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Centrifugal
Compressors
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Types of Compressors

COMPRESSORS

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT DYNAMIC TYPE

(COMPRESSING FLUID BY REDUCING (ACCELERATING AND
VOLUME OF COPRESSION CHAMBER) DECLERATING OF FLUID)

CENTRIFUGAL AXIAL
RECIPROCATING ROTARY TYPE
COMPRESSORS COMPRESSORS

HELICAL SPIRAL STRAIGHT SLIDE

SCREW AXIAL LOBE VANE

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Application Range
Discharge Pressure Psia 105

104

103
Centrifugal
102
Axial

101
Reciprocating

102 103 104 105 106

Inlet Flow Acfm
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Centrifugal Compressors
Design : To international standards like
API and customer specs.
Flow : Up to 350000 m3/hr.
Disch. pr. : Up to 700 kg/cm2

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Learning Advantages of Centrifugal
Compressors
• High degree of balancing
• Pulsation free delivery
• Obviates the use of surge tank receivers
• Easy maintenance
• Best suited for part load operations
• Lower noise level
• Compact

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Learning Types of Centrifugal Compressors

Horizontally split compressor Vertically split compressor

 Model types  Model types

MCL /2MCL /3MCL /DMCL BCL /2BCL /DBCL /

BCLa /BCLb /BCLc /BCLd
 Forged Casing (barrel type)
 Cast casing
 Pressure up to 700 ata
 Pressure up to 40 ata
 Services : Syn gas / Nat gas /
 Services : Air / Ammonia / H2 recycle /
Propylene / Wet gas

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2MCL Compressor

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BCL Compressor

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Type / Size Designation
Example : 2BCL407/b
2 BCL 40 7 / b

Pr rating (up to 350 ata)

No. Of impellers
(7 impellers on rotor)

Nominal dia of impeller

(Impeller dia of 40 cms appx.)
Constructional feature
(Barrel design)
Functional feature
(Compressor stages in series)
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Industrial Applications
of Centrifugal Compressors

Type of Plant Gas Compressed

Fertilisers Syn Gas, NH3, Air, Nat gas,
CO2, Nitrogen
Refineries Air, Wet Gas, Hydrogen
Petrochemical Plants Propane, Propylene,Ethylene.
Metallurgical Plants O2, Air, Gas

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Industrial Applications
of Centrifugal Compressors….contd
Chemical Plants
 Melamine
 Oxo Alcohols

Refrigeration System
 Ammonia
 Ethylene
 Propylene

General Industrial Application

 Instrumentation Air
 Freon Compressor For R & D Labs
 Gas Booster Compressors For Gas Turbines, CCCP

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Learning Service Wise Break up of
Centrifugal Compressors
AIR
OTHERS
NH3

WET GAS
H2 RECY

NAT GAS CO2

SYNGAS

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Learning Drive Wise Break up of
Centrifugal Compressors

STEAM TURBINE

ELECTRIC MOTOR

GAS TURBINE

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Operating Parameters

Service Suct Press Disch Press Flow

(ata) (ata) (Nm3/hr)
Process Air 1.03 40 60000

Natural Gas 2.00 40 40000

Synthesis Gas 25.0 140 / 250 165000 (Make up)
590000 (Recycle)
Ammonia Feed 1 to 4.5 17 to 20 40000

Urea Synthesis 1 to 3 150 / 220 32000

(CO2)

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Applicable Standards
• API 610 Centrifugal Pumps
• API 611 Auxiliary Steam Turbines
• API 612 Drive Steam Turbines
• API 613 Gearbox
• API 614 Oil Systems
• API 616 Drive Gas turbines
• API 617 Centrifugal Compressors

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Applicable Standards
• API 670 Instrumentation
• API 671 Couplings
• API 672 Packaged, Integrally Geared
Compressors
• API 676 Positive Displacement Pumps
• IS 325 Auxiliary Electric Motors
• ASME PTC 10 Performance Test
• ASME Sec. VIII & IX Heat Exchangers

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Compressor Modernization
Additional test facilities
• Helium leak test facility
• Rotor insensitivity test
• Full load / full speed / full pressure test set up
• Performance test as per ASME PTC Class II & III
• Performance test bed for large air compressors
• 30 T/hr boiler & condenser for tests up to 5 MW

Modernization of test facilities

• Additional test equipment
• Additional analysis software

5 - Axis milling machine from RIGID-STARRAG

• Designed & manufactured more than 50 3D impellers

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What to Specify
to
ensure optimum selection
for a

Compressor
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Learning Basic Data Required for
Selection of Compressor
• Capacity and side streams, if any
• Suction pressure
• Suction temperature
• Discharge pressure
• Gas composition (presence of moisture)
• Off-design performance requirements
• Type of driver
• Utilities like cooling water, steam, N2, Electricity

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Selection of Compressor stages

• Number of phases
• Number, type and size of impellers in each phase
• Number of casings
• Speed
• Power consumption
• Operating range

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Learning Compressor Design
Calculations
• Study of operating points
• Selection of standard stages
• Thermodynamic properties of gas mixture
• Graphical generation of performance curves
• Axial thrust
• Un-damped critical speed
• Stability and rotor response analysis
• Torsional critical speed analysis

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Diffuser

Vane Less Full Vane

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Low Solidity Vaned Diffuser

FLOW

DIFFUSER VANE GEOMETRY DIFFUSER OUTLET DIA

SOLIDITY RATIO= C/S
VANE SETTING ANGLE: 
FLOW INCIDENCE: i

C VANE


S
VANE LEADING EDGE DIA

DIFFUSER INLET DIA

IMPELLER

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Rotor Dynamics
Rotor dynamics is the study of vibrations in the rotor
system of turbo machinery, and allied phenomena.
a) Lateral
b) Torsional

Design should ensure acceptable rotor dynamic

behaviour of machinery so as to ensure compatibility with
API 617:
 Low shaft vibration levels.
 Safe speeding up and coast down.
 Optimum performance by preventing seal rubs etc.
 Preventing undue loading of rotor, couplings, piping
etc.

A : 002
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Rotor Dynamics
Following calculations are performed:
• Rotor response to unbalance
• Stability analysis
• Torsional analysis

Rotor dynamic behaviour can be optimised by:

• Selection of couplings and bearings
• Deciding the rotor span & speed of operation

A : 002
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Constructional Aspects
of

Centrifugal
Compressors
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2MCL Compressor Assembly

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Parting plane view of MCL Casing

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BCL Compressor Assembly

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Externally Welded Impeller

C.DISC MILLING DISC MILLING

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3D Impeller

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Rotor Assembly

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Learning

Counter Casing of BCL Compressor

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Assembly of Journal Bearing

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Assembly of Thrust Bearing

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Learning Shop Tests
Mandatory tests
▪ Dynamic balancing of impellers and over speeding at 115%
of max. Cont. Speed.
▪ Stage by stage dynamic balancing of complete rotor.
▪ Mechanical run test from 0 - 110% of Max. Cont. Speed to
check performance of bearings, mechanical performance
and vibration.
▪ Gas leak test for compressors handling toxic/ explosive
gasses.
▪ Performance of liquid film shaft seals (static/ dynamic).
▪ Hydrostatic testing of compressor casing.
▪ Performance checking of lube and seal oil system
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Shop Tests
Optional tests
 Helium leak test for low MW gasses
 String test of compressor and its drive
 Performance test of compressor as per PTC-10
 Full pressure full-load test

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Augmentation of Test Facilities
Additional test facilities installed
✓ Use of job lube oil system for complete unit test
✓ Augmentation of test bed for performance testing of
large Syn gas and air compressors
✓ Installation of computerized data acquisition system
✓ On-line vibration monitoring and analysis with ADRE
✓ On-line gas analysis using gas chromatograph
during performance test
✓ Use of dual drive involving double end drive steam
turbine and shop electric motor

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Auxiliaries & Subsystems

Compressors require the following sub-
systems for their reliable, safe and
efficient operation;
 Lube oil
 Anti-surge and performance control system
 Sealing (oil, DGS, ejector etc.) system
 Instrumentation and monitoring system
 Coolers and separators.

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SURGE
AND

CONTROLS

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WHAT IS SURGING
Surge can be defined as the capacity below which the
centrifugal compressor performance becomes unstable. The
surging conditions occur when the inlet capacity approaches
the surge capacity. At a given speed, as the inlet capacity is
reduced, the discharge pressure of the machine goes on
increasing. This happens because of the collapse of the
pressure developing capability of the machine at surge point.
The percentage flow at which the surge occurs in a centrifugal
compressor depends upon the aerodynamic design, gas
properties, stability of flow, system characteristics, stage
components design etc.

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Compressor Performance Curve

Pressure
Compressor Surge
Line
Anti Surge Line
Psurge

P1 Design Point

Quantity Bypassed

Q
req.
Q
surge
Q1 Flow

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Learning Typical Compressor Performance
Map And Surge Control

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Learning

System

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PROCESS OF SURGING
When surging occurs, the high-pressure gas at the discharge
of the machine flows back through the compressor in a
complete reversal of the normal direction of flow. Once the
discharge pressure is dissipated sufficiently, the conditions
causing the collapse of pressure no longer exist and the
compressor resumes normal flow and discharge pressure. If
the discharge conditions on the machine have not changed,
the collapse of pressure producing ability will repeat and cycle
through the same sequence.

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PROTECTION FROM SURGING
The protection of compressor from surge is to provide an anti-
surge control system. The basic idea in the antisurge control
system is to provide the minimum flow through the compressor
suction at all speeds which is higher than the surge limit either
by re-circulating back the required quantity from the discharge
of the machine after cooler or by venting. Generally the anti
surge control is effected based on the flow differential at suction
or discharge. But for certain applications, this is not an
adequate function and hence the control is obtained by
modulating the control with pressure, temperature flow and
combination of those parameters.

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Anti-surge controller

The use of sophisticated anti-surge control systems

has the following advantages:
 Increase in safety and reliability
 Better operational flexibility and efficiency
 Provision for Load sharing & Parallel operation
 Performance and speed control
 Fast response
 Redundancy

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PROTECTION FROM SURGING

On any control system, the system shall be also
designed to prevent surging during starting and
stopping. The trip out of the driver shall be interlocked
to immediately open the antisurge valve and allow the
machine to coast to a stop with antisurge line open.
Otherwise the machine could be surging constantly
while coasting down.

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PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN
One of the most potentially damaging occurrences for
compressor is the ingestion of liquids with the process
gas. The following precautions are to be taken.

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PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN
a) Trim cooling water or other process conditions to keep
the compressor inlet conditions above the liquifation
points for any gas constituent.
b) Heat trace or purge normally stagnant lines when liquids
are collected due to stagnant gas cooling down to
ambient temperatures. This is normally the case with
the Urea synthesis machines. This avoids the problems
of erosion of valve stems.
c) Recycle lines should re-enter main gas stream upstream
or at inlet of knockout drums.

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PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN
d. If there is any possibility of liquid formation exists
upstream or downstream of compressor, drains and level
indications should be provided at all low spots of piping,
vessels, etc. This allows routine checking for liquids and
draining as required.
e. During a start-up after a shut down, ensure that all the
liquids formed by cooling of the stagnant process gas are
drained away. Heavy flow variations during surging can
pick up large slugs of liquid and can damage the
compressor.
f. Prevent sub-cooling of gases to temperatures below
liquid line, after expansions across valve openings. Some
liquids or even solids may be formed from this effect.

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LUBE AND SEAL OIL SYSTEMS

Every centrifugal compressor has a lube oil system. But
seal oil systems, however, are not always provided,
depending on the type of gas such as air where simple
labyrinth seals are used .

The other sealing systems includes injection of an

external medium such as Nitrogen and / or extraction of
compressed gas (e.g. CO2 compressors). Inert gas
injection is provided to prevent leakage of process gas.

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LUBE OIL SYSTEMS

Lube oil is used to create a rotor lift by forming a
hydrodynamic film of oil between the shaft and bearing,
and to cool the bearings.
Twin oil cooler is provided in the lube oil console to cool the
return lube and seal oil in order to maintain a constant
temperature, good viscosity. Oil viscosity is a very
important parameter, which along with the geometrical
characteristics of the bearings considerably influences rotor
dynamic behaviour and consequently vibrations. A lubricant
may have sufficient damping to allow operation at near
critical speeds.

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LUBE OIL SYSTEMS

Low viscosity due to high bearing temperatures would
make operation unsafe, if the weight of the rotor is not
supported by sufficient lift of oil film , the film could break
and make the shaft and working surfaces come in to
contact, thus increasing temperatures and the risk of the
bearing damages.

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LUBE OIL SYSTEMS

It should be stressed that the oil flow has to be
sufficient to dispose of the heat generated by the bearings.
Hence, there is need for the bearing temperature to be
always kept under control, it is regulated by varying the
inlet oil pressure with the pressure control valve (PCV).
Also the drain oil temperature should be kept under control
to ensure a proper exchange of heat between the bearings
and oil.

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Components of Lube Oil system

• Tank
• Pumps
• Coolers
• Filters
• Pressure Control Valve

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Pressure Control Valve
After the filters, there is a self-actuated pressure control
valve (PCV), which keeps the oil pressure to the bearings
constant between 1.5 and 2.5 kg/cm2.

All the Oil inlet lines to the bearings are fitted with
adjustable orifices and pressure gauges for regulating the
pressure to the individual bearings.

The oil should be able to easily drain without foaming or

evaporating, which would make lubrication difficult. It is
therefore drained by gravity by providing adequate size
drain chambers and oil return lines with a suitable slope
and to the main oil tank.

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Pressure Control Valve
After the filters, there is a self-actuated pressure control
valve (PCV), which keeps the oil pressure to the
bearings constant between 1.5 and 2.5 kg/cm2.

All the Oil inlet lines to the bearings are fitted with
adjustable orifices and pressure gauges for regulating
the pressure to the individual bearings.

The oil should be able to easily drain without foaming or

evaporating, which would make lubrication difficult. It is
therefore drained by gravity by providing adequate size
drain chambers and oil return lines with a suitable slope
and to the main oil tank.

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INSTRUMENTATION
OF

CONTROL
&

PROTECTION SYSTEMS

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INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL

SYSTEM
For the safe operation of the plant as well as the
machines themselves a sizable number of instruments
and controls are necessary. The selection and sizing of
these instruments and controls are in turn co-related with
the driver and gas circuits

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CONTROL SYSTEMS
The following methods are employed for maintaining the
capacity, the suction or the discharge pressures constant
under varying process conditions.

Variation of compressor speed - This method is

employed when steam turbine or any other variable
speed driver drives the compressor.

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CONTROL SYSTEMS
Suction throttling - This method is frequently used
and is achieved by providing a throttling valve in the
suction piping. The minimum obtainable capacity is
dictated by the surge limit of the compressor.

Adjustable inlet guide vanes - This vanes induces a

pre-rotation of the gas by altering the direction of flow
there by varying the compression ratio and capacity of
the compressor. This feature is mostly available on axial
flow compressors.

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PROTECTIVE DEVICE
The protective devices of a turbine - compressor group
consist of emergency stop devices, alarm devices and
safety valves to prevent dangerous over pressures, in
case of faulty operation.
The conditions causing the emergency stop are following:

a) Low lube oil pressure

b) Low level in seal oil header tanks

c) Over speed

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PROTECTIVE ALARMS
The following are the events causing the alarms:

• Low lube oil pressure

• High lube oil temperature
• Low lube oil level in the reservoir
• High and low level in the reservoir
• High seal oil level in the drain tanks of the last two
compressor casings.
• High bearing temperature.
• High axial thrust.

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Necessary safety valves are provided at the gas suction

and delivery as well as at each interstage cooler. All the
safety valves are sized for the design capacity of the
compressor, except the one on the by pass line from the
delivery of the last casing. This valve is sized for other
maximum capacity that can flow back through this line
assuming the anti-surge valve to be completely open
and with up-stream pressure fixed at normal value.

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Sealing Systems
Used in

Compressors
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Types of Compressor End

Sealing Systems
➢ Labyrinth Sealing

➢ Floating Oil Seals

➢ Oil Mechanical Seals

➢ Air Injection Sealing System

➢ Injection / Extraction Sealing

➢ Dry Gas Seals

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Ejector

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Learning Labyrinth Sealing With Gas
Ejector Recovery System

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Learning

Injection

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Learning FLOATING OIL SEALS

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Learning Cross-section of Typical Dry
Gas Seal

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Gas Mechanical Sealing System

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Advantages of Dry Gas Seal

 Atmospheric leakages are very low
 Oil free operation hence no oil contamination to process
gas
 Minimum auxiliary equipment
 Reduction in power loss
 Extremely compact and trouble free

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Seal Gas Skid System for Dry
Gas Seals
 Supply Clean gas
 Monitor Seal Leakage
 Supply Buffer Gas
 Initiate alarms & shutdowns
when necessary

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Dry Flexible Coupling

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Advantages of Dry Flexible
Coupling
 High misalignment handling capability

 No oil required for lubrication

 Improved rotor dynamics

 Safer and more reliable operation

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Operational & Maintenance

Aspects of

Centrifugal Compressor
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Compressor – Check Lists for startup
Important aspects of Compressor needing attention:
 Healthiness of m/c in respects of alignment (machine
to machine & machine to gas piping), bearings and
coupling assembly.
 Status of clearances of :
• Journal Bearing
• Oil Seals
• Lab Seals
• Balance Drum Seal
 Proper functioning of LO/SO/seal gas systems.
 Suction conditions of Gas handled, pressure,
temperature, molecular weight, flow etc.
 Proper functioning of instrumentation and controls.
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Compressor – Operational Problems

Factors influencing normal operation:

CAUSE EFFECT

a) Unbalance, misalignment, looseness

b) Higher bearing clearances
c) Operating close to critical speeds
d) Scoring on journals/Th. collar
e) Worn out couplings Vibrations
f) Surging of machines
g) Improper lubrication
h) External piping forces
I) Flow induced excitations
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Shaft Vibrations
Component of Vibration Likely Causes
Synchronous (1x) Unbalance, bent shaft,
Misalignment
Sub-Synchronous (<1x) Oil whirl, bearing damage,
piping forces
Super-Synchronous (nx) Rubs, loose parts, gear teeth
error

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Compressor – Operational Problems

Factors influencing normal operation:

CAUSE EFFECT
II a) Increase in seal clearances/
damaged ‘O’ rings
b) Blockage at suction strainer Reduction of
c) Blockage of impeller/diaphragm throughput/
passages. surging
d) Varied suction operating conditions
e) Malfunctioning of valves (suction
/discharge/ASV)

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Compressor – Operational Problems

Factors influencing normal operation:

CAUSE EFFECT

III a) Low bearing oil pressures

b) High oil inlet temperatures
c) Unclean oil High bearing
d) Wear out of pads temperatures
e) Scoring of journal / misalignment
f) Bypassing of oil flow to drain

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Compressor – Operational Problems

Factors influencing normal operation:

CAUSE EFFECT
IV a) Change in operating parameters
b) Incorrect lubrication/ Worn out gear High axial
coupling and seal clearance in balance thrust
drum/seal Axial displacement
c) Blockage in thrust balance gas line
d) Worn out thrust pads

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Compressor – Operational Problems

Factors influencing normal operation:

CAUSE EFFECT

V a) Low differential pressure between

seal oil & reference gas lines
b) Damaged seals/springs/ ‘o’ rings
c) Seal oil contamination
d) Increased seal clearances oil carry over / gas
e) Orifice (vent line) diameter very small leakage
f) Seal oil traps not working
g) LCV/DPCV not working

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Off Design Operation of

Compressors
Effect on performance with the variation in the
following parameters;
 Molecular Weight
 Inlet temperature
 Inlet pressure
 Increase in internal leakage
 Fouling of internals

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Control & Instrumentation

systems
 Turbo supervisory system
 Compressor Capacity control
 PLC’s
 Improved Anti Surge Controllers
 Dry gas seal control system

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Integrated control philosophy

A totally integrated control system can be
offered for Performance control, load sharing
and parallel operation and surge control of
compressors

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Case Studies

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Compressor – Case Studies

Problem Site Cause / Solution

Thrust bearing failure CFCL, Kota Thrust balancing pipe was too
small which resulted in reduced
P across the balancing drum.
Pipe size increased

Seal rings damage IOC, Baroda Oil was contaminated with

due to drop in P VGO & block the inlet seal oil
across seal oil & Ref. pipes & ports resulting in
Gas reduced  P.
Oil change, system clean up
prevention of entry of VGO into
the compressor has resolved
the  P problem.

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Compressor – Case Studies

Problem Site Cause / Solution

High vibrations at 4th CO2 Compr. at High pipe line vibrations are
Discharge pipe. TCL, CFCL, flow induced. Rotating stall
NFCL caused by high gas density
high discharge pressure.
Resolved by modified diffuser
passage in 4th phase.

Frequent tripping of BRPL Motor was tripping due to high

Coker gas compressor amperage due to higher mass
flow handled by m/c because of
during start up
high suction pressure.
Suction butterfly valve replaced
with control valve to drop
suction pressure

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Compressor – Case Studies

Problem Site Cause / Solution

Drop in capacity of wet MRL, Madras Due to blockage of suction

gas Compressor strainer, impeller and
diaphragm passages with black
dust, the machine capacity and
discharge pressures dropped.
Machine was cleaned,
overhauled to restore its normal
capacity.

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Compressor – Case Studies

Problem Site Cause / Solution

Surging of Compressor GNFC, The Compressor was run with

during tripping on load Bharuch higher load and reduced
pressure drops between 2nd &
3rd stages. This caused severe
mismatch and resulted in
surging of LP Barrel during trip.
Modified vent valve opening &
recommend to install additional
vent to resolve the surging
problem.

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Compressor – Case Studies

Problem Site Cause / Solution

Improper functioning of NFCL, Seals were frequently getting

dry gas seals Kakinada damaged during initial
CFCL, Kota commissioning period.
The failure was analysed to be
due to entry of liquid/dirt/
corrosion into the seal.
Clean gas injection line is
connected by throttling from 3rd
discharge instead of from 4th
discharge. This prevented liquid
entry into seal.

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Compressor – Case Studies

Problem Site Cause / Solution

Anti surge controller TCL,NFCL Due to change in suction

becoming ineffective temperature the machine
operates away from normal
operating point.
The surge point also shifts
making the anti surge controller
ineffective.
Improvement in suction
temperature has restored
normal operation.

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Compressor – Case Studies

Problem Cause / Solution

Abnormal Behaviour of Machine By not maintaining the design

can be due to parameters and increasing
Not following of recommended Compressor flow rates can cause
start up procedure severe mismatches for a multistage,
Abnormal variation of suction multiphase centrifugal compressor.
parameters This can cause choking/surging of
Exceeding design capacities subsequent stages.
Running with damaged bearings, Maintain compressor operating
seals, couplings parameters and recommended
Bypassing of alarms and trip procedures.

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