Displacement of water * For gases which are insoluble in water = _Eg. hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide 2_| Downward delivery ‘© For gases which are denser than air (and soluble in water) + Eg, chlorine 3_[ Upward deivery ‘= For gases which are less dense than air (and soluble in water) + _Eg, hydrogen, atrmonia 4 _|Usinga gas syringe + When there is a need fo monitor the rate of evolution of a gas, ie, how much gas was procuced in the reaction witnn a certain quraton | Concenirated sutfuric acd - used to dry acidic gases or gases which do not react with acids _ | Calcium oxide - used to dry alkaline gases, e.g, ammonia 7 Dena as Fomila | colour | "ay | Sokubityin water one a Carbon singe COz_| “Copuress Denser Sighty souble ‘Chore i: | Greenish yelow [| __Denser Solible yaregen He | Cobwress | aes densa Tnsalabia Fyaregen chonge_| Het | coouress Dense Vary sou Oxygen ©: | Cobutess | _Sighiiydenser_| Sighty soubie ‘carbon mente | CO | Coburiess | "Siigly denser | Sighfy soubie Tirogen Ne__| Coburess | Siighiy denser insalabie Suphur doe 30q_| toutes ‘Dener Very sone ein He | Coouriess | Lees cense Tnsoube @ _ | Apure substance js single substance not mixed with anything €lse-€-g,, pure gold, pure silver, dstlled water, @ | Amicure consists of two or more sulistances that are not chemically combined together, 9. milk, Milo, Ribena, orange juice, sea water. 10_| Decanting separates an insoluble solid trom a liquid by pouring off the iquid from the container carefully. 71_| Filiraton is used to separate an insoluble solid froma quid ‘+ The solid is collected in the fiter paper = residue +The liguid that passes through the fiter paper and collected in the beaker = filtrate 412 _| Evaporation is used to separate dissolved solids from a solution 13__| Grystalisation separates a dissolved solid from a solution, forming pure oysials of the substance. 44 | Sublimation is used to Separate a midture of Solids, one of which Sublimes. Sublimation is the process of changing from a sod to vapour on heating without going through the liquid state. 75 _| Simple distilation separates a pure liquid from @ Solution * The thermometer is placed near the exit of the distllation flask. This allows it to measure the temperature of the vapour which will enter the condenser and be condensed and collected as distilate418 Fractional distilation separates mitures of miscible liquids with different boiling points. ‘« Miscible liquids are completely soluble in each other to form one liquid. © The glass beads in the fractionating column pravides a large surface area fo volume ratio for cooling of the vapours. This helps to ensure that only one liquid of the ‘ower bolting Point distils over. This allows better separation of the two or more miscible liquids in the round-bottomed flask. © The thermometer is placed near the exit of the fractionating column. This allows it to measure the temperature of the vapour which will enter the condenser and be condensed and colecied as uistilate. 7 ‘Chromatography is a method of separating and identifying mixiures. Only a very small iniial sample is required to generate the chromatogram. (1) The dye to be chromatographed is dissolved in a suitable solvent (2) A drop of the dissolved aye Is placed on the penci line near the bottom of a stnp of titer Paper (or chromatography paper can be used). The pencil line shows the starting position of the drop of dissolved dye. This is important in determining the R: value. (8) The fiter paper is dipped into a tube containing a suitable solvent, making sure the solvent level is below the spat, (4) The solvent travels up the filter paper and the dye in the spot dissolves and travel up the paper at different speeds. This separates the dye into its various components. (8) When the solvent front reaches nearly the top of the fiter paper, the filter paper is removed, (6) The resultis called a chwomatogram, 18 Rrvalue is the distance moved by a substance relative to that moved by the solvent. distance travelled by a substance distance travelled by the solvent 9 ‘A locating agents a substance that reacts witn the substances on the ovomatography paper to produce a coloured product. 20__| When chromatographed, a pure substance only produces a single spot on the chromatogram: | A pure Substance has a fred meling and boling point, eq. pure water melis at 0 °C and bolls at 100 °C. 22_| Impurities affect the meling pomntin two ways: + Lowers the melting point. The greater the amount of impurity, the lower the melting point. + _ Substance melts over a range of temperatures, 23_| Impurities affect the boiling point in two ways + Raises the boling point. The greater the amount of impunty. the higher the boiling point. + Liquid boils over a range of temperatures. 1... no sharp botting point. 24_| The kinetic particle theory states that + Particles are discrete and are too small to be seen directly. + There are spaces between particles of matter, and this space is afferent between solids, liquids and gases. + Particles are in constant random motion, and they move at ctferent speeds in solids. liquids and gases. 25 [+ Diffusionis the spreading and mixing of parties in iquids and gases.‘© The particles move froma region of higher concentration 10 a region of lower concentration, i.., down a diffusion gradient. 26 _| Two factors affect the rate of difusion: ‘+ Temperature: Particles move faster at higher temperatures as they absorb the heat energy. The faster the particles move, the faster the rate of diffusion, i=. the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of aiTusion. ‘+ Mass of partie: The greater the (molecular) mass of a particle, the slower the rate of cifusion cag Pariclesina Sold | Paridesinaliquds | Parlides ina Gases: * Packedciosey | * Packed cosely [+ Farapari, andina together in an together but not in. | constantrandom orderty an orderly ‘arrangement. arrangement. arrangement. + Large spaces © Very Iitieempty | Very litle empty between them space between spacebeween |* canbe them. them, although compressed easily. © Cannot pe Turtner apart inan in |e vibrate and are compressed. solids fee to move © Vibrate but cannot |* Cannot be throughout the move freely about | — compressed. container. their fixed positions. | © Vibrate and can move freely throughout the guia 28 | Melting (1) Particles in the:soid absorb energy. (2) This energy causes the particles to Vibrate faster about thei fixed positions. (G) The vibrations of the particles overcome the forces of attraction between them (4) The particles are no longer in fixed positions. (8) They can now move about freely, although stil packed closely together. 23 _| Freezing (1) Particles in the liquid lose energy. (2) The particles beain to move more slowly 2s the temperature decreases, (8) The particles are overcome by the forces of attraction and can no longer move freely. (4) The particles settle nto txed positions. (8) The liquid has now frozen to form a solid. 30__| Bolling (1) Particles inthe liquid absorb energy. (2) The particles move faster as temperature increases @) The parties gain enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction holding them together (4) The partcies move turner apart ana more rreety (6) When the particles gain enough energy to overcome both the forces of attraction and atmospheric pressure, the liquid changes into a gas.a “An element S a SUDStance that cannot be broken down into Simpler Substances by chemical methods. 32 ‘An atom is he Smallest component of an element having the chemical properties of the element. Ex ‘A molecule is a group of two or more atoms chemically combined together. ‘A compound is a substance containing two or more elements chemically combined together. 3 “An alom oF a group of aloms that has an electical charge scaled an ion, 36 ‘A mixture consists of two OF more substances (can be elements, compounds, or bath) that are not chemically combined together. a7 ‘An atom is the smallest component of an element having the chemical properties of the element. 38 Tsatopes are aloms of the Same element (or Same number of proions) with diferent number of neutrons. Isoiopes have different physical properties but similar chemical properties. “Atoms lose or gain/ share valence electrons to attain the etable electronic structure ofa noble gas, ‘A metallic bond is the electrostatic attractive force belween the positively charge melal ions and tne negatively charged delocalised electrons. ‘Structure of metals: Lattice of metal cations surrounded by a “sea’ of mobile (or delocalised) valence electrons. High Density: Metals conSStor a Giant melallc latlice of closely-packed, regular arrangement of metal cations surrounded by delocalised electrons. Hence, mefals have high density as they have a high mass in a given unit volume. Malleability and duciiliy of metals. ‘© Pure metal contains metal catlons of the same Size and are arranged in a regular, orderly mannetyallowing the layers of cations to slide over one anothereasily + Non-directional nature of the metallic bonds allows layers of metal cations to slide over one another without breaking the strong metallic bonds. High melting point of metals:/A laige amount of Energy istequired overcome the strong electrostatic affraction forces between the cations and the negative delocalised electrons. ‘Good electrical conductivity: Presence of mobile valence electrons which can migrate freely ‘throughout the metallic structure when a potential difference is applied “An Tonic bond is the strong electrosialic allraction between positively charged tons (calions) and negatively charged ions (anions). 47 Tonic compounds are usually cryStaline solids which are tard but brite. «Hard: A large amount of energy is required to overcome the strong electrostatic attraction between the cations and anions. ‘= Brittle: When a large enough force is applied, the layers of ions can slide, bringing ions of like charges next to each other. These ions of like charges repel each otherand the tonic lattice shatters. High melting points of ionic compounds: Large amount of eneray must be supplied 10 overcome these strong forces of electrostatic attraction between the cations and anions. Generally, the higher the charges of the positive and negative ions the stronger the ionic bonds and the higher the melting point. Tonic compounds conducts electricity in molten and aqueous states but non-conducting in| sold state© Solid Siaie: The ions are held in tied positions in a giant ionic crystal laffice structure by strong electrostatic forces of attraction and thus, the ions are unable to move freely to conduct electricity. '* Motten or liquid or aqueous state: The ions are mobile and free to move and will migrate to the electrodes when a potential diference &S applied. ‘ covalent bond is the force of attraction between the shared olectrons and the Iwo positive nuclei of the afoms. a1 ‘Subsianices wit Smple covalent siuclures ‘= Structure consists of small, discrete covalent molecules ‘= Aioms within a molecule are joined by strong intramolecular covalent bonds while weak Intermolecular forces of attraction exists between Separate molecules and olds them together. = The weak intermolecular forces are easily overcome a2 ‘Subsiances win Gant covalent structures Al the atoms in substances with giant covalent structure are held tightly by strong covalent bonds and form a giant covalent molecule Diamond © Each carbon atom is joined to 4 other carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds ‘= Large amount of energy required to overcome the strong covalent bonds 2 No free electrons to conduct electricity ‘Grape '* Each carbon atomis joined to 3 other carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds. "= 1 unbonded valence electron per carbon atom which is delocalised between the layers and can migrate along the layers to conduct electricity ‘= Small amount of energy ig required to overcome the weak intermolecular forces between the layers, allowing the layers to slide over each other. ‘An acid is a substance which produces hydrogen icns (HF) when it is dissolvedin water. 3] 8 Lead seemingly appears tonotreact with either diutehydrochlonicacid or dilute sulfuric acid Why? ‘This IS due to the layer of lead({]) chioride or lead() sulfate that forms on the surface of the ead metal during its reaction with the respective acids. Thislayer is impervious to water and thus prevents the lead below from further reactions. 7 ‘Most dilute acids react with meials to give a salt and hydrogen gas, €.0., Mgis] + 2HCi(aq) > MgCt(aq) + Haig) ‘Acids react with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to givea Sal, water and carbon dioxide as. CaCO,[s) + 2HCKaq) + Cale + H20() + COG) ‘Acids react with metal oxides and hydroxides to give a salt and water. CuO (s) + HeSO.(aq) ——+ CuSOs(aq) + H20(1) Dilute acids can conduct electricity due to the present of mobile charge carmiers, |.€.. ions. HoI(aq) > H'(aq) + Crag) a "An acid does not behave as an acid unless water is present. Water is required for the formation of ihe hydrogen ions.2 Basicity (or proticty) of an acid refers fo the maximum number of hydrogen fons in one molecule of an acid that can be replaced bya metal. Type of acid Examples) Monobasic (monoproticy | HCi, HNOs. Dibasic (Giprotic) HaSOs, He50s, HaCOs, SPO Tribasic (triprotic) HsPOs ‘A strong acid is one that is fully dissociated (ionised) in water to give H* fons. 2/8 ‘Aweak acids one that is partally dissociated (onised) in water to give H fons, eg, organic acids such as ethanoic acid. (CHsCOOH(aq) = CH:COO faq) + Haq) Formation of acid rain ‘Sulfur dioxide (SO2) dissolves in rainwater to form sulfurous acid (H»SO2). SOz+ H:O > HeSOs In the presence of oxygen, sulfur dioxide can be converted into sulfur trioxide (SOs) which Gissolves in water to form sulfuric acid (H2S0). 2802+ C2 2802 ‘803 + HeO > H2SO+ Effects of acid rain includes: ‘© Acid rain falling on lakes kills f'sh and other aquatic animals. ‘+ Acid rain falling on buildings and stone works can erode these structures. «Acid rain falling on soil causes soil to become acidic and essential mineral salts e.g potassium tons, calcium ions and aluminium tons aré washed away, Bases are the oxides or hydroxides of metals. ‘An alkali is @ Soluble base wiiich produces hydroxide {OF Jons.in water, oT ‘Alkalis react with acids to Torm salt and water only._The reacton s known as neutralisation ‘Alkaiis react with ammonium compounds on heating ta give a salt, water and ammonia gas Ca(OH)p{aq) + 2NHACK(S) > CaCk(ad) + 2H20() + 2NHa(G) ‘A strong alkali undergoes complete dissociation (or ionisation) to form hydroxide ions, OFF, in water, €-g., NaQH and KOH. ‘A weak alkai dissolves in water to form a Small amount of hydroxde ions, €g., ammoria, NHs(aq) + H:0(l) = NHe"(aq) + OH (aq) ‘An indicatoris a substance that has different colours in acidic and alkaline solutions. ny) His @ measure of the acidity of an acid or the basicity of an alkali, Itis measured when a substance is dissolved in water The reaction of an acid and an alkali (or base) to form a sall and waler only Is called neutralisation, eg, NaOHiag) + HCI(aq) > NaCl{aq) + H20(1) 74 “Acidic oxides are the oxides of non-metals. Ifthey dissolve in water, they will form acids. Acidic Oxide Fomula_[ Acd Produced in Water EquationCarbon dioxide COz__| Carbonicacid, HCOs_| COz+ HO = HsCOs, Nirogen dioxide NOz Niieasid, FNC: [NOs + #20 — HNO: Sulfur dioxide S02 Sulfurous acid, He50s_| S02 +Hz0— H1:S0s ‘Sutfur troxide 0s Sulfuric acid, HSO, [SOs + H,0— H:SOs Phosphorus(vyoxide | P.O, | Phosphoric acid, H,PO, | P,O.e+ 6H,O > HPO Silcon dioxide SiOz) _NiTjexide msowuble in = water) 76_| Basicoxides are oxdes of metals Most basic oxides are insoluble in water, while those tat dissolve in water form alkalis. 76_| Amphotenc oxdes are metalic oxides which can behave as an acidic oxide or a basic onde. They react with both acids and bases, to form a salt and water. ‘Amphoteric oxide | Formula Equation “Zine oxide ZnO | With acid ZnO + H¥ > Zn +H. With base: ZnO + OH" + H20 — [Zn(OH).f Teadiii oxide PDO | With acid: PhO + H* > Po* + FLO vith base: PDO + OH" + HO — [PD(OH ME ‘Alurniniorn OX AGO, | Wit acid: Al;Os + Hr AP++ FO With base: AlzOs + OH — [ANCH)sI” 77_| Neuiral oxides are non-metallic ovides that exniok neither basic nor acidic properties. They donot react with either acids or bases, Neurraloxde | Formula water TO) Carbon monoxide |. GO Nitrogen monoxide | NO 78 | Step T Write the chemical equation, eg, réaction of aqueous Sodium hydroxide witn ailute hyarocnionc aca, NaOH (aq) + HCl(aq) > NaCl(ag) + H20(I) Step2: —_lonise' all the aqueous species (.e., those that can dissolve in water) into ions. We do this because when, for example, NaOH(s) dissolves in water, it breaks down into Na* and OH" ions. Solids, liquids and gases are wrtien in full, Na‘(aq) + OFF (aq) + H'(aq) + Crag) -+ Na“(aq) + Crag) + HO)Step: Cancel out the ‘ike ions on boih sides of the equation. They are ‘ike’ because they have not participated in the reaction. We call these speciator ions. Nevyaq) + OH{aq) + Haq) + Sr{aq)—> Naveg} + Srfag) + H20(}) Step 4: This leaves us with the following equation, comprising the ions on the LHS. This is the ionic equation. We see that the hydroxide ion and the hydrogen lon reacts to form water. State symbols must always be included with ionic equations. ‘OF faq) + He(aq) > 1201) 73, | Souubiity table ‘Compounds Remarks Nar, Ke NA compounds | Allare soiuble Nitrates (NOs) Aljare SOlUDIE ‘Chlorides (Cr) ‘All are SOlUDIE except ACI, POC: Suirates (SOP Aljare SOIUDIE ExCEpl PDSOs, BaSO«, CaSOs Carbonates (COP) ‘Allare insoluble except those of Nav, KY, NH Leach) compounds. ‘All are insoluble except PoNOsiz 80__| Salts are tonic compounds formed by replacing ons or morewhydrogen ions of an acid with a ‘metallic ion or an ammonium ion (NH4*). 81 [© Salt crystals are often fommed by crystallisation from aqueous solufions. and thus offen have water molecules bonded to them, THiS Waler Is KNown aS Water OF crystalisation, + Satts that contain water of crystallisation are known as hydrated satts. + _ Heating a hydrated salt drives away the water, leaving the anhydrous salt 82_| The method of preparation depends on three factors: (1) Solubilty of the salt (2) Reactivity of the metal (8) Chemicals being reacted together to make the salt. 83. | Insoluble salts can be prepared by precpptation. 84 | There ale a few ways to prepare a Souble Salt + Reacting an acid with a metal - however, note that we must never use reactive metals (eg. Na, K) in the reaction as it will be explosive ‘= Reacting an acid with an insoluble base. ‘+ Reacting an acid with an insoluble carbonate. Reacting an acid and an alkall (1. a soluble base) via tration 85 GA-reter to GAnotes. Everything is important!86 Relative atomic mass. A., of an element is the average mass of oné atom of the element when compared with ‘2 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12. 87 | Relaiive molecular mass, M,. of a molecule is the average mass Of one molecile of a substance when compared with '/z of the mass of one atom of carbon-t2. 88 | Relative formula mass. M., the average mass of one formula unit of an Toni compound when compared with #42 of the mass of ene atom of carbon-12. 38 ga eae % of an element = ,AaTPSSEME 5 109% 30 TmaI= COTY 10% ofparicies imber of pari 91 | umber of moles = Sumber of parties 5.02 102 (n mor") 2 mass {ng} 8, number of moles = ee 93_| Empiical formula calculation sample: ig o WAST 04s Taz W mal WHO raic 0.0195 _ ozo, (is means'o divide 0.0198 0.0198 by the smallest n throughout) ‘Simpest nore rao 7 7 Empirical formula of magnesiim oxde is gd) 94 | ONLY FOR GASESI NOT FOR LIQUIDS! volume of gas (in dm?) 1, number ot moles = YOMME of 96 (n di) 24 (i am mor") 35 ass of solute Ging) number of moles of Sohite Gn mol concentration = PASSO" SOME (ng) ___ amen ret volume of solution (in dm®) volume of solution Gn dm), 38 ‘mass of pure substance Parcentay = mass Of PUTE SUBSIANCE 100% ~entage Purly = Tass of impute substance * oT actual mass of pure product ereentage vield = theorelical mass of pure product ‘0% 38 _| The Group number indicates the number of valence electons in an atom ofan clement 99_| The Period number ndicates the number of sels in an alom ofan element. 700 | GroupT Down the Group, the atomic size increases and the distance between the nucleus and the delocalised electrons increases. The weaker attraction for these electrons results In weaker metallic bonds. Hence melting point decreases down the Group.4101 Bement ‘Observations unum Reacis quickyy with water. 2Li(s) + 2H2O{l) ——> 21iOH(aq) + H2(9) ‘Sodium Reacis rapidly with water. Sodium melts info a silvery ball and daris around the water surrace. It catches fire and sometimes expiodes. The hydrogen gas produced burns with a yellow flame. 2Na(s) + 2H0(l) ——> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(9) Potassium | Reacis violently with water, Potassium melts io a sivery ball and aris around the water surface. It catches fire and then expodes. The hydrogen gas produced bums with a litac flame. 2K(s) + 2H2D(l) ——+ 2KOH(aq) + H:(g) 402 | The halogens have a simple molecular structure, with the dafomic molecules held together by weak intermolecular forces which are easily broken by a small amount of energy. Hence. ‘they have low metting and boiling points. 403 | Why mp. and bp. increases down the Group? The halogen molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces. The strength of the |weak intermolecular forces increases down the Group as the number of electrons increases. ‘More energy Is required to overcome these forces. 7104 | The more reactive halogen can displace the lesa reacive halagen from an aqueous colution ofits ions. e.g, ch(g) + 2Klfag) > 2KCHag) + Lag) 7105] Chemical properties of ransiion metals * Variable valency and oxidation states + Catalytic properties + Formation of coloured sold compounds and celoured aqueous solutions 06 | A Substance 1s oxidised when Ti Gains oxygen atom(s) in a reaction ‘A substance is reduced when it loses oxygen atom(s) in a reaction, 107 | A substance is oxidised whan it loses hydrogen atom(s) in a reaction. ‘A substance is reduced when it gains hydrogen atom(s) ina reaction. 708 | A substance is oxidised when it loses electron(s) in a reaction. ‘A substance is reduced when it gains electron(s) in a reaction. 109 | A substance is oxidised when the oxidation number of an element inthe substance increases afer the reaction ‘A substance is reduced when the oxidation number of an element in the substance decreases afer the reaction, 410 | The oxidation number of hydrogen with non-metals is +1 The oxidation number of hydrogen with metals is -1 The oxidation number of hydrogen in hydragen molecule is zero741 | The oxidation number of oxygen as an oxide = -2 The oxidation number of oxygen as a peroxide The oxidation number of oxygen as a Superoxide = -%, The oxidation number of oxygen as an element is Zero 742 | Substances that cause oxidation of (oxised) another substance in a reaction is called an oxidising agent Oxidising agents themselves are reduced. 773 | Substances nat cause reduction of (reduced) another substance in a reaction IS called a reducing agent. Reducing agents themselves are oxidised, 114 | Test for Reducing Agents Reagent ‘Observation Explanation aqueous potassium | Acidified aqueous | MnO, reduced to Mn™ as the manganate(VI), | KMnO«tumed —_| oxidation number of Mn KMnOs, acidified by | from purpleto | decreases from +7 in MnOx to alute FeSO. | colouness. +210 Mn. Colour of MinO-(aq) 's purple Colour of Min*(aq) is pale pink (almost colourless) AqUEOUS potassium | Acidified aqueous | CiO7 1s reduced 0 Or as dichromate(V), | KeCr201 tumed | the oxidation number of Cr KeCra07, acned by | trom orange to | decreases trom +6 in CIO; dittleHaS: | green to #3in Cr Colour of Cr.0;2{aq) is orange ‘Colour of Cr®*(aq) is green 715 | Test for Oxaising Agents Reagent ‘Observation Explanation ‘aqueous KI, dilute) | Acidifedaquedus. | |Fis oxidised to 2 as the S04, Ki turned from oxidation number of | increases Colouriess to from 1 in Fto Dink. Tedaish brown solution seen, [Note: May observe black solid at the: bottom of the test- tube if the amount of iodine present is higher] 116 Most Reactive Potassium Paid Sodium, specialists /\— cacao 6) mkAluminum a zine z00 tron in Tin this Lead ludicrousty (Hydrogen) humid Copper country Mercury more Silver special Least reactive old Great! Ti7|]_ Metal ‘Observations ‘Chemical Equation’ Potassium [* Reacts very violently with cold | 2K(S) + 2H-0{I) > 2KCH(aq) + water. Hag) +A botorneatis progucea ana this causes the hydrogen gas produced to catch fire and explode, ‘Metal bums with a lac fame ‘Aqueous potassium hydroxide ‘and hydrogen gas are Broduced. Explodes with steam ‘Soaium ‘© Reacis violently win cola ‘2Na(S) + 2Hz0()) > 2NaOH(aq) + water. Hag) ‘* Hydrogen gas is produced and ‘the gas may catch fire and explode. © Metal bums wit a yellow flame. ‘* Aqueous sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas are produced. © Explodes with steam‘Calcium Reacis readily with cold water. Metal sinks in water. ‘Many bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced, Aqueous calcium hydroxide and hydrogen gas are produced Water turns miky in colour as calcium hydroxide is partially soluble In water. Cals) + 2H2O() > Ca(OHIaq) + Halg) Magnesium Reacts slowly with cold water. A few bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced, Aqueous magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas are produced. Hot magnesium reacts violently with steam to form magnesium oxide (a white powder} and hydrogen gas. A bright white glow is produced during the reaction. Mg{s) + 2H20(I) > Mg(OH(aq) + Haig) Mg(s) + 2H20(g) > MgO(s) + Ha(g) Zine Doesinol react with cold water Hot zinc reacts readily with steam. Zinc.is yellow when hot and white when cold Solid zine oxide and hydrogen gas are produced, Zn{9) + H:0(g} > ZnO) + Hg) Tron Does not react with cold water. Red-hot iron reacts slowly with steam to form solid iron, HT) oxide ({rtiron tetroxide) and hydrogen gas. SFe(s) + 4H20(g)—> FerOx(s) + 4429) Lead, silver No reaction with cold water or steam,118 Metal ‘Observations ‘Chemical Equation Potassium Explodes with ditute hydrochloric acid, ‘Aqueous potassium chiorige and hydrogen gas are produced 2Kig) + 2HCI(aq) — 2KCIfag) + Helo) ‘Soaium ‘Explodes win aiute hydrochloric acid. ‘Aqueous sodium chloride and hyarogen gas are produced. 2Nais) + ZHCIaq) > 2Naci(aq) + Haig) Calcium Reacts violenlly with dilute hy¢rochloric acid. ‘Many bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced ‘Aqueous calcium chloride and hydrogen gas are produced. Cals) + 2HCIaq) > Cactaq) + Haig) Magnesium Reacts readily with cute hydrochloric acid. ‘Many bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced. ‘Aqueous magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas are produced. Mg(S) + 2HCi(aq) > MgCbiag) + Hig) Zine Reacts readily with diute hydrochloric acid, ‘Many bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced. ‘Aqueous zine chloride and hydrogen gas are produced. Zn(S)+ZHCIaq) > ZnCh(aq) + Hig) Tron Reads Slowly with ute hycrochloric acid. Bubbles of hydrogen gas are produced Pale green aqueous Font!) chloride and hydrogen gas are produced Fe(S) + 2HCllaq) > FeCh(aq) + Haig) Tea, copper, silver ‘Does not react with aiute hydrochloric acid, 119 Weta Observations, ‘Chemical Equation Potasslum ‘Some heat applied results ina very vigorous reaction ‘2K(S) + Ox{G) > 2K20(s)A lot of heat is given out Metal bums.witn a tilac tame. Solid potassium oxide (a white powder) is produced. 120 ‘Sodium + Some heat applied resufsina| Nal) + Ox(@) > DNasO) very vigorous reaction + Alot of heat is given cut = Metal bums.with a yellow tame. + Soild soutum oxtue ca wnite powder) is produced. Tatcium, «Strong heat applied start Bale) + Og) > ICAO) magnesium, | reaction zinc. © Alotof heat is given out. 2Mg(s) + O2(g) + 2MgO(s) + White solids are produced. 22n(s) + Onlg) > 22n0(s) Magnesium bums with a tritiant whtte name. ren = Strong heat applied © Siar SFEIS) + DOA > FOU) reaction. Glows red hot and tums with nite sparks Tead, copper [> Strong heat applied © Stat ZPD] + 04g) > PLO reaction. 2Cu(s) + Oxg) > 260%) Gold, sive] +) \NaTeatilon ObcuTs = Wateron | Acids on ‘Airor | pisplacement Metal | Appearance ) “Metal Meta | 096°" | Reactions K_| Dull, tered | React with Hydrogen | Gum in airor | Each metal wil Na | _underoi | waterwth | gas produced | oxygen | alsplace a ca decreasing |” (with metal lower in ease) | decreasing the series from ig Readwih | ease) as solution of Al steam when cone ofits salts. Zi] Generaty aut | neatea Fe sn Wo reaction Converted Pb with steam or into oxide by cu water [Reactwin] neatng inar oxdising | without 49 acids buring) AG_| Generally Au shinyNo reaction | Unaffected Pt with acids: by air or oxygen 721 | Compounds formed by reacive mefals are more stable to heat than those formed by less reaciive metals 122 Wear Carhonates K ‘Stable ioneat Na Ca Decompose to metal oxide and Tig] carbon dioxide gas on heating Al Zn] Example: Fe_|PDCOs(s) > Sn_| PDO[s} + CO.(g) Pb cu Hg__ | Unstable, do notexist Ag | For silver carbonate, Ag2COs, it decomposes into silver and carbon Fa] dioxide on heating. Pr 123 |] Oxide | Action of Heat “Adlion of Hydrogen ‘Action of Carbon of K | No reaction No reaction No reaction Na cal Mg Al Zn Reduced to metal Fe Reduced to metal (with increasing [sn_| (with increasing ease) ease) Pb cu Example Example ‘Hg Decampose to GuO(s) + 3H2(g) > Cu(s) + H20() 2CuO(s) + Cis) + Ag give metal and 2Cu(s) + CO2(g) Au] oxygen PE Example 2Ag20[s) > 4Ag(s) + 0219)124 Mam Metal | Maincre | chemical | ExtractionMethod | E980! Consiituent a K__| Camalite | KMgGls | Electrolytic reducton. Na_[_ Rock salt NaCl Hardest Ca | Chalk, | Cad0s limestone / \ Wg_| Dolomite | Canig(COzr Al_| Bauxite ALGe Z| zincbence | __Zs Extraction by reducing Fe [Haemaiite [~ Fe:Os with ‘Sn_[_Tinsione SNO2 catbon in a tumace. P| Galena PbS Cu | Copper |” CuFeS: pyrites Hg_ [Cinnabar Has Ag = Ag Au ~ Au Found free (unbounded) inthe | Easiest ground, 125 Extraction of ron Main ore: Haematite, iron(II) oxide mixed with impurities such as sand and clay. Iron is extracted in a blast fumace. Iron ore, coke and limestone is added from the top of. ‘the furnace while hot air is pumped in near the bottom, Stage 1 Coke reacts with oxygen ffom the.ar to.form.carben doxide ina highly exothermic reaction. Temperatures can reach 1900 °C. {s) + 021g) > COAQ) Stage 2 The carbon dioxide formed reacts with more coke to form carbon monoxide. This reaction is endothermic and temperature drops to about 1100 °C. Cox) + Cs) + 2604) Stage 3 The carbon monoxide reduces the iron(II} exide to produce motten iron. This collects at the bottom of the blast fumace Fes0x(s) + 3CO(g) + 2Fe(l) + 36049) (Other reactions:(1) Limestone added is decomposed by the heat fo produce basie calcium oxide (lime) and carbon dioxide. GaCOx(s) > Ca0(s) + CO2(9) lon contains mary impurities such as silicon, sulfur and phosphorus. Silicon Is, Present as silicon dioxide (sand), an acidic oxide. SiO: reacts with CaO to produce slag, calcium silicate, CaSiOs. Slag collects at the bottom of the furiace and floats ‘on top of the molten iron. CaOIs) + SiOAS) > CasiOs(t) Hot waste gases such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen escape from ‘the top of tne tumace. 126 For must to form. iron, water and oxygen must be present 4127 Rusting process (1) Iron reacts with water and oxygen (in the air) to form iron(ll) hydroxide. In this reaction, iron is oxidised while water is reduced. 2Fe(s) + 0:(g)+ 2H20(l) + 2Fe{OH)a(s) (2) lwon(tt) nyaroxide reacts with mote oxygen and water to form iron(it1) nyaroxide. AFe(OH)a(s) + 0:(g) + 2H:0(l) +> 4Fe(OH)3(6) (8) lon(IZ) nycroxide loses some water to become rust. Rust Is nydrated Iron(II) oxive, written as Fe208.xH20 as they amount of water can vary. Fe(OH)s(S) > FesOs.xH20 (4) Overall equation AF e(S) + 302(g) + 2xH20()) > 2Fe203.xH20)8) 128 Rust is flaky and peels off easily, allowing iron undemeath fo rust. This is unlike aluminium oxide which forms an impervious layer on the surface of aluminium. preventing further reaction. 129 Rusting is faster when the iron is in contact with a piece of metal that is less reactive than itself 130 ‘© The Haber process reaction is as follows: Ne(g) + 3Ha(g)= 2NHag) Conditions: 250 atm, 450 °C, Mely divided tron as catalyst Note: ‘= The Haber process reaction is reversible.= Itis exothermic. Reaction takes place under high temperature and high pressure. = Oniyabout 10-15% of the reactants are converted inio ammonia ‘+ Why high pressure (250 atm)? = _ Increasing the pressure favours the forward reaction. The speed of the forward Teaction Increases. = However, too high a pressure is cosily to maintain because expensive ‘equipment is required. Hence, there is a compromise on the pressure used for the reaction. 250 atm is used, ‘+ Why the temperature of 450 °C? = This is because the decomposition of ammonia through the backward reaction is Feduced. However, too low a temperature will reduce the rate of the forward reaction. Hence, a relatively high temperature of 450 °C is used. ‘© Why the finely divided iron catalyst? = Despite the high pressure and relatively high temperature, the overall reaction is silll Siow. = Acafalyst is used to speed up the reaction. It does not affect the yield, 31 | Other Reactions to Obtain Ammonia * By heating a mixture of an ammonium salt and an alkali or base. NH4CI(S) + NaDH(aq) + NaCi(aq) + HeO()) + NH3(Q) Note: Concentrated sulfuric acid cannot be used because it reacts with ammonia gas: ‘2NHs #H:SOr=$ (NH.)2804 182 | Fenisers Nirogen (N) [for healthy green stems and leaves: for increase in protein Content of plants and size of crop Phosphorus | for good root growth (Py Potassium [K) [for flower and fruit formation; helps pant to photosyninesise. 13 | An exotnennic reaction is a reaction where energy is given cul to the surroundings. #34 | An endothermic reaction is a reaction where energy 1S absorbed from the Surroundings. 735 | Activation energy (E) is the minimum energy required fo be possessed by the reactant particles in order for a chemical reaction to occur.136 ‘Overallenthalpy __ total eneray absorbed for bond Total energy released during change (AH) ~ breaking . bond forming «If more energy is absorbed than released (e.g., 1000 kJ — 500 kJ), overall enthalpy change > 0, ie, endothermic reaction. «fore energy is released than absorbed (2.g.,600 ki - 1000 kJ), overall enthalpy change <0, ie,, exothermic reaction. 137 ‘Hydrogen fuel cell “Oxygertis reduced to form hydroxide tons | Hydrogen is oxidised to form water (O2{q) + 2H:0(I) + 4e"+ 40H (aa) He(q) + 20H aq) — 2H20() + 22 ‘Overall reaction is the conversion of hydrogen and oxygen info water with the release of electrical energy. 2Hxg) + 02g) > 2H20(!) 138 ‘= _ Increase in concentration of reactants increases the number of reactant particles per unit volume. = The frequency of collisions increases, and this increases the frequency of effective collisions. Hence, the speed of the chemical reaction increases. 139 “= When the particle size decreases, the surface area/of the reactani|increases, giving a larger surface area to volume ratio. ‘+ More surfaces are exposed for reactant particles to collide, increasing the frequency of collisions, '* This increases the frequency of effective collisions, hence increasing the speed of reaction. 140 ~= Increasing the pressure increases the number of particles per unit volume of the gas. ‘¢ The collisions between the gas particles become more frequent. This increases the frequency of effective collisions, increasing the speed of the chemical reaction 1a Increase in temperature increases the speed ofa chemical reaction ‘The particles move faster and they possess more kinetic energy. ‘+ This increases the likelinood that they colide with sufficient or more than enough energy ‘to overcome activation energy. ‘+ The frequency of effective collisions increases, increasing the speed of the chemical eacton, 142 A catalyst is a Gubstance which increases the speed of a chemical reaction and remains chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction. = Onlya small amount is required as it is not chemically changed. A catalyst is not used up during the chemical reaction. A catalyst is selective and different reactions require different catalysts. A catalyst increases the speed of a reaction but not the yield of the reaction.=A caialyst can be poisoned by impurifies, and no longat warks or become less effective as a Catalyst. + Catalysts are usually transition metals or their compounds. 143 | Enzymes are biological catalysts Enzymes are proteins. Enzymes are substrate specttc. + Enzymes are sensitive to temperature changes. Enzymes are sensitive to pH changes. - ee | See] ‘A, Source ‘A. Source ‘A. Source - From incomplete - Nitrogen and - During combustion combustion of fuels in ‘oxygen in the air of fossil fuels such, vehicles and industry combine to form as coal ana nitrogen monoxide petroleum which B. Harmful Effects at migher contain sultur as = Colourtess, edourless temperatures in car impunity gas preverts easy engines and power | - Voleanic eruptions detection. stations! presence - Extraction of iron in = CO combines with of lightning blast fumace when haemoglobin in the the sulfur impurities blood to form stable are oxidised off. carboxyhaemagiobin, | Natg) + 0G) 2NOXa) preventing the haemogtobin trom (8) + Ox(g) + SOX9) transporting oxygen to bogy cells, depriving NOE Uther ine Bracleetl ‘oxiased to form NO», 8. Harmful effects + Initates ne eyes ©. Prevention/Removal and causes = Catalytic converters to | 2NO(@) + Ox(g) > 2NOxIg) breathing problems remove CO in - Enters leaves and vehicles by oxiasing tt affects the growth into CO2. of pants. B. Harmful Effects - Main cause of acie = NOpis highly rain corrosve and toxic. Itimates lungs, breathing C. Prevention/Removal paseages, and = Removal of S02 eyes. trom flue gases. = Oxides ofntrogen |. CaO or CajGH)ais leads to the added to neutralise formation of acid excess acidity in rain and lakes and sol photochemical smog.G. Prevention/Removal = Catalytic converters to remove NO, NO2, as No ‘A. Source ‘A. Source ‘A. Source = Come mainly from = Produced when = 03,aformof hhycrocarbons in tue! iant and animat oxygen and thai have not been matter decay. colourless, bumtin venicle = Cows and otter = Sunlight acts on air engines. fam animals also and the pollutants produce methane. such as nitrogen dioxide, carbon B. Harmful Effects monoxide and ~ Some can cause B. Harmful Effects hydrocarbons to cancer. they can react | - Contributes to produce with sunlight and global warming. photochemical other pollutants to smog. form photochemical — Ozone is part of this ‘smog. mixture. B, Harmful Effects = Initates the eyes, nose and throat and can cause asthma attacks. ~_Itdamages piant crops. ‘Reducing Sulfur! is Emissions in Power Stations, ‘Step 1: Limestone (calcium carbonate) added 10 hot flue gases. Heat causes calcium carbonate to:decompose to calcium oxide and-carbon dioxide. CaCOa{s) > Ca0(s)+CO2(9) ‘Step 2: Calcium oxide reacts with sulfur dioxide to form calcium sulfite, which is further oxidised by oxygen in air to form calcium sulfate. Ca0(s) + SOx) + CasO,(s) 2CaSOs(S) + Ox(g) > 2CaSOx(S) Electrolysis of molten NaCl Identify electroiyie: NaCl) In solid state, the ions are held in fixed positions in the crystal lattice by strong electrostatic forees of attraction Identify Tons present. Na*() and Cry‘When heated strongy, ine electrostatic forces of altraction beeen the cations and anions are broken, and the ions are free to move and no longer held in fixed positions. Identify electrodes used: carbon ‘© Catbon Is an inert electrode. Inert electrodes do not react with tie products of electrolysis or the and are not involved in the electrolysis process. ‘* Cions are attracted to the anode. ‘*Na* ions are atiracied to the cathode. + Each Cr'ion lose 1 electron to the ‘+ Each Nat ion gain 1 electron from the anode fo form a ehioride atom. cathode to form a sodium ator. = 2Clatoms come together toformCl | * Nations are reduced. gas = Na‘ ions are discharged as sodium ‘+ Ch ions are oxidised. metal Cr-ions are discharged as chlorine gas. Nat() +e Na(l) 2Cr(W) + Cig) + 2€ ‘Overall reaction: 2NaCill) > 2Nall) + Cixig) 147 He Cay jAo Ki Nat cal) Mg nit | zn Fe) ppl totes notdischerged canbe discharged Ou" or Ag” preferentaly ischargeciover H” when path are present in soutien} 148 ‘ificuit Sufate ion, SO nitrate lon, NOs chloride ion, G- bromide fon, Br Togide ton, easy hydroxide ion, OH 149 | Electrolysis of dilute NaCI ‘Step 1: Identity the fons present in the electrolyte[__ ee] From sodium chioride | Na‘(aq) | Cr(aq) From water (aq) | OFFaq) Step 2; Determine jon preterentally discharged at the cathode (electrode connected to negative terminal of battery) * Positively charged ions will migrate to cathode: Na*(aq), H*(aq) + H'(aq) is more easily discharged over Na*(aq). ‘= H"(aq) is preferentially discharged as hydrogen gas. 2H"(aq) + 2e + Ha(g) [reduction] « Na(aq) remains in solution. ‘Step 9: Determine ion preferentially discharged at the anode (electrode connected to positive terminal of battery) © Negatively charged tons will migrate to anode: Cr(aq), OH"(aq) © OH'(aq) is more easily discharged compared to Gr(2q). © OH(aq) is preferentially discharged as water and oxygen gas. 40H{aq) + 2H20}!) + 02(9) + 4e" [oxidation] © Cr(aq)remainsiin solution. Overall electrolysis * 2H20(l) ———> 2Ha(g} + Ox(9) © Equivalent to electrolysis of water. + Aselectrolysis proceeds, concentration of sodium chloride will increase. This would affect the products formed during electrolysis after some time. 780 Electrolysis of concentrated NaCl (brine) Step 1: Identify the fons presentin the electrolyte a i al From sodium chioride | Na‘(aq) | Cr(aq) From water Freq | oFeq) Step 2: Determine ion preierentally cischarged at the cathode (electrode connected to negative terminal of battery) «Positively charged ions will migrate to cathade: Na‘(2q), H'(aq)> Haq) S more easily discharged over Na*(aq). © H'(aq) §s preferentially discharged as hydrogen gas. 2H¥(aq) + 2e"— Ha{g) [reduction] '* Na‘(aq) remains in solution. (Metal lons are never discharged trom aqueous solutions.) Step 3: Determine ion preferentially discharged at the anode (electrode connected to positive terminal of battery) » Negatively charged ions will migrate to anode: Cr'jaq). OH"(aq) '* OF (aq) 's more easily discharged compared to Crag) in dilute solutions. However, in concentrated solutions, Cr-(aq) is preferentially discharged instead. (Halide ions such as chloride, bromide and iodide ions are only discharged during the electrolysis of concentrated solutions.) 20r (aq) > Giz{aq) + 2e- [oxidation] *_OM(aq) remains in solution. 161 | Electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid Step 1: Identify he ions present in the electrolyte Hr(aq)_| SOs(aq) Freq | ora Step 2: Determiné ion preferefitialy discharged at the cathode (electrode connected to negative terminal of battery) '* Only postively charged ion which migrates to cathode: Haq) © H'(@q) is discharged as hydrogen gas. 2H(aq) + 2e-—+ Halg) [reduction] Step 3: Determine ion preferentially discharged at the anode (electrode connected to positive terminal of battery) '» Negatively charged ions will migrate to anode: SOs (aq). OH"(aa) » OFF (aq) is more easily discharged compared to SOF taq}. + OFF(aq) ic preferentaly discharged as water and oxygen gas. AHF (aq) + 2Hs0()) + 0:(9) + de [oxidation] = '80;*(aq) remains in solution. ‘Overall electrolysis 2» 2H20(l) ——————> 2H:(9) + O(9)152 Electrolysis of aqueous copper(ll) sulfate with INERT electrodes step loentify the fons present in the electrayte From copper(I) sulfate | Cu*(aq) | SO (aq) From water Faq) | OF @q) ‘Step 2: Determine ion preferentially discharged at the cathode (electrode connected to negative terminal of battery) + Posttvely charged ions will migrate to cathode: H"(aq), Cu (aq) ‘+ Cu?*(aq) is more easily discharged compared to H*(aq). + Cu (aq) is preferentially discharged as Cus). ‘Cu (aq) + 26" + Cu(s) [reduction] ‘Step 9: Determine ion preferentially discharged at the anode (electrode connected to positive terminal of battery) ‘+ Negatively charged ions will migrate to anode: SO. (aq). OF(aq) ‘+ Of{aq) is more easily discharged compared to SO: (aq). + OH{aq) is preferentially discharged as water and oxygen gas. 4OH aq) > 2H204l) + 02(9) + 4e* [oxidation] + $0,?(aq)remains in solution, Overall ‘+The copper metal discharged forms a layer around the cathode. ‘+ The concentration of Cu(aq) in the solution decreases as the reaction proceeds. «The intensity of the blue colour decreases. 153 Electrolysis of aqueous copper{ll) sulfate using COPPER electrode ‘Step 1: Identity the fons present in the electrolyte From copper(il sulfate | Cu™(aq) | SOF faq) From water FRfaq)_ | OF (aq) Step 2: Determine ion preferentially discharged at the cathode (electrode connected to negative terminal of battery) + Postively charged ions will migrate to cathode: H’(aq), Cu*(aq) + Cu*(aq) is more easily discharged compared to H*(aq).‘© Cag) is preferentially discharged as Cu(s). ‘Cu (aq) + 2 > Cu(s) [reduction] ‘Step 8: Determine ion preferentially discharged at the anode (electrode connected to positive terminal of battery) * Negatively charged ions will migrate to anode: SO; (aq), OH-(aq) ‘= However, the copper anode participates in the electrolysis process. It is known as a reactive electioue. = The copper electrode is oxidised into Cu(aq) ions which enter into the electrolyte solution. Cu[s) + Cu?(aq) + 2e" [oxidation] + S02(aq) and OFF (aq) remains in solution. Overall The copper anode dissolves and decreases in mass. ©The concentration of Cu*(aq) in the soluton remains unchanged as Gu*(aq) deposited as Cu(s) atthe cathode is continuously replenished by the anode + Te intensity othe blue colour remains unciranged until the anode uisappears. 164 | Purification of metals compet ‘+ During electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate sovution ae with copper electrodes, the anode dssoives. Soliton ‘+ Apeece of pure copper is used as the cathode. «Impure copper is used as the anode. Pure copper from the-anode is oxidised into ‘cu*(aq) Which enters the electrolyte Cu*(aq) is then deposited on the cathode. Impurities fall of the anode and collect below. ‘The mass of the cathode increases. Impure copper ean be putified in this way. puro comer shoot (cathode) block of impure ‘copper (anode) impartioe from anado.155] Electroplating + The metal to be used for electroplating is made the anode. «The object to be plated is made the cathode. ‘+ For copper plating for example, = Copper is used as the anode. “The electrolyte Is aqueous copper) sulfate = Copper from the electrolyte is deposited on the object, while copper from the anode replaces tne Cu*(aq) in the electroiyte Cathode: Cu*(aq) + 2e > Cu(s) Anode: Cu(s) > Cu*(aq) +2€ 466 | Zinc-copper ceil with dilute sulfuric acid as electrolyte Step 1: Identity which electrode is oxidised. Reduction will occurat the other electrode. The more reactive metal will be oxidised. In this case, Zn is more reactive than Cu. Hence Znis oxidised. ‘Step 2: identify the flow of electrons. Electrons flow from the negative electrade ta the positive electrode. ‘Atthe zinc electrode ‘At the copper electrode ‘> Zine atoms are oxidised, They give up ||», The elecirons from the zinc electrode electrons to form zinc jons. ‘travel to the copper electrode. ‘Zn\s) > Zn*(aq) + 2e° ‘= The solution.contains botn Na*(aq) and H+(aq) ions. ‘= H¥(aq) is more easily discharged. ‘= Because zinc gives up electrons, it en " behaves as thenegative electrode. |, j4scaq) accepts the electrons and is Feduced to form hydrogen ges. * The zinc ions enter into solution. hydrogen ges 2H-(aq) + 2e- > Ho(g) ‘Overall redox reaction: Znjs) + 2H*(aq) > Zn*(aq) + HQ) 157 | Zinc-copper cell with aqueous copper(ll) sulfate as electrolyte ‘Step 1: identity which electrodes oxidised. Reduction will occurat the other electrode. ‘The more reactive metal will be oxidised. In this case, Zn is more reactive than Cu. Hence Znis oxidised.Step 2: Identify the flow of electrons. Electrons flow from the negative electrode to the positive electrode. ‘Al the zine electrode ‘Ai the copper electrode ¢ Zinc aioms are oxidised. They giveup |* The electrons from the zinc electrode. élecirens to form zinc ions. travel to the copper electiode Zm(s) > ZaP*(aq) + 2e * The solution contains botn Cu*"yaq) and H"(aq) ions. = Cu(aq) is more easily discharged. ‘= Because zinc gives up electrons, it “es) " behaves as the negative electrode. + Cuf(aq) accepts the electrons and is reduced to form Cu metal The zinc ions enter info solution, cut{aq) + 2e + Culs) ‘Overall redox reaction: Zn(s) = Cu aq) > Zi(aq) + Cus) 158 The voltage reading depends on the difference in reactivity between the two metals used for the electrodes. 159 Hydrocarbons = compounds nade uplof only Gland H 160 ‘A homologous series iS a group of compounds with a general formula, similar chemical properties and showing a gradation In physical properties as a result of Increase n the size and mass of the molecules, e.g. metting and boiling paints, viscosity, flammability * Members have the same general formula; each member differs from the next bya — CH2~ croup of atoms. + Have chemical properties which are very similar for each member (since they have the ‘same functional group) * Have physical properties which show 2 sieady gradation on going down the series. © Can be made by similar methods. 161 ‘Alkanes form a homologous series consists of saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CnHaree. Each subsequent alkene varies by a-CH:- group. Alkanes are compounds contain only carbon-carbon single covalent bonds (C-C) and carbon-hydrogen single covalent bonds (C-H). 162 TSomers are Compounds with ihe same molecular formula Dut cifferent structural formula, 163 The melting point and boiling point of the alkanes increases as the relative molecular mass increases. More energy is required to overcome the stronger van der Waals forces of attraction between the alkane molecules. 164 ‘Alkanes can react with chlorine in the presence of UVTight, e.¢., methane wih chlorine.CFG) + CEG) > CHECIG) + ACIG) 4 + Gi—c) ——» H—c—H + Ho or 4165 | Alkenes form a homologous Series consisis of unsaturated hydrocarbons wih the general formula CrHzn. Each subsequent alkene varies by a -CH2- group. Alkenes are compounds: containing carbon-carbon double covalent bond (C=C) and carban-hycrogen single covalent bona (C-H). 466 | Alkenes have a higher percentage of carbon compared to alkanes, and burn with sootier flames compared to alkanes with similar number of carbon atoms, to give carbon dioxide and water. 467 | Hydrogenation of alkenes nickel catalyst 200°C, CaHulg) + Haig] ———> CaHie(a) 4 4 nickel catalyst \ / 200°C c= + HOH / HW 4 166 | Reddish-brown liquid bromine changes to colouriess when it reacts with ethene. Useful identification test for unsaturated hydrocarbons — it decolounses reddish-brown bromine water. (CaHaig) + Bro(l) > CH2BrCH-Br(!) H H \_ / = Br—Br > H—C—c— H H 169 | Steam addition or hydration of alkenes phosphoric acid 300°C, 60 atm C2Ha[g) + H20(g] ——> C:H.0H(!) phosphoric acid 300°C, 60 atmH H OH \, Jf H—OH —— H I Ho aa H H 4 170 | Polymenisation of alkenes high temperature and pressure ethene FS ethane catalyst high temperature and pressure n(CH=Ch) — > {CH:CHa- catalyst \ HOH /-\ {|| \ 8 Jf | —- Loot Nr | | / \H Hy 474 | Cracking ‘* Alkenes are manufactured by the cracking of hydrocarbons. Long-chain hydrocarbons are broken down into short-chain hydrocarbons. hexane — butane + ethane CoH > Catto. CoH ‘© A ccatalyst and’nigh temperatures can bé used to speed up the cracking process, Le... catalytic cracking, Catalyst: aluminium oxide (A/sCs) and silicon dioxide (SiO2) Temperature: 600 °C long-chain alkane > (mixture of short-chain alkenes) + (mixture of short-chain alkanes 472 or Ha) similarities T_ Contains carbon and hydrogen only 2. Flammable 3. Complete combustion produces carbon dioxide and waier only Differences * only single covalent] Atleast one double bonds beiween carbon covalent bond between atoms carbon atoms Generally unreactive [+ More reactive than’ Undergoes supstitution | alkanes reaction= Undergoes addition reaction = Doesnotdecoiourse |= Decolourises reddish- Tedaish-brown brome | brown bromine water. water * Smalkcnain alkanes | Alkenes of similar engin burn cleanly of carbon chain bums witha smokier fame 173 | Alcohols form a homologous series containing the -OH functional group or hydroxyl group, with the general formula CoHons1OH. 174 | Fermentation is a chemical reaction in which sugars are broken down into smaller molecules: such as ethanol by micro-organisms such as yeast, e.g., fermentation of glucose to form ethanol. yeast, 37°C CeHz0e(aq) —————> _2CHaCH,OH(aq) + CO%g) 7C ucose EEE etnanot + carbon oxide + The mixture of yeast and glucose is kept at $7 °C as this is the optimum temperature for enzymes in yeast to function. To high a temperature and the enzymes in yeast will be denatured and cannot function as calalysts. ‘+ Carbon dioxide is released during fermentation. Hence frothing is observed in the flask. Awhile precipitate also forms in imewater- ‘* Fermentation ts carried out in the absence of oxygen. When there ts oxygen present, tle ‘to no ethanol isiproduced; Oxygen can also oxidise:ethanolintorethanoic acid, (CHRCH2OH(aq) + 0219) + CHeCOOH (ag FHL) * Acdilute solution of ethanol is formed. It is only about 15% concentrated. Above this concentration, the yeast dies and fermentation stops. Ethanol Is separated trom the mixture by fractional distillation. 475 | Main industrial method of producing ethanol hosphoric(V) acid (H5PO.) (CoHa(g) + H2O(a) ——wre.0am ‘CHaCH20H(ag) phosphorie(V) acid (HaPOs) ethene + stean ——————> ethanol 300°C, 60 atm 476 | Alcohols can be oxidised into carboxylic acids by warming them with suitable oxidising agents, such as acidified potassium manganate(V}), e.g_, ethanal to ethanoic acid During this reaction, purple acidified potassium manganate(VIl) is decolourised.KMnO,, dil. H2SO4 CHeCH Cr aq) + 210] ———— > "Cr4COOH a) + HeO1D 177 | Carboxylic acids form a homologous series containing the -COOH (called carboxyl group) functional group with the general formula GyHzssCOOH. 478 | Carboxylic acids behave like weak acids as they can dissociate partially in water fo release hydrogen fons. The will turn blue litmus paperred (pH < 7). CHsCOOH(aq)= CHsCOO~(aq) + H*(aq) ethanoic acid = ethanoate ion + hydrogen ion + Reaction with relatively reactive metals — hycragen gas is evolved Mg(s) + 2CHsCOOH(aq) > (CHsCOO):Mgiaq) + He(g) magnesium ethanoate ‘+ Reaction with carbonates — carbon dioxide gas is evolved NazCOxs) + 2CHsCOOH(aq) > 2CHyCOONatag) + H20(!) + COAg) ‘sodium ethanoate + Reaction with bases — neutralisation reaction (forms salt and water) NaOH(aq) + CHsCOOH(aq) -> CH;COONataq)+ H:0(1) ‘sodium eihanoate 479 | Estenfication alcohol + carboxylic acid. in the presence of conc Sulfuric acid as catalyst and heat concentrated sure acid heat nan ethanol ace atny| eranoate water 480 | There are twa ways for producing ethanoic acid: (1) Oxidation of ethanol by acidifed potassium manganate(VI) with heating KNInOs, dil He8O4 CH.CH,OH(aq) + 2f0] ——_ > CH,COoH\aq) + H.0(0)(2) Oxidation of ethanol by oxygen in air (CH.CH-OH(aq) + 0:(¢) —————SCH,COOH(aq) + H-0(1) 181 | A macromolecule is a large molecule made by joining together many small molecules. 182 | Polymers (synthetic) are examples of macromolecules which are made up of large number of small molecules called monomers joined together. Polymers donot have sharp melting points. Polymerisation is the process of joining together these small molecules to form big. molecules. 183 | Addition polymerisation is a reaction where unsaturated monomers join together to form one large molecule as the only product_ No molecules or afoms are lost during the process. 184 | Polyetnene (ethene) = polyethene n= as many as 50,000. Li il meme eg hh Aa a (CH=CH) > -(CHaCHe).— In the presence of: 1. High temperature and pressure 2. Catalyst 186 | Condensation polymerisation occurs when monomers join together to form a polymer with ‘the elimination of small molecules. 186 | Nylon * Condensation polymer © synthetic nbre= Strong and light, stretchable without breaking ‘* Made from two monomers © Also known as polyamides because the monomers are joined together by amide linkages nHooc—{———}—coox + nnn, dcarboryie acid | diamine i i c—{___}—¢ Coan + Qn) HO | water Hon L J ‘amide firkage Nylon Pome’ repeat unit 487 | Teryiene = Condensation polymer ‘+ Synthetic fbre ‘* Also known as polyester as the monomers are joined together by ester linkages, Q ° N ee A Yoon Hoo ° diol dicarboxyle acid i i ¢—{___}—_ t —_o— 0 + @n-1)H.0 . v ” n waiter ester inkage Terylene polymerDANIAL ZUBERI SOLUTIONS