EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Session # 3

Materials:
Textbook, pen and notebook, index card/class list

References:
LESSON TITLE: WHY WE NEED STATISTICS
Myers & Hansen (2011). Experimental
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Psychology (7th Ed. Wadsworth Cengage
Upon successful completion of this lesson, the psychology Learning) )
student can:
Kantowitz, Roediger III & Elmes (2009).
1. Explain how hypothesis are tested in experiments Experimental Psychology (9th Ed. Wadsworth
2. Define significance levels Cengage Learning)
3. Summarize data with descriptive statistics

LESSON REVIEW (5 minutes)

As a review of the previous discussion, the instructor will ask the students the following:

1. What is the difference between confidentiality and privacy?

2. Give at least 2 tips to avoid plagiarism.
3. Give at least 2 humane care for animals as subjects are shown in a research?

MAIN LESSON (50 minutes)

Statistics are quantitative measurements of samples. Through statistics we can quantify the phenomena we observe. It
ptovides objective and consensual techniques for describing the results.

Statistical Inference: Overview

In statistical analysis of data we test the null hypothesis (Ho), which states that the defenses between treatments amount
to nothing more than expected variability in the data. We assume the null hypothesis is true until the evidence shows it
can be rejected. To know whether or not to reject the null hypothesis, an experimenter needs to know how much
variability is present on the dependent measure. The more variability there is, the greater the difference between groupd
has to be before we can say that the date probably came from different populations. We cannot actually measure the
populations, so we make statistical inferences from the samples we do measure.

 Statistical Inference. A statement made about a population and all its samples based on the samples observed.

 Variability is the amount of fluctuation observed in scores on a dependent variable.

 Testing the Null Hypothesis

 Null Hypothesis (Ho). A statement that the performance of treatment groups is so similar that the groups
must belong to the same populations’ a way of saying that the experimental manipulation had no
important effect.

 Statistically significant. Meeting the set criterion for significance; the data do not support the null
hypothesis, confirming a difference between the groups that occurred as a result of the experiment.

 Alternative Hypothesis (Ha). A statement that the data from different populations; the research
hypothesis, which cannot be tested directly.

[Title]
 The actual test begins by considering two hypotheses. They are called the null hypothesis and the
alternative hypothesis. These hypotheses contain opposing viewpoints.

Ho: The null hypothesis: It is a statement about the population that either is believed to be true or is used
to put forth an argument unless it can be shown to be incorrect beyond a reasonable doubt.

Ha: The alternative hypothesis: It is a claim about the population that is contradictory to Ho and what we
conclude when we reject Ho.

 Process of Statistical Inference

1. Consider the population to be sampled: Because of variability, individual scores on the dependent variable will
differ.
2. Consider different random samples within the population. Their scores on the dependent variables will also
differ because of normal variability. Assume the null hypothesis is correct.
3. Apply treatment conditions to randomly selected, randomly assigned samples.
4. After the treatment, the samples now appear to belong to different populations: Reject the null hypothesis.

A schematic representation of statistical inference in an experiment in which the independent variable had a large
effect. (See figure below)

Applying Statistical Inferences

 Directional Hypothesis. A statement that predicts the exact patterns of results that will be observed, such as
which treatment group will perform best.

 Normal Curve. The distribution of data in a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve.

 Significance Level. The statistical criterion for deciding whether to reject the null hypothesis or not, typically
p < .05
 Experimental Error. Variation in subjects’ scores produced by uncontrolled extraneous variables in experimental
procedure, experimenter bias, or other influences on subjects not related to effects of the independent variables.

[Title]
 In statistical hypothesis testing, a type I error is the rejection of a true null hypothesis (also known as a "false
positive" finding or conclusion; example: "an innocent person is convicted"), while a type II error is the non-
rejection of a false null hypothesis (also known as a "false negative" finding or conclusion; example: "a guilty
person is not convicted")

 Type 1 Error. An error made by rejecting the null hypothesis even though it is really true; stating that an effect
exists when it really does not.

 Type 2 Error. An error made by failing to reject the null hypothesis even though it is really true; failing to detect a
treatment effect.

The Odds of Finding Significance

The tail refers to the end of the distribution of the test statistic for the particular analysis that you are conducting.
Critical Regions in a Hypothesis Test
In hypothesis tests, critical regions are ranges of the distributions where the values represent statistically
significant results. Analysts define the size and location of the critical regions by specifying both the significance
level (alpha) and whether the test is one-tailed or two-tailed.

Consider the following two facts:

The significance level is the probability of rejecting a null hypothesis that is correct.
The sampling distribution for a test statistic assumes that the null hypothesis is correct.
Consequently, to represent the critical regions on the distribution for a test statistic, you merely shade the
appropriate percentage of the distribution. For the common significance level of 0.05, you shade 5% of the
distribution.

 Critical Regions. Portion in the tail (s) of the distribution of a test statistic extreme enough to satisfy the
researcher’s criterion for rejecting the null hypothesis—for instance, the most extreme 5% of a distribution where
p < .05 is the chosen significance.

 Two-tailed test. A statistical procedure used when a non-directional prediction has been made, the critical region
of the distribution of the test statistic is divided over both tails of the distribution.

 Non-directional hypothesis. A statement that predicts a difference between treatment groups without predicting
the exact pattern of results.

 One-tailed test. Statistical procedure used when a directional prediction has been made, the critical region of the
distribution of the test statistic is measured in just one tail of the distribution.

[Title]
Critical region for (a) a non-directional (two-tailed) test and b a directional (one-tailed) test. (See figure above)

 Test Statistics. A statistics that can be used as indicators of what is going on in a population and can be used to
evaluate results; also called inferential statistics.

 Raw Data. Data recorded an an experiment is run; the responses of individual subjects

 Summary Data. Descriptive statistics computed from the raw of an experiment, including the measures of central
tendency and variability.

 Descriptive statistics. The standard procedures used to summarize and describe data quickly and clearly;
summary statistics reported for an experiment, including mean, range and standard deviation.

 Measure of Central Tendency. Summary statistics that describes what is typical of a distribution of scores;
include mean, median and mode.

 Mode. The most frequently occurring score in a distribution; a measure of central tendency.

 Mean. An arithmetical average computed by dividing the sum of a group of scores by the total number of scores,
a measure of central tendency.

 Variability. Fluctuation in data; can be defined numerically as the range, variance, or standard deviation

 Range. The difference between the largest nd smallest scores in a set of data; a rough indication of the amount
of variability in the data.

 Variance. The average squared deviation of scored from their mean; a more precise measure of variability than
the range.

 Standard Deviation. A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values. A low standard
deviation indicates that the values tend to be close to the mean (also called the expected value) of the set, while a
high standard deviation indicates that the values are spread out over a wider range.

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING (20 minutes)

You will answer and rationalize this by yourself. This will be recorded as your quiz. One (1) point will be given to correct
answer and another one (1) point for the correct rationalization. Superimpositions or erasures in you
answer/rationalization is not allowed. You are given 20 minutes for this activity.

1. A statement that the performance of treatment groups is so similar that the groups must belong to the same
populations’ a way of saying that the experimental manipulation had no important effect.
a. Alternative hypothesis
b. Null hypothesis
c. Type 1 error
d. Type 2 error

ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. It is a claim about the population that is contradictory to H0 and what we conclude when we reject Ho.
a. Alternative hypothesis
b. Null hypothesis
c. Type 1 error
d. Type 2 error

[Title]
ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Also known as a false positive and occurs when a researcher incorrectly rejects a true null hypothesis. This
means that your report that your findings are significant when in fact they have occurred by chance.
a. Alternative hypothesis
b. Null hypothesis
c. Type 2 error
d. Type 1 error

ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Also known as a false negative and occurs when a researcher fails to reject a null hypothesis which is really false.
Here a researcher concludes there is not a significant effect, when actually there really is.
a. Alternative hypothesis
b. Null hypothesis
c. Type 2 error
d. Type 1 error
ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Portion in the tail (s) of the distribution of a test statistic extreme enough to satisfy the researcher’s criterion for
rejecting the null hypothesis—for instance, the most extreme 5% of a distribution where p < .05 is the chosen
significance.
a. One tailed-test
b. Two-tailed test
c. Critical region
d. Non-directional hypothesis
ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. A statistical procedure used when a non-directional prediction has been made, the critical region of the distribution
of the test statistic is divided over both tails of the distribution.
a. One tailed-test
b. Two-tailed test
c. Critical region
d. Non-directional hypothesis
ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
7. A statement that predicts a difference between treatment groups without predicting the exact pattern of results.
a. One tailed-test
b. Two-tailed test
c. Critical region
d. Non-directional hypothesis
ANSWER: ________

[Title]
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. Statistical procedure used when a directional prediction has been made, the critical region of the distribution of the
test statistic is measured in just one tail of the distribution.
a. One tailed-test
b. Two-tailed test
c. Critical region
d. Non-directional hypothesis
ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
9. Summary statistics that describes what is typical of a distribution of scores; include mean, median and mode.
a. Mean
b. Mode
c. Measure of central tendency
d. Significant level
ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
10. The statistical criterion for deciding whether to reject the null hypothesis or not, typically p < .05
a. Mean
b. Mode
c. Measure of central tendency
d. Significant level

ANSWER: ________
RATIO:___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

[Title]