 115% 58% 61% -55% -8% -31% -14%
Cumulative 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.7 2.3 3.4 5.2 8.1 9.4 10.6 11.4 12.4
Growth Vs History 38% 24% 76% 140% 31% 50% 53% 56% 16% 13% 8% 8%
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Annual Installed (AFSIA) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.2 0.7 0.8 1.5 2.1 0.8 0.8 0.95
Y-O-Y Growth -62% 4% 4803% -79% 283% 19% 85% 40% -64% 10% 14%
Cumulative 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.0 1.1 1.8 2.6 4.1 6.2 7.0 7.8 8.7
Unassigned to year 1.8
Total Cumulative 10.5
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AFRICA ANNUAL INSTALLED CAPACITY
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Annual Installed (IRENA) Annua Installed (AFSIA)
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SOLAR SPREADS ACROSS THE
CONTINENT
Solar in Africa has historically been driven by a limited number of “hot spots” such
as South Africa, Morocco and more recently Egypt. While these countries continue
leading the charge with important solar initiatives being launched and developed,
it is interesting to note that more and more other countries are now also adopting
solar.
This means not only that more people across the continent have now access to
clean and reliable power, but also that the industry as a whole gets a wider
territory to expand its presence in, develop projects and partnerships, and grow its
business footprint. This is a very positive trend for the industry, which will inevitably
lead to economies of scale through network effects, as well as allow local
companies and technicians to further specialize in solar, grow their business and
hire more.
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In 2022, if we take into account installations for large-scale, C&I, mini-grids
and SHS (hence not accounting for residential installations)
30 countries in 16 countries in 2 countries in

Africa have Africa have Africa have
installed more installed more installed more
than 1 MW than 10 MW than 100 MW
And the winner for 2022 in terms of installed capacity is… Angola! Angola has indeed commissioned 2 major large-scale projects this
year, namely the 188 MW Biópio solar plant and the 96 MW Baía Farta solar plant, both developed by the consortium MCA Group, Sun
Africa LLC, Hitachi ABB. This is quite an impressive achievement for companies with relatively limited track record in the African solar
space.
The top 5 is further composed of South Africa (111.8 MW), Egypt (80 MW), Ghana (71.3 MW) and Mozambique (41.9 MW).
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Row Labels C&I large scale mini-grid SHS wheeling Grand Total
Angola 284.0 0.0 0.0 284.0
South Africa 110.9 0.9 111.8
Egypt 49.0 31.0 80.0
Ghana 2.8 68.5 71.3
Mozambique 0.0 41.0 0.5 0.4 41.9
Guinea 33.0 0.3 33.3
Burkina Faso 30.0 0.5 30.5
Madagascar 0.2 29.1 0.5 29.8
Malawi 28.5 0.6 29.1
Namibia 4.7 24.0 0.2 28.8
Benin 25.0 0.1 1.0 26.1
Senegal 2.3 23.0 0.1 0.4 25.7
Kenya 14.0 0.5 7.7 22.2
Central African Republic 15.0 0.0 15.0
Tunisia 12.2 12.2
Zimbabwe 12.0 0.1 12.1
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Nigeria 6.6 1.5 8.1
Uganda 2.3 4.0 0.6 6.9
Sierra Leone 5.0 0.4 5.4
Mali 4.0 1.0 0.2 5.1
Seychelles 0.1 5.0 5.1
Comoros 4.0 4.0
Ethiopia 2.1 2.1
Tanzania 1.0 0.9 1.9
Zambia 1.7 1.7
Cote d'Ivoire 1.2 0.4 1.6
Mauritania 1.5 1.5
Rwanda 0.2 0.1 1.2 1.5
Somalia 0.0 1.3 1.3
Uganda 1.0 1.0
Cameroon 0.8 0.8
Togo 0.7 0.7
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São Tomé and Príncipe 0.6 0.6
Saierra Leone 0.4 0.4
Republic of the Congo 0.2 0.2
DRC 0.2 0.0 0.2
Gambia 0.1 0.1
Cape Verde 0.1 0.1
Liberia 0.1 0.1
Ghana 0.1 0.1
Botswana 0.0 0.0
Lesotho 0.0 0.0
Somaliland 0.0 0.0
Burundi 0.0 0.0
The Gambia 0.0 0.0
Namibia 0.0 0.0
Chad 0.0 0.0
Niger 0.0 0.0
Grand Total 246.0 629.8 5.0 67.0 0.9 948.7
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The growing footprint of solar becomes even more impressive if we look at
projects under development. If we take into consideration projects which
have been announced in 2022, then 49 African countries are considered to
be working on at least 1 MW of solar and 29 on more than 100 MW.
And if we also include announcements made in 2021, then every single

African country is expected to see new solar installations in the relative
short term.
Finally, it is also important to bring installed capacities in contrast with

other key national metrics. It is indeed unfair to compare a country with 100
million inhabitants with another which would be home to only 10 million.
Likewise, the level of development of the country (for example measured
by total installed capacity across all technologies) can also be used an
indicator to evaluate how strongly or poorly a country performs with
regards to solar.
The table below aims at bringing a somewhat fresh perspective on

national solar performance. It shows the top 16 countries based on
“Wp/capita”. When comparing “apples to apples”, we notice that this “top
solar countries” ranking looks quite different from the traditional “total
solar capacity installed” which is dominated by South Africa, Egypt and
Morocco.
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Country MWp Population Wp/capita
Seychelles 17.9 99,858 179.4
Namibia 291.4 2,655,167 109.7
Cape Verde 34.2 570,977 60.0
South Africa 3,850.8 69,662,216 55.3
Morocco 948.5 37,996,605 25.0
Egypt 2,255.6 107,127,291 21.1
Mauritania 86.1 4,953,241 17.4
Senegal 230.1 99,858 12.9
Eswatini 14.2 99,858 11.9
Zambia 226.0 19,662,940 11.5
Algeria 380.5 45,817,271 8.3
Angola 284.2 35,406,345 8.0
Togo 58.2 8,760,629 6.6
Kenya 323.4 56,712,859 5.7
Malawi 111.0 20,357,811 5.5
Ghana 173.9 32,681,937 5.3
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C&I DOMINATES 2022,
MINI-GRIDS REGRESS
Out of the total 948 MW which AFSIA managed to identify as
being commissioned in 2022, the breakdown is as follows:
SEGMENT CAPACITY % OF 2022 Y-O-Y GROWTH
C&I 246 MW 26% 61.5%
LARGE-SCALE 630 MW 66.5% 1.7%
MINI-GRID 5 MW 0.5% -18%
SHS 67 MW (est) 7% 20.7%
TOTAL 948 MW 100% 13.8%
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While large-scale still contributes for the largest share of installed capacity, it
is interesting to note that C&I now already represents almost 30% of all
installations across the continent (a trend which we announced in the first
edition of AFSIA’s Annual Outlook report).
The y-o-y growth of C&I is particularly noteworthy (+61.5%). And with the
recent multiple announcements of large-ticket financing deals for C&I
projects and M&A activity in the segment, it is easy to imagine that this trend
is set to continue.
C&I will play an extremely important role in South Africa particularly. Looking
at data for projects under development, we notice that announcements for
C&I projects only represent 4.8% of potential future capacity across Africa
(but we know that many large-scale projects unfortunately never see the
daylight, and this figure is potentially also biased by a group of super large
green hydrogen projects announced, more about this later).
Yet, if we zoom in on South Africa, we notice that 22.2% of all projects currently
announced are already related to C&I (including wheeling projects). This
should not come as a surprise though when taking into account the need for
companies for take their power supply into their own hands given the failure
of ESKOM and the simplified procedure to supply up to 100 MW of capacity for
own consumption.
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PROJECTS UNDER DEVELOPMENT
(2021 & 2022 ANNOUNCEMENTS)
AFRICA-WIDE SOUTH AFRICA
SEGMENT CAPACITY % SHARE CAPACITY % SHARE
C&I - CAPTIVE 3,567 MW 3,2% 1,611 MW 10.6%
C&I - WHEELING 1,768 MW 1.6% 1,750 MW 11.5%
LARGE-SCALE 105,255 MW 94.3% 11,798 MW 77.8%
MINI-GRID 1,030 MW 0.9% 0 MW 0%
TOTAL 111,622 MW 100% 15,159 MW 100%
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Continent-wide data also indicate that mini-grids have had a
difficult year in 2022, with a regression of 18% y-o-y in terms of
installed capacity (only 5 MW installed in 2022). This segment is still
very dependent on grants and subsidies while it tries to identify
solutions that will lead to pure commercial bankability. As a result,
its progress is also limited by the availability of support programs
and initiatives (or the lack thereof).
The number of countries where the mini-grid segment has been

active is relatively limited. Nigeria leads the charge with close to 1.5
MW of new capacity, followed by Mali, Uganda, Kenya, and
Mozambique.
Finally, SHS has experienced a solid year with an estimated 20.7%

increase y-o-y. The data for the full 2022 year can only be
estimated at this point as only sales for H1 2022 have been shared
thus far. The estimated total of 67 MW of SHS for 2022 is a great
increase from last year, driven primarily by the continental SHS
majors. But much work is still required to equal the historical
performance of 2019 and 2020, which saw 80 and 91 MW of SHS
brought to market respectively.
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NOT GREAT WHEN COMPARED
TO THE REST OF THE WORLD,
BUT GREAT PROSPECTS AHEAD
When comparing newly-added or total installed solar capacity between the

world and Africa, one must recognize that Africa is still very much
underperforming when considering its size, population and/or solar
potential. Africa now hosts less than 1% of the global solar capacity installed,
and installed less than 0.5% of the 2022 global new capacity installed. As
such, one may say that solar in Africa is regressing compared to the rest of
the world.
Yet, Africa offers lots of opportunities when it comes to solar and these
opportunities can be very different than in other parts of the world.
The first such opportunity lies in the C&I segment. As previously mentioned,
this segment already represents 28% of the 2022 new capacity installed,
with a y-o-y growth of 60%+. And this exponential growth is set to continue
as more than 5 GW of C&I projects under development have already been
advertised in one way or another. This represents almost 50% of the total
installed capacity across the continent to date. Out of this 5.3 GW under
development, 3.4 GW is based in South Africa alone.
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C&I is not unique to Africa. But C&I in Africa comes with additional layers of
interest. From a technical point of view, C&I in Africa often requires a higher
level of technicity because it needs to integrate unstable grids, storage and
alternative power supply such as diesel generators. But also in terms of
impact, C&I encompasses much more than “just” procuring cheaper
electricity. Thanks to solar, companies and industries in Africa can enjoy a
more stable electricity supply, which in turn allows them to operate in a
smoother and more predictable way. This naturally leads to improved
business operations and more job creation. In a continent where
unemployment rate is already too high and 60% of the population is below
20 years old (hence soon coming to the job market), ensuring job creation
and economic inclusion is the #1 priority to ensure long-term stability. C&I
solar, indirectly, contributes to this.
The other major opportunity comes from green hydrogen. Developed

economies are hungry for hydrogen, and more specifically cheap and
green hydrogen. Thanks to Africa’s stellar solar irradiation, the continent
offers some of the best features to produce green hydrogen. And the large
industrial conglomerates have understood this some time ago already and
have contributed to the recent (sometimes extravagant) announcements
of green hydrogen projects in Africa. At the time of writing this report, 115 GW
of large-scale projects are said to be under development in Africa, out of
which 52 GW exclusively for green hydrogen! This represents 5 times the
total installed solar capacity in Africa.
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While not all projects announced might come to fruition, these
announcements may not be as unrealistic as many may think. A
first 100 MW project was already commissioned in Q3 2022 in Egypt.
And for the remaining projects, the combination of attractive
economics of green hydrogen in Africa and developed economies
pushing for these projects to be developed so they can import
cheap green hydrogen for their own consumption back home, push
us to believe that green hydrogen in Africa is based on solid
fundamentals.
The third exciting trend we are seeing for solar in Africa is rather
indirect and is linked to the exponential growth of electric mobility
across the continent. Mobility in Africa is mainly driven by
motorbikes and recent technology now allows to drive an electric
motorbike (new or retrofitted) at a significantly lower costs than the
traditional ICE (internal combustion engine). These unbeatable
economics are already causing a boom in taxi moto drivers
switching to electric in markets where these motos are available.
And it is anticipated that the rest of Africa will soon follow.
But to power these electric bikes, renewable energy is required.

Indeed, powering electric bikes with electricity produced through
fossil fuel power plants would only displace the problem and would
offer no real solution. Moreover, all these electric motor bikes will
represent an additional electricity demand and many African
countries already do not have sufficient power to address the
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existing demand. You may find a dedicated article on this topic
further in this report. This article highlights why solar is the ideal
(and maybe only!) companion to support and enable the growth of
electric mobility in Africa. And the magnitude of the new solar
capacity required may surprise you. AFSIA’s info indicate that to
support commercial moto taxis to switch to electric, most African
countries might need to double or triple their existing installed
capacity. This will of course come with many challenges. But out of
all possible solutions, solar is the most adapted for this need and
this represents an amazing opportunity for all solar professionals
across the continent.
Finally, we would like to highlight PUE (Productive Use of Energy) as

our last exciting trend for solar in Africa. For the past decade, much
efforts and money have been invested in electricity access, allowing
the most vulnerable people in Africa to get access to basic comfort
such as lighting and communication means (charging cell phones,
listening to radio, watching TV). These solutions, mostly supported
by SHS and mini-grids, have indeed improved the lives of millions
across the continent. But a growing number of voices have
highlighted that more should be done to empower people with
revenue-generating solutions before thinking of being able to
watch cable TV or acquire the latest smart phone.
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PUE is a new segment in the solar eco-system which encompasses all
these solutions, mostly based on solar energy, which allow for some
kind of economic activity which was either already possible but at a
very high cost (relying on a diesel generator for example) or simply
not possible at all. PUE is at the intersection of SHS (complete stand-
alone kits with solar and device/machine) and C&I (because the
purpose of the kit is to run an economic activity, albeit small).
We are only at the very early days of PUE and yet there are already
millions of users of these solutions, and dozens of solutions are
already available on the market. Very little information currently exists
on this new solar segment and this is why PUE is not yet included in
our Annual Outlook report. But the AFSIA is currently compiling what
intends to be the most comprehensive catalog of PUE solutions to
share with the community in an effort to increase awareness and
understanding about these very exciting solutions. Stay tuned for this
new AFSIA report in March 2023!
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32
FOREWORD
I am delighted to share with you the 3rd edition of AFSIA’s Annual Solar
Outlook for solar energy in Africa.
2022 has again been a year of solid growth for solar in Africa, albeit at a
lower level than elsewhere across the globe. In light of the massive
challenges that have plagued the globe since 2020, this growth of solar in
Africa in 2022 remains commendable and highlights very strong
fundamentals.
Large-scale solar has maintained a comparable level to 2021. This means

that despite the many challenges faced by the continent (particularly hit this
year by food insecurity, inflation and currency devaluation), a sizeable
number of large-scale projects has nevertheless been commissioned. But
more systemic obstacles remain in the way of more large-scale projects:
off-taker’s poor creditworthiness and lack of bankability of contractual
agreements.
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Despite these challenges, one segment has particularly outperformed all
others: C&I solar. This segment has shown impressive resilience and growth
in 2022, delivering on the promise we identified in previous editions of this
report.
PUE or productive use of energy solutions are also gaining in popularity and
should be watched closely in the near future. While very little is shared about
PUE in this annual report, the AFSIA team is preparing a dedicated report on
PUE to bring this nascent solar segment the attention it deserves.
The fact that these 2 segments have overperformed other segments comes
from their intrinsic value to the end-users: they address people and
companies who are already spending money on alternative, but less
convenient and/or more expensive solutions. In contrast, other solar
segments, as long as they continue relying on subsidies and development
aid, are at risk of continuing their dependency on external factors, as might
have been the case in 2022.
Looking forward, we anticipate a bright future for solar in Africa. This should
be driven by a continued exponential growth of C&I, the finalization of
gigantic green hydrogen projects, the rise of e-mobility which will
undeniably be supported by solar and the growing adaptation of PUE across
vast segments of the economy. Large-scale projects (probably combined
with large-scale storage) will of course continue to contribute to the growing
solar installed capacity across the continent, but as always in a very
punctual and somewhat difficult to predict manner.
34
MEET THE TEAM
INÈS ALINE JOHN VESTINE JOSÉE VINCENT KERSY ÉUGENIE
TEAM MARKET CEO DIGITAL COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS RESEARCH EVENTS

MANAGER INTELLIGENCE COMMUNICATION MANAGER MANAGER ASSOCIATE COORDINATOR
MANAGER MANAGER
TABLE OF CONTENTS
01 Thank you note 10 Focus on Storage
02 Review of solar in Africa in 11 Focus on Youth Employment

2022
03 Foreword 12 Focus on e-mobility
04 How to get the most out 13 Focus on Floating Solar

of this report
05 Country Vignettes 14 Focus on Made in Africa
06 Focus on C&I 15 Peer Reviewers
07 Focus on Digital Solutions 16 Summary Tables
08 Focus on Market Drivers 17 AFSIA Members
09 Focus on Productive Use
37
HOW TO GET THE MOST
OUT OF THIS REPORT
AFSIA’s Annual Solar Outlook report distinguishes itself from
other industry reports mainly through its format. Our approach
is to present a collection of concise yet information-rich
“country vignettes” summaries, containing all key information
about solar. A such, it aims at being the year-long reference
document for all solar decision-makers active in Africa. This
report intends to help solar professionals get fast access to
verified and sourced information and quickly identify business
opportunities.
Each country vignette contains synthesized data about solar in

the country. This information has been gathered through a
continuous market watch conducted by the AFSIA team. This
year, we have brought a second layer of quality by asking our
expert peer reviewers to provide additional input on their
respective country of expertise.
All info is presented in summarized format to provide a

“straight-to-the-point” read. But every piece of information is
also sourced so the reader can easily track the origin of the
39
information and decide to collect complementary information
directly from the source. (We invite you to download the digital
version of this report for optimal use of the sources).
In between country vignettes, the reader will find topical articles

on some key trends of our industry. These articles are not meant
to give a comprehensive review of the topic, but rather provide a
peculiar point of view of a specific aspect of solar in Africa.
Hopefully, some of these articles will also open the reader’s eyes
on some of the most exciting elements that make solar in Africa
so different than in other geographies.
At the end of this report, the reader will also get a chance to view
the key data presented on each country vignette in summarized
and comparative tables. This will allow the reader to quickly
identify which countries apply a “0 import duty” policy or which
country has the highest electricity tariffs for commercial and
industrial customers, to cite just 2 examples. This should help the
reader quickly identify the next targets for international expansion
and/or business development efforts.
We hope you will enjoy AFSIA’s 3rd Annual Solar Outlook report
and look forward to your comments to make future reports better WEBSITE
and more useful. Please do not hesitate to share your suggestions AFSIASOLAR.COM
and remarks so that we can continue building a strong and
growing industry together.
EMAIL
INFO@AFSIASOLAR.COM
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COUNTRY OBJECTIVES
This section contains information on the objectives of
VIGNETTE EXPLAINED a country to include renewable energy in its energy
mix. Targets are set for the next 5 years, 10 years or
maybe more. (in a future edition, we will compare
objectives and achievements)
ELECTRIFICATION RATE
This shows the percentage of people in each country
that has access to the grid and/or electricity. It also
highlights electrification rate objectives in the near
future. Please keep in mind that different countries
count “electrification” differently. In some countries it
means “connected to the grid”, in some other it
means “has access to lighting, even through SHS”.
41
POLICY / REGULATION
Lists all applicable rules in terms of duties, taxes,
exemptions, net-metering, wheeling, feed-in tariffs or
any special government program that supports or
restricts the deployment of solar or renewables in
general in a country.
41
TOTAL PV INSTALLED
COUNTRY Displays figures of the currently installed capacity
VIGNETTE EXPLAINED as identified by AFSIA for each solar segment.

We only display figures of projects that have been
verified by AFSIA and are recorded as such in AFSIA
projects database.
CURRENT TARIFF GRID ELECTRICITY

Represents the tariff charged to different types of
consumers classified by residential, commercial,
and industrial depending on their electricity
consumption. This tariff provides the range between
the minimum and the maximum $/kWh charged per
category in this country. The prices shown are
exclusive of VAT.
NOTEWORTHY DEVELOPMENTS
Identifies bigger projects/programs that are either
under development, construction, tendering or any
other phase of development and which are
expected to significantly contribute to the solar
opportunity in a given country.
42
TABLE OF CONTENTS / Country links
Algeria 50 Democratic 69 Guinea-Bissau 87 Niger 120 South Sudan 137

Angola 51 Republic of the Kenya 91 Nigeria 121 Sudan 141
PAGE N°
Benin 52 Congo Lesotho 93 Republic of the 122 Tanzania 142

Botswana 53 Djibouti 70 Liberia 94 Congo The Gambia 143
Burkina Faso 54 Egypt 71 Libya 95 Rwanda 123 Togo 144
Burundi 55 Equatorial 73 Madagascar 96 Sao Tome and 124 Tunisia 145
Cameroon 60 Guinea Malawi 97 Principe Uganda 146
s
COUNTRY SLIDE
Cape Verde 61 Eritrea 74 Mali 107 Senegal 125 Zambia 147

Central African 62 eSwatini 75 Mauritania 108 Seychelles 132 Zimbabwe 148
Republic (CAR) Ethiopia 83 Mauritius 109 Sierra Leone 133
Chad 63 Gabon 84 Morocco 110 Somalia 134
Comoros 64 Ghana 85 Mozambique 111 Somaliland 135
Cote d'Ivoire 65 Guinea 86 Namibia 112 South Africa 136
43
TABLE OF CONTENTS / Articles
Focus on C&I 56 Focus on Youth Employment 113
Focus on Digital solutions 66 Focus on e-mobility 126
Focus on Solar Evolution 76 Focus on Floating Solar 138
Focus on Productive Use 88 Focus on Made in Africa 149
Focus on Storage 98
ARTICLE PAGE N°
44
45
ALGERIA
OBJECTIVES TOTAL PV INSTALLED
• 15000 MW of RE by 2035, with a growth rate of 1000 LARGE SCALE 344.10 MWp + 25 MWe CSP
MW/year link C&I 11.39 MWp
• 4GW of RE by 2024 link
MG 0 MWp
SHS & 0 MWp
RESIDENTIAL
SOURCE AFSIA GOGLA IRENA
ELECTRIFICATION RATE CURRENT TARIFF GRID ELECTRICITY

• 99.8% of the population has access to electricity link SOURCE
SOURCE
SOURCE RESIDENTIAL COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIAL
MIN. $ 0.009 $ 0.007 $ 0.004
MAX. $ 0.058 $ 0.063 $ 0.048
POLICY / REGULATION NOTEWORTHY DEVELOPMENTS

• 30% import duties on foreign solar panels • Authorities extended 1 GW PV tender link
• No limit of self-consumption • Eni and Sonatrach built 10 MWp at Bir Rebaa North oil
• Feed-in tariff was replaced with tenders link complex and have now moved to the next site which is
• No net-metering link another 10MW link
46
ANGOLA
• 9.9 GW of installed generation capacity by 2025 link LARGE SCALE 284 MWp
• 500 solar villages by 2025 link
C&I 0.15 MWp
• RE to comprise of 70% of the energy mix by 2025 link
• 800MW of RE with 100MW of solar, 100MW by 2025 MG 0.03 MWp
link SHS & 0.035 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 46.89 % of the population has access to electricity SOURCE
link RESIDENTIAL COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIAL
• 42.8% in urban areas and 10% in rural areas link
• Objective to reach 60% electrification rate by 2025 MIN. $ 0.005 $ 0.012 $ 0.009
link
MAX. $ 0.014 $ 0.014 $ 0.014

• In June 2019 grid electricity subsidies were cut by • 25 MWp Caraculo park under construction and to be
85% link extended to 50 MWp link
• Objective is to apply cost-reflective tariffs by 2025 • Construction approved on 104 MWp Catete and 400 MWp
link Laúca solar parks link
• PV is subject to import duties and VAT link • 125 MGs with 516MWp/1,006 MWh under development Link
• FiT exists and tariffs vary for projects of 10MW or • MCA Group constructing 83.64 MWp in five localities link
greater link • 6 MWp Lucano solar park under development link
• Net-metering available for projects of 10MW and
more link
47
BENIN
• Achieve 35% of RE in the energy mix by 2030 link LARGE SCALE 27.25 MWp
• More than 127 localities to be electrified via mini-
C&I 6.83 MWp
grids by June 2023 link
• 25% of RE in the national energy mix by 2025 link MG 0.14 MWp
• 25MW of solar in 2025 and another 25MW in 2030 SHS & 5.43 MWp
link RESIDENTIAL

• 53% of the population have access to electricity link SOURCE
• 53,9% in urban areas and 6,6% in rural areas link RESIDENTIAL COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIAL
• 95% urban and 65% rural electrification by 2025 link
• Targets 100% electrification rate by 2030 link MIN. $ 0.138 $ 0.146 $ 0.141
MAX. $ 0.237 $ 0.262 $ 0.156

• No import duties on solar panels and storage link • 25 MWp Illoulofin solar phase two launched link
• 5% import duty on pre-assembled solar generating • 2x15 + 2x10MW solar plants under construction link
sets and VAT of 18% link • Aress to equip 15 private hospitals with solar link
• No net-metering and no FiT link
48
BOTSWANA
• Increase share of RE in the energy mix, 15% by 2030 LARGE SCALE 1.3 MWp
and to 50% by 2036 link
C&I 6.47 MWp
• 200 MW CSP by 2027, up to 795 MWp new generation
with 61% from RE by 2040 link MG 0.01 MWp
SHS & 0.05 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 72% electricity access on average throughout the SOURCE
country link RESIDENTIAL COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIAL
• Target to reach 100% electrification by 2030 link
MIN. $ 0.077 $ 0.093 $ 0.063
MAX. $ 0.107 $ 0.138 $ 0.070

• 20% import duties on solar lights/lanterns and a 5% • 2*100MWp CSP projects tender ongoing link
on batteries link • Six solar PV plants in tender by Botswana Power Corporation link
• Some solar equipment are exempt from VAT with • Sturdee Energy constructing 3.6 MWp Bobonong and 1.12 MWp
others subject to a 5%-20% VAT link Shakawe projects link
• Net-metering available link • Scatec building 50 MWp in Selebi-Phikwe link
• FiT guidelines issued in 2020 link • University of Botswana to get 6 MWp link
49
BURKINA FASO
• 20 MW of PV connected to the network every 10 LARGE SCALE 64.10 MWp

years targeting 2025 link C&I 17.84 MWp
• Target of 50% RE in the electric mix by 2030 link MG 0.13 MWp
SHS & 7.41 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 22.5% of the population has access to electricity SOURCE
RESIDENTIAL COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIAL
link
• 67.4% in urban areas and 5.3% in rural areas link MIN. $ 0.120 $ 0.102 $ 0.086
• Targets 95% electrification rate by 2030 link
• Targets 75% electrification rate by 2025 link MAX. $ 0.221 $ 0.264 $ 0.224
• No import duties and VAT applicable on solar • West African Power Pool (WAPP) developing 300 MWp solar
parks link
equipment link
• Sinohydro constructing 26.6 MWp Zina solar project link
• No feed-in tariff, no net-metering link • FMO supporting construction of 110 MWp across 4 projects
link
50
BURUNDI
• Target of 50% of Renewable Energy in the LARGE SCALE 7.5 MWp

electricity mix by 2025 link C&I 0.14 MWp
MG 0.25 MWp
SHS & 0.1 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 13% of the population has access to electricity link SOURCE
• Target 30% electrification rate by 2030 link
MIN. $ 0.040 $ 0.096 $ 0.096
MAX. $ 0.268 $ 0.196 $ 0.156
• No VAT on Solar PV panels, batteries, inverters and • World bank supporting 17 MW “Soleil-Nyakiriza” project
through MGs link
some other equipment link
• No import duties on solar panels and 25% on the
rest link
• 3% withholding tax on solar equipment and 4% on
solar panels link
• No FiT, and no net-metering link
51
FOCUS ON C&I
BY ANDREA IARINA
ARTICLE RENZULLI CICEU
Programme Manager Policy Policy Officer
and Regulations
UNLEASHING THE POTENTIAL

OF THE C&I MARKET IN AFRICA
Corporate power purchase agreements (CPPAs) for renewable

energy, particularly solar PV, represent a small but growing
market in Africa. CPPAs allow commercial and industrial
customers to purchase renewable electricity directly from
independent power producers (IPPs) at a pre-agreed price for a
pre-agreed period (long-term).
These contractual arrangements provide benefits to both parties:

generators have the possibility to circumvent the off-taker risk
52
inherent in PPAs with financially strained public utilities and to
find new opportunities to access the market beyond public
tender programs; while end-customers benefit from a cheaper,
more reliable electricity supply. This business model proves very
advantageous in markets where the end-user tariffs on the main
grid are higher than possible CPPA tariffs or where outages and
grid unreliability oblige clients to rely on costly back-up solutions
or suffer a loss of output.
Agreements are broadly divided into three categories:

1. Private wire CPPAs, whereby the end-customer purchases
power from an on-site or near-site project behind-the-meter;
2. ‘Physical’ or ‘sleeved’ CPPAs, whereby generators wheel
electricity to end-customers through a grid operated by a
third party; and
3. ‘Virtual’ or ‘synthetic’ CPPAs, which do not involve the physical
delivery of electricity, but are a financial derivative under
which payments from end-customers to generators are
determined by comparing an agreed-upon strike price
against a market reference price.
In 2021, the nascent C&I market for solar comprised

approximately 717 MWp of installed capacity, with the majority of
projects located in South Africa, Egypt, and Nigeria. In general,
African markets have thus far favored private wire PPAs thanks in
54
part to their simplicity from a regulatory and commercial point
view, as they do not rely on any intermediary between generators
and end-customers. Sleeved CPPAs are more complex, requiring
multiple contracts between the involved parties (IPP, end-
customer and grid operator) and are subject to wheeling costs .
As a consequence these contracts are primarily confined to
more developed markets like South Africa. In the absence of more
sophisticated electricity market designs, virtual PPAs are notably
absent.
Despite the potential for renewables deployment through C&I

solar, barriers to the establishment of CPPAs persist. Dedicated
financing for the C&I market and appropriate de-risking tools to
enhance the creditworthiness of private off-takers are lacking.
The absence of net-metering regulations limits the possibility of
selling surplus electricity to the grid, preventing the generation of
revenues at times of peak production and low consumption.
Similarly, inadequate grid access and wheeling regulation, as well
as the lack of transparency of use of system tariffs, prevent the
development of CPPAs.
Addressing these barriers through regulatory reforms that

increase market openness, attractiveness and readiness towards
CPPAs would unleash the vast potential of the C&I market and
contribute to achieving SDG7 across Africa.
55
CAMEROON
• Increasing the contribution of RE from 1% to 25% LARGE SCALE 0.31 MWp

with 6% from PV by 2035 link C&I 2.3 MWp
• Electrify 10,000 additional localities using RE by 2035 MG 11.25 MWp
link SHS & 13.0 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• Target 100% access to be achieved by 2030 for
urban areas and 70% for rural areas by 2045 link MIN. $ 0.080 $ 0.134 $ 0.096
MAX. $ 0.158 $ 0.158 $ 0.136
• No VAT on solar equipment link • Maroua 14.52 MWp and Guider 15.78 MWp under
construction link
• Reduced customs duties on imported RE products
• Government to develop 120 MWp in the northern region link
link • Four thermal plants being hybridized with solar link
• Import tax is 30% on pico solar products link
• No FiT link
• FER (Rural Energy Fund) provides subsidies up to
80% of the feasibility and up to 70% of the
infrastructure costs link
56
CAPE VERDE
• Having at least one of the islands using 100% of RE LARGE SCALE 33.82 MWp
by 2030 link C&I 0.29 MWp
• Target reviewed to 30% by 2025 and 50% by 2030 MG 0.13 MWp
link SHS & 0 MWp
• Invest 250 MW in renewable production by 2030 link RESIDENTIAL
• 40 MW of solar and wind will be completed in 2023 SOURCE AFSIA GOGLA IRENA
link

• 100% access to electricity by 2030 link
MIN. $ 0.259 $ 0.246 $ 0.246
MAX. $ 0.363 $ 0.277 $ 0.277
• 23% import duties on batteries link • Tender going on with two 5 MW projects in total link
• No VAT on imports of solar panels and storage link
• Solar panels are VAT exempted, 2% on inverters and
10%-30% on other equipment link
• No net metering applications but regulatory
framework exists link
• FiT is in the law but legislation to operationalize it
remain enacted link
57
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
• Revealed plans to expand its use of RE including LARGE SCALE 15 MWp

solar link C&I 0 MWp
MG 0.11 MWp
SHS & 0 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 35% electrified in Bangui to about 0.4% in rural
areas link MIN. $ 0.109 $ 0.043 $ 0.043
• Target to connect 50% of the population by 2030
link MAX. $ 0.229 $ 0.060 $ 0.060
• Import duties and VAT on solar equipment range • Danzi solar park to be extended to 40 MWp with the World
bank support link
between 5%-30% link
• World bank supporting development of 5 mini-grids with
• No FiT, no net-metering link 10 MW combined capacity link
58
CHAD
• Aims to increase the share of RE to 38% in the LARGE SCALE 0 MWp

energy mix by 2030 link C&I 0.63 MWp
MG 0.57 MWp
SHS & 0.019 MWp
RESIDENTIAL


• Targets 53% electrification rate by 2030, with 20%
electrification rate in rural areas link MIN. $ 0.136 $ 0.200 $ 0.200
MAX. $ 0.200 $ 0.200 $ 0.200
• Import tax exemptions for RE equipment link • Savannah Energy to build 400 MW projects link
• Innovent installing 5 MWp in Abéché link
• No VAT on solar equipment link
• Merl Solar Technologies constructing 2*50 MWp hybrid
projects link
• Aldwych progressing with Djermaya 60 MWp project link
59
COMOROS
• Increase the share of RE to 55% by 2033 link LARGE SCALE 4.18 MWp
• 40% increase in RE by 2030 C&I 0 MWp
MG 0 MWp
SHS & 0.05 MWp
RESIDENTIAL


link
• Target of 100% electrification by 2033 link MIN. $ 0.324 $ 0.236 $ 0.236
MAX. $ 0.332 $ 0.289 $ 0.289
• No custom duties on PV materials link • Comoros Solar Energy Access Project (CSEAP) to add 4
• No VAT on RE equipment link components with 9MW + 19MWh link
• No net-metering link
• No FiT link
60
COTE D’IVOIRE
• Target 16% renewable energy by 2025 link LARGE SCALE 0 MWp

• Target 42% RE in the electricity mix by 2030 link C&I 1.71 MWp
• Target 400 MW of solar by 2030 link MG 0 MWp
SHS & 4.2 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 95% electrification rate in urban areas and 32% in
rural areas link MIN. $ 0.029 $ 0.076 $ 0.072
• Target of 100% electrification by 2025 link
MAX. $ 0.107 $ 0.161 $ 0.106
• No import duties on solar panels, 5% if already • Tender launched for 20 MW floating solar link
assembled and 20% on batteries link • Five projects with 253.5 MW under construction and/or
• 9% VAT on solar equipment link late stage of development link
• No FiT, no net-metering link • 37.5 MW +10 MWh Boundiali solar in late stage of
construction link
61
FOCUS ON DIGITAL SOLUTIONS
BY SVET
ARTICLE BAJLEKOV
Co-founder / CEO
LATEST TRENDS IN DIGITAL SOLUTIONS

FOR SOLAR IN AFRICA
Solar activities around the world have experienced an ever

increasing rate of digitalization over the past years. And we expect
this this trend to continue in 2023, in lockstep with the solar
sector’s needs. Below is a summarized list of some of the key
developments AMMP is witnessing in the space.
Some of the thornier issues are at the start of a project’s lifecycle:

in site identification, project development, and financing. We are
seeing the emergence of solutions that streamline this, for
62
instance by UniFii for residential and C&I solar installations. This
service simplifies the analysis of the energy consumption profile
and automates calculations of energy and financial savings
coming from the solar system. This will be an important driver of
scale in the sector. At the same time, financing is often tied to
credit risk assessments, which can introduce considerable
friction. Tools like Nithio now exist to streamline this for the SHS
space with among others tools to standardize credit risk
assessment as well as portfolio performance analytics to enable
more financing at scale. We anticipate similar tools serving the
C&I segment specifically will also enter the scene soon.
ARTICLE Supply chain issues have emerged as another major bottleneck

that is likely to persist. While digital tools don’t offer a direct
solution to this, they do offer some respite: by making it easier for
owners and operators to multi-source from different vendors.
Through vendor-agnostic software, asset portfolios comprising
equipment from a multitude of vendors can be run in a unified
and standardised way. Along with companies like meteocontrol
and QOS, we at AMMP provide the core capabilities to enable this.
A related trend in O&M software is towards increasingly

specialised, modular services. While traditionally most providers
have focused on end-to-end offerings, we are seeing a growing
take-up of dedicated solutions, such as SmartHelio for PV
analytics, enee.io for batteries, and 60Hertz for maintenance,
alongside common tools like Excel or PowerBI for in-house data
analytics. We see this as a sign of the sector’s increased maturity.
63
Interoperability across these services is critical, and we anticipate a
growing focus on the APIs that make this possible.
Another hallmark of the maturing of African solar companies is the

increasing number of players who are capturing economies of scale –
whether through mergers and acquisitions, or organic growth. This scale
brings about opportunities to leverage data for increased
competitiveness. As a baseline, this is likely to involve streamlining
complex processes throughout diverse asset portfolios. Yet there are
additional opportunities well beyond this: for instance, by analysing KPIs
across their asset portfolios, owners and operators can identify best
practices, uncover pockets of under-performance, and act on these
learnings to elevate all-round results.
Finally, we see ever-faster evolution of regulation across the continent, as

governments recognise the potential of renewables to positively reshape
the energy landscape. The new business models enabled by this are
often coupled with novel digital solutions, which we see proliferating. Just
one example is the relatively new ability to connect and match supply
and demand through energy wheeling transactions in South Africa, with
companies like Open Access Energy providing the software to facilitate
this. Wheeling is expected to boom not only in South Africa as a result of
the challenging energy access in the country, but also across Southern
and Western Africa with the implementation of full-fledged power pools
called SAPP and WAPP respectively.
Across the board, it is heartening to see the important role of digital in
driving innovation and supporting the scale-up of renewables throughout
Africa!
64
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO
• ACERD surveyed 22 companies ambitioning to connect LARGE SCALE 0 MWp

7,616,000 households by 2023 link C&I 0.96 MWp
• Increase access to 32% through the development of MG 3.33 MWp
hydroelectric and solar by 2030 link SHS & 7.16 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• Targets to electrify 65% of the population by 2030 link
• Targets universal electricity access by 2050 link MIN. $ 0.027 $ 0.110 $ 0.057
MAX. $ 0.087 $ 0.150 $ 0.057
• No import duties on equipment intended for electricity • Amea Power plans 100 MW project in the country link
• Nuru building 3.7 MWp mini-grid in Goma link
production link
• 180 MW to be deployed under Scaling Mini-Grid (SMG)
• VAT exemption on RE equipment link program link
• No FiT, no net-metering link • Kinshasa Solar City to bring 1 GW of PV in 2 phases link
• InfraCo supporting development of 4 mini-grids link
• Orange and Bboxx partner to construct 24 mini-grids by
2024 link
65
DJIBOUTI
• Targets 100% RE by 2030 link LARGE SCALE 0 MWp

C&I 0 MWp
MG 0 MWp
SHS & 0 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

link
• Universal access to electricity by 2035 link MIN. $ 0.151 $ 0.224 $ 0.162
MAX. $ 0.308 $ 0.308 $ 0.230
• Import duties and VAT on solar equipment range • AMEA Power to develop 30 MW solar park link
between 10%-26% link
66
EGYPT
• Targets 42% from RE in the energy mix by 2035 link LARGE SCALE 2,037.91 MWp PV + 20 MWe CSP
• Plans to generate 10 GW from RE by 2023 link C&I 173.1 MWp
• 31000 MW of solar and 12000 MW of CSP by 2035 MG 0.14 MWp
link SHS & 19.56 MWp
• Plans to boost green investments to 50% of total RESIDENTIAL
public investments by 2024/2025 link SOURCE AFSIA GOGLA IRENA

MIN. $ 0.024 $ 0.025 $ 0.016
MAX. $ 0.059 $ 0.065 $ 0.062
• 5% import duties on solar link • AMEA Power to build 560 MW Abydos PV facility link
• State can authorize reduced rates or total VAT • Lumika Renewables to build 50 MW for Ain Al-Sokhna
exemption depending on the nature of activities of cement plant link
investors link • OneraSystems to implement 25 projects with 10 MW total
• Net-metering exists link capacity link
• A $0.084/kWh FiT is awarded to the Benban solar • Intro Power and Utilities to set up 20 MWp to Suez
projects link Cement of companies link
67
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
• No available target for renewable energy link LARGE SCALE 0 MWp

C&I 0 MWp
MG 0 MWp
SHS & 0.14 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 66.75% of the population has access to electricity
link
• Target universal electricity access by 2030 with 70% MIN.
in urban areas link NO RELIABLE DATA
MAX.
• No tax incentives but state can authorize reduced • n/a

rate or total exemption depending on activities of
investors link
• 15% VAT is applicable link
• No FiT
69
ERITREA
• RE to account for 70% of total electricity generation LARGE SCALE 0 MWp

MG 2.25 MWp
SHS & 0.05 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 37% electrification rate in rural area link
• 100% rural electricity access by 2030 link MIN. $ 0.24 $ 0.24 $ 0.24
• Universal access by 2030 link
MAX. $ 0.24 $ 0.24 $ 0.24
• No specific incentives for the energy sector link • Government of the state to set up 25 MW project with the
• No FiT, no net-metering link grant support from AfDB link
70
ESWATINI
• Produce 100% of its own electricity consumption by LARGE SCALE 10 MWp

2034 link C&I 4.1 MWp
• Increase the share of RE to 50% in the electricity MG 0.04 MWp
mix by 2030 link SHS & 0.05 MWp
• 80MW RE with 40MW through solar PV by 2025 link RESIDENTIAL

• 100% electricity access by 2030 link
MIN. $ 0.064 $ 0.136 $ 0.055
MAX. $ 0.106 $ 0.288 $ 0.283
• 0% import duties on solar panels and batteries link • Globeleq and Sturdee Energy developing two 15 MW projects link
• Standard VAT of 15 % is applicable link • Frazium Energy to build 100 MW Edwaleni power plant link
• ESERA launched tender on 40 MWp project link
• Authorities launched the Africa Minigrids Program (AMP) to
benefit 500 emaSwati link
71
FOCUS ON MARKET DRIVERS
BY TERJE
ARTICLE OSMUNDSEN
Founder and CEO
THE GLOBAL SCRAMBLE FOR RENEWABLES:

WILL AFRICA FALL BEHIND, AGAIN?
Africa’s share of solar PV dropped to 0,4 percent in 2021, and is set

to drop even further to about 0,35 percent in 2022.
According to IEAs latest publication “Renewables 2022”, Africa is

like the rest of the world on the verge of a solar energy revolution,
almost quadrupling the total installed PV capacity from 7 to 25
GW by 2027. In addition to this main forecast, IEA presents an
“Accelerated case”, bringing the total installed solar PV capacity
72
to 43,2 GW by 2027. Is this turn-around realistic, or is the
continent at risk of becoming the world’s fossil “outlier”?
Let’s take a look at the actual numbers: The addition of new solar
PV in Africa fell from 1,8 GW in 2019 to only 0,7 GW in 2021. The
numbers from 2022 are not yet confirmed, but AFSIA (Africa Solar
Industry Association) estimates that only about 0,9 MW of solar
PV was installed in Africa in 2022, compared to 260 GW globally
according to IEAs latest estimate. In other words: Africa’s share of
new solar PV capacity in the world dropped further, to about 0,35
percent in 2022.
These numbers fell into a wider and alarming pattern: In 2021, a

year when renewable investments globally rose 9% to reach an
all-time high, Africa’s investments in renewables slipped 35 % to
the lowest level since 2011. Of the $434 billion invested globally to
build wind, solar, and other clean power projects in 2021, only
0.6% or $2.6 billion went to Africa, despite Africa representing 17 %
of world population On this backdrop, it’s refreshing and
encouraging to read the optimistic forecast in IEAs recent
publication “Renewables 2022”, projecting that Africa the next
five years will build to three and half time what’s been invested
the last 20 years. According to the flagship IEA report, we have
entered a period of “turbocharged” growth in renewables
worldwide fueled by energy security concerns and boosted
decarbonization incentives in major economies like the US, EU,
China and India.
73
73
So where in Africa will this “turbo-growth” take place, according to IEA?
Looking at the numbers extracted from the publication’s website, here
is what can be extracted:
IEAs “Renewables 2022”:

Actual and forecasted Solar PV capacity in Africa
Installed Net additions Installed 2027: Installed 2027:

2021 2021 Main case Accelerated Case
EGYPT 1.7 0 3.6 6.4

MOROCCO 0.3 0 2.3 4.3
SOUTH AFRICA 2.8 0.3 12.4 14.9
NIGERIA 0.1 0 0.8
ETHIOPIA 0 0 0.5 0.6
KENYA 0.2 0.1 1.2 1.5
CUMULATIVE 5.1 0.4 20.8 27.7
GROWTH vs. CUMULATIVE 7.6 0.7 32.7 43.2
The table shows that Egypt and South Africa has attracted
approximately 60% of all solar PV installed in Africa so far. This is
mainly the result of the large renewable energy program (REIPP) in
South Africa and the big Ben-Ban solar PV park in Aswan in Egypt, both
sponsored by the host country governments and benefitting from a
large amount of international competitive financing.
74
The next five years, IEA estimates that Egypt, Morocco, Nigeria,
Kenya, Ethiopia and South Africa will grow its solar PV capacity
from 5 to 20 MW. The remaining 12 GW of solar PV will come in the
other 49 countries who currently has very little PV installed.
Undoubtedly the countries in Africa has the potential and urgent

need to triple or quadruple solar investments. But in order to
attract and deploy the 4- 5 billion dollar needed annually, to
deliver this growth, governments and stakeholders must to
address the barriers that currently discourages solar investments
in Africa. If not, Africa will continue to fall behind against the
mounting competition for solar investments from the US, Europe,
China and India, just as it did in 2021 and 2022.
So why it is so difficult to increase solar investments in Africa? The

answer, put short, can be summarized in the three, debt overhang,
currency crisis, regulation and subsidies
• Debt overhang: Already before the pandemic, many of the large

solar and wind projects that has been announced in Africa the
last years remained stalled waiting for the government to issue
payment guarantees. Investors and lenders request such
guarantees because the utilities company that will buy the
power are heavily indebted or in financial distress. But the
governments are highly indebted too and
75
has therefore no or very limited capability to issue such payment
guarantees.
This situation has now become worse, as Egypt and sub-Saharan
Africa are among the hardest hit by the global debt crisis following
the pandemic-induced recession, the Ukraine-war, the rise in
interest rates and the dramatic fall in local currency values against
the dollar. The World Bank estimates that the majority of countries in
Africa will suffer from a 30-40 percent increase in yearly debt
servicing payments, “The increased liquidity pressures go hand in
hand with solvency challenges” warns David Malpass, World Bank
president.
• The currency crisis: In 2022, the financial position of private and
public off takers as well as governments has been further
exacerbated by the sharp appreciation of the dollar against most
currencies. Among the worst hit are the Egyptian Pound that has
depreciated almost 60 % against the USD this year, and the
Ghanaian Cedi that fell 110 percent! In Nigeria, the cost of dollar in
the parallel market has risen from about 550 to 800 Naira since the
beginning of the year.
Whereas richer countries can tap into local funding for renewable
investments, Africa is still mostly dependent on foreign investments.
International investors generally require revenues in USD or EUR to
de-risk their investments, otherwise the cost of capital will be
prohibitive. On the other side, energy users hesitate to make long-
term commitments pegged hard currencies in fear of a prolonged
currency crisis. The result is an effective halt to many renewable
investments in Africa.
76
• Regulation and subsidies: According to IEA, the fastest-growing
solar PV segments globally are the C & I (Commercial and
Industrial) and residential sectors. In view of the challenges
facing the government-owned utility sector, the private PV
market should be seen as the largest untapped potential for
scaling solar in Africa. And if governments are willing to
implement the necessary reforms, this market could grow larger
than the 4 GW projected by IEA in 2027.
For example, commercial and industrial energy-users across
Africa – except in Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa and a few other
countries - are generally prohibited buying solar energy from
private providers in the form of Power Purchase Agreements.
(PPAs). Other contractual arrangements, for example
equipment-lease, are of course permitted, but these do
generally not provide the same form of flexibility as PPAs do.
A second disincentive is the absence of net-metering. In most
parts of the world, energy-users producing their own electricity
have net-metering contracts with the local distribution
company. This means that in periods when their solar power
plant is generating more electricity than needed by the user, the
user can “sell” surplus electricity back to the local utility
company. Except for South Africa, net-metering has not yet
been implemented in Africa, although many countries have
made laws and regulations that prescribes net-metering.
Finally, several governments in Africa continue to subsidize
77
electricity tariffs and fossil fuels, disincentivizing investments in solar
and batteries. The cost of diesel in Egypt, for example, is only 7,2 EGP,
equal 0,3 USD which is about 20 % of the price in Europe. A light
“subsidy” on solar and batteries, in the form of a carbon tax or carbon
credit, could be an efficient incentive especially for industrial off-grid
energy users and microgrids to further reduce their reliance on diesel
gensets, replacing them with solar-powered batteries. I would also
make it make it attractive for micro-grids and off-grid industrial
energy users to look at locally produced green hydrogen and fuel cells
to meet the fast-growing electricity needs of manufacturers, mines
and commercial farms in Africa.
Africa clearly has the potential for a turbo-charged growth as

projected by IEA.
But if governments and international partners do not address the
barriers holding back investments, Africa will continue to fall behind
just as it did in 2021 and 2022. This is a risk we cannot take.
78
ETHIOPIA
• Construction of 13.7 GW of RE from sources other LARGE SCALE 0 MWp

than hydroelectric in the coming years link C&I 0.03 MWp
• 45% of solar PV and geothermal in the electricity MG 4.04 MWp
mix by 2040 link SHS & 28.7 MWp
• 3,500 MW of installed capacity by 2037 link RESIDENTIAL
• Ethiopia to invest $40B in the construction of RE SOURCE AFSIA GOGLA IRENA
over the next 10 years link

• 33% on-grid and 11% off-grid link
• Goal is 100% access by 2025, with 35% off-grid and MIN. $ 0.03 $ 0.042 $ 0.019
65% grid link
• Reach 96% grid connections by 2030 link MAX. $ 0.06 $ 0.042 $ 0.031
• Most SAS products are exempted from import • World bank supporting development of 200 mini-grids link
duty link • Aqua Power to build 2 of the 14 solar power plants planned
• 15% VAT and 3% withholding tax are applicable on for next ten years link
solar products link • 29 solar projects under construction and/or development
• Mini-grid license requirements for (<50 KW, >50 KW in the country by EEU link
to 200 KW< and >200 KW up to 10 MW) link • 10 mini-grids supplying rural smallholder farmers’
• No net-metering link irrigation, with expansion plan up to 100 mini-grids
• Existing FiT link supported by GEAPP
79
GABON
• 80% RE in the energy mix by 2030 link LARGE SCALE 0 MWp

C&I 0.2 MWp
MG 0.4 MWp
SHS & 0.06 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 89% electrified in urban areas and 34% in rural
areas link MIN. $ 0.084 $ 0.027 $ 0.027
• 85% electrification rate of rural areas by 2025 link
• Targets universal access by 2035 link MAX. $ 0.207 $ 0.720 $ 0.720
• Import duties applicable between 5%-30% link • SOLEN constructing 30 MWp hybrid project in Ayémé
• 18% VAT applies link and planning more 90 MWp link
• No net-metering link • AMEA Power to build 50 MWp in Oyem link
• No FiT link • Desiba Energy developing 20 MW Mouila project
link
80
GHANA
• Increase renewable energy share in the energy mix LARGE SCALE 113 MWp
by 10% 2030 link C&I 57.95 MWp
MG 0.33 MWp
SHS & 3.99 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

link
• 91% in urban areas and 50% in rural areas link MIN. $ 0.039 $ 0.080 $ 0.071
• 99.8% electricity access by 2030 link
MAX. $ 0.122 $ 0.127 $ 0.251
• No import duties on solar panels but 5% import • Bui Power Authority to build 50 MWp Yendi project link
duties applies on SHS & 20 % on batteries link • 35 MGs being developed through African Development
• An import tax exemption for solar PV system is fund and government of Switzerland support link
being implemented link • KfW supporting construction of 15 MWp Kaleo Solar phase
• Solar panels and all off-grid solar components are two link
VAT exempted link • G8 to install 65 MW floating solar system at BUI Hydro
• Net-metering exists link Dam facility link
• FiT for solar PV is $0.041/kWh link • LMI – IFC building 16.8-MWp rooftop solar plant
link
81
GUINEA
• Target 90% of RE from all new capacities by 2030 LARGE SCALE 0 MWP
link C&I 33.8 MWp
• Installation of up to 2,600MW by 2025 from the MG 0 MWp
current 658MW link SHS & 0.76 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 51% in urban area and 1% in rural area link
• Target is to achieve 100% electrification by 2030 link MIN. $ 0.013 $ 0.140 $ 0.219
MAX. $ 0.054 $ 0.334 $ 0.306
• VAT and duty exemptions can be granted to • Results to be announced for 137 MGs tender by ANIES link
projects on a case by-case basis link • More than 150 MW large scale projects under development by
• No FiT and no net-metering link various companies
82
GUINEA BISSAU
• Increase the contribution of RE in the supply mix LARGE SCALE 0 MWP

from 0 to 36% link C&I 0 MWp
• 80% RE in the national energy mix by 2030 link MG 0.42 MWp
SHS & 1.3 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

link
• Targets 80% electricity access by 2030 link MIN. $ 0.205 $ 0.163 $ 0.206
• 72% to access electricity grid and 9% through mini-
off grid systems by 2030 link MAX. $ 0.392 $ 0.205 $ 0.258
• Solar panels are exempted of VAT but other • The country to benefit from PPIPS program being
components of a solar kit are not link supported by BOAD and GCF link
• No FiT, no net-metering link • Telectrinf to install 1505 kW on the Bolama island link
83
FOCUS ON PRODUCTIVE USE
BY GILLIAN-ALEXANDRE
ARTICLE HUART
CEO
THE EVOLUTION OF OFF-GRID SOLAR

SOLUTIONS : FROM ELECTRICITY
PROVISION TO PRODUCTIVE USAGE
In the last decade, 60 million Africans have been connected to
electricity in their homes and business locations – that is the level
of unparalleled opportunity that the global energy transition has
given to rural communities in Africa. However, 72% of Sub-Saharan
Africa’s rural population and 22% in urban areas still lack power,
which is why we must keep working. But for communities to reach
their full development potential, what is next after providing
electricity to households?
84
Productive uses of energy are the catalyst of the socio-economic
development of underserved communities. They allow existent
businesses and new entrepreneurs to increase employment rate,
reduce poverty and create new income streams.
Because productive use appliances and machinery generally

require more electricity, an integrated approach that leverages on
the complementarity of Mini Grids and Solar Home System (SHS)
solutions appears as are the way towards inclusive energy access.
This means that customers with limited consumption needs or that
cannot be reached by the mini-grid are provided with SHS and
that customers with higher energy needs are connected to a mini-
grid.
Customers must be assisted in selecting the right appliances and

trained to use such appliances properly to optimize energy
consumption. When doing this, a virtuous cycle is triggered - the
customer will have a higher ability to pay, and there will be an
increased consumption for the mini-grid (so-called anchor loads),
reinforcing the sustainability and resilience of the business model.
Socio-economic benefits justify the installation of mini-grids in

rural areas as they can power small industries, stimulate increased
productivity and reduce costs through the use of more efficient
and clean appliances.
We are therefore convinced that a sustainable strategy should be

85
developed around Income generating activities and productive usages
with an increasing number of customers being Income Generating
Activities customers.
Rapid advancements in the maturity of productive use of technologies

with recent innovations driving down costs and improving efficiency have
helped to speed up this evolution. In our work, we divide customers into
different categories depending on their consumption needs and identify
the potential entrepreneurs and businesses that require financial
management skills. We profoundly analyze our target villages to identify
and develop value chains to help customers create more income-
generating activities. Further diversifying the product offerings will allow
to reach more profitable customer segments and stabilize cash flows.
The approach is gender transformative - challenging the social norms

that undermine women’s participation in household decisions and the
economic life within rural communities. Priority should be given to
women-tied empowerment productive projects that are skill-enhancing
and strengthen women’s role within the economic tissue of rural society.
For the African continent to come to an economy-wide energy transition

that is fair and affordable, we strongly believe that decentralized energy
solutions should be combined with high-efficiency and environmentally
sustainable appliances. Productive appliances should be adapted to
local conditions, thus increasing the potential for rural communities to be
empowered.
We believe that this is the way for Africa to keep pushing forward.
86
KENYA
• Ambitions to achieve 100% utilization of renewable LARGE SCALE 161.6 MWp

energy by 2030 link C&I 77.69 MWp
• Over 60% of the country’s installed capacity will be MG 3.15 MWp
provided from RE sources by 2037 link SHS & 80.1 MWp
• 852 MW of solar by 2037 link RESIDENTIAL

• Over 75% of the population has access to electricity SOURCE
link
MIN. $ 0.069 $ 0.069 $ 0.068
MAX. $ 0.112 $ 0.110 $ 0.077
• Solar panels & inverters are import duties free and • 10 MW Samburu project construction ongoing link
between 0%-25% to the rest of solar products link • NTPC GE Power Services Limited (NGSL) to develop Floating Solar
• VAT exempted on all RE products link Projects in Lake Region link
• Solar products are Withholding taxes free link • Devki Steel Mills and BAT eying 5.4 MWp in total link
• FiT is $0.12/kWh since 2008 link • Malindi solar project to be expanded to 104 MWp and add
• EPRA releases a draft regulation for the introduction storage link
of a net-metering applied to PV systems up to 1 MW • Tender launched for 2 MW at Kenyatta
link university link
• 50% tax relief on initial investment for off grid power
firms link
87
LESOTHO
• Additional renewable energy generation capacity LARGE SCALE 0 MWp

of 200 MW by 2030 link C&I 0.14 MWp
• 90 MW of renewables are under development link MG 0.14 MWp
SHS & 0.15 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

link
• Targets 80% electricity access by 2030 link MIN. $ 0.061 $0.018 $0.018
• 78% in urban areas, 47% in rural areas by 2030 link
MAX. $ 0.104 $0.019 $0.019
• All PV components are subject to a reduced VAT • EDFI ElectriFI and REPP supporting development of 11 MGs link
rate of 5% link • 70 MW Mafeteng solar power plant under construction link
• FiT and net-metering planned to be developed link • The Lesotho Renewable Energy and Energy Access
Project(LRREEAP) to provide electricity to 30 villages link
89
LIBERIA
• Targets 80% renewal energy base by 2026 link LARGE SCALE 0 MWp
• Installation of at least 150 MW of RE generation - C&I 0.29 MWp
excluding large hydro by 2030 link MG 0 MWp
• 60 MW of solar on the National Grid by 60 MW by SHS & 0.91 MWp
2030 link RESIDENTIAL
• Targets 250.000 solar lamps sales by 2030 link SOURCE AFSIA GOGLA IRENA

• 27.53% of population has access to electricity link SOURCE
• 34% access in urban areas and 1% in rural areas link
• Target 20% rural electrification by 2025 and 35% by MIN. $ 0.002 $ 0.002 $ 0.001
2030 link
• Target to reach 70% urban electrification by 2030 MAX. $ 0.002 $ 0.002 $ 0.001
link
• No import tariffs on off-grid system components • 9000 households to get electricity trough Beyond the Grid
related to RE development link Fund for Africa (BGFA) link
• No FiT, no net-metering link • 20 of 44 MWp Mount Coffee solar park to be implemented
soon link
• Escotel to solarize Orange telecom towers link
• UNDP solarizing 12 health centers through MG link
90
LIBYA
• Plans for 10% RE capacity by 2025 link LARGE SCALE 0 MWp

• 450 MW of solar by 2025 link C&I 0.06 MWp
• 22% renewable electricity generation by 2030 and MG 0 MWp
2.2GW of solar projects under development link SHS & 0 MWp
• Doubling electricity from 8000 to 16000 by 2030 link RESIDENTIAL

link
MIN. $ 0.044 $ 0.150 $ 0.068
MAX. $ 0.110 $ 0.150 $ 0.092
• There is no VAT in Libya link • Total Energies to develop 500 MWp project link
• No net-metering and no FiT policy link • EG Energies to build 200 MWp Ghadames solar project link
• Construction progressing with 100 MW Kufra solar plant link
• W Solar Investment planning to build 2GW solar PV plants link
91
MADAGASCAR
• Double total installed capacity to reach 800 MW by LARGE SCALE 61.02 MWp
• 85% of RE in the power generation by 2030 link MG 0.25 MWp
• Solar to represent 5% of energy mix by 2030 link SHS & 3.5 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

link
• 70% of the population to access to electricity by MIN. $ 0.033 $ 0.052 $ 0.022
2030 link
MAX. $ 0.227 $ 0.286 $ 0.271
• No import duties or VAT on solar panels or lithium • CrossBoundary installing 2.6MWp to Molo graphite mine and
batteries link looking to connect 8 MWp to Tôlagnaro mine link
• FiT and net-metering are included in the country’s • Enerdeal to develop 7.5 MW solar power plants in 5 cities link
legal frameworks link • 68 MGs under development by different stakeholders
92
MALAWI
• Government ambitions to generate 1,000 MW by LARGE SCALE 104.1 MWp

• Increase RE share to 16% by 2025, 23% by 2030, MG 0.15 MWp
and 28.9% by 2035 link SHS & 5.5 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 6% electricity in rural areas link
• Target to increase electricity access rate to 80% by MIN. $ 0.054 $ 0.123 $ 0.052
2035 link
MAX. $ 0.125 $ 0.143 $ 0.161
• Solar products are import duty free while VAT • Quantel Renewable Energy working on 50
remains at 16.5% link MWp Bwengu solar park link
• FiT exists since 2012 for solar projects without • Elsewedy Electric to build 50 MW project link
storage sized 500kW-10MW at $0.10/kWh and • Solarcentury and RESA to develop 50 MWp
$0.20/kWh for projects with storage link khoma Deka plant link
• No net-metering link • TATA to develop 30 MWp project to Blantyre
Water Board link
• AMEA Power to start 50 MW project link
• Construction progressing with 21 MW
Nkhotakota Solar phase 1 link
93
FOCUS ON STORAGE
BY JEAN-PHILIPPE KATHLEEN
ARTICLE SEYA JEAN-PIERRE
Senior Project Development Chief Operating
Manager Officer
WHICH BATTERY TECHNOLOGY SUITS

YOU BEST?
Power availability, quality, and reliability are critical inputs into a
successful African manufacturing enterprise. Having heard a lot
about the falling cost of energy storage solutions, many factory
managers are wondering how to take advantage of these new
technologies to strengthen their power supply. But the variety of
battery energy storage solution (BESS) options can be
overwhelming to those new to the market. Luckily, the first step to
procuring the best BESS is determining which energy storage
applications make the best business case within your facility’s
operations. With target commercial outcomes in mind, it’s easier
for an energy services provider to identify the most appropriate
and affordable storage technology for your situation.
94
Commercial applications for BESS
Traditional energy storage systems, such as pumped hydro,

have been deployed to shift large amounts of energy over long
periods of time, offering the benefits of energy arbitrage. But
BESS offers customers a wider range of use cases. A BESS
employs smaller energy capacities at sub-second response
time, rapidly charging or discharging to help existing networks
cope with power stability fluctuations. One reason BESS and
solar energy systems are often installed together is because a
BESS can smooth the integration of intermittent renewable
energy sources.
BESS can be designed to provide a variety of services. Some

examples include:
1. Replacing diesel spinning reserve with battery spinning

reserve
Using a BESS in place of diesel spinning reserve reduces

generator cycling and specific fuel consumption. Less fuel use
reduces fuel costs. In Mali, a gold mine shifted spinning reserve
for their 20MW diesel plant to battery energy storage, allowing
the diesel generators to run at maximum efficiency without
sacrificing the mine’s power reliability. Reduced specific fuel
consumption reduced the mine’s overall fuel consumption
(and fuel bill) by 10%
95
2. Reducing overall genset runtime, yielding more efficient
loading of thermal unit(s) by offsetting with stored energy
from another source
In Sierra Leone, a brewery is exploring the integration of a 2MWh

battery energy storage system as part of a hybrid solar PV &
thermal power system. Reducing generator usage in favour of
real-time and stored solar power will help the facility to achieve
up to 20% cost savings against its current power spending.
3. Smoothing load or supply volatility for more stable power
One of the biggest challenges for sensitive energy uses such as

data centers or mining processes is power quality management.
The integration of BESS into either existing thermal-powered
networks or when adding renewable energy improves the
transient response and reduces voltage and frequency
disturbances.
Matching desired BESS services to the right technology
The ability of any BESS technology to deliver the desired energy

storage service depends on numerous factors: battery cell
chemistry and aging characteristics, duty cycle, environmental
conditions such as temperature, and proposed project lifetime. A
deep understanding of battery technologies, application stack
(global duty cycle), operation control (local duty cycle), and Credit: Africa REN
96
systems engineering is needed to design the most efficient
BESS configuration!
However, what these technical specifications ultimately

determine is how well a BESS technology can deliver either
energy services or power services. Energy is how many kWh a
BESS can store; the more energy capacity, the more work can
be done. Power, on the other hand, is how quickly a BESS can
discharge stored energy to be used. Different BESS
technologies offer different balances of energy and power
capabilities at a given cost. There is no single perfect battery
chemistry, so the desired commercial application of the BESS is
what drives the choice of appropriate BESS technology.
See following table for a listing of common BESS technologies

and brief comparisons of their energy and power capabilities.
97
For example, utilities seeking grid scale BESS prioritize having
have the most energy readily available to balance frequency
and ensure available energy distribution. For this use case,
sodium-ion BESS technology can be a good match, as this
battery capacity optimizes for energy capacity and has a
relatively good lifetime.
On the other hand, power systems for commercial-industrial

operations such as mining, manufacturing, or data centers
may be optimized for running specific equipment with sensitive
thresholds. A BESS in this context needs to be fast enough to
ensure rapid transient response to power fluctuations to
maintain power reliability and quality. In this case, lithium-ion
BESS technologies are often well-suited; 90% of lithium-ion BESS
are currently deployed in commercial-industrial applications.
Facilities that can successfully identify how BESS will save their
business money – whether through reducing the cost of
specific fuel consumption or improving power quality
management – are best-positioned to receive the most
competitive, practical BESS quotes. The suite of commercially
available BESS technologies is always changing, but this variety
means energy service providers can offer clients many ways to
balance technological and commercial trade-offs.
98
FOCUS ON STORAGE
BY LÉANDRE
ARTICLE BERWA
co-founder
OPPORTUNITIES OF SECOND-LIFE
BATTERIES IN THE RENEWABLE AND
ENERGY STORAGE INDUSTRIES
With the advent of renewable energy and electric mobility, the
concern for battery waste is becoming an increasingly
concerning issue. Many countries still lack afterlife management
plans or processing capacity for retired batteries, yet these
batteries retain storage capacity at their retirement. This creates a
huge environmental and health hazard, but also a market and
impact opportunity that companies like SLS Energy, which
operates in Rwanda, are leveraging by providing energy storage
services using batteries retired from electric vehicles or salvaged
from the electronic waste stream. These repurposed batteries are
also known as "second-life" batteries.
100
Second-life batteries are suited for multiple applications
Second-life batteries are evolving from a hope or hype phase into a

reality. Many market applications are being designed, and some are
already adopted. These applications include the more common power
backup services, but they could also be more complex applications such
as peak shaving or load shifting, as well as larger-scale grid services. In
addition to their environmental and social impact, second-life batteries
also present many opportunities and implications in the renewable
energy and energy storage industries.
ARTICLE The most obvious advantage of second-life batteries is lower energy

storage costs for off-grid and other grid applications. Batteries
becoming more affordable would not only accelerate the adoption of
renewable energy sources such as solar energy but also increase the
usability and reliability of these systems. More productive use of solar
energy can be affordably achieved without being constrained by the
high cost of energy storage. Off-grid consumers could also enjoy top-
tier energy services at an affordable price.
From battery ownership to storage-as-a-service
Second-life batteries are also spurring the market to rethink battery

ownership. Users need services from strong batteries that they can rely
on and would be less bothered with owning the batteries if the
101
economics played in their favor. This is comparable to how grid-
connected users are concerned about the reliability of their
supply and not about the ownership of the generation and
transmission systems. If these batteries are owned and
managed by a central operator, their economics, lifetime, and
performance can be easily optimized, and they can be used in
their most suitable applications at different stages of their
usable capacity. SLS Energy is currently pursuing energy storage
as a service model for telecommunication towers.
Lastly, second-life batteries will present salvage value for retired

batteries. This value could be factored into the project financial
models to improve their economic viability, or it could be passed
on to the end user to incentivize the adoption of renewable
energy products. The retired battery salvage value is expected
to have a bigger impact in the electric mobility space, where
electric vehicle owners could reclaim that value at a strategic
point of the vehicle's lifetime and be detached from battery
degradation concerns.
By modeling and optimizing battery economics, performance,

and lifetime during both the first and second life applications,
companies such as SLS Energy can bring all the environmental,
social, and market opportunities of battery repurposing to life. In
doing so, we will address battery waste and the reliance on fossil
fuels for energy storage needs through building a sustainable
chain and a circular economy for batteries.
102
102
MALI
• Increase share of RE capacity to 58% by 2030 link LARGE SCALE 50 MWp

• 1416 MW of renewables of which 528 MW of solar by C&I 55.33 MWp
2030 link MG 2.91 MWp
SHS & 3.99 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 50.6% of the population has access to electricity
link
• 70% by 2025, 80% by 2030 and 90% by 2036 link MIN. $ 0.170 $ 0.144 $ 0.144
• 100% urban access by 2025, 31% rural access by
2025, and 50% by 2030 and 55% by 2036 link MAX. $ 0.170 $ 0.144 $ 0.144
• No import duty and VAT on solar products link • Abu Dhabi Fund for Development supporting construction of 31
• No net-metering, no FiT MGs link
• Scatec constructing 33 MWp Segou project link
• 70+ MW for mining activity under construction or development
• NTPC awarded PMC contract to set up 500 MW solar
project link
• Orange Mali to install 25MW/30MWh solar
power station link
103
MAURITANIA
• Targets to increase the share of renewables in the LARGE SCALE 69.3 MWp
electricity mix to 50% by 2030 link C&I 1.61 MWp
MG 15.05 MWp
SHS & 0.14 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

link
• Targets 12% rural electrification rate by 2024 and MIN. $ 0.066 $ 0.159 $ 0.058
40% by 2030 link
• Universal access in urban areas by 2030 link MAX. $ 0.159 $ 0.159 $ 0.159
• Duties range between 9% - 18% link • Voltalia constructing 42 MWp/18 MWh project link
• ADER provides subsidies of 60-80% for some of the • Kinross to build 34 MWp+18 MWh storage system at
isolated grids link Tasiast mine link
• No net-metering, no FiT link
104
MAURITIUS
• 35% of RE in the electricity mix by 2025 link LARGE SCALE 98.8 MWp
• 60% of RE in its electricity mix by 2030 link C&I 2.59 MWp
MG 0 MWp
SHS & 0.05 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

link
• 98% access in urban areas and 98% in rural areas MIN. $ 0.048 $ 0.065 $ 0.048
link
MAX. $ 0.193 $ 0.220 $ 0.119
• Solar PV projects are VAT exempt link • 140 MW project with storage in tender by CEB link
• Net-metering available to individual generation • Green Yellow to build 13.6 MW Arsenal project link
capacity of up to 5 kW link • 8 MW Tamarind Falls project under tender link
• Prosumers registered under the CEB net-metering • UNDP to build 25 MW power to local communities
scheme get FiT (scheme closed in 2015 after target on Agalega Island link
was reached) link • Green Rock Ltd to implement 10 MW at Petite-
• Green energy scheme for SMEs: 2,000 2 kWp Retraite link
systems installed free of charge link • 2 MWp floating solar at Tamarind Falls Reservoir
under tender by TCIL link
105
MOROCCO
• 52% RE in the energy mix by 2030, 70% by 2040 and LARGE SCALE 323 MWp PV + 534 MWe CSP
80% by 2050 link C&I 10.55 MWp
• Target to add 10 GW of RE between 2018 and 2030, MG 0 MWp
with 4560 MW of solar link SHS & 79.28 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 95% access in urban areas and 95% in rural areas
link MIN. $0.085 $ 0.056 $ 0.057
MAX. $0.150 $ 0.228 $ 0.275
• 10% import duties on solar panels but exempted for • 333 MW PV in 400 MW NOOR II tender allocated to
water heaters link private companies link
• Exemption for solar water pumps for agricultural • Tender launched for 260 MW Noor Atlas projects link
use link • Xlinks to construct 7 GW of solar in Morocco-UK
• 20% import VAT and 20% VAT apply on water Power Project link
heaters and solar panels link • 34 MWp GPM1 project under construction by Amea
• Net metering available link Power link
• No FiT link • Noor Midelt I on hold link
• The "Noor Tafilalet" project to add 120 MW link
106
MOZAMBIQUE
• Target 20% integration of RE in the grid by 2030 link LARGE SCALE 107 MWp
• Installed capacity of 600 MW, including 200 MW of C&I 0.25 MWp
RE by 2030 link MG 0.65 MWp
SHS & 1.9 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 68% in urban areas and 17% in rural areas link
• Target access of 50% of the population by 2023 link MIN. $ 0.096 $ 0.076 $ 0.075
• Target universal electrification by 2030 link
MAX. $ 0.143 $ 0.076 $ 0.075
• Solar products are charged an import duty of 7.5% • Solarcentury to build 120 MWp Chimuara Solar Project link
and 17% VAT on all RE products link • 20 MW Mecufi project tender launched link
• FiT was approved in 2014 but no implementation • 11.25MWp+8.5MWh Balama Mine project under construction link
guidelines in place yet link • Total Eren developing 40 MW Dondo project link
• Ncondezi developing 300 MW at tete site link
• Tender launched for 2*30 MW projects link
107
NAMIBIA
• RE to represent 70% of country’s energy mix by 2030 LARGE SCALE 254.57 MWp
link C&I 36.4 MWp
• Expecting to increase the installed capacity to 1,138 MG 0.36 MWp
MW by 2030 link SHS & 0.04 MWp
• Target to have 229 MW of solar PV and 250 MW of RESIDENTIAL
CSP by 2035 link SOURCE AFSIA GOGLA IRENA

link
• Targets universal electricity access by 2040 link
MAX. $ 0.172 $ 0.255 $ 0.149
• Import duties are not levied on RE, except solar • Emesco developing 125 MW Karasburg solar park for
thermal energy for households link export to Southern African Power Pool link
• 15% VAT on importation of goods is levied link • ANIREP constructing 18.5 MWp Kokerboom solar plant
• Net-metering exists for less than <500kVA link link
• FiT available for systems <5MW link • NamPower constructing 20 MWp Khan solar plant link
• Wheeling system in place link • Development Bank of Namibia supporting construction
of 5.4 MW p at Rosh Pinah mine link
• 90 MWp to power the first green hydrogen plant
in the country link
• NamPower eyeing at 135 MW Arandis
CSP project link
108
FOCUS ON YOUTH EMPLOYMENT
BY AASHNA
ARTICLE AGGARWAL
Partnerships and
Development Manager
WHAT DO WE NEED TO BUILD A CLEAN

ENERGY WORKFORCE?
The current geopolitics and socio-economic challenges plaguing

the world have thrust the alternative approaches to energy on
top of the global agenda. Beyond the climate-induced energy
crisis, war-induced electricity shortages, and grid failure-induced
blackouts, we must not forget that the number of those living
without any access to electricity stands at 733 million.
Decentralized renewable energy (DRE) systems play a vital role in
drastically scaling up
109
efforts toward achieving universal and sustainable energy access by
quickly providing renewable electricity to the 733 million people trapped
in energy poverty. This however requires a skilled, engaged workforce.
I believe that the clean energy sector is one field where active solidarity
between established energy leaders and the emerging young workforce
has the potential to make a massive impact in accelerating the
transition to a sustainable energy future.
Estimates from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)

suggest that as many as 4.5 million off-grid, renewable energy jobs
ARTICLE could be created globally by 2030. Despite its immense potential for
growth and innovation, the clean energy sector will face a dire shortage
of talent in the coming years because the rapid increase in demand for
workers with experience in renewables does not match the supply of the
workforce and it will take time to train people up.
At the same time, youth unemployment numbers are high in many

developing countries. This year it is estimated that the global population
has surpassed 8 billion, with the majority of the growth being
concentrated in the poorest countries. Africa has the youngest
population in the world, with 70 percent of sub-Saharan Africa under the
age of 30. The DRE sector represents a path forward to provide rural and
peri-urban youth with meaningful, stable employment and a career
path.
110
By providing youth with opportunity, education, and training to
allow them to fully participate in politics and society, which is
critical for economic growth and stability, we can solve two
problems at once.
“The barriers to entry include the lack of access to skills training

programs, mentorship networks, and entry-level project
experience needed to enter these careers,” said Helen Watts,
Senior Director of Global Partnerships at Student Energy, a global
youth-led organization empowering young people to accelerate
the sustainable energy transition.
As the DRE sector continues to mature, demand for a skilled

workforce will rise exponentially as higher skills are required for
more complex installations. According to Power for All’s recent
DRE employment study — Powering Jobs Census 2022: The
Energy Access Workforce — as the sector matures more skilled
workers are needed. In the report, skilled workers were defined as
leadership, management and professional positions including
CEO, any C-level executives and technical jobs such as
installation technicians or engineers. In India and Ethiopia, 71
and 25 percent of the DRE jobs respectively are considered
skilled, while both countries are in a relatively nascent DRE
sector.
111
“There are thousands of young people around the world who are deeply
passionate about a just energy transition and have the
potential to become leaders in the clean energy sector,” The Youth Expert
at Sustainable Energy for All, Akil Callender said. “However, accessible
programs are not responding fast enough or the training opportunities do
not always translate to jobs.”
Powering Jobs Census 2022: The Energy Access Workforce
Given the importance of human capital to the spread of DRE technology

and realizing the potential of both countries and
112
communities, Power for All, a campaign to end energy poverty
through accelerated deployment of decentralized renewable
energy (DRE), has launched a coordinated global effort to
develop a DRE-specific human capital pipeline to meet the needs
of this rapidly growing sector.
Central to this effort is reliable, accessible, and statistically

significant data that can help funders, employers, and
policymakers alike ensure the growth of talent needed to scale
the DRE sector. To fill this knowledge gap Power For All is
expanding on our Powering Jobs Census with a campaign to
inform and mobilize support for decentralized renewables, we
hope this will act as an engine for job creation. The 2022 Powering
Jobs study focused on five countries including Ethiopia, India,
Kenya, Nigeria and Uganda.
The data in the census shows the resilience of the sector despite
the global pandemic. Structural barriers (foreign exchange
shortages, conflict, etc.) have hindered employment growth in
countries like Uganda and Ethiopia, but DRE is recovering faster
than the broader economy.
Many DRE companies surveyed for the Powering Jobs Census

cited critical skills gaps as a major impediment to growth,
recommending addressing address them through upskilling
including education in sales, installation and after-sales services.
113
The companies and experts that were interviewed identified a lack of financial
resources and standardized curricula as additional challenges in a widening skills
gap.
The report finds that women’s participation in the DRE sector has improved in all
focus countries but India. More specifically, women’s participation nearly doubled
in Kenya and increased by 10 percent in Nigeria. But India saw a largely
pandemic-driven reduction of 9 percent. In other promising findings, the gender
wage gap is smaller than the national wage gap for all focus countries, with the
exception of Ethiopia.
Credit: ENGIE Energy Access
114
The benefits of DRE are significant. The Powering Jobs Census
shows it is making a significant impact on developing economies.
It is estimated the DRE will create up to half a million jobs by 2030
in Africa alone. This is on top of the broader economic and societal
benefits of off-grid electrification.
A just transition will look different for all economies but job
creation might be the one common denominator. The re-skilling
and up-skilling of the clean energy workforce is critical for the DRE
market to be able to reach its full potential of alleviating energy
poverty and providing secure meaningful work. To continue to
reap the benefits, education institutions, technical and vocational
education, and training (TVET) companies, DRE companies, and
non-profit organizations must collaborate in developing skills
training modules, standardized curricula, and a workforce pipeline
to allow more young people to enter the clean energy space.
115
NIGER
• The government aim to source 30% of its power LARGE SCALE 7 MWp
from renewables by 2035 link C&I 0.15 MWp
• RE to reach 57% of the electricity mix by 2030 link MG 0.14 MWp
SHS & 0.44 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• Target 30% electrification rate by 2026 and 80% by MIN. $ 0.109 $ 0.090 $ 0.090
2035 link
• Achieve universal electrification by 2035 link MAX. $ 0.219 $ 0.143 $ 0.143
• No import duties on RE equipment link • 16 MW+15 MWh Dasa Uranium project under
• Import tax and VAT exempted on all RE equipment development link
link • 50 MWp Gorou Banda project tender going on link
• No net-metering, no FiT link • Africa GreenTec developing 50 MGs link
• 150 MW being developed by West African Power
Pool link
• Sterling & Wilson building 18.9 MW + 11.5 MWh
Agadez hybrid link
• NTPC secured contract to set up 50 MW solar
capacity link
• World bank to develop 50 MW as part
of scaling solar program link
116
NIGERIA
• Targets 30GW by 2030 with 30% renewable energy LARGE SCALE 8.25 MWp
link C&I 89.34 MWp
• Solar energy to contribute 19% to electricity mix by MG 7.33 MWp
2030 link SHS & 24.3 MWp
• 500 MW of PV by 2025 link RESIDENTIAL

• 60% of the urban population has access to SOURCE
electricity link
• Targets to increase electricity access to 90% by
2030 link MAX. $ 0.166 $ 0.155 $ 0.153
• 0% import duty on solar panels, 5% on SHS and 20% • 961 MWp+455 MWh under development by Sterling
for other components link and Wilson link
• 5% VAT applies on solar components link • 100 MGs under development in by Engie link
• Solar Nigeria Programme (NSP) supporting the • Gombo State looking to generate 250 MW link
market for off-grid solar link • University of Abuja to get 3.1 MWp+2.03 MWh link
• Updating the Mini-Grid Regulation to raise cap for • Husk Power planning 500 MGs in the country link
licensing from 1MW to 5MW link • CrossBoundary developing 6.337 MWp
• FiT for projects up to 5 MW link for Nigerian Breweries link
• Net-metering for projects below 1MW link
117
REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
• Congo Energy Strategy 2015-2025 aiming at LARGE SCALE 0 MWp

developing a PV electrification plan for remote C&I 0.02 MWp
villages link MG 0 MWp
• Plans 70% renewable energy for mining by 2025 link SHS & 0.9 MWp
• 85% renewable electricity by 2025 link RESIDENTIAL

• 48.3% of the population countrywide has access to
electricity link
• Targets 95% electricity access in urban areas and MIN. $ 0.050 $ 0.046 $ 0.041
60% in rural areas by 2030 link
MAX. $ 0.079 $ 0.046 $ 0.041
• All RE components are subject to import duties and • Cash Congo to build 66 MWp hybrid solar power plant link
VAT link • Copasol and Green Corp to establish more than 150 MW
• Country has no implemented legislation intended solar power plants in various parts of the country link
to incentivize the development of renewable
energy projects link
118
RWANDA
• Rwanda eyes to reach 512MW of total installed LARGE SCALE 8.8 MWp
capacity by 2024 link C&I 5.73 MWp
• 30% households to be electrified through off-grid MG 0.55 MWp
solutions by 2024 link SHS & 9.6 MWp
• The government target 60% of renewable resources RESIDENTIAL
by 2030 link SOURCE AFSIA GOGLA IRENA

• 50.9% connected to the grid and 23.6% have
access through off-grid systems (mainly solar) link MIN. $ 0.086 $ 0.122 $ 0.091
• 100% electrification rate by 2024, 70% on-grid and
30% off-grid link MAX. $ 0.242 $ 0.247 $ 0.130
• No import duties on solar panels and a range of • Equatorial Power to develop 4 MGs in the south-east region with
0%-25% to other solar products link InfraCo Africa support link
• VAT exemption on solar equipment and 5% • KfW and Green Climate Fund supporting green city Kigali
withholding taxe link project link
• $15M subsidy + $20M guarantee program for SHS
launched in 2020 link
• No permit required for systems <50kWp
• No net-metering and no FiT
119
SAO TOME & PRINCIPE
• 50% RE in the energy mix by 2030 link LARGE SCALE 0.55 MWp
• Increasing RE production from 26 MW to 49 MW by C&I 0.01 MWp
2030 link MG 0 MWp
SHS & 0 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

link
• Targets universal electrification by 2030 link MIN. $ 0.067 $ 0.155 $ 0.138
MAX. $ 0.155 $ 0.398 $ 0.138
• No existing VAT framework, activities in the energy • Tender launched for the construction of 1.5 MWp
sector are subject to a 5% tax rate link project link
• No net-metering, no FIT • 1.4 MWp under construction at two airports link
• Solo Solar Energy and CISAN planning four projects
of 15 to 10 MW link
• EDP Renewables planning 4.75 MWp/3.5 MWh project
on Principe island link
• 22 MW additional total capacity being developed by
various companies
120
SENEGAL
• 32% RE contribution in energy mix by 2030 link LARGE SCALE 209.5 MWp
• 15% RE in the energy mix by 2025 link C&I 12.14 MWp
• 22% renewable energy by 2025 link MG 3.33 MWp
SHS & 5.15 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 70% of the population has access to electricity link
• Universal access by 2025 link MIN. $ 0.146 $ 0.119 $ 0.094
MAX. $ 0.214 $ 0.311 $ 0.181
• No import duties on solar panels but 5% applies for • 2 MWp under development at Abdoulaye Wade stadium link
SHS link • 30 MW Niakhar hybrid plant under construction link
• No VAT for PV equipment link • CrossBoundary to build 13 MW hybrid plant for Grande Côte
• Hybrid form of net-metering and FiT introduced in Operations link
2018 link • 300 mini-grids to be built across the country link
121
FOCUS ON E-MOBILITY
BY JOHN WARREN
ARTICLE VAN ZUYLEN ONDAJE
CEO – Africa Solar Industry Managing Director –
Association Association for Electric Mobility
& Development in Africa
AFRICA IS GETTING MORE AND NEW

MOBILITY SOLUTIONS
In 2022, the world's population reached 8 billion, the shortest
period in which a billion people got added to the planet. Given the
recent COP27 discussions on sustainability, promoting sustainable
energy and transportation is crucial. One solution is electric
mobility (e-mobility), which can increase energy independence,
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and foster innovation in new
markets.
Africa, which is responsible for only 4% of global greenhouse gas

emissions, is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate
change. Transportation accounts for 40% of emissions from fossil
fuel burning, and 38 of the continent's 55 countries are net oil
importers. This reliance points to the continent's potential
economic and environmental impact as its energy needs grow. 122
By 2050, the target year for achieving net zero emissions
globally, Africa is projected to have 2.5 billion people, 25% of the
world's population, with a median age of 20 years. The
widespread adoption of the internet and mobile money has
provided access to improved energy and transportation
solutions through pay-as-you-go models. Electric mobility can
take advantage of these advances to accelerate the adoption
of clean transportation paired with renewable energy.
Currently, 85% of the vehicles in Africa are secondhand.

However, there is a growing market for new two and three-
wheelers. These light-duty vehicles bought new or assembled
in Africa are expected to make up 55% of the 58 million vehicles
on the continent's roads by 2040. Africa's motorization rate, at
just 42 vehicles per 1,000 people, is far below the global average
of 182. This gap represents a 238% growth potential that could
be filled by electric vehicles.
It is estimated that approximately $600 billion will be needed to

electrify Africa's vehicle fleet by 2040. The market is ready for
innovative business models such as battery-as-a-service or
pay-as-you-drive, which reduce the upfront cost of vehicles for
consumers. There are already over 100 solution providers
addressing the entire value chain, from passenger transport on
electric motorcycles to mass transportation in metropolitan
areas to electric outboard engines for fishing boats and even
electric three-wheelers for economic productivity in rural areas.
123
However, these efforts represent less than 1% of the required
investment. Investors now have the opportunity to lead in this
emerging subsector. African governments must develop policies
that allow for importing and growing local assembly and
manufacturing of electric vehicles.
Additionally, more robust policies are needed to address used
vehicles, which risk being dumped in Africa as other regions
phase them out. Demand-side initiatives, such as competitive
electricity tariffs or rebate programs, can sensitize consumers to
choose electric vehicles over internal combustion engines.
Africa has the unique opportunity to compete globally with

solutions designed, manufactured, and assembled on the
continent for Africa. A shift to electrified transportation promises
rapid economic development while being socially and
environmentally sustainable, creating a new class of high-quality
jobs in engineering, data, payments, and operations for the
continent's young, tech-savvy professionals.
Solar expected to be the only way to support e-mobility in Africa
But for Africa to fully embrace its e-mobility potential, solar will
undeniably play a central role. We believe this is the case because
a) e-mobility should only be powered by renewable energy, b) the
transition to electric bikes in Africa will happen very fast and c)
solar is the only renewable power technology that can be
deployed quickly and flexibly to follow the expected e-mobility
boom in Africa.
124
First, it is important to note that switching from ICE (internal
combustion engines) vehicles to electric ones only make sense
if the electricity consumed is from renewable source. Countries
where we currently see a good uptake of electric vehicles but
which are predominantly relying on fossil fuels for their
electricity generation are only displacing the problem from the
gas station to the power plant. But the net impact unfortunately
is close to zero.
Only a few African countries are already predominantly

counting on reliable renewable sources for their electricity
generation. These countries could very easily welcome an
entire fleet of electric vehicles. Kenya and Rwanda are two such
countries. For the other countries however, the situation is very
different. Some of them have historically bet on hydro but are
now facing seasonal challenges due to climate change
seriously affecting the water reserves and dams potential.
These countries are already struggling to generate their basic
electricity from renewable sources, so a growing fleet of electric
vehicles would only add pressure on an already fragile power
generation system. As for the final group of countries, which
predominantly rely on fossil fuels, incorporating electric
vehicles to the national fleet would only displace the fossil fuel
problem. This is particularly the case in West Africa.
As a result, most African countries will need additional
renewable electricity generation capacity if they want to move
into the era of electric mobility and reap all of its environmental
and financial benefits.
125
Further, we expect the electric mobility transition in Africa to Rwanda Kenya
happen quickly and be predominantly driven by commercial
motorbikes. Commercial motorbikes represent by far the
Total number of bikes (est.) 100,000 1,600,000
largest share of vehicles across Africa. There are 27 million
motorcycles registered in sub-Sahara Africa, translating to
roughly one for every 48 people. Approximately 80% of these Total number of commercial 70,000 1,120,000
motorcycles are used as passenger taxis and for deliveries. The bikes (est.)
drivers of these motorbikes are very cost-sensitive as they
drive an average of 200km per day. For them, any saving in
Average daily power 12 kWh 12 kWh
operational costs can make a big difference. Switching to
electric can help these taxi drivers increase they net take- requirement per bike
home pay by 40% to 100%. It is therefore to be expected that no
special policy will be required for electric motorbikes to Hypothetical power 840,000 kWh/day 13,440,000 kWh/day
become mainstream very quickly: the market forces will simply requirement for all commercial
do their job! Just like horses have been replaced in just a few
bikes switching to electric
years with the arrival of cars, we anticipate almost all
commercial motorbikes in Africa to switch to electric in the next
few years (this will be made very easy with “pay-as-you-drive” Solar irradiation 3.8 kWh/kWp/day 3.9 kWh/kWp/day
companies popping up all over the continent).
Theoretical solar capacity 221,000 kWp 3,446,150 kWp
But while this is great news for the environment, this expected
required to power bikes 221 MWp 3,446 MWp
fast switch does not come without challenges. The major
challenge will be to make enough green electricity available to
charge all these batteries. And we believe this can only be done Current installed capacity in 276 MW 2,651 MW
through solar. the country (across all
Let’s take the simple example of Rwanda and Kenya to see the technologies)
impact of a growth of electric motorbikes on the induced
installed power capacity.
126
The same ratios can be found for pretty much all other
countries across Africa. Doubling or tripling the historical
installed capacity in no simple feat, and we anticipate this
might need to happen in just a few years, on top of other
additional power needs driven by population and economic
growth across the continent.
To support the harmonious growth of e-mobility across Africa,

only 2 solutions seem realistic: 1) new capacity which has been
planned several years ago and is currently being built and/or
commissioned or 2) planning and rolling out new solar
capacity now. Witnessing the systemic capacity lag in many
African countries, it seems that solar is the most likely solution
to be implemented thanks to its flexibility and speed of being
rolled out. Solar will generate electricity for e-bikes through a
combination a C&I projects directly at the facilities of pay-as-
you-drive companies, but also through large scale projects
being added to the grid, wheeling and net-metering. Every
single solar panel will be required to ensure enough green
power is available to charge our vehicles of tomorrow.
127
SEYCHELLES
• 15% RE in the energy mix by 2030 link LARGE SCALE 12.26 MWp
C&I 2.46 MWp
MG 2.88 MWp
SHS & 0.32 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 100% of the population have access to electricity SOURCE
link
MIN. $ 0.172 $ 0.360 $ 0.360
MAX. $ 0.401 $ 0.431 $ 0.431
• No GST on RE energy equipment link • 1.5 MWp under development at Indian Ocean Tuna
• SEEREP provides loan facility open to households (IOT) processing facility link
to acquire solar systems link • Construction of 5.8 MW Providence floating solar
• Rebate scheme residential and small commercial plant is moving forward link
installations link • Results to be announced for Seychelles Trading
• Net-metering for residential and commercial company tender link
users since 2013 link
128
SIERRA LEONE
• RE to represent 84% in the energy mix by 2030 link LARGE SCALE 5 MWp
• increase renewables capacity to 1,000MW link C&I 0.51 MWp
• Increase off-grid mini-grid and solar stand-alone MG 4.22 MWp
systems by 27% and 10%, respectively, in 2030 link SHS & 3.82 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 48% in urban areas and 1% in rural area link
• Target to reach 92% total access to electricity by MIN. $ 0.039 $ 0.131 $ 0.132
2030 with 37% being off-grid link
MAX. $ 0.112 $ 0.131 $ 0.132
• All SHS are exempted from import duties and GST • Sunon Asogli to build 50 MWp Freetown solar park link
link • The country to benefit from the West Africa power project
• PV equipment and low energy or energy-efficient being financed by the World Bank link
appliances that meet IEC global standards are
exempt from GST link
• The Electricity and Water Regulatory Commission
(EWRC) plans to develop FiT for solar schemes
irrespective of their size link
129
SOMALIA
• Commits to reduce and avoid emissions 30% by LARGE SCALE 10.4 MWp
MG 1.64 MWp
SHS & 5.6 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

link SOURCE
• Target to achieve universal access by 2030 link MIN. $ 0.5 $ 0.5 $ 0.5
MAX. $1 $1 $1
• Taxes are not standardized. Different states, ports • BECO to build second phase of Mogadishu solar
compete in respect of duty rates in order to secure with 92 MW of capacity link
import traffic, rates varying from around 10%-15% • Abu Dhabi fund for development financing
link construction of 7 MWp Bosaso solar plant link
• No national electrification policy in place waiving
taxes on PV products
• No FiT and no net-metering
130
SOMALILAND
• n/a LARGE SCALE 8 MWp

C&I 1.73 MWp
MG 0.2 MWp
SHS & 0 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• n/a
MIN.
NO RELIABLE DATA
MAX.
• n/a • n/a
131
SOUTH AFRICA
• 25% of RE in national energy mix by 2030 link LARGE SCALE 2,864.78 MWp PV + 500 MWe CSP
• Targets the addition of 6.5GW of solar by 2030 link C&I 483.34 MWp
MG 0.74 MWp
SHS & 5.18 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

link
• 88.8% electrification rate in urban areas and 75.3% MIN. $ 0.039 $ 0.038 $ 0.035
in rural areas link
• Achieving universal access by 2025 link MAX. $ 0.299 $ 0.296 $ 0.275
• No import duties link • Tender issued on 2.6 GW, first round of 6.8 GW
• License required for self consumption over 100 MW procurement link
link • 41 Western Cape schools to get 25.87 MWp link
• Possible for companies to write off 100% solar • The city of Ekurhuleni to start building 700 MW solar
investment in year 1 link plant link
• Cape Town to introduce FiT soon for C&I and • AMEA Power to build 120 MWp Doornhoek project link
residential customers link • 7 MW Atlantis solar PV construction in tender link
• Net-metering available in some municipalities link • Venetia diamond mine to get 100 MWp link
• Total Eren to build 40 MWp for Tharisa
minerals link
132
SOUTH SUDAN
• The Infrastructure Action Plan aims to expand LARGE SCALE 0 MWp

generation capacity to about 580 MW by 2025 link C&I 5.34MWp
• Solar expected to be the best option to improve the MG 0.06MWp
nation’s dependence on diesel link SHS & 0.5 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

MIN. $ 0.002 $ 0.003 $ 0.003
MAX. $ 0.003 $ 0.003 $ 0.003
• Import duties range from 0%-25% on solar products • Aptech Africa to build a 12 MWp solar plant in Juba link
link
• VAT exempted and 4% withholding tax applies on
solar products link
• No FiT, no net-metering
133
FOCUS ON FLOATING SOLAR
BY SERGIO
ARTICLE MONTORO
AFRICAN SOLAR COULD SOON HARNESS

THE POWER OF WATER
Floating solar is one of the most promising new solar technologies

for Africa. Floating solar, also called floating PV or floatovoltaics,
consists of traditional solar photovoltaic panels installed on a
water body. Short explanation about what is floating solar. This
kind of installation of course comes with a set of specific technical
challenges which are not found on the firm ground.
134
But it also presents some very strong advantages, especially in the
African context where so many hydro resources are being exploited
to produce electricity.
Africa suffers from serious water scarcity, which translates into

dramatic consequences on hydroelectric generation, among others.
Due to hydropower capacity and solar irradiation potential of such a
continent, FPV responds very well to African continent idiosyncrasies:
• In locations where networks are weak, this technology has an
unquestionable advantage by interconnecting with existing
hydroelectric plants. This hybridization solution, in addition to
compensate for unstable and intermittent PV output during the
wet season, it provides access to the grid due to the presence of
an existing hydropower plant connecting infrastructure.
• This system reduces water loss from evaporation in reservoirs up
to 80%, by covering a large part of the water surface and
improving its quality by proliferation of algae and mosses.
• It avoids all the obstacles of land acquisition and the concerns of
land consumption, freeing up land in densely populated regions.
The conclusions of the study “Assessment of floating solar

photovoltaic potential in existing hydro power reservoirs in Africa”[2],
from the Joint Research Center of the European Commission,
published in January 2021 in Renewable Energy, analyzing 146 of the
largest operational hydro power reservoirs in Africa, indicate that the
production of Floating Solar Panels could be 52.9 TWh/year, which
means an increase of 50% of the annual production of existing
135
hydroelectric plants (105 TWh/year).
135
In addition, water savings could reach 743 million m3/year, increasing annual hydro power
production by 170 GWh.
Although still in its infancy, FPV is quickly gaining traction around the world. A report by the World Bank
titled “Where Sun Meets Water”[1], already identified an exponential growth of this technology in 2018.
Source1 Source 2
Imagen 1. Global installed FPV capacity and annual additions. SOURCE World Bank Group, ESMAP, and SERIS 2019.
If the same growth curve as that of ground-mounted photovoltaics is followed, Floating Solar
Photovoltaics infrastructure (FPV) could become a very significant part of the global solar industry in
just a few years. Although this segment is still very marginal globally, with a total installed capacity of
2,500 MW in 2020, current projections estimate its potential at 62 GW capacity worldwide by 2030.
To sum it up, The Floating Solar Photovoltaics (FPV) is shown as an achievable solution to the energy
needs and the growing/challenging scarcity of water in Africa, using existing resources such as an
excellent solar potential and a great hydroelectric potential infrastructure.
136
SUDAN
• 14% RE (excluding Hydro) to be integrated in the LARGE SCALE 5 MWp

power system by 2033 C&I 11.77 MWp
• 250 MW of rooftop solar to be installed by 2033 MG 0 MWp
• 2,400 MW of solar PV; 50 MW of solar CSP by 2033 SHS & 0 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 32% connected on-grid to the national distribution
company, 14% connected to stand-alone diesel- MIN. $ 0.008 $ 0.071 $ 0.046
based isolated grids and 8% to stand-alone solar
PV systems (with batteries) MAX. $ 0.055 $ 0.071 $ 0.046
• Targets 82% electrification by 2035
• No import duty and VAT on PV components link • TAQA Arabia to develop several solar plants in the country link
• Amendments made on the Electricity Act to allow
private companies to work in the power generation
business as independent power producers (IPP)
• PPP Law approved and allows BOOT projects link
• Investment Law approved which provides
incentives to foreign investors link
• Net-metering regulations for small-scale solar
systems (less than 1 MW) link
• A feed-in tariff is under development with the
support of the UNDP link
137
TANZANIA
• Nation’s energy transition targets to reach 5000MW LARGE SCALE 6 MWp

capacity by 2025 link C&I 2.8 MWp
• 50% of RE in the energy mix by 2030 link MG 0.89 MWp
• Renewable power generation is expected to SHS & 12.5 MWp
increase from 268GWh in 2021 to 3,040GWh in 2035 RESIDENTIAL
SOURCE
link SOURCE AFSIA GOGLA IRENA

• 37% of the population has access to electricity link SOURCE 1
SOURCE 2 RESIDENTIAL COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIAL
• Electricity access rates in urban areas is 73.2% and
24.5% rural areas link MIN. $ 0.043 $ 0.007 $ 0.004
• Targets 75% electrification rate in 2025 link
• Universal access by 2030 link MAX. $ 0.126 $ 0.126 $ 0.068
• No import duties on solar panels and a range of 0- • AFD supporting the development of the 150 MWp
25% for other solar equipment link Kishapu Solar Project link
• No VAT on several solar equipment link • Masdar and TANESCO to deploy PV plants with 600
• No license required for projects below 1 MW link MWp total capacity link
• FiT of $0.21/kWh for MG, FiT to systems connected to • Other upcoming projects include Zuzu, Dodoma
the national grid at $0.079/kWh in the dry season, (60 MW), Same (50 MW) & Next Gen-Kigoma
$0.059/kWh in the wet season link (5MW) link
• Net-metering in application since 2017 link
138
THE GAMBIA
• Targets to increase the share of RE to 48% by 2030 LARGE SCALE 0 MWp

link C&I 2.15 MWp
• Target of 250MW RE by 2040 link MG 0.12 MWp
• RE sources to contribute to GHG reductions of 78.5 SHS & 0.02 MWp
GgCO2e in 2025 and 104 GgCO2e in 2030 link RESIDENTIAL

SOURCE
• 32% access in rural areas and 81% in urban areas
link MIN. $ 0.183 $ 0.18 $ 0.210
• Targets universal electricity access by 2025 link
MAX. $ 0.194 $ 0.18 $ 0.210
• Exemptions on import duties link • FAO installing 34 solar-powered irrigation systems link
• An investment enterprise within priority categories • Government developing the 150 MW Regional Solar PV
is granted import VAT waiver link Project in Soma link
• No VAT for RE/solar projects link • 1,100 rural schools and health centers to be powered with
• Net-metering available for capacities below 20kW solar PV through EIB, EU and World Bank support link
link • Implementation of 20MW on-grid solar PV project
• There is a provision for a FiT in the RE Law of 2013, in progress with EIB and WB funding, to be
but FiT not in-force commissioned in 2023
• The government commits to $449 800 for
Accelerated Community Development (PACD) to
extend electrification to 7 villages link
139
TOGO
• 50% renewables in the national energy mix by 2030 LARGE SCALE 50 MWp
link C&I 4.3 MWp
• Adding 50MW of solar PV, 315 mini-grids and the MG 0.4 MWp
distribution of 550,000 solar kits link SHS & 3.56 MWp
• Increase of the share of RE to 40% in 2024 link RESIDENTIAL
• Target of 10% of PV in the energy by 2030 link SOURCE AFSIA GOGLA IRENA

• 54% of the population has access to electricity link SOURCE 1
• 86% in urban areas and 36% in rural areas link SOURCE 2
• Target of 75% of electricity access by 2025 and 100% MIN. $ 0.101 $ 0.123 $ 0.117
by 2030 link
MAX. $ 0.192 $ 0.154 $ 0.149
• All RE components are exempt from import duties • BOAD supporting construction of 42 MWp Awandjelo solar park link
and VAT link • Tender launched for 50 MW Salimde solar park link
• CIZO Programme offers subsidies to households to • AfDB supporting implementation of 317 MGs link
cover the cost of off-grid PV systems link • Tender progressing with 1.8 MWp at Lome airport link
• A pilot project is being implemented at the • AMEA Power to expand Mohammed Bin Zayed PV from 50 to
Regional Center for Technical Education and 70 MW link
Vocational Training (CRETFP) for the net-metering
link
140
TUNISIA
• 35% of RE capacity by 2030 link LARGE SCALE 37.4 MWp

• Targets 3.8 GW of solar capacity by 2030 link C&I 7.7 MWp
MG 0 MWp
SHS & 9 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

• 100% of the population has access to electricity link SOURCE 1 SOURCE 3
SOURCE 2
MIN. $ 0.019 $ 0.066 $ 0.055
MAX. $ 0.128 $ 0.141 $ 0.122
• Imported energy equipment with no locally • Construction to start soon on 100 MW Kairouan plant link
produced equivalent are subject to minimum • Scatec to build 240MW, 60MW, and 60MW in Tatouine,
customs duties and are exempt from VAT link Tozeur and Sidi Bouzid link
• Net-metering and FiT possible link • Akuo Energy, HBG Holding and Nour Energy to build 10 MW
Gabès solar PV plant link
• Results to be announced on 70 MWp plants tender link
• ENGIE and NAREVA to build 120 MWp Gafsa solar
park link
141
UGANDA
• More than 90% of renewable electricity production LARGE SCALE 74 MWp

• Targeting 100% clean renewable by 2050 link MG 2.53 MWp
• Raise renewable electricity generation capacity to SHS & 43.53 MWp
at least 3,200 MW by 2030 link RESIDENTIAL

• 24% electrification rate nationwide with 8% in rural SOURCE
area link
• Universal access targets range from 2030 to MIN. $ 0.065 $ 0.093 $ 0.060
2040.link
MAX. $ 0.194 $ 0.200 $ 0.159
• PV panels exempt from import duties and VAT link • Equatorial Power and GIZ to electrify 27 rural clinics link
• 0-25% import duties apply for other solar • RIC Energy constructing 23 MW Nkonge solar link
equipment link • TotalEnergies EP Uganda to develop 120 MW in six localities link
• Net-metering and FiT under development link • German government and EU supporting development
of 120 MGs across the country link
142
ZAMBIA
• Increase the electricity generation to 6000 MW by LARGE SCALE 215 MWp

• 30%of national energy needs to be covered with RE MG 2.25 MWp
(excluding large hydro)by 2030 link SHS & 7.8 MWp
• target to generate 600 MW of PV by 2030 link RESIDENTIAL


• Government plans 66% national access (90% urban MIN. $ 0.009 $ 0.032 $ 0.009
and 51% rural) link
MAX. $ 0.053 $ 0.032 $ 0.026
• Custom duty exemptions for most PV projects • Tender launched for the construction of 200MW Siavonga solar
components link park link
• No VAT on solar panels and batteries but 15% VAT • Power Corner Zambia to build 11 MGs with 1.1 MWp capacity link
applies to some solar equipment link • Construction progressing on 200 MWp Serenje PV plant link
• No permit required for systems <100kW link • Ilute Solar to build 25 MW in Sesheke link
• Energy Regulation Board publishes the draft net-
metering regulations link
• Existent wheeling system link
143
ZIMBABWE
• Targets 1,575MW for solar by 2030 link LARGE SCALE 13.5 MWp
• RE to contribute 1,100MW of total electricity supply C&I 28.34 MWp
by 2025, and 2,100MW by 2030 link MG 0.22 MWp
SHS & 0.9 MWp
RESIDENTIAL

link
• Universal access by 2030 link MIN. $ 0.025 $ 0.087 $ 0.144
MAX. $ 0.050 $ 0.125 $ 0.150
• No import duties on solar equipment but 15% VAT • Skypower Global building 500 MWp solar station link
applies link • Belarus developing 100 MW Norton solar park link
• New Draft Renewable Energy Regulation looking at • Econet to solarize 499 telecom towers in the next 24
waiving licensing fees for installation and operation months link
of micro-grids and mini-grids with an installed • Mimosa mining to get 238 MWp link
capacity of less than 1 MW link • Evergreen Private to build 100 MW in Midlands link
• Net-metering threshold capacity extended from • 10 MGs in tender by UNDP link
100kW to 5MW • 36 MWp Bulawayo and Gwanda projects
• FiT regulation exist but not yet implemented link construction moving forward link
144
FOCUS ON MADE IN AFRICA
BY CLAIRE
ARTICLE LE STER
Operations Manager
MADE IN AFRICA FOR AFRICA
While the solar market has been growing quickly in Africa, local
manufacturing of off-grid solar products is still limited. The vast
majority of equipment is imported from Asia where production is
centralized. Yet, it has been demonstrated that the development
of local value chains contributes not only to industrial
development, but also the wider economic and social
development of a country.
145
Localizing manufacturing offers many tangible benefits.
In the first place, locating the industry close to the market

allows to understand the customer's needs and to adapt the
offer to the specific needs of the area. As a result, this model
then also allows to provide a better and faster local after-sales
service to the customer and thus ensure a greater durability of
the products put on the market. Indeed, the repair of products
is made possible by the availability of spare parts and a trained
local workforce.
In addition, the local presence of a manufacturer also

facilitates the sourcing of local small and medium-sized
enterprises, building inventory then becomes less risky, ties up
less cash because of higher turn-over and in the end becomes
more flexible and more efficient.
Finally, one of the most important benefits of local

manufacturing is jobs creation. A study conducted by the
Burkinabe research association IFSRA highlighted the socio-
economic impacts of the presence of solar manufacturing
workshops in the areas where they are located. It created
formal jobs, led to the inclusion of vulnerable people, created
training opportunities at the local level, improved the
employees' living conditions,
146
and last but not least it increased the users' pride in consuming
local products.
But manufacturing in Africa still presents major challenges for

entrepreneurs.
First, the underdeveloped manufacturing environment results in a
lack of local suppliers and value chains. As a result, starting local
manufacturing in Africa is comparatively more challenging than
in other parts of the world.
Second, even when local manufacturing does exist, the lack of
intra-African logistics solutions limits the size of the market
accessible from the production plant.
In addition, with the exception of a handful of economic zones
recently being developed in selected countries, there is still a lack
of concrete action by governments and international institutions
to create an environment conducive to the development of a
local industry. Local entrepreneurs need tangible support beyond
the speeches that increasingly advocate for "Made in Africa".
And on top of these structural difficulties, there are also cyclical

difficulties. For the past two years, industries have been facing
tensions over the supply of raw materials, longer supply times
and higher transport costs. All of these negative impacts, are
further multiplied in a poorly industrialized African environment.
147
Some recommendations can be made to support the
development of local industrialization.
African manufacturers must obtain, for imported components
and spare parts, customs conditions that are at least
equivalent if not preferential to those for imported finished
products . Exoneration of taxes and duties on solar products
implemented by some African countries to promote the
development of renewable energies should apply for finished
solar products but also for components used for the local
manufacturing of solar products. Currently, it is difficult to
benefit from these exemptions when importing cables,
electronic components, screws, etc., and not a finished solar
product.
In addition, the implementation of the African continental free

trade zone (AfCFTA) would create an enabling environment for
local industry to flourish.
Finally, Government institutions, as well as the development

programs of international or bilateral institutions, should also
integrate local preference criteria into public procurement and
support programs for off-grid solar market development.
148
SPECIAL THANKS TO
OUR PEER REVIEWERS
One of the basic principles of AFSIA is to create
networks and knowledge-sharing platforms for all Adel Baba -Aissa Omar Abdelhamid
Investment Director Business Development Executive
solar stakeholders to get the quickest access
Meridiam Gridtech Infrastructure
possible to partners and information, and thereby
achieve better and more efficient business.
AFSIA would like to extend a warm thank you to the

amazing group of experts spread across the
continent and who have accepted our request to
review and correct the information presented to you
in the report.
AFSIA is happy to put these individuals in the Apollinaire Niyirora Serge Stephane AOUELY
spotlight and warmly invites you to contact them Communication Officer Chief Commercial & Marketing
Burundi Renewable Energy Association LUMOS GLOBAL (Côte d'Ivoire Sub)
directly should you require further ad-hoc expert
insights on specific countries.
149
Michael Lappin Abdourahamane Keita Judicaël Graas Dr. Mohamed Alhaj Mikael Alemu
Country Manager - Africa Deputy General Director Operation Manager Founder & Managing Director General manager & Co-founder
SegenSolar Agence Guinéenne GoShop Energy Terra Energy 10 Green Gigawatt for Ethiopia
d’Electrification Rurale(AGER)
Laura Corcoran Yao Azoumah Herbert Friese Andrew Amadi Sire Abdoul Diallo
Chief Business Development Officer CEO & Founder General Manager Chief Executive Officer Sustainable Energy
Expert - Consultant
Aptech Africa KYA-Energy Group Dutch & Company Ltd Kenya Renewable Energy
Association
150
Ivie Ehanmo Lamya Abdel Hady Divin kouebatouka Greyson Onesmo Metili Babucarr Bittaye
Founder RE consultant Founder & Chairman Head of Africa Operations Principal Energy Officer
Electricity Lawyer Egypt Electricity Transmission GreenBox ENGIE Energy Access Ministry of Petroleum and
company Energy of The Gambia
151
SUMMARY TABLES / Duties & Taxes
COUNTRY IMPORT DUTIES VAT ON IMPORT VAT
Algeria Exemption on raw materials for local module

production
Angola No exemption for PV components VAT applies on solar products
Benin 5% import duties on pre-assembled solar 0% VAT on solar panel and batteries
generating assets (SHS)
Botswana Some solar equipment are exempt from VAT
with others subject to a 5%-20% VAT
Burkina Faso Exemption on solar equipment No VAT on solar equipment
Burundi No import duties on solar panels and 25% on the 0% VAT on solar panels, batteries, inverters
rest And some other solar equipment
Cameroon Reduced duties on imported RE products No VAT on solar equipment
30% on pico-solar products
Cape Verde 23% import duties on batteries No VAT in imports of solar panels and storage No VAT on solar panels
Central African Import duties range between 5%-30%

Republic (CAR)
152
Chad Import tax exemptions for RE equipment No VAT on solar equipment

Comoros 0% duties on PV materials No VAT on RE equipment
Congo (DRC) 0% duties on equipment intended for electricity VAT exemption on RE equipment
production
Congo (Republic All RE components are subject to import duties All RE components are subject to VAT
of The Congo)
Cote d’Ivoire 0% on solar panel 9% VAT on solar equipment
5% if already assembled and 20% on batteries
Djibouti Import duties on solar equipment range Import duties and VAT on solar equipment
between 10%-26% range between 10%-26%
Egypt 5% import duties on solar State can authorize reduced rates or total
VAT exemption depending on the nature of
activities of investors
Equatorial Guinea Exemption depending on activities of investors 15% VAT applicable
Eritrea
153
eSwatini 0% import duties on solar panels and batteries Standard VAT of 15 % is applicable
Ethiopia Most SAS products are exempted from import 15% VAT is applicable on solar products
duty
Gabon Import duties applicable between 5%-30% 18% VAT on solar components
The Gambia No import duties No VAT for RE/solar projects
Ghana 0% import duties on solar panels 0% VAT on solar panels

5% import duties on SHS and 20% import duties An import tax exemption for solar PV system is
on batteries being implemented
Guinea Duty exemptions can be granted to projects on VAT exemptions can be granted to projects
a case by-case basis on a case by-case basis
Guinea-Bissau Solar panels are exempted of VAT but other
components of a solar kit are not
Kenya 0% duties on solar panels and inverters VAT exemption on all renewable products
Range of 0%-25% applies to others products
Lesotho All PV components are subject to a reduced VAT
rate of 5%
154
Liberia No import tariffs on off-grid system components

related to RE development
Libya No VAT in Libya
Madagascar No import duties on solar panels or lithium No VAT on solar panels or lithium batteries
batteries
Malawi Solar products are import duty free Solar products are subject to a 16.5% VAT
Mali No import duties on solar products 0% VAT on solar products

Mauritania Duties range between 9% - 18%
Mauritius Solar PV projects are VAT exempt
Morocco 10% import duties on solar panels but 20% import VAT applies 20% VAT applies on water heaters and solar
exempted for water heaters panels
Mozambique Solar products are subject to an import duty of 17% VAT on all RE products
7.5%
Namibia No import duties on thermal energy for 15% VAT on importation of goods is levied
households
155
Niger 0% import duties on RE products No VAT on imports 0% VAT on RE products

Nigeria 0% import duty on solar panels, 5% on SHS and 5% VAT on solar components
20% for other components
Rwanda No import duties on solar panels and a range of No VAT on solar components
0%-25% to other solar products
Sao Tome and Activities in the energy sector are subject to a
Principe 5% tax rate
Senegal No import duties on solar panels and 5% applies No VAT on PV equipment
for SHS
Seychelles 0% import duties on RE equipment 0% VAT on RE equipment
Sierra Leone No import duties on SHS 0% VAT on SHS
Somalia
South Africa No import duties
South Sudan Import duties range between 0%-25% on solar No VAT on solar products
products
Sudan 0% import duty on PV components 0% VAT on PV components
Tanzania No import duties on solar panels No VAT on several solar equipment

156
Togo Renewable energy components are exempt Renewable energy components are exempt
from import duties from VAT
Tunisia Imported energy equipment with no locally VAT exemption on Imported energy
produced equivalent are subject to minimum equipment with no locally produced
customs duties equivalent
Uganda PV panels are exempted from import duties No VAT on PV panels
Zambia No import duties on PV components No VAT on solar panels and batteries but 15%
VAT applies to some solar equipment
Zimbabwe No import duties on solar equipment 15% VAT on solar equipment
157
SUMMARY TABLES / Electrification rate
&electricity tariff
ELECTRIFICATION RESIDENTIAL COMMERCIAL INDUSTRIAL SOURCE
COUNTRY RATE MIN MAX MIN MAX
MIN MAX
Algeria 99.8% 0.009 0.058 0.007 0.063 0.004 0.048 Link
Angola 46.89 % 0.005 0.014 0.012 0.014 0.009 0.014 Link
Benin 53% 0.138 0.237 0.146 0.262 0.141 0.156 Link
Botswana 72% 0.077 0.107 0.093 0.138 0.063 0.070 Link
Burkina Faso 22.5% 0.120 0.221 0.102 0.264 0.086 0.224 Link
Burundi 13% 0.040 0.268 0.096 0.196 0.096 0.156 Link
Cameroon 65% 0.080 0.158 0.134 0.158 0.096 0.136 Link
Cape Verde 94% 0.259 0.363 0.246 0.277 0.246 0.277 Link
Central African 14.3% 0.109 0.229 0.043 0.060 0.043 0.060 Link
Republic
10% 0.136 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200
Chad Link
86.74% 0.324 0.332 0.236 0.289 0.236 0.289
Comoros Link
Cote d’Ivoire 80% 0.029 0.107 0.076 0.161 0.072 0.106 Link
All tariffs in USD equivalent at 1/1/2023

158
&electricity tariff
MIN MAX
RDC 15% 0.027 0.087 0.110 0.150 0.057 0.057 Link
Republic of 48.3% 0.050 0.079 0.046 0.046 0.041 0.041 Link

the Congo
Djibouti 61.77% 0.151 0.308 0.224 0.308 0.162 0.230 Link
Egypt 100% 0.024 0.059 0.025 0.065 0.016 0.062 Link
Equatorial Guinea 66.75% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Eritrea 50% 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 Link
Eswatini 85% 0.064 0.106 0.136 0.288 0.055 0.283 Link
Ethiopia 45% 0.03 0.06 0.042 0.042 0.019 0.031 Link
Gabon 91.6% 0.084 0.207 0.027 0.720 0.027 0.720 Link
The Gambia 62% 0.183 0.194 0.18 0.18 0.210 0.210 Link
Ghana 85.9% 0.029 0.088 0.578 0.092 0.514 0.182 Link
Guinea 44.7% 0.013 0.054 0.140 0.334 0.219 0.306 Link

159
&electricity tariff
MIN MAX
Guinea Bissau 33.34% 0.205 0.392 0.163 0.205 0.206 0.258 Link
Kenya 75% 0.069 0.112 0.069 0.110 0.068 0.077 Link
Lesotho 47.35% 0.061 0.104 0.018 0.019 0.018 0.019 Link
Liberia 27.53% 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.001 Link
Libya 69.17% 0.044 0.110 0.150 0.150 0.068 0.092 Link
Madagascar 33.74% 0.033 0.227 0.052 0.286 0.022 0.271 Link
Malawi 15% 0.054 0.125 0.123 0.143 0.052 0.161 Link
Mali 50.6% 0.170 0.170 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 Link
Mauritania 47.35% 0.066 0.159 0.159 0.159 0.058 0.159 Link
Mauritius 99.6% 0.048 0.193 0.065 0.220 0.048 0.119 Link
Morocco 100% 0.085 0.150 0.056 0.228 0.057 0.275 Link
Mozambique 30% 0.096 0.143 0.076 0.076 0.075 0.075 Link

160
&electricity tariff
MIN MAX
Namibia 56.26% 0.066 0.172 0.092 0.255 0.090 0.149 Link
Niger 19.3% 0.109 0.219 0.090 0.143 0.090 0.143 Link
Nigeria 60% 0.059 0.166 0.066 0.155 0.067 0.153 Link
Liberia 12% 0.390 0.390 0.390 0.390 0.390 0.390 Link
Rwanda 74.5% 0.086 0.242 0.122 0.247 0.091 0.130 Link
Sao Tome 76.56% 0.067 0.155 0.155 0.398 0.138 0.138 Link
and Principe
Senegal 70% 0.146 0.214 0.119 0.311 0.094 0.181 Link
Seychelles 100% 0.172 0.401 0.360 0.431 0.360 0..431 Link
Sierra Leone 26.2% 0.039 0.112 0.131 0.131 0.132 0.132 Link
Somalia 49.7.3% n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Somaliland n/a 0.650 0.650 0.650 0.650 0.390 0.390 Local industry source
South Africa 84.39 0.039 0.299 0.038 0.296 0.035 0.0275 Link

161
&electricity tariff
MIN MAX
South Sudan 7.2% 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 Link
Sudan 55.39% 0.027 0.00047 0.001 0.001 0.00032 0.00032 Link
Tanzania 37% 0.043 0.126 0.007 0.126 0.004 0.068 Link Link
Togo 54% 0.101 0.192 0.123 0.154 0.004 0.048 Link Link
Tunisia 100% 0.019 0.128 0.066 0.141 0.055 0.122 Link Link Link
Uganda 24% 0.065 0.194 0.093 0.2 0.060 0.159 Link
Zambia 43% 0.009 0.053 0.032 0.032 0.009 0.026 Link
Zimbabwe 52.7% 0.025 0.050 0.087 0.125 0.144 0.150 Link

162
OUR MEMBERS
163
© 2023 AFSIA. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
WEBSITE
www.afsiasolar.com
EMAIL
INFO@AFSIASOLAR.COM
ADDRESS
WAKA TOWN – KN 72 STREET KIGALI –
RWANDA

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ANNUAL SOLAR

OFFICIAL EVENT PARTNER:

BROUGHT TO YOU BY: ALONGSIDE OUR PARTNERS:

First and foremost, I would like to congratulate Ines Rachel Dushime

I would like to extend a warm thank you to WFES – the World

I also thank the partners of this year’s edition. It is a great honor

First, I would like to thank those who accepted the invitation to

And I would also like to thank our amazing group of peer

JOHN VAN ZUYLEN

Credit: Distributed Power Africa 6

And based on the estimated range mentioned above as

In 2022, the continent saw the installation of almost 1 GW of new PV

The positive news despite these discrepancies is that no matter

As a result, the global trend is fairly similar but variations may be

The positive news despite these discrepancies is that no matter

Unassigned to year 1.8

Total Cumulative 10.5

Annual Installed (IRENA) Annua Installed (AFSIA)

30 countries in 16 countries in 2 countries in

Angola 284.0 0.0 0.0 284.0

South Africa 110.9 0.9 111.8

Egypt 49.0 31.0 80.0

Ghana 2.8 68.5 71.3

Mozambique 0.0 41.0 0.5 0.4 41.9

Guinea 33.0 0.3 33.3

Burkina Faso 30.0 0.5 30.5

Madagascar 0.2 29.1 0.5 29.8

Malawi 28.5 0.6 29.1

Namibia 4.7 24.0 0.2 28.8

Benin 25.0 0.1 1.0 26.1

Senegal 2.3 23.0 0.1 0.4 25.7

Kenya 14.0 0.5 7.7 22.2

Central African Republic 15.0 0.0 15.0

Tunisia 12.2 12.2

Zimbabwe 12.0 0.1 12.1

Nigeria 6.6 1.5 8.1

Uganda 2.3 4.0 0.6 6.9

Sierra Leone 5.0 0.4 5.4

Mali 4.0 1.0 0.2 5.1

Seychelles 0.1 5.0 5.1

Comoros 4.0 4.0

Ethiopia 2.1 2.1

Tanzania 1.0 0.9 1.9

Zambia 1.7 1.7

Cote d'Ivoire 1.2 0.4 1.6

Mauritania 1.5 1.5

Rwanda 0.2 0.1 1.2 1.5

Somalia 0.0 1.3 1.3

Uganda 1.0 1.0

Cameroon 0.8 0.8

Togo 0.7 0.7

São Tomé and Príncipe 0.6 0.6

Saierra Leone 0.4 0.4

Republic of the Congo 0.2 0.2

DRC 0.2 0.0 0.2

Gambia 0.1 0.1

Cape Verde 0.1 0.1

Liberia 0.1 0.1

Ghana 0.1 0.1