GIRDER DESIGN

GIRDER DESIGN

14
Figure 8 (near
Internal Intermediate
right): The Diaphragm (Typ)
various parts of Top Flange (Typ)
a typical tub
External Intermediate
girder.
Diaphragm (Typ)

Shear Studs (Typ)

Web (Typ)

Top Flange Lateral

Bottom Flange (Typ)

The girder design process for tub girders and costly ramifications may result from
should begin with development of a the simple choice of bottom flange width
framing plan. Many decisions made early and thickness.
in the design process can have significant
impacts later on; some basic issues are The AASHTO Standard Specifications for
presented below. Structural analysis as Highway Bridges (7) suggest that for b/t
discussed above must be performed to derive ratios greater than 45, “longitudinal
the load effects, which are subsequently stiffeners be considered,” and that b/t
checked with the code provisions. ratios greater than 60 are not permitted for
compression flanges. The b/t limit of 45 for
Tub girder bridges must always be consideration of longitudinal stiffeners is
designed considering construction intended to be a rule of thumb; with a b/t
sequence. Some structural members, above 45, it may be more economical to
such as lateral bracing, are provided only add a longitudinal stiffener to the bottom
for construction purposes. Their design is flange to increase bottom flange capacity
consequently controlled by construction without thickening the flange. Because
loading. The analysis must therefore be they are a costly addition and their use

GIRDER DESIGN
performed on the partially completed may result in undesirable fatigue details,
structure, simulating the sequence of careful consideration should be given
construction loading. Total stresses are before adding longitudinal stiffeners.
the sum of those generated due to loads Engineers often find it more economical to
on the complete bridge and those locked- simply thicken the bottom flange in lieu of
in during construction. using longitudinal stiffeners.
15
Numerous guides and design examples Even in positive moment regions, there are
are available that specifically discuss lower bound limits for bottom (tension)
girder design and code provisions in detail flange thickness. As stated in the Preferred
(1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 14, 15). Practices for Steel Bridge Design,
Fabrication, and Erection prepared by the
BOTTOM FLANGES Texas Steel Quality Council (16):
Bottom flange thickness and b/t ratios may
seem like minor details better left to final “For wide bottom flanges, plate
design. However, designers of steel tub distortion during fabrication and
girders are well-advised to consider this erection can be a problem. Designers
issue up front while developing a framing should check with fabricators when
plan, because many potentially complex using bottom tension flange plates less
 Figure 9 (near
right): Webs for
tub girders carry
both vertical
shear and shear
due to torsion,
and are often
horizontally
curved, sloped
and cambered.

than 1-inch thick to determine whether regarding relative cost issues before
practical stiffness needs are met. In no making hasty assumptions regarding
case should bottom tension flanges be bottom flange thickness.
less than 1/2-inch thick. Another
suggested guideline is that the bottom WEBS
tension flanges have a b/t ratio of 80 or Although tub girders carry vertical shear
less.” similar to plate girders, they also carry
torsional shear stress. Tub girders are
Other writers have suggested a maximum b/t very efficient in carrying torsion, so this
ratio of 120 for bottom flanges in tension (17). generally does not present a significant
design challenge. The shear flow can be
For extremely wide and/or slender bottom obtained from the torsional moment using
flanges, transverse stiffeners may be the formulation q = T/2A, where A is the
required. Bottom flange transverse area enclosed by the tub girder webs,
stiffeners serve several purposes, including flanges and slab (or lateral bracing, if
bracing bottom flange longitudinal stiffeners investigating girder prior to deck
GIRDER DESIGN

and stiffening bottom flanges for torsional hardening). However, designers should
shear stresses. Again, care should be taken remember early on that the webs will carry
before adding transverse stiffeners to more shear than what might be predicted
bottom flanges, since they will be costly by an approximate, tangent girder
and may result in constructability and analysis, and thus increased thickness or
fatigue problems if not carefully detailed. additional transverse stiffeners may be
required. Recent experience has shown
Some detailing guides, such as the that providing a reasonable number of
16 Preferred Practices for Steel Bridge transverse stiffeners is currently more
Design, Fabrication, and Erection (16), economical than providing either a thinner
provide more detailed suggestions web with extensive transverse stiffeners or
regarding tub girder bottom flange a thicker web without.
thickness and b/t ratios. These issues are
also discussed in the Commentary to It should be noted that all tub girders have
Section 10.4.2.4 of the AASHTO Guide torsion; even tangent tub girders will be
Specification for Horizontally Curved subject to some level of torsion from a
Steel Girder Highway Bridges (5). variety of causes. Some potential sources
Designers should carefully review the of torsion in tangent (and curved) tub
issues presented in these documents and girders include:
seek guidance from local steel bridge • Skew – Skew increases torsion in
fabricators with tub girder experience tub girders, because web span
Critical design positions relative to various load used for lateral bracing. Top flanges are
stages for top points are no longer symmetrical also subjected to significant lateral
flanges often from one web to the next. bending stresses. These lateral bending
occur during • Asymmetrical Non-Composite stresses can be generated by horizontal
construction Loading – External girders in girder curvature (4), sloping webs (18),
prior to the deck particular can be subject to and temporary supporting brackets for
curing, when the asymmetrical loading during deck slab overhangs (5). In addition, forces
flanges are placement, since overhang widths from lateral bracing systems may
laterally braced are often not equal to the tributary represent a major source of lateral flange
only at the K- deck width between adjacent bending stresses and should also be
frame girders and at phased construction considered in design (see the recent
locations... lines. This effect can be article by Fan and Helwig [18] for a more
controlled/reduced by use of detailed discussion).
intermediate external diaphragms
and/or lateral bracing. Design provisions (5) suggest that lateral
bending of top flanges can greatly affect
• Asymmetrical Live Loading – The the portion of capacity allocated to
Commentary to Article 9.7.2.4 of bending stresses. Increasing top flange
the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design width is generally more effective for
Specifications (9) offers a good resisting the lateral bending stresses than
discussion of this issue. Because increasing top flange thickness. Sufficient
tub girders have very high torsional top flange width is also necessary to
stiffness, they can develop provide room for connection of lateral
torsional loading during bracing members. However, the
asymmetrical application of live recommended b/t ratio for top flanges in
load. Plate girders do not tension or compression should be
experience this phenomenon, since carefully followed.
they are very flexible torsionally
and twist or rotate to accommodate Critical design stages for top flanges often
the deck behavior. For tub girders, occur during construction prior to the deck
this phenomenon is more important curing, when the flanges are laterally
for deck design (it can control the

GIRDER DESIGN
braced only at the K-frame locations.
design of the deck slab), but it is Lateral bending stresses due to live load
worth noting here as another effects can be neglected in the capacity
source of torsion in tangent and check when top flanges are embedded in
curved tub girders. the hardened concrete with shear studs,
Occasionally, project requirements dictate except in areas where shear studs are not
the need to use dapped girder ends. provided. However, curved tub girders are
These complicate design, detailing and typically provided with shear studs along 17
fabrication of the girders and their use the entire girder length to achieve the
should not be undertaken lightly. desired torsional rigidity from a closed
Reference 27 has current guidance on the cross-section.
design of dapped girder ends for both
steel plate and steel tub girders. In addition, top flanges are also subjected
to erection loads, as most contractors lift
TOP FLANGES steel girder sections by clamping the top
Top flanges of tub girders are designed flanges. Ideally, local stresses in the top
primarily to carry the girder bending flanges, including stresses in the weld
stresses. Additional longitudinal stresses between the flanges and web, should be
due to torsion exist, as the flanges also checked for these erection loads.
serve as members of the truss system