1

2
3
 CONTENT

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER I. THE STUDY OF NON-EQUIVALENCE (REALIA) IN

WORLD LINGUISTICS: A THEORETICAL ANALYSIS .......................... 9

1.1. The study of realias in linguistics ............................................................ 9

1.2. Linguistic features of realia.................................................................... 23

1.3. National cultural aspects of translation ................................................ 33

Outcome of the Chapter I .............................................................................. 39

CHAPTER II. FEATURES OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF REALIAS.

(ON THE SCALE OF ENGLISH AND UZBEK) .......................................... 41

2.1. Classification of realias ........................................................................... 41

2.2The role of realias in intercultural communication ............................... 53

2.3. The analysis of realia in linguocultural aspect ..................................... 66

Outcome of the Chapter II ............................................................................ 73

CHAPTER III. REFLECTION OF TRANSLATION OF REALIAS IN

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION (IN ENGLISH AND UZBEK) 76

3.1. Translation of socio-political realia in English and Uzbek ................. 76

3.2. Translation of enthnographic realia in English and Uzbek ................ 78

Outcome of the Chapter III........................................................................... 89

CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 90

REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 94

4
 INTRODUCTION

The present qualification paper deals with the features of translation of

realias in intercultural communication, as well as functional-semantic and
typological problems of rendering realia of the English language into the Uzbek
language and vice versa.
The President of the Republic of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev in his
inauguration speech stated that “the government relies on the younger
generation to become mighty in advancing and representing our country on the
international area.” 1 For that reason, we as the future teachers have to contribute
to the improving and mastering foreign languages teaching in our country,
especially English, which has become the global language of international and
intercultural communication. The mentioned task is only possible to realize if
we strengthen not only our practical but also theoretical knowledge.
It is commonly recognized that, English has become an international
language due to the development of science and new technologies. It is regarded
the language of the 21st century, so while describing it, first of all it is
underlined with the mother tongue of global media that means technology
intended to reach a mass audience.
The translation of realias is part of the global problem of transferring
national and historical identity. Thanks to translation, people who speak
different languages can communicate in multinational states. Translation
provides interlingual and intercultural communication, and also contributes to
the spread of various teachings and religions. Moreover, the paper studies the
linguistic abilities of a translator, as a subject of communicative activity, to
make numerous and high-quality interlanguage transformations and achieve the
maximum linguistic degree of preservation of the original content in the process
of translating. This qualification paper is devoted to the study of national
coloring words, their usages, classification, and erasure of rendering.

1
Мирзиёев Ш.М. 14.12.16 / www. press-service.uz/ru/news/performance
5
 Topicality of the research is explained by the study of non-equivalence in
world linguistics and the deep interest to the context of translation of words
realia which are based on the translation of English realia into Uzbek and Uzbek
realia into English realia. Realia is a lexis that symbolizes a significant
translation challenge that necessitates a high level of awareness in the translation
process and prompts a translator to actively seek a solution. Furthermore, a
translator's approach to realia can reveal his or her overall attitude toward
concerns of domestication and foreignization, a conceptual duality that has
sparked renewed interest in translation studies in recent years.
The problem development status: the research deals with the problem of
comparative linguistics, sociolinguistics, translation, lexicology and
linguoculturology. The translation approach of our research is based on the
research of the most influential scholars such as M. Baker, P.Newmark, A.V.
Fedorov, and M.Danytė. As for realia, it is based on the works of such scholars
as S.Florin, S.Vlakhov, and G.D. Tomakhin. Nevertheless, the characteristics of
realia translation in intercultural communication in comparison to Uzbek and
English texts have not yet been thoroughly investigated.
The aim of the work is to identify and describe realias and its role in the
context of international communication, taking into account factors of the
translation problems of socio-political and enthnographic realia in English and
Uzbek.
According to the aim the following tasks are put forward:
• to formulate the conceptual apparatus of the study;
• to clarify the notion ― “realia” used both in linguistics and translation
theory;
• to classify the realia;
• to analyze the principles of translation of realia in the intercultural
communication and the analysis of realia in linguocultural aspect;
• to substantiate the translation of socio-political and enthnographic realia
in English and Uzbek;
6
 • to define the features of preserving national coloring in translation.
Object of research deals with the study of realias and its classification,
features in the field of translation, culture, intercultural communication.
The subject of the work is overview and characterizes the main features of
realias in both the Uzbek and English languages.
Methods of research are (both qualitative and quantitative) descriptive,
comparative-contrastive method, pragmatic analysis and cross-cultural analysis,
typological, semantical, translational, and special linguistic methods.
The scientific novelty of the study consists in the following:
 A comprehensive analysis of structural, sociolinguistic and
linguoculturological features of translation of socio-political and
enthnographic realia in English and Uzbek;
 The problems of translation of Uzbek realias has been done;
 National specifics of translation of Uzbek and English leximes have
been revealed.
Theoretical and practical value of research: theoretical value of the
research is determined by the fact that linguistic features of realia and national
cultural aspects of translation of better understanding of comparison in Uzbek
and English languages, distinctive features, methods and characteristics reveal
distinctions and similarities. Practical value of the research is illustrated by the
fact that the collected data and materials can be used in lectures, seminars or
other practical works related to comparative, cognitive and cultural linguistics,
as well as in the process of writing course works, research works, articles or
other means of academic writing styles.
The structure of the dissertation consists of introduction, three chapters,
outcomes, conclusion and the list of used literature.
The first chapter entitled the study of non-equivalence (realia) in world
linguistics: a theoretical analysis. The chapter consists of three paragraphs. They
are devoted to background and features of realias.

7
 The second chapter entitled the features of the classification of realias (on
the scale of English and Uzbek). In this chapter the author has highlighted the
role of realias in intercultural communication. The chapter consists of three
paragraphs where the complete analyses in linguacultural aspect are given.
The third chapter entitled the features of translation of realities in
intercultural communication (in English and Uzbek). In this chapter translation
of realia between two languages is explained. Structurally the chapter consists of
two paragraphs.
Conclusion: the main conclusions of the research are as follows:
 Demonstration of a synthesis of findings;
 Summary of all the above-mentioned information and logical end of the
work;
 Theoretical and practical results and influence of research work for
future investigations;
 identifying main points of translation and realias, analyzing various
realias and other non–equivalent words;
 sorting out specific features of translation of socio-political realia into
English and Uzbek and the importance of national realias in the Uzbek
language;
 as cultural unit finding linguistic peculiarities of English and Uzbek
untranslatability including socio-political and enthnographic realia.

8
 CHAPTER I. THE STUDY OF NON-EQUIVALENCE (REALIA) IN
WORLD LINGUISTICS: A THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
1.1. The study of realias in linguistics
Efficient communication is impossible "without deep and wide background
knowledge of native speakers' cultures which implies way of life, mentality,
vision of the world, the national character, customs, beliefs, systems of values,
kinds of social behavior". There are close relationships between language and
culture, and text is a means of studying culture, it is the main source of cultural
knowledge and information. Every person's thinking is based on their culture.
The term "realia" defines each culture's unique designations of national and
historical aspects, artifacts, and phenomena. About realia as bearers of coloring,
concrete elements of national peculiarity linguists obviously spoke only at the
beginning of 50th years. In L.N. Sobolev we find not only use of term "realia" in
its modern understanding but sufficiently expressed definition. Realia, or
components of a foreign culture with ethnic, historical, or regional coloration,
are widely utilized in foreign language to aid students in developing functional
understanding of the target language in terms of vocabulary and culture. Realia
is a stumbling block in translation because the translator must reconstruct the
text for the reader while keeping not only the ideological content of realia, but
also its national and historical context. In translation studies these words have
received the name of realia. The word "realia" originates from Latin word
“reālis” meaning "real-life thing or material".
Relia (plural noun) are words and expressions for culture-specific material
elements. The word realia2 comes from Medieval Latin, in which it originally
meant “the real things”, i.e. material things, as opposed to abstract ones. The
Bulgarian translators Vlahov and Florin, who were the first to carry out an in-
depth study of realia, coined the modern sense of the word. They indicate that
since realia carry a very local overtone, they often pose a challenge for
translation. Realia must not be confused with terminology: the latter is primarily
2
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realia_(translation)
9
used in the scientific literature to designate things that pertain to the scientific
sphere, and usually only appears in other kinds of texts to serve a very specific
stylistic purpose. Realia, on the other hand, are born in popular culture, and are
increasingly found in very diverse kinds of texts. Fiction, in particular, is fond of
realia for the exotic touch they bring. One of the most significant current
discussions in linguistics is the problem of non-equivalence. It is known that the
first translated texts were dealing with religious themes because religion united
3
various cultures. According to M. Danytė, “Translated texts are windows to
other worlds for their readers”. Nowadays translations play a key role in
communication between different cultures but unfortunately the process of
translation is not so easy.
The problem of non–equivalence has been discussed by many famous
scholars such as P. Newmark4, M. Baker5, and E. Nida6. These scientists discuss
the problem of non–equivalence from different points of view. For example, E.
Nida discusses formal and dynamic equivalence while M. Baker is interested in
the problem of grammatical and pragmatic equivalences, textual equivalence
above the word level and equivalence at the word level. Talking about
grammatical equivalence it must be noted that grammatical equivalence includes
gender, tense, person and number. M. Baker claims that different grammatical
systems determine the kind of distinctions between languages. Different
grammatical structures cause problems in translations.
According to M. Baker, pragmatic equivalence deals with the study of the
meaning of the text. This kind of equivalence helps to convey the intended
message of the source language into the target language. This is very important
for the translation of different cultural items. M. Baker claims that pragmatics
“is the study of meaning not as generated by the linguistic system but as
conveyed and manipulated by participants in a communicative situation”. It

3
Danytė, M. 2006. “Lithuanian Translation of Canadian Literature. The Translation of Cultural Realia”.
Darbai ir dienos 45: 195-213.
4
Newmark, Peter (1981) Approaches to Translation, Oxford: Pergamon Press.
5
Baker, M. 1992. In Other Words: A Course book on Translation. London: Routledge.
6
Nida, E.A. 2003. Language and culture. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
10
must be noted that pragmatics is not depended upon lexical or grammatical
systems. The other equivalence which is presented by M. Baker is equivalence
at word level. The translator looks at a single word in the source language and
tries to find an equivalent of this word in the target language. According to M.
Baker, the equivalence above word level occurs when the words start to
combine with other words and make some word combinations. It must be noted
that there are some restrictions according to which the words can be combined
together.
M. Baker notes that there are a few special types of non-equivalence which
are used while translating culture specific items. Non-equivalence is a common
problem for translators because very often texts with particular cultural
implications do not have their equivalents in the language they are translated
into. M. Baker presents the following types of non-equivalence:
1. Culture – specific concepts;
2. The source and target languages make different distinctions in meaning;
3. The target language lacks a superordinate;
4. The target language lacks a specific term (hyponym);
5. Differences in expressive meaning;
6. The use of loan words in the source text.
Talking about the first type of non-equivalence M. Baker points out that the
word written in the source language can express a concept which is unknown in
the target language. These concepts are often called ‘culture-specific’ because
they express the realia which is known only for the specific culture and it has no
equivalence in the target text.
The second type of non-equivalence is faced when the source and target
languages make different distinctions in meaning. According to M. Baker, the
problem occurs when the source language has more or fewer distinctions in
meaning than the target language or vice versa. It is understood that different
languages have different distinctions in meaning they express. It must be noted
that while translating culture specific items there frequently occurs a problem
11
when the target language lacks a superordinate. According to M. Baker, “The
target language may have specific words (hyponyms) but no general word
(superordinate) to head the semantic field”. It causes the problem for the
translator when he needs to use general word and he understands that in the
target language the particular word does not have its general equivalence.
M. Baker points out that more often there is a problem to find a specific
word (hyponym) for translation, because most languages have a tendency to
have general words. In order to solve this problem various translation strategies
are applied.
According to M. Baker, the source language word can have the same
propositional meaning in the target language but it can differ in the expression it
gives. This is a common problem for the translators. The type of non-
equivalence called “Differences in expressive meaning“enables the translator to
do some changes by adding additional words.
Talking about the use of loan words in the source text, M. Baker claims
that “it is not always possible to find a loan word with the same meaning in the
target language”. This is a special problem for the translators. The translators
must concentrate on the meaning of the text trying not to render word by word.
There is hardly a more controversial, complex and yet, it seems
unavoidable subject in translation studies than that of equivalence. Chesterman7
names it as one of the five translation supermemes, but at the same time calls it
“a supermeme in decline”. In research, the concept of equivalent is essential in
two ways:
 in defining the idea of realia and, as a result, identifying the data that
needs to be collected and examined;
 in characterizing the nature of relationships between original realia in
source text (ST)s and their translation in target text (TT)s, and so
determining the type of translation procedure in a phrase and ultimately
translation strategy in a given target text TT.
7
Chesterman, Andrew (1997) Memes of Translation, Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
12
 Pedersen8 points out that there are always certain elements in an ST that is
more difficult to translate than others. These normally require special care and a
conscious use of translation procedures on the part of the translator. Pedersen
refers to such elements as “Translation Crisis Points”, or simply “translation
problems” and names songs, puns and cultural references among examples of
these. He cites Lörscher’s psycholinguistic definition of strategic translating:
“strategic translating is translating in which problem-solving is involved,
whereas non-strategic translating is characterized by a problemfree, automatic
replacement of source-language text segments by target-language text
segments”9. This distinction is particularly relevant to processoriented
translation studies.
‘‘Equivalence’’ has provided a useful theoretical and pragmatic foundation
for translation processes. However, the notion of equivalence has also been
criticized as ‘‘asymmetric, directional, subject-less, unfashionable imprecise and
ill-defined’’. If equivalence is the essence of translation, non-equivalence
constitutes an equally legitimate concept in the translation process. The rationale
for this position is that languages articulate or organize the world differently
because ‘‘languages do not simply name existing categories, they articulate their
own”10.
As Baker puts it, the difficulty and problem in translating from one
language into another is posed by the concept of non-equivalence, or lack of
equivalence. This problem appears at all language levels starting from the word
level up till the textual level.
Baker discusses various equivalence problems and their possible solutions
at word, above word, grammatical, textual, and pragmatic levels. She takes a
bottom-up approach for pedagogical reasons. Baker proceeds with her
equivalence discussion from word to further upward levels. She claims

8
Pedersen, Jan (2011) Subtitling Norms for Television: An Exploration Focusing on Extralinguistic Cultural
References, Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
9
Lörscher, Wolfgang (1991) Translation Performance, Translation Process, and Transplation Strategies: A
Psycholinguistic Investigation, Tübingen: Gunter Narr.
10
Culler, J., 1976. Saussure. Collins, Glagow.
13
‘‘translators must not underestimate the cumulative effect of thematic choices on
the way we interpret text’’. Baker also acknowledges the fact that there are
translation problems caused by non-equivalence. She identifies common
problems of non-equivalence and suggests appropriate strategies in dealing with
such cases.
Snell-Hornby11 criticized the concept of equivalence by comparing the
meaning of the word ‘‘equivalence’’ in English and German, which she
considered as ‘‘non-equivalent’’. The meaning of this term, she claimed
‘‘oscillates in the fuzziness of common language between two things: ‘‘of
similar significance’’ or ‘‘virtually the same thing’’. She stated that on the one
hand the term ‘‘aquivalenz’’ (in German) ‘‘- as a scientifically fixed constant for
a given goal - is too static and one-dimensional, and on the other hand
‘equivalence’’ has been watered down up to the loss of its meaning. Equivalence
itself is not equivalent, although the similarity fakes: the borrowing from the
exact sciences has turned out to be an illusion’’
It is not uncommon that translation scholars operating with concepts like
“culturespecific items”, “culture-bound elements” and the like do not offer clear
definitions of culture. An example is Mona Baker’s interpretation of a “culture-
specific concept” in her book In Other Words: it is an SL word that expresses “a
concept which is totally unknown in the target culture12”. According to Baker, a
culture-specific concept may be abstract or concrete, and she gives an example
of an abstract English concept which she believes to be “notoriously difficult to
translate into other languages” - privacy. From this example alone, it is clear that
Baker’s definition of “culture-specific concepts” is based on a rather broad
understanding of culture, probably one that includes the “underwater” basic
cultural values. Furthermore, it is debatable whether this concept fits Baker’s
own criterion of being “totally unknown in the target culture”8 or whether it is
merely loaded with different connotations than similar concepts in other
11
Snell-Hornby, Mary., 1988. Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. John Benjamin Publishing
Company, Amsterdam.
12
Baker, Mona (2011a) In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation, 2nd edition, London: Routledge.
14
cultures. Katan13, discussing the “triad of culture”, claims that, at the visible
level of the “cultural iceberg”, one finds what he refers to as culturemes. He
draws his definition of culturemes on Nord’s14 interpretation: these are
“formalized, socially and juridically embedded phenomena that exist in a
particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared”.
There are a few problems with this definition (and similar definitions of culture-
specific items). Above all, it is rather vague and not discriminative enough to
allow a scholar to identify culturemes. If any differences in “form and function”
are to be taken into account, then the category may become so inclusive as to
become nearly allencompassing. For instance, schools are found in most cultures
and the word expressing the concept of “school” is found in virtually every
language, but can we argue that schools exist in the same form and function
across different cultures? Aixela sums up this problem as follows: “(...) in a
language everything is culturally produced, beginning with language itself15”
The second problem with Nord and Katan’s definition of culturemes is that
the term is used both in the meaning of linguistic signs (e.g. they discuss
translation of culturemes) and in the sense of referents (culturemes are defined
as culture-specific “phenomena”). I believe it is crucial to distinguish between
the two and speak of culture-specific objects/phenomena on the one hand and
culture-specific lexical items referring to them (indirectly, i.e. through concepts)
on the other hand. Leppihalme, perhaps bearing in mind the “semiotic triangle”,
applies her definition of realia not to culture-specific words or objects, but to
concepts: these are “concepts which are found in a given source culture but not
in a given target culture16”. Pedersen,17 in turn, speaks of extralinguistic cultural
reference viewing it both as “the relation between a (linguistic) expression and

13
Katan, David (2009) “Translation as Intercultural Communication”, in Jeremy Munday, London (ed.)
14
Nord, Christiane (1997/2001) Translation as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained,
Manchester: St Jerome
15
Aixela, Javier Franco (1996) “Culture-Specific Items in Translation”, in Roman Alvarez andM. Carmen-
Africa Vidal (eds) Translation, Power, Subversion, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 52–78.
16
Leppihalme, Ritva (2011) “Realia”, in Yves Gambier and Luc van Doorslaer (eds) Handbook of Translation
Studies, vol. 2, Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
17
Pedersen, Jan (2011) Subtitling Norms for Television: An Exploration Focusing on Extralinguistic Cultural
References, Amsterdam: John Benjamins
15
its referent” and the linguistic expression itself, yet examines his extralinguistic
cultural references primarily as linguistic signs. The terminological confusion is
perhaps due to the fact that it is almost impossible to discuss culture-specific
lexical items as a translation problem without frequent recourse to the
extralinguistic reality.
Realia are defined in study as a set of lexical items of the source language
(SL) which denote unique objects and phenomena characteristic of the SL
community and which have no direct lexical counterparts in the target language
(TL).
Another type of untranslatability - cultural untranslatability - occurs,
according to Catford18, when a situational feature, functionally relevant for the
ST, is completely absent from the target culture. He regards this sort of
untranslatability as less problematic than linguistic untranslatability because
various tried-and-tested translation solutions are available in such cases. Catford
9 offers examples such as Finnish sauna and Japanese yukata which differ in
many significant ways from the English possible translations bath/bathtub and
bathrobe/dressing-gown respectively. He further suggests that translation of
these culturespecific elements will produce unusual collocations in the TL: for
instance, if we read, in a translation from Japanese, that someone takes a bath,
then puts on his bathrobe and goes to a cafe still wearing the bathrobe, we would
perceive this as an unusual situation and, on the linguistic level, as an unusual
collocation. In other words, the effect that can be described as “cultural shock”
might as well be viewed as “collocational shock”, according to Catford18. The
scholar therefore wonders if cultural untranslatability is merely a variety of
linguistic untranslatability.
Having to face the question of practical application of translation shift
categorization, we need material to work with and, for a part of such shifts,
maybe the most apt material that is taken from everyday life, where the way of
living of people, the prosaic details of social life dictate the spontaneous origin
18
Catford, J.C. 1965. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. London: Oxford University Press
16
of expressive forms that then, transposed into literature, can be very hard to
translate. Some of these spontaneous expressive forms enter the vocabulary and
eventually characterize the cultural, if not linguistic, way people express
themselves. Single fragments of populations carry on specific cultural traditions,
that use special words to indicate them19.
When it comes to translation studies, a profound terminological change is
necessary: "realia" does not refer to objects, but rather to signs, words, and,
more precisely, those words that refer to objects of material culture, particularly
those relating to a local culture. Realia-objects (mainly outside translation
studies) and realia-words (primarily inside translation studies) must be
identified.20
In every language, there are words that, without in any way distinguishing
themselves in the original from the verbal co-text, however they are not easily
transmissible into another language through the usual means and demand from
the translator a peculiar attitude: some of these pass to the text of the translation
in unaltered form (they are transcribed), others may only partially preserve in
translation their morphological or phonetic structure, still others must sometimes
be substituted for lexical units of a completely different value or even
"composed".
Among these words, we meet denominations of element of everyday life,
of history, of culture etc. of a given people, country, place that do not exist in
other peoples, countries and places. Exactly these words have received in
translation studies the name of "realia".
In order to further complicate the terminological framework that is already
very confused, researchers of the East European area, among the first to use this
term in translation studies, do notconsider it to be a plural neuter, but a feminine
singular. In particular, in Russian there is the word реалия (realija) that is a
singular feminine. Consequently, it is, first, possible to speak about "realia"

19
Tomakhin G. D. Realias-Americanisms / G. D. Tomakhin. – Moscow : Vysshaya Shkola, 1998
20
Yuldasheva Ch. ―”In original and translation” Tashkent 1989.
17
using the singular (in order to mean one of these words), which we cannot
afford, short of using the word realium which, however, as singular, looses its
value as a nominalization of the adjective. Moreover, when the word is used in
the plural, it looses the -a ending, following the feminine declination, and
becoming реалии (realii).
Regardless of linguistic differences, we must be careful not to confuse the
field of realia with the field of terms. Let's hear what Vlahov and Florin 21 have
to say about it:
“Between realia and terms there is a fundamental difference. Terms are the
basis of scientific lexicon; their scope is specialized, scientific literature; in other
spheres, above all in artistic literature, they are used with a definite stylistic aim.
Realia are not met mainly in artistic literature, as it is well known they
represent elements of the local and historical color; we find them in some
descriptive sciences also, but they are now used, above all, as denominations of
described objects or even as pure terms22”.
As to realia translation, there are many possibilities, many ways of
incorporating. The first actualization consists in the neologism, often amounting
to a calque. By "calque" [kǽlk] we usually mean the "translation calque": with
material of the receiving language a simple or composed word is formed by
literally translating the elements of the expression in the source culture.
In literature, a work of art has its own characteristics: nationality, period,
place specific features.
Color is a set of characteristics and features of something.
It is known that historically formed culture, language, territory, economic
life and spiritual characteristics a group of people formed on the basis of
commonality is called a nation.
Nationality is a feature of the spiritual activity and material life of a nation.

21
Vlakhov S., Florin S. ―”Untranslatable in translation”. Moscow,1960.
22
www.pdfessay/english/lex/realia.php
18
 Spiritual activity is the character, way of thinking, psyche, aspirations,
actions, humor of people.
Material life includes customs, rituals, ceremonies, clothing, household
items, and instruments, tools, cooking, names, and so on. It is a collection of
national characteristics reflected in a work of are in literature it is called national
coloring. Then there are half-calques, in which just a part of a composed
expression in preserved. There are cases of appropriation, or adaption of foreign
realia: a word is generated in the receiving language, but it fundamentally wears
over the frame - even from a phonemic standpoint - of the original word. Color
is derived from the Italian term colorito, which means color, paint, or landscape.
In fine arts, color is one of the utilized to portray real-life mutual
understanding. However, a piece of art in literature has its unique
characteristics: country, period, and geographical elements.
A group of people formed on the basis of commonality is known as a
nation, which has historically formed culture, language, territory, economic life,
and spiritual traits.
People's character, way of thinking, psychology, aspirations, behaviors, and
humor are all examples of spiritual activity. Customs, rituals, ceremonies, dress,
household objects, and instruments are all part of material life.
In literature, there is also the concept of local coloring. Local color refers to
how local situations, customs, or way of life, as well as landscape and linguistic
characteristics, are expressed in literature.
The words and terms linked with this national color are genuine; they are
referred to as suitable words. Realia is a Latin term that has a specific meaning.
"Realias are an essential aspect of the work's language, through which the
author constructs the protagonist's picture and describes the people's national
identity. They express the national color of the work of art, different stylistic
performs tasks, helps to accurately and accurately describe the nature of events

19
and objects”23. That is why the realities are the translation of the literary
translation, which torments the translator complicating, often confusing.
"National dishes, clothes, national instruments, household items, names,
nicknames, nicknames, urban, rural features, architecture, geographical names,
natural landscapes, names of animals and plants, words denoting ranks, titles,
classes, and other divisions, words and phrases denoting institutions,
organizations, religious ceremonies, and other ethnographic symbols, words and
phrases denoting institutions, organizations, religious ceremonies, and other
ethnographic symbols enter."
"National identity is the material condition of the people's life, the spiritual,
described in a literary work lifestyle, nature, forest, mountain, field, water, earth,
sky and myths and legends, history and religion, ideas, concepts, terms about
literature and art and other special things understood. Clothes, customs,
traditions, currencies, etc. are also national identities components”. 24
National character is created on a certain material basis and is a reflection
of certain living conditions. Therefore, the national character of the image is
determined by the life of the nation, its national history, its identity, can be
properly understood through the study of national, cultural, and literary
traditions. The first stage of the translator's work in the re-creation of the artistic
image is the history of the nation in which the image was created, is the study of
social and literary conditions. The next stage is the main characters of the
character, his define the content. Then the tools and methods of the original
language in which the image is to be created to analyze the ways and, finally, to
find the necessary means of expression in the native language.
The general characteristics of the literary work can be found in people's
private and social lives, in their living conditions, in their attire, habits, streets,
towns, art monuments, institution names, official names, and so on. The sum of

23
Ҳ а м р о е в Ҳ. Миллий хос сўзлар – реалиялар ва бадиий таржима. Таржима маданияти (Мақолалар
тўплами). – Тошкент, 1982. 158-бет
24
Ф а й з у л л а е в а Р. Йўллар йироқ, кўнгиллар яқин. Таржима санъати (Мақолалар тўплами). –
Тошкент, 1973. 257-бет.
20
them is the work's national character, which will be described entirely through
the medium of speech. It is critical that they are appropriately translated. There
are figurative terms relating to national psychological features in every
language.
For example, in Uzbek, “qora ko‘z, qo‘y ko‘z, quralay ko‘z, ohu ko‘z”
and others are signs of beauty used as in ancient Greece, a beautiful, majestic
eye resembled a bull's eye. Kyrgyz and In Kazakh, “bo‘tako‘z” are the quality of
a beautiful eye. In India, the cow is a delicacy, beauty, generosity and a beautiful
lover is attributed to the cow because it is a symbol of motherly love. A lion in
many nations if it is a symbol of savagery, cruelty, we have brave people like
lions. For example, King Lear's cruel daughters are like lions. And because the
lion has a positive meaning to us in the translation, Ghafur Ghulam adds the
word "“urg‘ochi” " before the word:
What did you do, you lioness?
Nima qilib qo‘ydingiz, yo urg‘ochi arslonlarmisiz?
In Uzbek, “yo‘lpashsha” is a guest tree.
In Baburnama, Babur speaks of Sultan Muzaffar, one of the kings of India
"Mushaf used to read books," he said. V. Erskin, who translated the work into
English, "always wrote the Qur'an." he gives, however, "kitobat qilish" means to
"copy".
When translating from Uzbek to Russian, Russian translators often use the
Uzbek pronoun "siz" ("vi"). They give it in the form of "ti". It is known that
Uzbeks refer to adults as "you". We think that's it originality must also be
preserved ”.25
In the translation of Pirimkul Kadyrov's novel "Diamond Belt" "bowl" -
"deep plate" in Russian turns. In the translation of the story of the immortal
Umarbekov "Two springs of Damir Usmanov" "moshkichiri" - "Risovaya
kasha".

25
Соипова М. Таржимада миллий ўзига хосликни қайта яратиш // Таржима муаммолари. 2-китоб. 72-бет.
21
 "National identity is the material condition of the people's life, the spiritual,
described in a literary work lifestyle, nature, forest, mountain, field, water, earth,
sky and myths and legends, history and religion, concepts, concepts, terms about
literature and art and other special things are understood. ” writes G. Salomov.
The semantic neologism, on the other hand, is different from the calque due
to the absence of an etymological connection to the original word. It is a word,
or word combination, "created" by the translator in order to permit the rendition
of the meaning contents of realia. It is also called semantic calque. One example
is the English snowshoes from which the Russian snegostupy derives, formed
with the sneg- root, meaning "snow" and the root stup-, meaning "step" (and
having the same etymology of the English word). The Italian, on the same word,
has created a translation calque instead, producing "racchette da neve".
An example of semantic calque is the Italian "realizzare", on the English
"to realize", where the original Italian meaning of the verb (to make real, to do)
the meaning of the English verb (understand) is overlaid, in sentences like:
There are also instances of fake calques, or pseudocalques, or presumed
calques. For example, in American English the Italian word latte is used to mean
not what in Italian is meant by latte (milk), but «espresso coffee mixed with
steamed milk», i.e. «cappuccino», another element of realia that, by contrast, has
passed unchanged in the English-speaking culture. In Italian there is the word
"golf" that, in many Italians' view, would be an English word with the same
meaning. It is a pseudocalque, because in English "golf" doesn't mean "sweater"
- as it happens in Italian - but only the sport. The pseudocalque probably derives
from the British expression "golf jacket". Deprived of the name "jacket",
however, in English it looses part of its meaning, but is still has it in Italian, in a
very similar way to what happens with "latte", "caffelatte" and "cappuccino"26.
In short, there is a significant distinction between realia and words. Terms
form the foundation of scientific lexicon; their scope is limited to specialist,

26
Fedorov A.V. ”The essays of general and comparative stylistics” Moscow, 1971
22
scientific literature; in other areas, particularly in artistic literature, they are
utilized with a specific stylistic goal in mind.
Realia are not only found in creative literature; as is well known, they
symbolize components of the local and historical color; they are also found in
various descriptive sciences, but they are currently mostly utilized as
denominations of described items or even as pure phrases.

1.2. Linguistic features of realia

There are numerous techniques for dealing with realia, which is a local
word or phrase that does not translate because there is no obvious equivalent in
the target language. There are a few basic approaches to dealing with realia and
difficult idioms:
Transcription: You can simply copy the realia exactly as it appears, perhaps
with an explanatory note. This can suffice, although it’s not the best solution as
it pushes the work off onto the reader.
Explanation: You can try to create an explanatory translation that maintains
the overall structure of the speech while getting the point across. This is often
clumsy.
Equivalency: You can try to find something similar in the target language.
It depends on if you know the local history behind the realia and the
substitution well enough to decide whether they convey the same idea.
Importantly, cultural differences necessitate a translator's language expertise as
well as an understanding of the people's cultures. Uzbek cultural norms, for
example, are unmistakably distinct from those of the United Kingdom and
Arabia. Some words or sentences in our national works generate a pragmatic
condition in the text that is exclusive to our country. It is important to be a
representative of the Uzbek country in order to comprehend these nuances.
Context typically clarifies it, and if nothing else, it identifies the term or phrase
as untranslatable, prompting further investigation. The purpose of translation,
after all, is accuracy, and this may be the only trustworthy way to achieve it.
23
Idioms, collocations, metaphors, and proverbs are examples of culturally bound
expressions that can be found in a variety of literature, including social,
religious, political, and geographic sources. We can identify regional realias
from international realias by comparing several languages. Regional realias are
found in the lexicon of numerous languages and entered the vocabulary while
retaining their original color. The realia translation necessitates extra caution
from the translator. Although we are referring to concepts and objects that can
be precisely described and specified, there may be significant departures and
variations while translating them into the target language. It has to do with the
fact that the words naming the realias are devoid of any term colouring due to
the frequency of usage, role in the language, or household meaning. The
following aspects should be considered while translating the realia: -the type of
text, -the meaning of the realia in the text, -the type of realia and its systematic
role in the culture of the source language, -the degree of perception of
unexpected word-collocations.
What is most important in translating culture-bound words is the receptor’s
perception and reaction. A translator should be aware of the receptor’s potential
problems and, taking into account the receptor’s background knowledge, choose
the best means of translation.27 The challenges with cultural word translation
are mostly due to various erroneous assumptions and interpretations. Failure to
translate cultural words to the target language can result in various drawbacks
for the target audience. Cultural misconceptions are one of them. When a
translator utilizes the incorrect process when translating a word into the target
language culture, an error arises. If a cultural misunderstanding is identified in a
translation text, the target readers will not receive the same message as the target
text. As a result, we can grasp how a word can have different meanings and
avoid misunderstanding. Cultural word translation analysis especially in
conducting translation procedures must be done to reduce cultural
misunderstandings. Birpasdan keyin qaddimni rostlab, tanchaga oyog‘imni tiqib
27
Zoya Proshina. Theory of Translation, (English and Russian) Vladivostok Far Eastern University, Press, 2008.
24
o‘tirdim. Hoji buvi allaqanday taxir suyuqlik ichirdi.28. I extended my legs to the
'tancha' after a while. Hoji buvi insisted on forcing me to swallow this oddly
bitter liquid. (Sandal, tancha – a form of local heating.) It's been used in Central
Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, Japan, and other Eastern countries for a long
time. Sandals are made by digging a hole at one side of the chamber and
plastering the inside. It has a table and a blanket covering. Charcoal or wood is
used to heat it.) National originality can be found in literature and other branches
of social science, and the more content, progressiveness, and brightness there is,
the more significant it is: Other countries benefit from meeting it because they
learn something new, fascinating, useful, and vital to them in this context Nima
uchundir onam tez-tez tolqon qilardi. Sababini keyin tushunganman. Non
ko‘pligi uchun emas, kamligi uchun tolqon qilisharkan.28 I wander why my mom
often prepared tolqon. Later, I realized the reason of preparing it. I found out
that my parents could not supply members of our family with bread. (Tolqon -
type of food. It is made from corn, wheat, oats, bread and fruit. Method of
preparation: roasted grain, dried bread or fruit crumbs, crush them with mixer.
You can add some sugar, if you want.)
Differences in cultural references, such as food names, festivals, and
cultural meanings in general, may result in cultural difficulties. Language
localization will be used by the translator to ensure that the translation is
appropriately adapted to the target culture. Supadagi xontaxta oldiga borib
o‘tirdim. Dasturxonda to‘nkarib qolgan ikkita piyola bilan choynakdan bolak
narsa yo‘q edi.31 I came and sat at the xontaxta. There were only a tea pot and
two cups on it. (Xontaxta - household item; the form of the low table may be
rectangular or circular. It is used as a kitchen table. It is also called “low table”.)
Any literary work that exists on a national level represents national concerns,
issues, and characteristics. Literature that travels from one country to another
deepens and expands people's understanding of one another. It's one of the most
difficult scenarios when it comes to expressing national coloration. Very
28
Hoshimov O’tkir “Dunyoning ishlari” Yangi asr avlodi. Toshkent, 2015 yil
25
important literary works were able to appear in many other nations and become
available to people who spoke other languages as a result of translation. The
translation facilitates mutual understanding and enrichment among people.
Insofli odamlar bevaga choyxona yonboshidagi pastak hujrani ajratib berishgan.
Honest people in the village gave a small house to the widow near the
choyxona.31 “Choyxona” The teahouse is a public cafeteria designed primarily
for drinking tea widespread in Central Asian countries like Iran, Turkey and
Uzbekistan. Alcohol drinks are not sold there.) - Kechqurun o‘sma ezib
qo’yuvdim. Shu savil qurib qolmasin, deb qoshimga qo'ya qoluvdim.31 In the
evening, I squeezed some tumor (usma). In order not to spoil it, I polished it on
my eyebrows. (O’sma - it is one of the types of plant, which grow especially in
Central Asia, Uzbek women can use it by squeezing its leaves and rub them on
their eyebrows and eyelash for decoration and for treatment.)
The spread of national culture boundaries through translation has a
significant beneficial and enriching impact on the language. True, many new
ideas, discoveries, conceptions, and so on enter the language as a result of
translation, resulting in the appearance of new linguistic elements and figurative
meanings. This is particularly significant when translating from a less
established literary language. This nation's figurative potential, national culture
and spiritual development are all enhanced by literary language. Creative
beginning of translation is premise of creative attitude to native language, its
source of faith in its possibilities and beauty. Geographical features can be
normally distinguished from other cultural terms in that they are usually value-
free, politically and commercially. Nevertheless, their diffusion depends on the
importance of their country of origin as well as their degree of specificity. U
to‘satdan bir guruh chilim chekib turgan yigitlarga ko’zi tushdiyu, ko’rmaslikka
oldi.31 Suddenly she saw some young men smoking chilim, tried pretending not
to see. (Chilim An oriental tobacco pipe with a long, flexible tube that draws the
smoke through water contained in a bowl.) Translating from Uzbek into English
translator may meet some difficulties to render some words which mean
26
something in Uzbek but no meaning in English. That’s a complicated task which
must be dealt with. It is necessary to know the culture of both nationalities
before translating. By having known the nationality and its culture closely
translators may render words in an efficient way. - Sovchi degan gap qayoqdan
chiqqan? - Guli jahl bilan qo’l siltadi. - Hali unisi keladi qiyshayib, hali bunisi
keladi, tugunini osiltirib! 31-Why do we need sovchi?-Guli shook her hands with
nervous. I don’t need them. But, they are coming, coming, coming without
getting permission. (Sovchi-it may be he or she, who can go to someone’s house
to ask their daughter for a bride. Usually, uncles, aunts, or one of the relatives
are asked to visit there in order to ask agreement for getting married.)
Realia really reveals reality, such as English derby, Greek monocle,
Spanish moustache, British four-in-hand, gauntlets, footed cup or Dutch brandy
flask, that depict abstract cultural nuances creating a sense of déjà vu. Each flack
of culture gleans the scenery of a unique room.
On the one hand, it is a cultural habit to address someone differently
depending on their social rank, age, familiarity, and other factors. A native
speaker of Uzbek, on the other hand, could not possibly ignore the
formal/informal opposition of sen/siz: just as one must choose a singular or
plural form when the language has the grammatical category of number, one
must choose between the formal siz and informal sen when addressing someone
("Languages differ in what they must convey," to paraphrase Jakobson). When
translating from Uzbek to, say, English, we may be dealing largely with the
systemic language difference between the SL and TL. The fact that a language
keeps the formal/informal opposition, on the other hand, may imply that the
social hierarchy is still important in this linguistic community's culture. As a
result, it appears to be a cultural trait, and we've come full circle.
The English translator, on the other hand, had to come up with more
inventive answers. First, he replaces "siz" for "spoke graciously," resulting in a
phrase repeat because talked pleasantly is previously included as a literal
translation of another clause.
27
 Further, “siz” and “sen” is rendered descriptively as degrees of politeness,
and finally, sen is translated with by your first name and siz - as to be addressed
formally. As can be seen, the translator had to rely on the limited linguistic
methods available to him in English (this is accomplished by eliminating
personal pronouns) while also finding functionally identical substitutes that
could transmit the SL community's social rules to some extent. This is a good
example of how a translator's task can be both linguistic and extralinguistic in
nature. Five translation supermemes are discussed in Andrew Chesterman's29
work on translation memes, i.e. "ideas of such pervasive effect that they pop
back again and again" in translation theory. One such supermeme is
untranslatability, which has theological and philosophical roots dating back to
the Tower of Babel. The scholar makes an intriguing assumption that the
continuance of Aristotelian binarism, which considers concepts (such as
"translatable") as discrete - "things are either absolutely translatable or not, and
so usually not" - affects the subject of translatability. Rather, he recommends
thinking of translatability as a continuum. Catford30, too, emphasizes the
incontrovertible truth that translatability is a continuum, not a binary. "SL texts
and things are more or less translatable, rather than completely translatable or
untranslatable," he summarizes.
National (local) and historical coloring of realia is a new additional
meaning to its main signification. U.Hoshimov uses tancha, choyxona, tolqon,
xontaxta, o’sma, sovchi, nos, mahsi their specific coloring gives an oriental
coloring to the work of “Dunyoning ishlari”. Dictionaries state that Chilim is a
traditional oriental tobacco pipe with a long, flexible tube that draws smoke
through a bowl of water. Because of the relationship with this place, this neutral
word becomes realia.
It makes us consider coloring a part of connotative meaning of a realia.

29
Chesterman, Andrew (1997) Memes of Translation, Amsterdam: John Benjamins
30
Catford, J. C. (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
28
 It is appropriate to compare realias - words with specific national and
historical coloring - connotative lexis - with words deprived of such coloring.
We may use two words - bird cherry and rook. They are only details of nature:
bird cherry is a tree that grows in Northern America, Europe and Asia; and rook
is species of birds from crown family. These words are not realias because of
their wide-spreadness and they are not connected with people or country.
However associations connected with bird cherry (the height of spring) and rook
(expectation of spring) make a heart of Russian man quicken. He connects their
connotatively with realia not turning them into realia.
Another example touches up some difficulties translating of the title of
famous Russian film Летят журавли into the French language: the French word
grue also means silly girl and a woman of easy virtue. So they had to substitute
the word - crane for the word - stork.
In these examples connotative words in contradiction to realia have full and
significant equivalents. ”Inconvenient” word is often substituted for its
functional analogies. For example, bird cherry can be substituted for early
blooming tree or bush - for England it can be substituted for plum or cherry-tree
or even for lilac; instead of rook they can use any convenient bird. The main
idea is to evoke a reader of translated text the same associations that has a reader
of origin text.
The transmission of connotative word by means of devices that are
characteristic feature for the transmission of realia usually leads to an
undesirable results: a corresponding word must evoke a definite reaction.
31
We noticed that realias were classified according to their location or/and
time when we were classifying them. Realia that mean the same or similar
material conceptions might come from various places and historical rubrics,
differing from one another in terms of connotative meaning and coloring. For
example, in Poland, the supreme organ is known as seim, in Russia it is known
as Supreme Court, in Spain and Portugal it is known as cortes, in Bulgaria it is
31
Kenyon, John Samuel and Knott, Thomas Albert, A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English
29
known as Public Meeting, in Germany it is known as bundestag, in Switzerland
it is known as rikstaf, in Norway, it is known as storting, in Denmark it is known
as folketing, and in Israel it is known as knesset. All of these words signify
Parliament, and while they are nearly identical, their traditional names
symbolize distinctive national realities. They all have distinct characteristics that
are unique to them. National and historical coloration, on the other hand, just
wouldn't enable substitution for another term in translation if not for these
characteristics. Such a substitution would, to be more precise, erase all
coloration; it would lead to anachronisms or analogisms that could destabilize
the harmony, or so-called truth of existence.
Connotations and coloring are part of the meaning of a word, which means
they can be translated in the same way as the semantic content. If a translator
was only able to convey a meaning lexical unit, the translated text lost its color.
However, there are times when the connotation of a realia fades away, and
erasures occur. Realia is logically transformed into a common, uncolored term
as a result of such erasure. We use the word "erasure" of coloring or connotation
to distinguish this phenomenon from loss of coloring in a translation (erased
reality).
It will take much time to turn proper realia such as Russian пирожок into
national uncolored, neutral word entered in the kitchens and languages of many
countries and to make people forget its strange origin.
Related to a strange realia it will also take much time to adopt it into a
language. It can turn into usual borrowing in the result of intensive usage of this
object in private life depriving it both original national coloring and a kind of
alliance.
1. It seems that international and regional realias are to lose their status of
realia at first owing to their wide-spreadness. Many international realias go
around the world without losing their national originality, for example, the
names of money. There is another case with regional realias. Their national
coloring is almost equal to national but it is limited by its regional belonging.
30
For example, “the eastern coloring” is close to Syrian, Turkish and Egyptian etc.
All abovementioned regarding to proper realias is equal for national and
regional realias.
2. These are the general considerations about coloring erasure or color
keeping that depends on peoples and countries. But there are positions where
color erasure depends on proper realia and its function in speech32.
Often the realias can have an extended meaning in the context.
3. Sometimes a realia can be used in a text not in the direct but in the
figurative meaning. For example щербет can be used in Bulgarian language as
an adjective in the meaning of something oversweet and it is almost similar with
Russian сироп.
In general we may say about realia using in the figurative meaning in all
cases of their usage as tropes, metaphor and comparison. When an author says
about mushroom‘s cap “about two kopecks size” he does not mean a kopeck as a
kind of money but only its two signs: its size and its round form, so the kopeck
here has only word cover. For example, when an author describes land that is
flat like a pan-cake he takes only one characteristics of a pan-cake: its flatness
and plane and Russian reader even does not think about pan-cake as a food but it
is only an image that author promoted with the help of trope.
Some adjectives derived from mentioned realias can be literary
comparisons and metaphors. Using such words as богатырский, стопудовый,
аршинный, саженный at first we look at their figurative meaning, certain signs
but not on their sign as a realia: for example, пудовый means very heavy,
грошовый means very unimportant, cheap.
4. Among these examples there were phraseological units and set
expressions as well, where realias lose their status more often than in the
mentioned cases. In these four cases realias are to lose their coloring that is the
status of ralia is to turn into common language unit. However, if we look more
attentively we shall see that a total erasure is not possible. If it happens it will be
32
Aznaurova E.S., Abdurahmonova D.I. “Translation theory and practice.” Tashkent, 1982
31
an exception33. For example, macaroni (international realia) and tyubeteyka
(regional realia). Macaroni, also spaghetti entered in the languages by way of
transcription. These words appeared in the languages having kept the meaning
of national Italian dish.34
Transcription is possible in two languages only as an exception, for
example, international realia that indicator is known in both languages. But it is
easier to translate a realia as a neutral function equivalent because in the original
text realia is used without connotative meaning. But even in the third and fourth
positions realia is kept. For example, translating comparison we usually
substitute a strange realia for ours: it is not always convenient to use such
phrases as как блин. The same is with a realia that forms phraseologism.
One should notice that translating a realia in one or another means it is
wanted to lose a trope and accordingly phraseologism. Trope should be
transferred by tropes, phraseologism by phraseologism; only “fulling” will differ
from origin one.
5. There are many cases of realia translation in the comparison when the
realia not only loses its coloring but also receives excessive connotation and
they are wide-spread. An author compares the contents of strange realia with his
own realia. And in a translation one notion is happened to be denoted with the
two realias: internal and external. What should a translator do to convey the
content of realia without coloring losing?
There are some theoretical variants. At first a translator should transcribe
each separate realia. For example, we can face with such translation from the
Czech language: “In the evening a young teacher couple … invited us for
barbecue. It reminded us our evening by the camp fire where we did not do
shpekachkis.” These two words: barbecue and shpekachkis are explanations of
one unknown word by another. At second place a translator can substitute an
internal realia for his proper realia. For example, he should substitute

33
Fedorov A.V. “The essays of general and comparative stylistics.” Moscow 1971
34
Aznaurova E.S., Abdurahmonova D.I. “Translation theory and practice.” Tashkent 1982.
32
shpekachkis - for a regional realia - Caucasus shashlik. As a result a reader
would be able to get clearer notion about Australian dish (barbecue is a Haitian
word that was taken by the English language from Spanish and then was
borrowed by Australian). But a reader would be astonished hearing from Czech
about “evenings with shashlik”. Theoretically this variant is more vicious
because it leads to mixture of different realias that belong to different nations.
The third possibility is to refuse transcription of both realias and to convey their
contents with the help of descriptive translation that approximately can sound
so: “… in the evening we were invited for a picnic that reminded us our
evenings by a camp fire and we ate meat grilled on a spit.” But this translation
deprives the text of Australian coloring.35
And, at last, the fourth variant consists in transcription of external realia
and conveying internal realia with its functional equivalent. And we shall have
the next sentence: “In the evening … a young teacher pair invited us for
barbecue. It reminded us our evenings by camp fire when we ate meat grilled on
a spit.”
The last variant is considered to be more successful because the translation
is true and the translator managed to keep coloring having transcribed main
realia36.
To sum up, it is important to note that, in order to achieve the best
translation, the translator must use either the reconstruction of the sentence's
syntactic structure, lexical replacements with full change of the word's meaning
from the target language, or both of these methods at the same time, resulting in
so-called lexico-grammatical transformations.

1.3. National cultural aspects of translation

Each ethnic language represents a distinct worldview, defined by a distinct

way of perceiving the world and distinct linguistic characteristics. Every country

35
Kenyon, John Samuel and Knott, Thomas Albert, A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English
36
www.englishforum.com
33
has its own distinct perspective on the globe. The details of this projection are
enshrined in language, resulting in a national linguistic view of the world that is
passed down from generation to generation. The world is implicitly modeled by
a person's national attitude, character, lifestyle, and so on. People's behavior,
stereotypical events, beliefs, and judgments about reality are all influenced by
the national world picture.
It should be stressed that both the conceptual and linguistic world pictures
are inseparable from the national peculiarities of perception and understanding
of the world. Each nation is characterized by peculiar, somehow, different from
other nations, mentality, life style, cultural traditions, and that accounts for some
differences in perception of the same objects, events, phenomena by
representatives of different nations. For example, in English there are two words
“foot - leg” and “hand - arm” to denote certain parts of the body whereas in
Russian and Uzbek there is only one word denoting the same parts “рука, нога”,
“қўл, оёқ”. It is well known that there are great differences in the perception of
colors. In Russian the words синий, голубой, are differentiated whilst in
English and Uzbek only one word is used though it has a lot of variants:
• Blue - dark blue, pale blue, sky blue, grayish-blue, light-blue, grey blue,
fumose-blue;
• Кўк - кўкимтир, мовий, нилий, нилгун, нилранг, самовий;
In Uzbek there is only one word denoting the gray colour - “кулранг”,
while in English there are a lot of words denoting different types of this colour:
pearl-gray, linen-gray, iron-gray, grayish-lilac, charcoal-gray, silverily-gray,
stone gray, grayish black, platinum gray, ivory-gray, grayish.
The national world picture is verbalized with the help of nationally-specific
linguistic expressions, to which the followings are referred:
 non-equivalent lexics (names of clothes, meals, objects of daily round)
 anthroponyms and toponyms;
 names of holidays, tradition;
 expressions of speech etiquette;
34
  nationally-specific stylistic devices (images-bearing SD, antonomasia,
litotes euphemism);
 text fragments describing nationally specific events;
 nationally specific PhU., proverbs, aphorisms;
 nationally specific cultural concepts.
The study of the national linguistic world picture includes the following
stages:
a) the description of the “categorization of the reality”, reflected in the
paradigmatic relations of linguistic units (lexico-semantic and lexico-
phraseological groups and fields);
b) the analysis of nationally specific meanings and cultural components of
linguistic units, reflecting national mentality;
c) the analysis of lacunas (gaps) in the language, i.e. specific notions
relevant to one linguoculture and not quite appropriate for others;
d) the analysis of nationally specific imagery.
It is worth noting that the differentiation between the linguistic and national
world pictures is to some extent relative. This differentiation, in our opinion,
may be approved of only from the theoretical point of view. Practically the
linguistic world picture and the national world picture do coincide specifying
either universal or national human knowledge or experience. Everything
depends on the approach and the aims of the research. Accordingly, in every
concrete case the analysis is focused either on general or nationally specific
features. In other words, the linguistic world picture perpetuates general human
experience, and the national world picture reflects the experience of a concrete
national community, its system of views, stereotypes of thinking and behavior,
perception, opinions and judgements.37
It is to be noted that though separate linguistic units can be nationally
relevant, it is the text which reflects national culture in full measure as it
transmits sociocultural, aesthetic, emotional and evaluative information. It is
37
Попова, Стернин, “Когнитивная лингвистика” Москва: ACT: Восток-Запад 2007
35
acknowledged that literary texts are directly related to culture and penetrated by
a multitude of cultural codes, that they accumulate and store information about
history, cultural events and traditions, national psychology, etc. According to
V.A. Maslova38, the literary text is considered to be the main means of studying
culture as a source of cultural knowledge and information. Any literary text can
reflect individual and national experience and knowledge about the national
mentality, national character, traditions, etc. Thus, literary texts can reflect: a)
the national mentality; b) national traditions, holidays, events; c) the national
character; d) the national lifestyle.
One of the universal cultural values widely represented in phraseological
units of English, Uzbek and Russian is “promise”. In all linguocultures keeping
promise is positively evaluated; it is regarded as a quality testifying a person’s
honour and nobility characterizing him in a very positive way: good, honorable,
organized, obligatory, noble, assertive, honest, and reliable. “Breaking
promise/word” on the contrary is a very negative and shameful trait: bad,
dishonest, ignoble, and unreliable. Both positive and negative characteristics are
presented in the following examples:
engl: to keep one’s word; to be as good as one’s word; to break one’s word;
to be worse than one’s word; to go back on one’s word; to give one’s word; to
be true to one’s word; to be better than one’s words; a man of word and deed; to
give a word of honour;
uzb: сўз бермоқ; сўз олмоқ; сўзида турмоқ; сўзида қаттиқ турмоқ;
йигит сўзи; сўзи сўз; сўзида турмаслик; сўз бермаслик; сўздан қайтмоқ;
Though, promise represents universal cultural value, it is also characterized
by national-cultural specifics which can be widely observed in proverbs. For
example, in the English and Uzbek languages “promise” is regarded as a quality
ascribed to men rather than women: арслон изидан қайтмас, йигит сўзидан;
йигитни бир сўзлик безар; эр йигитнинг сўзи ўлгунча - ўзи ўлгани яхши; эр
сўзли йигит - кун юзли йигит. It can be explained by traditions of Uzbek
38
Маслова В. А., “Введение в когнитивную лингвистику “ Москва 2007.
36
culture in which man is a head of family and a leader of a society. In the English
language, there is only one proverb with such meaning: an Englishman’s word is
as good as his bond.
Another group of linguistic units which by nature are aimed to express
cultural values are proverbs. As is known, proverbs reflect people’s wisdom,
experience and appraisals and therefore cultural values are mostly expressed
with the help of these linguistic units.
It is acknowledged that politeness and consideration are regarded as
cultural values and peculiar qualities of English culture and people, therefore,39
“the English language is more polite, more concerned about the feelings of the
individual” : Be nice to people on your way up because you’ll meet them on
your way down; Do as you would be done by; You can catch more flies with
honey than with vinegar; Never speak of a rope in the house of a man who has
been hanged; There’s a time to speak and a time to be silent; Think before you
speak; Good words are good cheap; Good words cost nothing and are worth
much.
Uzbek culture is known for its Hospitality and this cultural value is
certainly reflected in Uzbek proverbs: Меҳмон келар эшикдан, ризқи келар
тешикдан; Меҳмон – отангдан улуғ; Меҳмонга ширин сўз бер; Меҳмон
келган уй – баракали; Меҳмон – азиз, мезбон – лазиз; Меҳмон оз ўтирар,
кўп кўрар; Меҳмон – уйнинг зийнати; Меҳмон кўрки – дастурхон.
No less important in terms of cultural values are aphorisms and quotations
since they convey cultural information about all spheres of human life and
activity. One of the universal cultural values equally important and highly
appreciated by all the nations is “Friendship”. This can be evidenced by the
following quotations: Friendship is the only cement that will ever hold the world
together (W.T. Wilson); Friendship is the golden thread that ties the heart of all
the world (J. Evelyn).

39
Тер-Минасова, “Словосочетание в научно-лингвистическом и дидактическом аспектах” УРСС Москва
2004
37
 A real friend always speaks truth even if it is bitter: A good friend can tell
you what the matter with you is in a minute. He may not seem such a good
friend after telling (A. Brisbane); Яхши дўст айби ёру дўстини кўзгудек
рўбарасида сўзлар (А.Авлоний); Оқил дўсти бор кишининг ойнага эҳтиёжи
йўқ (А. Югнакий); Кто мне скажет правду обо мне, если не друг, а
слышать о себе правду от другого – необходимо (В.Г. Белинский);
A real friend is always faithful and never leaves his/her friend in hardships,
supporting him/her in everything: A real friend is one who walks in when the
rest of the world walks out (W. Winchell); Friendship isn’t about who’m you’ve
known the longest. It’s about who came and never left your side (Unknown);
Ўзингга содиқ дўстлар танла, улар паноҳида яшайсан, чунки улар
кенгчиликда зийнат, қийинчиликда қалқондирлар (А. Фитрат); Кулфатда
билайлик дўсту донони, Қалқон бўлажак у синалган они (Атойи);
Though “Friendship” is a universal cultural value, there are some specific
nationally-specific features.
In English linguoculture friendship is associated with progress: Don’t make
friends who are comfortable to be with. Make friends who will force you to
lever yourself up (T. J. Watson); A friend is one that knows you as you are,
understands where you have been, accepts what you have become, and still,
gently allows you to grow (W.Shakespeare).
In many English quotes it is emphasized that a real friend accepts his/her
friend as he/she is: The friend is the man who knows all about you, and still
likes you (E. Hubbard); A true friend is someone who thinks that you are a good
egg even though he knows that you are slightly cracked (B. Meltzer);
In Uzbek quotations, the idea of friendship expressed by image is perceived
in terms of ordinary everuday things (овқат, дори, дард, дарахт): Дўст уч
хил бўлади. Биринчиси овқат кабидир, улардан ҳеч ажраб бўлмайди.
Иккинчиси дорига ўхшайди, уларга гоҳ-гоҳ ишинг тушади. Учинчиси
дардага ўхшайди ва улардан ҳеч қандай яхшилик келмайди (Ю.Ҳ. Ҳожиб);

38
Дўст дегани дарахт япроғига ўхшайди. Баҳор чоғи – беҳисоб. Куз келганда
– саноқли. Ёшлик чоғи – беҳисоб. Кексайганда – саноқли... (Ў. Ҳошимов).
So, the above examples prove a high cultural value of “Friendship”. In
most cases it is evaluated very positively being associated with such notions as
loyalty, care, support, forgiveness, self-sacrifice, devotion, etc40.
It is important to note that both cognitive and linguistic world pictures are
inextricably linked to country differences in world perception and
comprehension. Each nation has a distinct mentality, way of life, and cultural
traditions that account for certain variances in how representatives of other
nations perceive the same things, events, and occurrences.
Outcomes of chapter I
In the Chapter I, we looked at the study of non-equivalence (realia) in
world linguistics: a theoretical analysis. Realia was invented in the late 1800s
and it's used in library cataloguing (in reference to oddities like an author's hair
and teeth donated posthumously), and it pops up in other places now and then.
You might hear of someone putting "realia"—objects that depict current life—in
a time capsule, for example. The term "realia" is also used intellectually to
distinguish real things from hypotheses about them, with a connotation that
dates back to the early 1800s. "Realia" is one of those plural forms that don’t
have a singular counterpart. "Juvenilia" ("pieces created in an artist's or author's
youth") is similar to "memorabilia" ("memorable items" or "mementos"), it
incorporates the Latin plural ending "-ia."
Efficient communication is impossible "without deep and wide background
knowledge of native speakers' cultures which implies way of life, mentality,
vision of the world, the national character, customs, beliefs, systems of values,
kinds of social behavior". There are close relationships between language and
culture, and text is a means of studying culture, it is the main source of cultural
knowledge and information.

40
D.U. Ashurova, M.R. Galieva “Cultural linguistics”. Tashkent 2019
39
 Linguocultureme is a complex, interlevel language unit, a dialectical unit of
both linguistic and extra linguistic factors, the correlation between the form of a
verbal sign, its semantic content and cultural sense. The sources of cultural
information in a linguocultureme are specific for each culture: realia,
outstanding people, myths, images, beliefs, customs and traditions.
In their scientific researches linguoculturologists strive to constantly refine
the terminology of the young science linguoculturology. Because of this, various
researchers, focusing on certain aspects of the linguoculturological notions,
create terms with a lot of common ground. On one hand, it enriches and deepens
the research observations, but on the other hand, it is a perquisite for a lack of
terminological consistency, which we believe prevents the understanding of this
matter and is a setback when establish a uniform terminology.

40
 CHAPTER II. FEATURES OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF REALIAS.
(ON THE SCALE OF ENGLISH AND UZBEK)

2.1. Classification of realias

Vlakhov and Florin present some of the most extensive typological

classifications of realia. Vlakhov and Florin1 seek to categorize realia in a
number of ways according to three particular criteria in their monograph,
Neperevodimoe v perevode41, and arrive at the following typologies:
1) thematic typology;
2) local typology;
3) temporal typology.
Vlakhov and Florin’s local typology of realia is quite controversial.
Confusion arises from the fact that occasionally they seem to regard realia as an
absolute category - that is, a category that may be examined in a monolingual
context, with no regard to translation. Viewed from this angle, realia cease to be
instances of lexical gaps and become merely a more or less stable thematic class
within the lexicon of a particular language. That being said, it might be useful to
look into their classification, as this may help me to better define the boundaries
of realia as a concept as well as to develop a new typology that may give some
insight into how certain types of realia are linked to specific translation
procedures. Vlakhov and Florin emphasize that the term “local typology” is
somewhat arbitrary because realia are grouped by the scholars into specific
categories not strictly on the local basis, but rather according to the two
inextricably intertwined criteria:
a. National origin of the realia’s referent;
b. Language pair involved.
The scholars then offer two types of classification - with regard to one
language and with regard to two languages:
A. With regard to one language:
41
The Untranslatable in Translation
41
 1) Original (the language’s own realia);
2) Foreign (realia alien to this particular language).
These categories are rather ambiguous as they suggest a discussion of realia
not as a translation problem, but as a lexical class within one particular language
where various original and borrowed culture-specific words coexist. Thus, to
illustrate a language’s own realia, Vlakhov and Florin use самовар, боярин,
совет, комсомолец as examples of Russian original realia, and ale and heath -
as English realia. Uzbek lexemes as chuchvara, manti, sandal, suri, mahsi, to’n
are realia examples. The scholars point out that it might be difficult
to recognize realia that are part of one’s own culture in a text. However, it is not
quite clear when and why the issue of recognition might arise unless it is
translation we are concerned with. In case of translation, however, whether a
translator works from or into his/her mother tongue, realia are not particularly
difficult to recognize, as they lack readily available counterparts in the target
language (TL).
Leaning on the specifies of translation- «means of communication on the
surface of two languages»-and logical consistence of translation process. One
may say that most expedient basis of such division is not represented strictly
local, that‘s extra linguistic, more probably language principle which allows to
examine the realias .
1) On the surface of one language, that‘s own and alien.
2) On the surface of two languages, that‘s internal and external.
Depending on the width of area own realias may be national, local or micro
local and alien ones- international and regional. In this way our scheme of
division on place and language acquires the following shape:
A)On the surface of one language:
1. Own realias:
a)national b)local c)micro local
2.Alien realias:
a)international b)regional
42
 B)On the surface of two languages:
1) Internal 2) external
On the surface of one language realia represents the lexical unit with
qualities pointed out above. Here the first practical question concerns its
recognition in the initial language, and besides it‘s more difficult to recognize
own realias42.
1. Own realias are mostly root(native) words of present language, such as
English «heet» (health-marshy place), «ale»(bright English beer); Russian
«самоваp», «боярин», «комсомолец»; Bulgarian «bucklisa»(original form of
dish or vine), «kaval» (national wind instrument like pipes); German «burger»
«choirige» (Hewrigefresh vine and festival in Vienna connected with it),
«вермахт»(Wehrmacht), Uzbek:mahalla, hashar, chopon, do‘ppi, palov.
2. Alien realias are either borrowing, that‘s the words of foreign language
orogin, entered the language word-stock, or tracing-papers that‘s morphemic or
word for word translation of alien nomination for objects of present nation, or
transcribed relias of another language often occasionalizms and neologisms.
B) On the surface of two languages the realias are examined from the point of of
view of translation. Besides, this problem is closely connected with
lexicography and any comparative study of language.
By national realias they understand the objects belonging to present nation,
people, but alien out of the country; this is the overwhelming majority of realias,
all the more that national belonging of referent is one of the categorical signs of
realia at all. But there is an exception; therefore the title «national realias» must
not be considered pleonasm. Having national realias in the text now and then it
will be enough to give rise to association, connected with nation and country.
The national realia is an initial point for local division: before becoming
international or regional it had to have a national character: local and micro -
local realias in that or other degree also have a national coloring43. Regional

42
McCrum; Robert MacNeil, William Cran “The Story of English” the University of California ,1986
43
www.cl.cam.ac.uk
43
realias we call those, which crossed the borders of one country or spread among
some nations, usually together with referent, being, this component of
vocabulary of some languages. In this attitude the units are typical which E. M.
Vereshagin and Kostomarov44 collected to the seventh groups of their
classification: «The words of not Russian, origin so-called turkizms,
mongolisms, ukrainizms, and etc. which «might be called twice without
equivalent: at first they didn‘t have equivalents from the point of view of foreign
languages with reference to Russian».
A group of Latin American realias, African realias, a group of realias of
English speaking countries also belong to the regional realias. In this attitude the
location of some Bulgarian national realias is peculiar. As a result of long
development of the language in proximity with Turkic and Arabian most of our
realias turned to be in one region on one hand with the realias of soviet nations
and on the other hand with the realias of Arabian countries of Asia and Africa
Compare, for example, such Uzbek national realias as «usta» (master), «imom»;
Kirgizian-mulla, ayran ; Algirian-kus-kus, kadi, myuftiya. International realias,
as the term itself shows:
1) figure in the vocabulary of many languages and entered the corresponding
vocabularies;
2) usually keep the intial national color either. If to take into consideration
the most typical sign of any realias- national coloring, the combination of
the word «realia» with epithet itself seems contradictory rejecting this
national stipulation.
And nevertheless «it happens so that exotic words deviated from the
framework of one language and spread in number of languages, become
international words». One more peculiarity of international realias: their
contents may differ from the primary, initial one. Again that «ковбой»

44
Верещагин Е.М., Костомаров В.Г. Язык и культура: “Лингвострановедение в преподавании русского
языка как иностранного” Методическое руководство. — 4-е изд., перераб. и доп. — М.: Русский язык,
1990. — 246 с.

44
etimologically (cow+boy) and by essence-«пастух, гуртовшик» (in the south)
southwest of the USA), not more; its difference from other herdsmen is that it is
a horse herdsman though not only cowboys may be horse herdsman. But
everywhere where there is no cowboy, they almost lost their pastoral mode of
life having turned into «fearless adventurer», «heroes» of countless American
films - westerns and adventure romans.
Microlocal realias-quite conventional term, which we mean such realias
whose social or territorial basis is very narrow local: the word may be typical for
one city or village, not loosing its peculiarities and consequently, demanding the
same approach during translation. Generalizing the facts about local division of
realia, we‘d like to underline some conventionality of all divisions in the sense,
that not infrequently one and the same unit may be with the same realia taken to
different headings. Obviously, familiarity /unfamiliarity of alien realias and the
degree of mastering-index closely connected with temporary factor play role in
more accurate definition.45
When it comes to the second category - realia alien to a particular language
- Vlakhov and Florin46 essentially discuss loanwords that are not fully
assimilated in a given language and retain some of their exotic touch: e.g.
брынза and бизнес for Russian, and sputnik for many European languages.
Apart from the obvious update that бизнес has now become an unmarked
frequent word in Russian and is certainly not regarded as alien. Main argument
for dismissing the distinction between original and foreign realia may be
summarized as such: in the present study, realia are regarded as a relative rather
than an absolute category, which presents a theoretical interest in translation
studies only when analyzed comparatively in a given pair of target language
(TL) and source language (SL). Denoting unique objects of a particular culture,
realia do indeed constitute a more or less stable lexical group in relation to most
languages.
45
Internet source
46
Vlakhov, Sergei and Florin, Sider (1986/2012) Neperevodimoe v perevode, 2nd edition,
Moscow: Valent.
45
 Of greater importance to translation studies (as well as lexicography and
contrastive linguistics) is the second part of Vlakhov and Florin’s local typology
where they classify realia in respect to language pairs by adopting Berkov’s47
terminology:
B. With regard to a language pair:
1) external realia;
2) internal realia.
As far as international realia are concerned, Vlakhov and Florin50
emphasize two aspects of these:
1) they feature in the lexicon of a great number of languages; and
2) at the same time, they retain some of their original national color. Examples
of Russian “international realia” might include: водка, царь, самовар, Совет,
пирог, борщ, большевик, степь, рубль, копейка, интеллигенция. As these
words adjust to the phonetic, orthographic and grammatical rules of a recipient
language, they may take on slightly different forms in different languages.
S.Vlakhov and S.Florin48 noted that, the units on custom and traditions
organize the main part of ethnographic realia, there has got a lot of realia-
singular which connected with food names in the ethnographic realia and these
foods and food names are ascertain to compare another cultural food and food
names.
The realia-singulars "osh" in Uzbek culture and "roast meat" in English
culture are analysed and compared, and these realia-singulars are described as
important singulars of the respective cultures. In order to compare these
singulars, the same and distinct sides in Uzbek and English cultures will be
determined. In Uzbek culture, the dishes are very important. They become an
inseparable part of the Uzbek nation, and their ability to create foods improves.
In Uzbek culture, osh (palov) is a type of national food. "Osh" is a thick meal
made of rice, oil, pork, and carrots. First of all, it is fried in cooking pot, then is
47
Berkov, Valerii P. (1973) Voprosy dvuiazychnoi leksikografii, Leningrad: Izdatel’stvo Leningradskogo
universiteta.
48
Влахов С., Флорин С. Непереводимое в переводе. М.: Высш. шк., 1986.
46
boiled with water and steamed49 . This realia-singular appears realia in English
culture since there is no such thing as a singular in English culture. This dish has
become so ingrained in Uzbek society that it is impossible to fathom living
without it. This realia-singular has a full national flavor and stands out among
other national dishes; in other words, preparing it has reached cult status. Almost
all of Uzbek culture's ceremonies and rites are performed in Osh realia-
singular50:
a) the ceremonies 51and rites tied up born : beshik to‘yi (beshik wedding,
beshik is also realia in English culture, the ceremony, which new born baby puts
in to beshik), aqiqa (the rite and feast, when new born baby will be seventh/
fourteen/ twenty first daily);
b) the ceremonies and rites tied up living activity: idishqaytdi (the
ceremony when boy and girl engage, girl’s family send dasturxon (dasturxon is
large dishes plate and it covered with tablecloth, it’s also realia in English
culture) to engaged boy’s family, after that boy’s family resend the certain
dasturxons), kelinsalom (ceremony in which a new bride greets the members of
her husband’s family after wedding day); kelintushdi (ceremony in which for
coming the bride to husband’s home, wedding, celebration); molyoyar
(ceremony for women wherein a new bride displays the chattel she has brought
with her), molyig‘ar (gathering for women held the certain days after the
molyoyar); charlar (ceremony in which after the wedding day bride’s family
and relatives go to the groom’s home as the guest, then groom’s family and
relatives also go bride’s home as the guest); chillaguzaron (ceremony in when
bride give birth a new baby, she visit as a guest to her family home or other
close relatives after 40 days);

49
Ўзбек тилининг изоҳли луғати. Тошкент: Ўзбекистон Миллий Энсиклопедияси, 3 том. 2006. Б.214.
50
Ўзбек тилининг изоҳли луғати. Тошкент: Ўзбекистон Миллий Энсиклопедияси, 2006. The following
examples and their explanations are taken this source.
51
Сeremonies and rites are divided of that sort by author.
47
c) the rites tied up death: yil oshi (the rite in after someone’s death, usually gives
osh to people in ninth month or eleven month), so osh realia-singular is an
important meal at these ceremonies and rites.
It is undeniable that osh realia-notion is connected to all elements of Uzbek
life, such as birth, living activity, and death, and because this realia-singular
does not exist in English culture, osh realia-singular is realia in English.
In Uzbek culture, there is no such thing as "roast meat". "...a huge chunk of
beef that has been roasted in an oven or over a fire"52. This dinner is regarded as
a king feast in the United Kingdom, and it plays an important position in their
celebrations and festivities. As a result, in English, this realia-singular appears as
a realia. The rise of roast meat as the "king meal" has been attributed to the rainy
climate; it is linked to livestock breeding and raising, so there are differences
across borders: roast beef (the meat that is roasted on fire) in England and
Northern Ireland, roast lamb in Scotland, and roast chicken in Wales.
Typically, the British have a separate dinner for ceremonies and holidays
and a separate meal for everyday life. For British folks, fish and chips are an
everyday meal. Fish and chips are a dish made out of fish and long, thin potato
slices fried in very hot oil. The British eat this meal frequently, and it is
considered a meal to eat while traveling. In Uzbek culture, fish and chips do not
exist. As a result, it forms a realia-singular in English, and this realia-singular
becomes a realia in Uzbek.
In Uzbek daily life, ceremonies, and festivals, Osh is immensely popular.
As a result, there are cultural differences from English culture. Because in
English culture, fish and chips are for everyday life while roast beef is for
holidays and rituals. The occurrence of this condition in English culture has
resulted in the formation of two realia in Uzbek.
According to the temporal criterion, Vlakhov and Florin53 distinguish
between two large groups of realia:

52
Macmillan English Dictionary. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2002. P.1229.
53
Vlakhov, Sergei and Florin, Sider (1986/2012) Neperevodimoe v perevode, 2nd edition, Moscow: Valent.
48
 1) modern;
2) historical.
The scholars do not specify where to draw the line between these two
classes, but from their further discussion of realia it becomes clear that
“historical” covers all realia designating objects and phenomena, which date
back to the time before the October Revolution. Without making an explicit
attempt to lay down a more detailed classification, the authors nevertheless
indicate that Russian realia might belong to different epochs of Russian history:
the pre-revolutionary years (губерния, уезд), the time of Ivan the Terrible
(опричник, земщина), early Soviet times (раскулачивание, нэпман), etc. Both
their general temporal classification and further distinction between various
epochs are not very specific. The scholars, for instance, do not comment on
cases in which realia “travel through time” - that is, while dating back to the
early history of Russia, they are still widely used in modern language (e.g.
валенки, студень, полушубок, масленица). Moreover, it is not quite clear
what implications their typology has for translation strategies. Baraz (smaller
flat area at the top of a mountain), bo’ktar (foothills), qo’l (stream), qasaba
(town), qora suv (spring water), chordara (guard booth), hasor (fortress)
geographical terms are examples of Uzbek realias54.
The thematic classification of realia is the most extensive and detailed one
among Vlakhov and Florin’s typologies55. It was developed primarily for the
purpose of showing the semantic variety of realia, but also as an attempt to
reveal how the semantic field of a given realia might be linked to the specific
procedures used by translators to render it. Apart from that, the typology
provides a possible template for how the discussion of this translationresistant
vocabulary could be structured. Vlakhov and Florin56 group realia into three big
categories:

54
Z ohid M adrahim ov. T arixiy toponim ika (o 'quv qo ‘llanma) / «N avro’z» nashriyoti. -Toshken t, 2017. 128
бет.
55
Vlakhov, Sergei and Florin, Sider (1980) Neperevodimoe v perevode, Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia.
56
Vlakhov, Sergei and Florin, Sider (1986/2012) Neperevodimoe v perevode, 2nd edition, Moscow: Valent.
49
 I. geographic realia,
II. ethnographic realia,
III. sociopolitical realia.
Certainly, the typology proposed below is just one of many ways to
classify realia. This lexis could be organized into more general classes or, on the
contrary, the classes may be further particularized, depending on what semantic
features one wishes to bring into focus.
Geographic realias.
1. The names of objects of physical and also meteorology: prairie , desert,
dasht, cho‘l57; valley; tornado58;
2. The names of geographical objects connected with human activity: well,
pond, ditch58, soy, sel, jilg’a, aryk;
3. The names of endemics : kiwi, koala, jaguar, galapagoss, kangaroo, tog’
echkisi;
The realias of geographical groups specially the names of objects of
physical geography and meteorology and the names of endemics are more terms
than realias; therefore we can‘t limit them exactly. For instance: prairie, desert.
It is a type of vegetations. In Hungary they are called «pushta» (typical realia).
Prairies of North America are subdivided into meadow prairies (also realias)
South American prairie desert is called «pampa» (typical realia).It appears that
«step» is not a realia but a term; its types-prairie, pushta and pampa are realias.
As a geographical conception «step» entered the other langage by transcription,
that‘s more typical way of transference for terms than realias.59
All these point to the extremely usteady limits of geographic realias and the
necessity especially an individual approach to their transference during
translation; one has to take into consideration a great number of indexes; the
statistics of dictionaries (also the absence of statistics) the degree of
«familiarity» and «diffusion» of both the word itself and its referent, coloring
57
Ўзбек тилининг изоҳли луғати. Тошкент: Ўзбекистон Миллий Энсиклопедияси, 3 том. 2006.
58
Macmillan English Dictionary. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2002. P.1229
59
www.allbest.ru
50
and context, the degree of «elucidation» of words in th text which is being
translated.60
Ethnic objects:
A) ethnonymy : anar,рембранка,казах;
B) nicknames(usually funny or offensive): горилла,хохол,бош,фриц,янки;
C) names of persons by domicile: габровец,аверниц,абердинец,кариока;
Measures and money:
A) Measures units: hound, yard, foot; десятина, кварта, баррель; чорак,
чакирим.
B) Pecuniary units:rouble, dollar, frank, dinar, so‘m, tanga;
Administrative-territorial units:
A)County-графство, state-штаты, department, tuman, viloyat-province;
B)Populated areas: aul, block-mahalla, village-qishloq, guzar.
C)Parts of populated areas:row-ряд, kreml-кремлъ,корзо, медина, форум ,
агора.
Organs and bearers of power (authority):
A)Organs of authority:Parliament; congress, sporting, duma, Oliy majlis,
yuqori palata.
B)bearers of authority: lord, king, queen,captain, xon, bek, amir, devon,vazir.
Social-political life:
A)Political organizations and political parties: Ku-Klux-Klan, vigs, перонисты,
торилар. B) Patriotic and public movements (and their figures): Fatkh, Hamas,
Taliban, partizanlar, Qizil yarimoy. C) Social appearances and movements(and
their representatives): business, publicision, kibic(German), kibik(Vulg).
D)Ranks, degrees, titles, treatments:Bachelor, prince, Mr, Mrs, sir, Madam,
baron, graf, knyaz, lord, gersog, xonim, afandi, taqsir. E) Offices: British
Council, Ministry, state department, European Commission, Vazirlik,
Hokimiyat. F) Educational institutions and cultural institutions: campus,
lyceum, college, madrasa. G) Estates(and their members): grand, gentry, unker,
60
https://en.wikipedia.org
51
samuray, braxman, мужик, shayx, bek, to‘ra, mirza, pir. H) Estated signs and
symbols:UNION JACK, Yarimoy.
Military realias:
A)Subunits:legion, a hundred, legia, falanga, qo‘shin, o‘nlik, yuzlik. B)Weapon :
bomb, gun, dagger-xanjar,to‘qmoq, palaxmon. C)Uniform:civer,mentic,
chakmon. D)Serving soldiers(and commanders):captain, unter,ataman,
yuzboshi, sardor, mongboshi, mirshab, bakovul.
At the end of subject classification we‘d like to remind that further
distribution on place and time concerns the same realias, but examined from the
other point of view.
Nedergaard-Larsen61 also distinguishes four different types. She divides
realia into geographical, historical, social and cultural terms but they can be
divided into smaller subgroups, respectively. Table 1 below from Nedergaard-
Larsen shows the realia types. The first column of the table includes the four
main categories. The subcategories for each are represented in the middle
column and in the last column the subcategories are described more specifically,
even though the description is not exhaustive. For example, the geography
category includes mountains and rivers, but naturally also seas, lakes, roads, etc.
belong to it.
Table 1 Extralinguistic culture-bound problem types:

61
Nedergaard-Larsen, Birgit 1993 “Culture-bound problems in subtitling.” Perspectives: Studies in
Translatology 2: 207–241.
52
 To illustrate table 1 I give examples of Uzbek realia from each category.
Chinoz, Chotqol, Zomin, Ugam and Qurama are geographical realia. Bibi-
Khanym Mosque, Ulugh Beg’s observatory, The Kalyan Minaret and Lyabi-
Hauz are historical realia. Sandal, boloxona, qudaxola, ovsin, chanqovuz,
xudoyi are examples of cultural realia.

2.2. The role of realias in intercultural communication

Nowadays, both Uzbek and foreign linguists pay a lot of attention to the
study of ‘specific vocabulary’; however, there is still no prevailing view on this
subject. Moreover, there are opposing views on the concept of ‘realia or culture
bound word’, and this term is used by many authors with different meanings.
The problem of translating culture-bound words in journalistic texts is one
of the most difficult tasks facing not only the reader but also the translator; this
issue at the same time attracts the attention of many linguists and theorists of
translation. Since this task is associated with a number of heterogeneous
elements, that is the translation aspect of the country studies, the culture of the
53
translator, the background knowledge of the reader of the translation in
comparison with the usual perception and psychology of the reader of the
original. The study of realias used in the texts of modern newspapers and
magazines clearly demonstrates the processes of language development. The
analysis of language peculiarities of mass media reveals the problems of
language functioning in the modern world, as well as its use in men’s
intellectual and practical activities. Thus, the research into different strategies
and procedures employed for translating different realias of mass media is an
important component in the study of language and culture.
It is known that in any historical period, when the cultures of two different
countries meet there are unexpected difficulties in transferring the meanings of
words that are not familiar to another culture. The question is how to fully
understand the sacral meaning of the word, which belongs to the culture of the
other ‘obscure’ country. In this regard, distinct elements can be singled out; they
include, first of all, objects, and phenomena, designated by the concept of
‘realia’. 62
The researchers draw our attention to the fact that the problem of translating
culture-bound words does not lie in possibility or impossibility to translate
realias, but the problem is how to do it. The authors propose two strategies of
translating such words, that is, transcription and translation.
The proper translation is regarded as a creation of neologisms by means of
calque, partial calque, adaptation, semantic shifting of an existing word. The
approximate translation includes substitution with a generic expression or a
more specific term, functional analogue, description, explanation, interpretation;
contextual translation63.
A.V. Fedorov believes that it is not right to talk about ‘translation’ of
realias, because realia is an extralinguistic concept and cannot ‘be translated’;
we can talk about the translation of the names of realias (culture-bound words or
62
V.L. Lavrukhina, “On the Question of Translating Realias,” Russian Philology: Bulletin of H.S. Skovoroda
Kharkiv National Pedagogical University, No. 1-2, pp. 47-50, 2013
63
S. Vlahov, and S. Florin, “The Untranslatable in Translation”. Moscow: R.Valent, 2012.
54
word-realias). A.V. Fedorov offers four ways of translating culture-bound
words, namely transliteration or transcription (full or partial); creation of a new
word, a compound word or a word combination; approximate translation;
translation with a more specific term (hyponym)64.
Translating culture-specific items is a hard task for the translators. Our
world is diverse. Our cultures are different; therefore sometimes it is a challenge
to translate culture specific items from the source text into the target text.
According to E. Nida65, “Translating is a complex and fascinating task”. In order
to make the process of translation easier, various translation strategies are
applied. What is more, sometimes translators have to apply more than one
translation strategy in order to translate culture specific item. Lithuanian
66
researcher O. Armalytė presents three translation strategies for translating
words with cultural implications:
 Hyponimic translation
 Descriptive–explanatory translation
 Analogical translation
Hyponimic translation it is a translation by a more general or abstract word,
for example, baravykas can generally be translated as mushroom. O. Armalytė89
adds that hyponimic translation (or generalization) can be used with
67
transliteration. Lithuanian scholar J. Mikutytė calls this strategy
generalization, while M. Danytė 68 uses the term globalization.
For translating cultural realia, it is possible to use such translation strategy as

64
A.V.Fedorov, “Fundamentals of the General Theory of Translation(Linguistic Problems)”. St. Petersburg:
Faculty of Philology of St.Petersburg State University; Moscow: LLC Publishing House Philology three, 2002
65
Nida, E.A. 2003. Language and culture. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press.
66
Armalytė, O. 1986. Lietuviškų žodžių realijų vertimas į anglų kalbą. Vilnius: VUleidykla.
67
Maksvytytė, J., 2012. Sąvokų realija ir realijos pavadinimas apibrėžimo problema. Studies about Languages
21, pp.50–56, [Online]
68
Danytė, M. 2006. “Lithuanian Translation of Canadian Literature. The Translation of Cultural Realia”.
Darbai ir dienos 45: 195-213.

55
descriptive–explanatory translation. O. Armalytė89 explains that “Original word
is often translated using word expressions which describe realia”. The researcher
provides an example to illustrate this translation strategy: kraitvežys - man who
carries the bridge’s dowry chest. According to Lithuanian researcher J. Mikutytė
this strategy can also be called paraphrasing.
The researcher J. Mikutytė 90 distinguishes the following translation strategies:
 Borrowing
 Calque translation
 Functional analogue
 Deletion/Omission
 Notes and additions
 Original writing/Preservation
For translating cultural realia, it is possible to use such translation strategy
69
as borrowing. It must be said that M. Baker calls this strategy using a loan
70
word, while P. Newmark calls this strategy transference. The aim of this
strategy is to take the source language word into the target language. P.
Newmark claims that “The argument in favor of transference is that it shows
respect for the SL country’s culture”.
So called calque translation is one more translation strategy for culture
specific items. J. Mikutytė 90 distinguishes the other translation strategy which is
called semicalque. According to researcher, calque occurs when the syllabic or
literal part of the compound word is translated, e.g. iceberg - ledkalnis, while
semi-calque occurs when a word consists of a part of a source language word
and a part of a target language word.
The next translation strategy is called functional analogue. The outstanding

69
Baker, M. 1992. In Other Words: A Course book on Translation. London: Routledge.
70
Newmark, P. 1998. A Textbook on Translation. London and New York: Prentice Hall.

56
researcher M. Baker 91
calls this strategy a translation by cultural substitution
90
while O.Armalytė 89
calls this strategy analogical translation. Mikutytė
explains that in order to translate realia the translator can choose similar word
which can arouse similar associations. Deletion is a translation strategy often
used by translators while translating realia. The researcher M. Baker 91
uses the
90
term “omission” in order to illustrate this translation strategy. J. Mikutytė
claims that omissions are possible only then when realia is accidental and it does
not have cultural coloring.
The influence of culture on translation activities is mainly reflected in
two aspects: the scope and mode of national culture determining the translation
activities, and the influence of culture on the process of translation.
(1) The national culture determines the scope and mode of translation
activities. Translation as an activity, whether it can happen, how large the scale
it is and what areas it involves are related to many aspects of the target language
culture, especially with the conscious culture (or spiritual culture, conceptual
culture). Among them, the degree of national psychological openness has great
constraints on translation activities. The higher the openness of a nation is in the
ideology, the more conducive to the development of the translation activities.
(2) The influence of culture on the process of translation.
On the one hand, the influence of culture on the process of translation is
reflected in the translators' view of the translation of the times. Translation is the
conversion of two languages. Understanding is of great importance, but the final
result of translation is to be expressed. As a cultural individual, it is sometimes
impossible to realize that we are affected by the culture. Therefore, in spite of
the efforts to overcome the subjective factors in the process of translation, the
result is still imprinted with the culture of the target language. Many problems in
the theory of translation are related to "how to express". As the servant of the
two masters, the choice of the translator is often unconsciously influenced by
many cultural factors. When absorbing foreign cultures (including language and
Culture), the translator's attitude is open or conservative, which has a great
57
influence on the content and style of the translation. Translation is a
transformation between different languages, so absorbing foreign language is
not only necessary but also inevitable.
Writers and poets represent specific features of their people‘s life such as
natural conditions, geographical location, historical development, social as well
as political structure, the tendency of social thought, science, and art in their
works. Literary translations are as bridge between countries and nations usually
transforms of certain nation’s culture, traditions, and most importantly,
recognizes the representative of that country, helps nations become closer and
get to know each other better71. Moreover, heterogeneous functions of literary
translation, in the sense of ideological framework, lead to an essential
importance in the social, political and cultural context, and translation was
utilized for different purposes by different agents in the literary process in the
Soviet Empire. Thus, literary translations play an important role: 1) in the
recognition of the nation in the social and political context; 2) in the
development of the people from spiritual and cultural point; 3) in learning the
world from different point of colors and points.
One of the most difficult problems in literary translation is specific cultural
items, which could include objects, historical references, customs and habits, in
other words all the specific things of certain people. In the theory of translation
word and expressions for culture-specific material elements represented in a
certain nation’s literary text calls Realia. Translating of realia in short stories has
always been a problematic issue because it involves figurative meanings of
texts, idioms, similes, culture-specific items and other either linguistics or
cultural units that make the task of a translator challenging. Besides, translating
culturally marked words from one language into another also demand from
translator skillfulness, knowledge, experience. Yet the translators as well as
readerships’ cultural backgrounds always play a major role in the translation
71
Florin, S. (1993). Realia in translation. In P Zlateva (Ed.), Translation as Social Action. Russian and
Bulgarian Perspective. (122-128)

58
process. Through the translations which have done from the world literature,
especially Arabic, Persian, English, French and German Uzbek literature
developed and enlarged its directions, style, as well as its own topic and a
number of remarkable works on national principles has been created by Uzbek
writers. Yet because in academic and literary circles, translation is sometimes
seen as not as serious or important as other spheres of scholarship; lack of
literary translation acts as a cultural “iron curtain” around a country such as
Uzbekistan; as most, translations done by Uzbek specialists are published in
Uzbekistan, there are restricted opportunities for foreign readers to reach these
books; translations done by native speakers are often unsuccessful as it is
difficult for them to understand specific words and realia related to Uzbek
people’s customs and habits the Uzbek Literature have stayed out of the world
literary context. As a result, neither classics of Uzbek literature such as Alisher
Navai, Zahirriddin Mukhammad Babur, Abdulla Qodiriy nor modern have been
placed in the international world libraries or aren’t included in World Literature
anthologies. The aim of the present paper is threefold: 1) to claim how the
literary translations transform political ideas of different agenda; 2) to revise
translation’s quality done from Uzbek into English through theoretical
observations 3) to discuss the main problems regarding to understand
emotional-expressive, cultural nature and extra linguistic context of Uzbek
literary text done by Uzbek professional translators and native speakers. 4) to
present the results of a study based on the translation of realia that relied on
cultural aspects, in order to analyze the different translation
procedures used by professional translators and scholars.
The Problem of Conveying an Extra Linguistic Context in Uzbek
Translations Uzbek literature has never been included in the anthology of the
World literature which is taught across the World universities and readers of
Worldwide have no exposure to Uzbek or any Central Asian culture. During the
Cold War scholars translated literature from Central Asia, but these were only
read by specialists and never reached the public. In addition, during the Cold
59
War scholars such as Edward Allworth translated literature from Central Asia,
but these were chosen for ideological rather than literary reasons and were only
read by a handful of political specialists72. Most of Uzbek writings translated
into different languages, including English, by experienced specialists, young
native speakers who know the language well and have a direct access to the
original texts are published in Uzbekistan and there are restricted opportunities
for foreign readers to reach these books. Moreover, English translations of
Uzbek literature by native speakers of English are often unsuccessful, as it is
difficult for them to understand specific words and realia which are related to
Uzbek people’s customs and habits, local and historical feature of the nation,
emotional-expressive, cultural nature and extra linguistic context of the text.
However, specific cultural words play an important role in entirely having good
translations. One should be emphasized that the inexperience in choosing a good
work for translation is also the reason why Uzbek literature is not popular
among readers around the world. Because “it is natural that in every national
literature there are works of different levels, in ideologically unfavorable
directions of the people or in genres that are completely incompatible with the
mentality of the Uzbek (any kind of the nation - ZM) people73.
Realia (plural noun) are words and expressions for culture-specific material
elements. The word realia come from Medieval Latin, in which it originally
meant “the real things”, i.e. material things, as opposed to abstract ones. Realia
should be a real thing (like object) related to any nation’s culture and in this
meaning, the word signifies the objects of the material culture. In this meaning
above mentioned the word realia signify as an object of the material culture. One
of famous Bulgarian scholar Florin Sider generalizes the term realia as “words
and combinations of words denoting objects and concepts that are characteristic
of the way of life, culture, social and historical development of one nation and

72
Mirzaeva, Z. (2011). XX asr o‘zbek adabiyotining Amerikada o‘rganilishi. (Studying 20th Century Uzbek
Literature in America), vol.1. Fan.
73
Sirojiddinov, Sh., Odilova. (2011). G. Badiiy tarjima asoslari (Fundamentals of literary translation). Mumtoz
so’z.
60
alien to another. Since they express local and/or historical features, they have no
exact equivalents in other languages”.74
Florin’s view confirms that feature of realia means not only single real
object but it also shows a certain concept relating to one’s nation’s culture.
I.Ischhenko in his research on “Difficulties while translating realia” also says
that “ the field of translation studies, a radical terminological change must be
enforced: «realia», in fact, does not mean objects, but signs, words and, more
precisely, those words signifying objects of the material culture, especially
pertainingto a local culture”75. According to Ischhenko, it is necessary to
distinguish realia-objects and realia-word. From the aforementioned views
claimed by the world scholars I can say that realia do not have a single meaning
and all these various approaches to realia lead to paradoxical conclusions.
Translating XX Century’s Uzbek Literature into English also brought a
number of problems as long as it is quite different from the traditional classic
literature in the style, exposition as well as in language. Modern writers have
been producing new kinds of literary works through new directions such as
symbolism, modernism, postmodernism, neo-modernism, syncretism, etc.,
which have been the leading tendencies in world literature in the 20th century. It
is a full of realia, ambiguity, connotations which can produce a number of
different meanings. Especially depiction of the religious truth, including
religious realia5 can widely be found in Uzbek Literature, in particular modern
National literature. While translating XX Century’s Uzbek Literature it wasn’t
easy to convey the concepts of Islam, special words, and religious realia to the
English reader and required translator a lot of skill besides knowing English.
The key to reflecting the realia, including religious realia in the literary text is
to understand their methodological function.
The meaning and their methodological function of realia plays an important
role in the text the best way of successfully translating them is transliteration
74
Florin, S. (1993). Realia in translation. In P Zlateva (Ed.), Translation as Social Action. Russian and
Bulgarian Perspective. (122-128)
75
Ischhenko 2012
61
(taking the letters or characters from a word and changing them into the
equivalent characters in another language). This process is concerned with the
spelling and not the sound. For instance, sandal - an Uzbek heating stove;
taroveh namaz - an evening prayer spoken only during the Month of Ramadan;
transliteration76 is largely due to the lack of equivalents in the translation
language. This is due to the fact that the two nations have different historical and
developmental socio-economic conditions and, secondly, the use of realia
brought some challenges to reader in understanding the real meaning of those
specific words. Transliteration is one of the factors that contribute to enriching
the target language. However, it would be best to comment on the interpretation
given by the translator in such a way above mentioned. In the case that realia’s
does not play an important role in transmission the author’s idea and in case of
neutral use, it is possible to give them analogy in the translated language.
In another Uzbek short story called “The Hurt of the Outskirts” (Etakdagu
kulba) by Nurulloh Otaxonov created in a symbolic way refers some religious
realias (which connected religious folktales) which played an impotant role to
express the author’s conception. For example, there is “jin ko’chalar” (demon’s
street) which is difficult to supply «adequacy» in English. Translator gives it
like “Narrow Street” thought narrow doesn’t express the real meaning of “jin”.
In most Uzbek short stories, we face realia based on family relationships. For
instance, in Tog’ay Murod’s work called “The people who walk in the
moonlight” (Oydinda yurgan odamlar) the author used a number of cultural
linguistic groups- lacunas. He depicted the spiritual feelings of real Uzbek
people who couldn’t have a baby in this story. Tog’ay Murod, a writer who
created a new way in XX century Uzbek Literature refers very specific cultural
aspect of Uzbek nations concerning national mentality, including with family
relations. While translating this cultural item was very difficult to find
appropriate version in English. We could prove our thoughts with the following
examples:
76
The Horror by Abdulla Qahhor
62
 In Uzbek:
-Quloq sol, momosi, quloq sol. Qayerdandir odam ovozi kelyapti.
Sayrak adirda yonboshla yotmish bobomiz, momomizga shunday dedilar.
Bobomiz og’izlarini angraygannamo ochdilar. O‘ng quloqlarini yellar yelmish
tarafga tutdilar. Yellar, ovozlarni yorqin olib kelmadilar. Bobomiz o‘ng
kaftlarini quloqlari sirtiga tutdilar. Elpana qildilar. Nafas olmadilar. Bor
vujudlarini berib quloq soldilar. Bobomiz shunda-da bir nimani eshitmadilar.
Chuqur tin oldilar. Bobomiz oydinga tikildilar.
- Manovi yoqdan shekilli... - dedilar. - O ‘zi vaqting xushmi, momosi? Eson-
omon yuribsanmi? To’rt muchaling butmi?
In English:
- Listen, mommy, listen. From somewhere someone's voice is heard…
Our grandfather who was lying down on the hill said these words to our
grandmother. Our grandfather surprisingly opened his mouth. He began to
listen to the side where breezes blew. But breezes did not bring the voices
clearly. So our grandfather put his palm onto his ears. He tried to protect the
audible voice from wind. He did not breathe and listened with all his heart.
Even now he could not hear anything. He inhaled fresh air.
Our grandfather glanced at moonlight in detail.
“It seems the voice is coming from this way,” he said. – Are you OK, mommy?
How is your health? Are you safe and sound?
In Uzbek language the suffix “si” expresses belonging smth or smb to
someone like her, or his, our. In this point the word “momosi” (granny) in fact
our grandmother. This kind of very specific addressing which shows respect has
already become one of active word in every Uzbek family now, like “dadasi”,
“onasi”, “buvisi”, “bobosi”. It is known that the word “father” and “mother” has
in English language. But in the families of English-speaking countries doesn’t
exist such kind of relations between couples. This calling is only exit in Uzbek
mentality and shows pleading, belonging, esteem, respect between husband and
wife. Translator wasn’t able to find adequate word of this word and “mommy”
63
undoubtedly didn’t give Togay Murod’s ideological conception and cultural
context of the text. In this case explanations could be the best way of
interpreting the cultural context of the work.
One of problematic issues in understanding specific cultural words in
literary translations is to get confused realia with other cultural elements which
serve to supply emotional-expressive, cultural nature and extra linguistic context
of the text. Extra linguistic context is a collection of information about the time,
place and real situations that the reader or the listener needs to understand the
meaning of the language. Through the understanding extra linguistic context
reader could recognize the real situations and conception of the author which
hidden in those words. Because in most cases “combinations of the meaning of
the words used in the text is not enough to comprehend extra linguistic logic”.
However, any language cannot live outside the cultural context.77
The story is narrated from the first person, sometimes switching to the
“inner dialogue” of the characters, and is full of idiomatic expressions peculiar
to the Uzbek culture and way of thinking. When describing the main character
Marina’s reflections of the past and present, the author uses words such as
“savil” and “ordona.” These words are used attributively to show one’s
disdainful attitude towards somebody or something and do not have equivalents
in English. In the story, these words are used to describe a motorbike. In one
instance, it was decided to omit the attribute altogether: “O‘tirib-o‘tirib, shu
savil mototsikl haydashni o‘rganmaganiga afsus qiladi.”-“Thinking it over,
Marina regretted that she had not learned to ride the motorbike.” In another
instance, the word was replaced with “that thing” to convey the attitude: “Anovi
ro‘paradagi pastak omborchada chang bosib, zang bosib yotgan ordonani olib
chiqib minsinmi?” “Should she take that damned dusty, rusty thing out of the
barn and ride it?” When describing Marina’s late husband Arslon, the author
uses such words as “arslondek devqomat,” “errayim,” “chapani”: These words
show both a person’s build and character, and the latter two can be difficult even
77
Lotman, U (2000). Семиосфера. (Semiosfera). Мoscow
64
for some native Uzbek speakers to explain. Another feature of “Stupka” is the
use of words and expressions used mostly by women to describe their attitude
towards somebody or something, or to replace the name of somebody or
something they have forgotten. For example: “Iya, yanchilmagan, dona dori
ekan-kubu savil!” “Unaqa matohlar nima qilsin buuyda!” “Hah, qurg‘ur, sira
tilimga kelmayapti-ya!” Usually, these expressions have to be omitted in
translation or replaced with the name of the person/thing being referred to. Here,
words like “thing” and “stuff” were used in lines such as “Oh, it’s coffee beans,
not ground!” “I don’t have that kind of stuff!” “What is that called? It’s on the
tip of my tongue!”
In conclusion, the reasons for the failure of realias in translation science
are primarily due to the fact that they do not have a good knowledge of the
traditional culture of the folklore, which are spoken in the original language, are
unaware of the national life, religious ceremonies and daily practice, and,
secondly, lack of theoretical problems related to the methods of teaching them in
English and, thirdly, the lack of a single principle of foreign religious realias in
Uzbek.
The meaning “realia” has been evaluating over the past decades and it means
not only object but also a certain cultural concept hidden in signs, words and
word expressions related to extra linguistic context of the text. There are many
difficulties in translations focused on interpreting from Uzbek into English as
long as there are big differences between English and Uzbek people’s mentality,
outlook, lifestyle, traditional items. This brings a number of challenges such as
misunderstanding the original text, in expressing cultural words in target
language. How to translate the reality is a secondary issue, but preserving the
essence of the essay, which is reflected in the reality, is one of the major
problems. Each translator takes care of this problem, depending on the
principles. The realia did not cause the ill-wishers to behave in a different
reader.

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 2.3. The analysis of realia in linguocultural aspect

Understanding the language in linguoculturology does not go beyond

general linguistic interpretations. Language for a linguoculturologist researcher
is “a certain class of sign systems” and “some real-life sign system used in a
certain society, at some time and in a certain space”. At the same time, its
functions such as epistemic (language is a form of storing knowledge about the
surrounding reality) and cognitive (language is a means of cognizing the world
around us) come to the fore. The second key concept of linguoculturology is
culture. The term, which goes back to the Latin colere - to cultivate - and was
introduced back in the 2nd century BC by Cato the Elder, currently has so many
conflicting definition that it is not possible to reduce them to any one definition.
Edward Sapir78 already explained the lack of a common interpretation by the
fact that culture is one of the “vague thought areas, the boundaries of which
shift, narrow or expand depending on the point of view of the one who uses
these terms”, and was limited to a brief description of the most established views
on the subject. The study of various kinds of correspondence between language
and culture, first of all, requires clarifying the initial concept of culture.
Currently, the most significant characteristics of culture are the following.
Firstly, culture is considered as a special social environment created by man in
the course of historical development and opposed to the natural environment:
“The concept of culture ... characterizes the human world and includes values
and norms, beliefs and rituals, knowledge and skills, customs and institutions
(including such social institutions as law and the state), language and art,
technique and technology”. A number of modern psychologists, sociologists and
anthropologists operate with a similar definition, among which, for example,
social psychologist and cross-cultural researcher Harry K. Triandis: “Culture is a
part of the environment that is created by man himself”. In this understanding,

78
Sapir, E. Culture, language and personality [E-resource / E. Sepir // Bayerishe Staats. – 1949. – URL:
https://www.bsb-muenchen.de/index.php (Date of issue 05.01.2015).

66
the concept of culture approaches the concept of civilization, which is used, in
97
particular, by Edward Sapir . Unlike Oswald Spengler and his followers, he
does not oppose culture and civilization, denoting the latter term as a set of
technological, economic and social achievements of a particular people at a
97
certain point in time. Culture, according to Sapir , expresses the unique,
national features of civilization: "culture ... can be briefly defined as civilization,
taken to the extent that it embodies the national spirit".
Secondly, a number of researchers see in culture a manifestation of the
collective, group creative activity of human communities - peoples or nations.
Such, for example, is the definition presented by the authors of the
"Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary": "Culture is a set of manifestations of
life, achievements and creativity of a people or group of peoples". With this
approach, the field of culture includes not only everything created by man and
mankind, but also natural objects that are meaningful and play a certain role in
society: “Culture is any natural phenomenon transformed by human intervention
and by virtue of this, which can be included in the social context”. Thirdly,
culture is understood as a sign system, the units of which are all objects and
phenomena of a material and non-material nature, which give meaning to certain
social groups. At the same time, the units that give meaning are defined as facts
or cultural phenomena. An object or act becomes a cultural phenomenon if it
acquires meaning; the production of meanings creates culture. According to
A.T. Khrolenko, the facts of culture, like any other signs, represent the unity of
the ideal and the material, and cultural meanings are realized in cultural codes,
which include “words, symbols, mythologemes, ideologemes, stereotypes of
behavior, rituals, signs, etc.” A highly interesting and noteworthy model of a
97
cultural-linguistic sign was proposed by Edward Sapir : “Culture can be
defined as what a given society does and thinks. Language is how people think”.
Almost all of the above interpretations of culture agree that the carriers of
culture are not so much individual individuals as large social groups - peoples,

67
ethnic groups, nations: “All human beings, or, in any case, all groups of such,
endowed with culture"
Currently, a number of studies have been carried out on the problems of
equivalence between words in translation, based on the principles of
intercultural communication. Many scholars, in particular, W. Richard79, K.
David,80 N.A. Dudareva81, L.K. Latyshev82, analyzed the culture of translation
and translation competence. The issues of gender translation were handled by
Simon Sherry83, G.I. Ergasheva.84 Such methods of translating words, including
names, in discourse, as transcription or transliteration, are becoming especially
relevant.
Cultural component in the semantics of both kinship terms and
phraseological units, paremias, figurative comparisons with kinship terms in the
composition, can be identified on the basis of knowledge not only of the exact
status and place of a person in the system of kinship relations, but also of how
this system of kinship relations functions within the framework of a specific
national culture.
It is also possible to identify linguoculturemes that contain national and
cultural features of speech behavior in strictly communicative situations
associated with certain rituals, speech behavior in everyday communication,
nationally-culturally determined ratio of verbal and non-verbal communication
components, communicative distance, communicative tactics. For example,
national and cultural features of speech behavior in a strictly ritualized

79
Watts Richard, Mythical strands in the ideology of prescriptivism. In Wright, Laura (ed.), The Development of
Standard English 1300–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 29–48, 2000
80
Katan David, Translating Cultures: An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters, and Mediators, St.
Jerome, 2004 - Social Science - 380 pages
81
Dudareva N.A. Translator in the field of professional communication and total quality management. – M.:
Flinta: Nauka, 2003. – 148 s.
82
Latyshev L.K., Technologija perevoda [Technology of translation] Moscow, Academia Publ., 2003, 192 p
83
Simon Sherry. Gender in Translation. London and New York. Routledge, 2009. – 174 s.
84
Ergasheva G.I. Comparative-typological research of gender in phraseologism and paremias of English and
Uzbek languages: Avtoref. diss. filol. fan. nom. – Tashkent, 2011. – 25 b. Fernandes, L. (2006). "Translation of
names in children's fantasy literature: Bringing the young reader into play." New Voices in Translation Studies,
2, 44-57
68
communicative situation “greeting, meeting” are manifested in the
pronunciation of speech formulas.85
In Uzbek culture:
Assalomu aleykum! Yakhshimisiz? Uydagilar yakhshimi? (then a person is
counting all relatives by name) – Hi! (verbal: Is everything all right? Is
everything alright with family?)
In British culture: Hello! Hi! How are you!
The essence of greetings in Eastern cultures is characterized by the presence
of such concepts as family, offspring, mutual respect, modesty, gratitude to
parents, caring for parents, raising offspring. And for European cultures,
greetings are characteristic that are not associated with interest in the affairs of
all relatives.Thus, the most valuable and significant are linguoculturemes of a
communicative, speech-behavioral, axiological nature, in accordance with which
the concept of linguocultureme should be significantly expanded. Since a
linguocultureme is a unit of language, it can be considered to be a
communicative unit. Knowledge and understanding of linguocultureme as a
significant unit of linguoculturology allows us to avoid misunderstanding,
uncertainty, doubts about the adequacy of perception and evaluation of what we
heard, read or seen, removing many issues of intercultural communication.
The linguistic picture of the world is different for different nations. In the
process of activity, a subjective reflection of the existing world appears in the
human mind. A person learns the language in the same way as the surrounding
reality; at the same time, along with the logical, conceptual picture of the world,
a linguistic picture arises, which does not contradict the logical picture, but does
not coincide with it. The linguistic picture of the world has a twofold nature: it
belongs to the system of consciousness and the system of language. As W. von
Humboldt justly noted, language influences the formation of a system of
concepts and a system of values. These functions, as well as the ways of forming

85
Vorobyov V.V., 2007; Telia V.N., 2003; 31-67; Djumanova D.R., 2013; Krasnykh V.V., 2002.
69
concepts using language, are considered common to all languages. The
differences are based on the uniqueness of the spiritual appearance of peoples –
the speakers of languages, but the main dissimilarity of languages among
themselves is in the form of the language itself, in the means of expressing
thoughts and feelings86. So, W. von Humboldt considered the “vision” of
language as an understanding of the world, a vision of the world, arguing that
each specific language creates a special holistic individual model of reality.
If we proceed from the ideas of W. von Humboldt, the entire national language
can be understood as an integral linguistic picture of the world. In this case, each
person has not only his own position in the vision of the world, but also a certain
set of linguistic means for representing its worldview.
Cognition of reality through language raises the problem of the relationship
between the universal and the nationally specific in the linguistic reflection of
the world. Each language reflects in its structure and semantics such basic
parameters of the world as time and space, perception of the surrounding world,
its assessment – the universal properties of the world model. One of the
important properties of the national linguistic picture of the world is the ratio of
universal and individual phenomena, the extent to which the fundamental
categories of being are represented in the language. At the same time, translation
plays an important role in the exchange of thoughts between different peoples
and contributes to the spread of world culture. Translational transcription is a
formal phonemic reconstruction of the original lexical unit using the phonemes
of the translating language, a phonetic imitation of the original word. Another
translation technique is transliteration, i.e. formal letter by-letter reconstruction
of the original lexical unit using the alphabet of the translating language, literal
imitation of the form of the original word. In this case, the original word in the
translated text is presented in a form adapted to the pronunciation characteristics
of the translating language, for example, Kutadgu Bilig – Kutadg’u bilig: the

86
Humboldt V. von. Selected Works on Linguistics. – M.: Progress, 2000.– 400 p.

70
Uzbek form follows partially the rules for reading the English spelling of
sounds, for example, the sounds у, а, д, and are direct analogs of the original,
and partially transforms them into approximately similar ones –in those cases
when there are no phonetic analogues in English, for example, Uzbek қ, ғ turn
into similar English k, g. For example: Khan–хан in this case, the
correspondence х is relatively consistently used to convey the sound kh. This
method of transcription is a rule of thumb for transferring Uzbek lexemes into
English.
It should be noted that the set of rules for transcription from English into
Russian has been developed quite fully, and the rules for transcription of
English-language names are reflected in many publications, including
dictionaries87, however, the rules for transcription from English into Uzbek or
from Uzbek into English are not fully developed, and, basically, translators rely
on the rules for translating transcription from English into Russian and use
similar techniques. The rules for applying transcription or transliteration to
proper names that exist in translation practice often turn out to be insufficient if
the proper name contains a symbolic semantic filling, becoming the name of an
individual person, or is used not as a name, but as, for example, a nickname,
being common noun, because it reflects the individual characteristics and
properties of the person. In such cases, in addition to transcription, or instead of
it, a combination of semantic translation with tracing is used. So, T.A. Kazakova
cites as an example the English name Chief White Halfoat, which can be
conveyed in various ways: Чиф Уайт Хафоут (transcription), Вождь Белый
Овес (semantic translation), Вождь Уайт Хафоут (mixed translation: a
combination of semantic translation and transcription).88

87
Dudareva N.A. Translator in the field of professional communication and total quality management. – M.:
Flinta: Nauka, 2003. – 148 s.
88
Kazakova T.A., Практические основы перевода. English ↔ Russian, Союз, 2001. — 320 с. OCR.

71
 Sometimes proper names are literally translated. Here are examples of the
translation of proper names into English of the work of Yusuf Khass Hajib:
 "Kutadgubilig" (“Wisdom of Royal Glory”), translated by Robert
Dankoff.
 Одгурмыш – Wide Awake (букв.: Осмотрительный)
 Айтолды – Full Moon (букв.: Полная луна)
 Кюнтогды – King Rising Sun (букв.:Король поднимающегося солнца)
 Огдюльмиш – Highly Praised (букв.:Высоко восхваленный)
Proper names of persons, geographic names are used without special
interpretation, since they are not difficult to determine by context.
Linguoculturology was created at the interaction of language and culture
and is most clearly manifested in translations, where it is necessary to convey
not only the meaning of lexemes, phrases, sentences, text into another language,
but also to capture and convey the national flavor, directly related to the
customs, traditions, and culture of the people. The linguoculturological analysis
of the human factor in the language, as well as close attention to the process of
verbal communication of representatives of different cultures, allows
discovering new opportunities in the study and comprehension of a foreign
language, in the translation of literary texts. Literal translation is not always
adequate, sometimes it cannot convey the thoughts that the author of the original
text wanted to express, and for a successful translation just knowledge of two
languages is not enough, you also need to know the culture of the people, their
worldview. At the same time, if comparative grammars and bilingual
dictionaries exist and even in sufficiently detailed versions, then there are
practically no comparative reference books on the cultures of different peoples.
A translator should be equally (or almost equally) proficient in both the original
and the translating cultures, otherwise it will be difficult for him/her to translate
certain elements or entire categories of the original text in a comparative cultural
sense.

72
 The translation of lexemes reflecting the national and cultural characteristics
of the people, its mentality, causes great difficulty in their transmission, in some
cases, translators select equivalents, or transliteration is used. When transferring
names from one language to another, transcription or transliteration should be
used. In some cases, to achieve greater accuracy, transcription or transliteration
can be used as a component of a mixed translation, in parallel with tracing,
semantic translation or commentary.
As mentioned above, linguoculturology arose from the meeting of language
and culture, and it is most evident in translations, where it is necessary to convey
not only the meaning of lexemes, phrases, sentences, and texts into another
language, but also to capture and convey the national flavor, which is directly
related to the people's customs, traditions, and culture. The linguoculturological
analysis of the human factor in language, as well as close attention to the
process of verbal communication between representatives of various cultures,
opens up new possibilities in the study and comprehension of a foreign
language, as well as in the translation of literary texts.

Outcomes of chapter II
Chapter II deals with analyze of the features of the classification of realias
on the scale of English and Uzbek. The use of realia is vast which is only limited
by your imagination and possibly practicality too. Using realia stimulates the
mind and makes the vocabulary more memorable than a picture or sound would.
Students can, touch, smell, and with a food item, taste i. Realia saves time, as
recognition of an object is offen immediate; elicitation of idea becomes much
easier as simply holding up the object with a raised eyebrow, will usually result
in the desired concept being taught.
Depending on the criteria used several classifications of realia are
distinguished in the current linguistic research.
According to the semantic fields, realia are classified into:
 toponyms, or geographical terms
73
  anthroponyms, or people's names
 zoonyms, or animal names
 military terms
 tradition and customs terms
 ergonyms, or names of institutions and organizations
 history terms
 words for everyday life
 titles and headlines
Ola Denti outlines three types of realia:
1. Geography
a. physical geography (pampa, fjord, mistral, steppe, tornado,
tsunami);
b. geographic objects tied to man's activity (polder);
c. endemic species (kiwi, koala, sequoia).
2. Ethnography:
a. everyday life (paprika, spaghetti, empanada, sauna, kimono);
b. work (carabinieri, concierge, machete, trade union);
c. art and culture
d. ethnic characterizations (cockney, gringo, yankee),
e. measures and money (mile, kilometer, lira, peseta, talent)
3. Politics and society
a. administrative divisions
b. organs and functions
c. political and social
d. military (cohort, phalanx, marines)
Peter Newmark suggest the classification of foreign cultural words, establishing
such categories:
1. ecology (flora, fauna, winds, climate, etc.);
2. material culture (food, clothes, houses, towns, transport;

74
3. social culture (work and leisure);
4. organizations, customs, activities, procedures or concepts
5. gestures and habits

75
 CHAPTER III. FEATURES OF TRANSLATION OF REALITIES IN
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION (IN ENGLISH AND UZBEK)

3.1. Translation of socio-political realia in English and Uzbek

There are instances of appropriation, i.e. of adaptation of foreign realia: a

word in the receiving language is created that, however, fundamentally is worn
over the frame - even from a phonemic point of view - of the original word.
A couple of examples from Vlahov and Florin's list of "political and social"
realia can clarify the kind of translation problems we are talking about: think of
how you would "translate" into your own language county, canton, princedom,
bidonville, arrondissement, suk, promenade, corso, prospekt, agora, storting,
kneset, duma, czar, doge, vizier, alcalde, ayatollah, satrap, Bürgermeister, Union
Jack, fleur de lis, and so on.
Political texts belong to the category of the special languages used in social
science, and are closely linked to the history of political thought. In political
language there are a lot of terms that related to official events and ceremonies,
historical events, recording data and facts such as highlighting important legal
and territorial changes and political events in the world, wars, treaties and
others. The political representations of different countries generally require the
use of two or more languages and therefore the languages used on the scene of
diplomacy are in permanent contact thus establishing a kind of lingua franca of
diplomacy. These scenes of diplomacy are relations with third countries and
international organizations, international forums and nonpolitical events with
international impact.
Political text and terminology have the following functions:
1. Expressive function that expresses aims;
2. Objective function that aims to influence people’s thinking and their actions;
3. Symbolic function meaning that thoughts and feelings are expressed by
political symbols.

76
 According to those functions in the sphere of political texts there are a lot of
terms which can have different meanings in English language and without a
doubt in the process of written translation translators come across difficulties not
only to translate but also to understand them. Although translators function to a
certain extent as editors - they clarify the text and make it acceptable to a new
audience - they must not attempt to correct what they perceive to be errors in the
text. If tempted to do so, they would be advised to introduce any disagreements
they may have with the original in a footnote or a translator’s introduction,
which should be as objective as possible and take the form of explanations
rather than argumentative commentaries. Social science texts in English
language have variety of meanings in the field of special science or in oral
speech of the nation. In this case translators need to clarify their multi-meanings
to create exact translation. Social terms can be associated with different field of
science such as history, linguistics, medicine and others. Social scientists who
introduce new concepts usually express them in words or phrases devised
expressly for the purpose. After widely accepted, they become technical terms.
Texts in the natural sciences and technical texts resemble those in the social
sciences in that they require of the translator an intimate knowledge of the
subject matter at hand. However, since the natural sciences deal primarily with
physical phenomena and their measurement, lexical choices tend to be cut and
dried. This phenomenon is seen in Uzbek language, too. For instance, in this
language there are such kind of terms related to different kinds of level of nation
and social science. For example, currency is not translated such as Uzbek
currency is “so‘m”, American currebcy is “dollar”, British currency is “pound”
and Indian currency is “rupee” and so on.
 Hokim is high-ranking official in the region, district, and city. He is the
head of the local representative and executive branch. The introduction of
the post of governor is based on the traditions and historical experience of
the Uzbek national statehood.

77
  Oliy Majlis -The Parliament of Uzbekistan, the highest state
representative body, the legislature. Originally established as a unicameral
parliament, it was formed on the basis of universal, equal, and direct
suffrage.
 Vazirlik - an executive body that directs a particular area in certain states.
The head of a ministry is usually a government official who is part of the
government. Ministries are formed by the supreme legislative body (e.g.,
the United States) or the head of state (e.g., France), on the basis of laws
or government acts (e.g., the United Kingdom).
 Vazir - A person who manages a specific network activity in the country
such as Sogʻliqni saqlash vaziri, Oliy va oʻrta maxsus taʼlim vaziri.
 Mahalla - administrative-territorial unit in Uzbekista; a method of self-
government inherent in the traditions and values of the Uzbek people.
 Rais - heads of certain electoral bodies and organizations (eg, Chairman
of the Oliy Majlis of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Chairman of the Higher
Attestation Commission under the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of
Uzbekistan).

3.2. Translation of enthnographic realia in English and Uzbek

Modern reality involves the constant interaction of representatives of

different cultures. Knowledge of foreign languages determines the effectiveness
of intercultural communication. But the mere ability to express you in English or
Spanish is not enough. Linguistic and cultural competence is required. One of
the main objects of linguistic and regional studies is the realities of the country
of the language being studied. Realities are real facts concerning the life culture,
history of the country of the language being studied, its heroes, traditions, and
customs. There is a twofold interpretation of realities: 1) realia is an object,
concept, phenomenon characteristic of the history, culture, way of life, way of
this or that people, country and not found in other peoples,

78
2) reality is a word denoting the above object, concept, phenomenon; Compared
with other words of the language, the distinguishing feature of realia is the
nature of its subject content, that is, the close connection of the object, concept,
phenomenon denoted by reality with the people (country), on the one hand, and
the historical period of time, on the other. It follows from this that the realities
are inherent in the corresponding national (local) and (or) historical flavor. It is
color that makes a neutral, uncolored lexical unit into a nationally colored one,
that is, a reality. In practice, everything can be considered a reality that, for its
adequate description, requires either an encyclopedic reference, or a schematic
or tabular presentation, or a commentary on some everyday facts unknown to
foreigners. Stylistically, the realities belong to the national literary language,
thus differing from scientific terminology, professionalisms, localisms, jargon,
etc. However, often in journalistic or artistic works one can find special terms
related to the state structure, economics, jurisprudence, military affairs, the
education system, art, which are understandable to native speakers, but require
explanation for those who are not native speakers of this language.
The growth of intercultural and international relationships provides
opportunities to become acquainted with the world of literature and culture. It
is very important to address our culture's famous issue through translated
artistic creations. Translation of national and historical realities is now at a high
level. Culture bound terms is culturally laden words that have been taken from
another language as a result of linguistic interaction. Among the objective
obstacles of translating Uzbek writer works into English is the mismatch of
Uzbek, Russian and English words or phrases describing facts. It is particularly
challenging to translate phrases and idioms that have similar meanings but
differ in "loudness." "Translation is a skill consisting of the endeavor to
substitute a written message and/or statement in one language by the same

79
 message and/or statement in another language," says Newmark89. Translator
considers the translation of realias to be an interesting as well as difficult work,
because insufficient awareness of history social order, culture, traditions,
political life can result in inadequate translation which can fail to be perceived
by the recipient or be perceived in a wrong way. Such a situation can occur
because realias are the words, which may convey the cultural identity of the
native-speaking population. The peculiarities of the culture may be unknown to
the definite people from another country so the translator is that very person
who is responsible for the 'clear" translation. The term realia refers to a local
word or phrase that does not translate because there is no obvious equivalent in
the target language and there are several strategies for handling them. There are
a few basic ways to handle realia and troublesome idioms: Transcription: You
can simply copy the realia exactly as it appears, perhaps with an explanatory
note. This can suffice, although it's not the best solution as it pushes the work
off onto the reader.
• Explanation: You can try to create an explanatory translation that
maintains the overall structure of the speech while getting the point across. This
is often clumsy.
• Equivalency: You can try to find something similar in the target language.
Sometimes this works and sometimes it doesn't, and you have to be careful that
you know the local stories behind the realia and the substitute well enough to
judge that they convey exactly the same meaning.
Importantly, the differences between cultures require the translator to
have a deep linguistic knowledge as well as an awareness of the cultures of the
peoples. For example, Uzbek cultural norms are undoubtedly different from
British, Arabian culture. Some words or sentences found in our national works
create a pragmatic situation in the text that is unique to our nation. In order to

89
Newmark, 1981 APPROACHES TO TRANSLATION (Language Teaching Methodology Senes), Oxford:
Pergamon Press, 1981. Pp. 213.

80
understand these subtleties, it is necessary to be a representative of the Uzbek
nation. Our personal preference is to transcribe the realia without translation.
Context usually serves to explain it, and if nothing else this marks the word or
phrase as untranslatable, sparking research. In the end, the goal of translation is
accuracy, and this may be the only reliable way to ensure that.
The cultural word translation problems are largely caused by some wrong
ideas and interpretations. The failure of transferring the cultural words to the
target language can make some disadvantages for the target readers. One of
them is cultural misunderstandings. It occurs when the translator uses a wrong
procedure in translating a word into the target language culture. The target
readers will not receive the same message as the message in the target text if the
cultural misunderstanding is found in a translation text. Thus, we can know how
a word can mean differently and avoid misunderstanding of the message.
Cultural word translation analysis especially in conducting translation
procedures must be done to reduce cultural misunderstandings Birpasdan keyin
qaddimni rostlab, tanchaga oyog'imni tiqi bo'tirdim. Hojibuvi allaqanday taxir
suyuqlik ichirdi. After a while, I stretched my legs to the 'tancha Hojibuvi made
me drink something strange bitter liquid. (Sandal, tancha- local heating
medium. It has long been used in Central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, Japan
and other Eastern countries. For sandals, a hole is dug in one side of the room,
and the inside is specially shaped and plastered. It is equipped with table and
covered with a blanket. It is heated with charcoal or wood.) There is national
originality reflected in the literature and other fields of social science and it has
the more significance the more it is rich in content, progressiveness, brightness
other nations are enriched meeting with it discovering something new,
interesting, useful and important for them in this specific character
Part of this problem is the description of individual lexical semantic
groups of words in terms of their composition and structural organization. The
description of individual lexico-semantic groups on the basis of the paradigmatic
relations included in it can be considered as a stage in the knowledge of the
81
systematic organization of the vocabulary of the language, since the semantic
connections of words in the paradigmatic plan obey certain laws, due to which a
transition from the description of individual lexico semantic groups is possible
to identify the systemic organization of the entire vocabulary. A comparison of
the English and Uzbek phraseological units installed the following mapping
between them:
I. Full compliance.
This sub-group consists of phraseological units (FU), based on common
words animal names in the two compared languages, the image and semantic -
stylistic potential.
A dog's life- it yashash (Hayot) (dog's life)
To fight like a lion - sherdek olismoq (to fight like a lion) To lead cat and life- it
mushukden hayot kechirmoq (live like a cat with a mouse) and dog
As gentle as a lamb-qo'ydek yuvosh (humble as a lamb) In addition, this group
includes FU, which is not fixed in the Uzbek dictionaries, but are used as
occasional verbal equivalents in the texts.
To swim like a fish- baliqdek suzmoq
To sing like a nightingales bulbuldek sayramoq (to sing like a Nightingale)
As fat as a pig - Cho'chqadek semiz
II. Partial matching.
This includes the FU of the same lexical composition, but differ in the
semantic and stylistic potential:
ENG you may take a horse to the water, but you cannot make him drink.
(through the power of the horse is not galloping)
UZB suvga olib borib, sug'ormay kelmoq
ENG to tread on a worm and it will turn (patience comes to an end)
UZB: kurbaqani bossing ham, u ham vaqillaydi
III. The lack of correspondences.
Further analysis of phraseological units in English and Uzbek languages
reveal substantial differences in the benchmarks from speakers of these
82
languages. These differences are determined by the differences of the two
cultures (linked with the realities of life characteristic of the English and Uzbek
features of natural conditions and traditions of these peoples). These words are
the realities, rather, associates of the word stimuli associative reactions which
are not bearers of the national characteristics of a particular language because of
their extra linguistic features! These words of reality and the English language
pig (when pigs fly), monkey (as tricky as a monkey), crocodile (crocodile tears)
(to'tiqush bo'lib ketmoq) based on the initial lack of these denotations in these
languages. These FU has been recognized in scientific literature as "non-
equivalent lexis" It shows us we can develop students' knowledge through
culture of two countries.
We considered it possible to include a large number of words with the
meaning of those conceptions that truly belong to the science, such as «studying
the mode of life and culture of nations», «the forms of material culture customs,
religion», «the spiritual culture», including art, folklore, and so on, into the
group of ethnographic realias90.
Mode of life:
A)Food, beverages, etc: spaghetti, hamburger, pizza, pudding, chebureki,
piroshki, moxora, qobuliy sho’rva, norin, shilpildoq, qazi-yu qarta, chuchvara,
manti, kabob, palov, hasip, halim, sumalak, holva, ayron, qimiz, musallas, sake,
kvas. Hasip-is a dish cooked in boiling water with minced meat and rice in the
intestines of slaughtered sheep or cattle. Ayron - 1)the liquid part of the yoghurt
that remains after the oil is separated in the guppy. In some parts of Uzbekistan,
chalob is also called. It is used as beverage. 2)thirst-quenching drink made from
yoghurt or sour cream with water, spices, herbs, ice91.
B)Buildings: tavern, saloon, motel, drugstore, sauna, choyxona, xammom,
o’tov, musofirxona, karvonsaroy, maqbara, madrasa, minbar, minora,
rasadxona, boloxona, shiypon. Karvonsaroy - is a rabot, a palace where

90
Rossels V.M. Realiya. – KLE, T.6. -1971.
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83
caravans stop and spend the night. Caravanserais are usually large courtyards in
the middle, surrounded by one or two-story rooms, tower-shaped fortifications,
and lined with commercial and urban markets92.
C) Clothes: (including shoes, head-dresses and others): sandals, trainers,
slippers, flip-flops, sari, kimono, chopon, paranji, yaktak-lozim, kovush, mahsi,
sochpopuk. Shokila, shovqila (tovush chiqaruvchi) —is jewelry; a complex,
multi-layered jewelry of Khorezm women. It covers the forehead, connects to
the temples, and together they form an ensemble. Kovush- is a shoe type; shoes
that are usually worn with a maxi or a sash. Kalish consists of a face, jaw,
handle, tagcharm and heel.93
D)Dwelling, furniture, dish and other pots and pans: hut, bungalow,
terraced houses, detached houses, semi-detached houses; grater, kettle
casserole microwave, qozon, lagan, piyola, dasturxon, choynak, obdasta,
dastsho’y, oftoba, tancha, sandal, sandiq, tokcha, o’choq, tandir; Obdasta- is a
household goods; a dish used to wash face and hands. Obdasta has a long and
narrow neck, the lower part (belly) is wide, sometimes with a ring at the bottom
with a lid, a long and thin tap, a handle. From ancient times it was made of
copper and ceramics, and later from cast iron, and now it is also made of cast
aluminum and plastic in factories94.
E)Transport (means and «drivers»): the Underground, hydrofoil,
hovercraft, ferry, tram, minibus, moped, helicopter, coach, bicycle katamaran,
yamshik, ot –arava, eshshak arava, ulov. Ot arava- is an ancient type of
transport used for the transport of goods and people with the addition of
livestock.95
F) Other : sanatorium, accommodation, pansionat, hujra, sihatgoh.
Labour: G) people of labour: translator, brigade-leader, farmer, ударник,
табелъшик, chilangar, somsapaz, zardo’z. Chilangar - the profession of

92
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https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki
94
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84
making small items (razors, scissors, chisels, saws); perform various mechanical
operations in modern production conditions. The products were previously
produced by domestic handicrafts. Chilangars are mainly used for furnaces,
roofs, hammers, etc. used tools.96
H)Instruments of labour: ketmon, tesha, xaskash, saw, ax. Ketmon- a hand
tool used in agriculture. Ketmon consists of a work piece made of metal (usually
special steel) and a wooden handle. The hole through which the handle passes is
called the zygote, and its perimeter is called the girth.97
I) Organization of labour: (including the economy andothers ): kolkhoz,
enterprise, agrocompleks, rancho, brigada. Rancho- one of the most common
methods of farming which became widespread in the countries of the Western
Hemisphere during the colonization of America by colonists from the European
continent.
J)Music and dances: lazgi, kazachok, lezginka, tarantella, kansonetta.
Andijon polkasi- Uzbek folk music and dance of the same name. Since the
1920s, it has been popularized by Andijan musicians and actor Arif Garmon
Toshmatov. The Andijan polka is 2/4 or 4/4 of a musical size, usually with a
pure major tone.
K)Musical instruments and other: flute, clarinet, saxophone, erhu, vuvuzela,
bagpipes, ocarina, bangos, balalaika, dutor, rubob, chang, childirma, tor.
Bagpipes - are a woodwind instrument using enclosed reeds fed from a constant
reservoir of air in the form of a bag. The Scottish Great Highland bagpipes are
the best known examples in the Anglophone world, but people have played
bagpipes for centuries throughout large parts of Europe, Northern Africa,
Western Asia, around the Persian Gulf and northern parts of South Asia. Rubob-
is stringed instrument. It is played with a peg (mediator), widespread among
Uzbek, Tajik, Uyghur, Afghan and other eastern people. According to some
scholars, modern violins originated in ancient times from the two-stringed bow

96
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85
rubab. There are now three types of rubab: Kashgar rubab, Afghan rubab and
Pamir rubab98.
L) Folklore: saga ,lapar, qasida, частушки. Lapar- is musical folklore
genre; It is close to songs that are not complicated in terms of event and melody
structe, have a narrow range, do not sound, and are not accompanied by
instruments.
M) Performers: minisinger, трибадур, скомфох, baxshi. Baxshi- is a folk
epic. He is an artist who sings and recites songs and epics by heart. The word
baxshi is sometimes used in the sense of a shaman. The poets are called
centurions, soki, sannovchi, jirov. Baxshis are basically divided into two
categories – executive and creative Baxshi. While the performers often sing the
epics they have learned from their masters with minor modifications, the
creative Baxshis create their own versions of the epics based on the oral epic
tradition, and even new epics based on them.
N)Customs, ritual: confirmation, cooker, масленица, мартеница,
церемония,тя-но-ю.(tea ceremony), namoz, ramazon, hayit. Qazoyi muallaq99-
This ceremony is connected with funeral. Actually, it is celebrated after death of
a person and it includes all traditions of funeral.
O)Festivals, games: Teacher‘s Day, Father’s Day, Environment Day,
cricket, soccer, pasxa, xoli, Navro‘z, hayit, boychechak, chavgon, ko’pkari,
chillak. Hammompish100- This game is played with soil. Children make round
buildings, like a bath-house. Then from one side of building a door is opened by
them. They continue to dig until they reach to another side. An important aspect
of this game is that a building mustn’t fall down; either a participant will lose
the game. Qorxat101- is not connected with writing letters. First of all, qorxat is
written on the first day of snowing and mostly a letter is written to a person with
whom he/she quarreled with. Then a person is chosen to deliver the letter and

98
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99
Ergash Ochilov Shoda-shoda marvarid T.-2006
100
Mahmud Sattor O’zbek udumlari T.-2007
101
Mahmud Sattor O’zbek udumlari T.-2007
86
they define the place for meeting. After that a person who gives the letter runs
and a person who receives it, tries to catch him. Such, a winner or loser will be
defined.
P)Mythology:troll, валкирия, qorbobo, yalmog‘iz kampir, devil, dragon,
suv parisi, dev.
Q)Theatre:comedy,mistery, djatra, xepping, петрушка, каспер.
R)cults words and follower: abbey, domla, mulla‘ muftiy, qori, haj, darvesh.
S)Calendar:saraton , chilla, baba marta.
In conclusion it should be noted that translation process does not only
involve two languages but also two different cultures in bridging those two
different things there are some procedures of translation that can be used by the
translator. The procedures that are used by the translator in this thesis are the
culture equivalence. From the connection among cultural words and translation
procedures analysis, we can conclude that every cultural word class requires
different translation procedure. Modern linguistics faces the problem of a
comprehensive study of the systemic organization of the vocabulary of a
language.

87
88
 Outcomes of chapter III
In the third chapter, we have analyzed the features of translation of
realias in intercultural communication. Extralinguistic, pragmatic, socio-cultural,
and other elements are all included in socio-political discourse. The
informational, persuasion, and manipulative functions of this discourse are
accomplished through the use of a variety of linguistic tools that are embedded
in the language and developed by subjects to explain each scenario. Several
challenges, including linguistic, textual, and extralinguistic issues, ethical,
political, and cultural components of the original text and translation, expression
of the author's aim, and many others, may arise throughout the socio-political
translation process. Some of these may be the result of a translator or interpreter
underestimating the lexical and cultural differences between the source and
translated languages.
Language skills, subject knowledge, research skills, critical thinking,
knowledge of the political situation in both the source and target languages,
communicative and ideological function in sociopolitical translation, document
competence, competencies related to the development of translation strategies,
and digital literacy are all required of a sociopolitical translator.
The current study looks at lexical units in the source language that represent
linguistic and cultural elements and pose the most translation challenges.
Linguistic and cultural challenges in translation are linked to the native
language's culturally different characteristics. Solutions to linguocultural
translation issues include correct perception of incoming information,
identification of linguoculturals in the original text, and subsequent presentation
of the key material without significant loss of information, or with a little
extension of the translated text.

89
 CONCLUSION

Language is a priceless asset of the people's soul and culture, as well as

their national culture. It includes the interaction of the inner and exterior
personality, thus each language symbolizes the will and vision of the people to
whom it belongs. In other words, language, as the primary reflection of national
traditions, acts as a mirror through which to observe, comprehend, and perceive
the reality of the nation. There are words in every language that, although not
differentiating themselves in any way from the verbal co-text, are not easily
transmissible into another language through the ordinary ways and need a
unique attitude from the translator: some of them pass to the translation text in
their original form (they are transcribed), others may only partially keep their
morphological or phonetic structure in translation, and still others must somet
Designations of components of daily life, history, culture, and so on that are
distinctive to a certain people, country, or area are among these terms. The name
"realia" has been studied to translate these exact words. Linguoculturology arose
from the interaction of language and culture, and it is most visible in
translations, where it is necessary to convey not only the meaning of lexemes,
phrases, sentences, and text into another language, but also to capture and
convey the national flavor, which is linked to the people's customs, traditions,
and culture. A linguoculturological analysis of the human factor in language, as
well as close attention to the process of verbal communication of representatives
from various cultures, enables the discovery of new opportunities in the study
and comprehension of a foreign language, as well as the translation of literary
texts. Literal translation is not always appropriate; it may fail to represent the
author's objectives, and it may be ineffective for a variety of reasons.
Vlahov and Florin's study is priceless, and we will refer to it again and
again. For the time being, within the context of this course, I'd like to highlight
two Bulgarian scholars' definitions of "realia": Words (and composed
expressions) in popular language that denote denominations of objects,

90
concepts, or typical phenomena of a given geographic location, of material life,
or of social-historical peculiarities of some people, nation, country, or tribe, and
that have a national, local, or historical color - these terms have no direct
equivalents in other languages.
Realia translation can be implemented in a variety of ways. The initial
actualization is the neologism, which is typically a calque. By "calque," we
usually mean "translation calque," in which a simple or built term is created by
literally translating portions of an expression in the source culture using material
from the receiving language.
The Russian neboskreb, the Italian grattacielo, the French gratte-ciel, and
the German Wolkenkratzer are all calques for the English skyscraper. In
comparison to this definition of realia, both of our examples appear to indicate
culturally specific products or concepts: traditional British culture-British
cuisine? - in the case of the pudding, and American sci-fi in the case of the
quantum leap. In our target languages, neither of them has "precise matches"
(whatever that implies). Both sentences had some "local color," as seen by the
fact that other speakers felt obligated to pick them up again and expand on them,
maybe to add some humour to their own speech. That is why I believe
statements like these may be classified as a sort of realia.
We may summarize all of the above-mentioned thoughts regarding realia at
the end of the qualifying paper. We utilize realias, whether or unwillingly. It is
one of the reasons people are interested in studying languages, since terms like
these of national coloring words let us understand about one nation's heritage,
traditions, dialects, and history. In a result, national coloring words are referred
to as "realia" in the language. This research described and highlighted the
history of the realia, including their classification, translation and rendering
methods, and the distinction between dialects and realias. The realia is
inextricably linked with reality outside of language, indicating at least the
etymology of the name itself. As the name of independent things, concepts,
modes of existence, culture, and history of the present nation or country, the
91
realia as a single term cannot express the entirety of reality. The majority of
things that must be "read between the lines" and are stated or inspired in any
case by language are not contained within the small frame of individual word-
realia.
We may form an opinion regarding the national coloring terms based on all
of the data and thoughts presented in this research. Thus the realias are:
 culturally loaded words;
 they represent an object peculiar to this or that ethnic culture,
 they represent the word or words naming that object of culture: kovush,
chopon, dutor, zog'ora, babyshower, eumpeseumen, canoe, trailer,
sophomore, bush fire (Canada), charisma (God's gift), drugstore, happy
hour, Easter rabbit, Washington Cherry tree, etc.
It is one of the most challenging examples to communicate national colors.
Because of translation, major literary works might be seen in many other nations
and made available to individuals speaking different languages. The translation
facilitates mutual understanding and the enrichment of individuals. In general,
we may say that realia is used figuratively in all situations of tropes, metaphor,
and comparison. When an author states that a mushroom cap is "approximately
two kopecks size," he does not mean a kopeck as a type of money, but simply its
two signs: its size and its round shape, therefore the kopeck has only word
cover.
Tolerance and knowledge of different cultures, as well as cultural self-
awareness, are required for successful intercultural encounters. Intercultural
communicative skills may thus be regarded one of the primary goals of foreign
language instruction in order for students to successfully communicate with
persons from other linguistic and cultural worlds. However, few empirical
research have been conducted to demonstrate intercultural competency in order
to aid in its incorporation into schools. It should be emphasized that the
translation process involves not just two languages but also two separate
cultures. There are several translation processes that the translator may utilize to
92
bridge those two disparate concepts. The culture equivalence approaches are
employed by the translator in this thesis. We may conclude from the
examination of the relationship between cultural terms and translation methods
that each cultural word class requires a particular translation procedure.
I hope that we accomplished our primary goal, which was to get a better
knowledge of my profession in order to reimagine it as that of a social justice
educator, which requires the development of an awareness of intercultural
competency teaching and learning in the foreign language classroom. The study
combined critical pedagogy, critical multiculturalism, and intercultural
competency theories and investigates how the research process informed and
transformed my practice, paving the way for future improvements.
Finally, I would like to quote the legendary translator A.L. Andres: "In the
art of translation, as in any other art, there can be no ready-made standards, once
and for all fixed rules and judgments. There can be no single choice on whether
the translator should, while recreating the meaning of the original work, which is
separated from us by a certain historical distance, let the present reader feels this
distance, and to what extent he should do so."

93
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