IT 7SEM

Unit II IOT
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Unit II Sensor, Basic components and challenges of a sensor node, Sensor features, Sensor resolution; Sensor
classes: Analog, Digital, Scalar, Vector Sensors; Sensor Types, bias, drift, Hysteresis error, quantization error; Actuator;
Actuator types: Hydraulic, Pneumatic, electrical, thermal/magnetic, mechanical actuators, soft actuators

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Sensors in Internet of Things (IoT)

Generally, sensors are used in the architecture of IOT devices.  
Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.
A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.
The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for processing (e.g. electrical,
mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or material to detect the presence of a particular physical
quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form like changes in characteristics,
changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance etc.

Transducer : 
 A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.

 It converts one type of energy into another type.

 It might be used as actuators in various systems.

Sensors characteristics :
1. Static
2. Dynamic
1. Static characteristics :
It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change after steady state condition.
 Accuracy  – 
Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result close to the true value of the measured
quantity. It measures errors. It is measured by absolute and relative errors. Express the correctness of the output
compared to a higher prior system. Absolute error = Measured value – True value
Relative error = Measured value/True value
 Range –
Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which the sensor can actually sense.
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Beyond these values, there is no sense or no kind of response.
e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.
 Resolution –
Resolution is an important specification towards selection of sensors. The higher the resolution, better the
precision. When the accretion is zero to, it is called threshold.
Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.
 Precision –
It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when repetitively measuring the same
quantity under the same prescribed conditions.
It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value.
It is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy. 
 Sensitivity –
Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response of the system with respect to incremental
change in input parameters. It can be found from the slope of the output characteristics curve of a sensor. It is the
smallest amount of difference in quantity that will change the instrument’s reading.
 Linearity –
The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particular straight line. Linearity is determined by the calibration
curve. The static calibration curve plots the output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static conditions.  
A curve’s slope resemblance to a straight line describes the linearity.
 Drift –
The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when kept at that value for a long period
of time.
 Repeatability –
The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the same conditions. The measurements have to be
made under a short enough time duration so as not to allow significant long-term drift.
Dynamic Characteristics :
Properties of the systems
 Zero-order system –
The output shows a response to the input signal with no delay. It does not include energy-storing elements.
Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary displacements.
 First-order system –
When the output approaches its final value gradually.
Consists of an energy storage and dissipation element.
 Second-order system – 
Complex output response. The output response of the sensor oscillates before steady state.
Sensor Classification :
 Passive & Active

 Analog & digital

 Scalar & vector

1. Passive Sensor –
Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil moisture, water level and temperature sensors.
2. Active Sensor – 
Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser altimeter sensors.
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3. Analog Sensor –
 The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input parameter. Ex- Temperature
sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog hall effect.
4. Digital sensor –
Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog sensors. Along with the analog
sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit conversion. Example – Passive infrared (PIR) sensor and digital
temperature sensor(DS1620).
5. Scalar sensor – 
Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer for the sensor is a function of magnitude of
some input parameter. Not affected by the direction of input parameters.
Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor. 
6. Vector sensor –
The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and orientation of input parameter.
Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field and motion detector sensors.

Different types of Sensors :

Sensors : Sensors are the major part of any IoT applications. It is a physical device that measures and detect
certain physical quantity and convert it into   signal which can be provide as an input to processing or control unit
for analysis purpose.

Different types of Sensors :

1. Temperature Sensors
2. Image Sensors
3. Gyro Sensors
4. Obstacle Sensors
5. RF Sensor
6. IR Sensor
7. MQ-02/05 Gas Sensor
8. LDR Sensor
9. Ultrasonic Distance Sensor
 Control Units : It is a unit of small computer on a single integrated circuit containing microprocessor or
processing core, memory and programmable input/output devices/peripherals. It is responsible for major
processing work of IoT devices and all logical operations are carried out here.
 Cloud computing: Data collected through IoT devices is massive and this data has to be stored on a reliable
storage server. This is where cloud computing comes into play. The data is processed and learned, giving more
room for us to discover where things like electrical faults/errors are within the system.  
 Availability of big data: We know that IoT relies heavily on sensors, especially in real-time. As these electronic
devices spread throughout every field, their usage is going to trigger a massive flux of big data.  
 Networking connection: In order to communicate, internet connectivity is a must where each physical object is
represented by an IP address. However, there are only a limited number of addresses available according to the
IP naming. Due to the growing number of devices, this naming system will not be feasible anymore. Therefore,
researchers are looking for another alternative naming system to represent each physical object.

Bias in IOT
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Neural Network  is conceptually based on actual neuron of brain. Neurons are the basic units of a large neural
network. A single neuron passes single forward based on input provided.
In Neural network, some inputs are provided to an artificial neuron, and with each input a weight is associated.
Weight increases the steepness of activation function. This means weight decide how fast the activation function will
trigger whereas bias is used to delay the triggering of the activation function.

For a typical neuron, if the inputs are x1, x2, and x3, then the synaptic weights to be applied to them are denoted as
w1, w2, and w3.

Output is

y = f(x) = Σxiwi

where i is 1 to the number of inputs.

The weight shows the effectiveness of a particular input. More the weight of input, more it will have impact on
network.

On the other hand Bias is like the intercept added in a linear equation. It is an additional parameter in the Neural
Network which is used to adjust the output along with the weighted sum of the inputs to the neuron. Therefore Bias is
a constant which helps the model in a way that it can fit best for the given data.

The processing done by a neuron is thus denoted as :

output = sum (weights * inputs) + bias

Need of bias

In above figure

y = mx+c

where

m = weight

and

c = bias
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Now, Suppose if c was absent, then the graph will be formed like this:

Due to absence of bias, model will train over point passing through origin only, which is not in accordance with real-
world scenario. Also with the introduction of bias, the model will become more flexible.

For Example:
Suppose an activation function act() which get triggered on some input greater than 0.
Now,
input1 = 1

weight1 = 2

input2 = 2

weight2 = 2

so

output = input1*weight1 + input2*weight2

output = 6

let

suppose act(output) = 1

Now a bias is introduced in output as

bias = -6

the output become 0.

act(0) = 0

so activation function will not trigger.

Change in weight

Here in graph, as it can be seen that when:

 weight WI
changed from 1.0 to 4.0
 weight W2
changed from -0.5 to 1.5
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On increasing the weight the steepness is increasing.

Therefore it can be inferred that

More the weight earlier activation function will trigger.

Change in bias

Here in graph below, when

Bias changed from -1.0 to -5.0

The change in bias is increasing the value of triggering activation function.

Therefore it can be inferred that from above graph that,

bias helps in controlling the value at which activation function will trigger.

Drift in IOT
Concept drift is the event where the statistical properties of the class variable of the data — in other words, the
target we want to predict — change over time. When a model is trained, it knows a function that maps the
independent variables, or predictors, to the target variables. In other words, predicting the target variable with the
help of other independent variables. In a static and perfect environment where none of these predictors nor the
target changes or evolves, the model should perform as it did on day one because there’s no change. But if the
predictors are changed with time, the model might change the performance, as it was trained with old data, and
predicting from new data might be tough for the model because of the evolution of the predictors.
An example of such a situation is Dynamic Data (For Instance: Streaming Data), where not only do the statistical
properties of the target variable change but so does its meaning. When this change happens, the mapping found by
the function is no longer suitable for the new environment.
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What are Hysteresis Errors?

The hysteresis error of a pressure sensor is the maximum difference in output at any measurement value within the
sensor’s specified range when approaching the point first with increasing and then with decreasing pressure.

The hysteresis error value is normally specified as a positive or negative percentage of the specified
pressure range. If a sensor is only used over half of the specified range the hysteresis error is calculated from this
value.

By using the maximum working pressure, the accuracy is, of course, better than specified by the
manufacturer (for example the percentage of working pressure). Also, the hysteresis error is usually expressed as a
combination of mechanical and temperature hysteresis.

Mechanical hysteresis

Mechanical hysteresis is the output deviation at a certain input pressure when that input is approached first
by increasing and then by decreasing pressure.

Temperature hysteresis

Temperature hysteresis is the output deviation at a certain input pressure, before and after a temperature
cycle.

Hysteresis errors are not always specified separately but combined in a total figure for linearity, hysteresis and
repeatability.
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What is quantization error and how does signal to noise relate to this?

Answer : Quantization error is the difference between the analog signal and the closest available digital value at
each sampling instant from the A/D converter. Quantization error also introduces noise, called quantization noise, to
the sample signal. The higher the resolution of the A/D converter, the lower the quantization error and the smaller the
quantization noise. The relationship between resolution (in bits) and quantization noise for an ideal A/D converter
can be expressed as Signal to Noise (S/N) = -20*log (1/2^n) where n is the resolution of the A/D converter in bits.
S/N is the signal to noise and is expressed in dB. This relationship can also be approximated as S/N = 6*n. Typical
S/N ratios for ideal A/D converters are 96dB for 16 bits, 72dB for 12 bits, and 48dB for 8 bits.

An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller (“brain”) +  Sensors + Actuators  + Networks
(Internet). An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the mechanism or the system.
Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control signals are generated for the actuators according to the
actions needed to perform.
A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can move to a given specified
angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT applications and make the motor rotate to 90 degrees,
180 degrees, etc., as per our need.

The following diagram shows what actuators do, the controller directs the actuator based on the sensor data to do
the work.
 

Working of IoT devices and use of Actuators

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of energy and a control
signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of energy to a mechanical operation. On this basis,
on which form of energy it uses, it has different types given below.

Types of Actuators :
1. Hydraulic Actuators –
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are actuated by a cylinder or
fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory motion, according to the need of the
IoT device. Ex- construction equipment uses hydraulic actuators because hydraulic actuators can generate a large
amount of force.

Advantages :
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 Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.

 Used in welding, clamping, etc.

 Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.

Disadvantages :
 Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.

 It is expensive.

 It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance systems.
2. Pneumatic Actuators –
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to convert into either linear
or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work like human fingers by using compressed air.

Advantages :
 They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is a safer option than
chemicals.
 They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.

 It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.

Disadvantages :
 Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.

 The air compressor should be running continuously.

 Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.

3. Electrical Actuators –
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts electrical energy into
mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid based electric bell. 

Advantages :
 It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.

 It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.

 It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.

Disadvantages :
 It is expensive.

 It depends a lot on environmental conditions.

Other actuators are –

 Thermal/Magnetic Actuators – 
These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) or Magnetic Shape‐Memory
Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these actuators. An example of a thermal/magnetic actuator can be a piezo motor
using SMA.
 Mechanical Actuators – 
A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into linear motion. It involves pulleys,
chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate. Example – A crankshaft.
 Soft Actuators

 Shape Memory Polymers

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 Light Activated Polymers

 With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in commercial and domestic
applications along with the pre-existing use in industry.

Soft actuator
• It is polymer based and are designed to handle fragile objects like fruit harvesting in agriculture or manipulating the
internal organs in biomedicine.
• Examples: Shape Memory polymers, Photo polymers
• Shape memory polymer is functions similar to our muscles. It also provides response to range of stimuli e.g. light,
electrical, heat, magnetic, pH, moisture changes etc. The advantages of such polymers are low density, high strain
recovery, bio-compatibility, bio-degradability etc.
• Photo polymers are known as light activated polymers. They are special type of shape memory polymers which are
activated by light stimuli.

Other Actuator Types

Following are the other types of Actuators.

• Comb drive

• Electric motor

• Digital micromirror device

• Electroactive polymer

• Piezoelectric actuator

• Screw Jack

• Hydraulic Cylinder