Vinaya Kumar Hebsale Mallappa

Mahantesh Shirur   Editors

Climate
Change and
Resilient Food
Systems
Issues, Challenges, and Way Forward
Climate Change and Resilient Food Systems
Vinaya Kumar Hebsale Mallappa •
Mahantesh Shirur
Editors

Climate Change and

Resilient Food Systems
Issues, Challenges, and Way Forward
Editors
Vinaya Kumar Hebsale Mallappa Mahantesh Shirur
Department of Agricultural Extension & Center for Agriculture Extension Policy and
Communication International Centre of Excellence
Anand Agricultural University National Institute of Agricultural Extension
Anand, Gujarat, India Management (MANAGE)
Hyderabad, Telangana, India

ISBN 978-981-33-4537-9 ISBN 978-981-33-4538-6 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6

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We dedicate this book to the ‘farmer’ who is
most affected by changing climate yet working
tirelessly amidst it to feed the world
Preface

The knowledge of both climate change and food system can allow us to ensure the
resilient food system in the society. This book is primarily the outcome of our shared
concern and the subsequent discussions about the ill effects of climate change since
our days as PhD research scholars. At times, we felt overwhelmed by the enormity of
the challenges posed by global climate change issues. Yet, we never stopped
thinking about the environment, the sustainability and the food security issues in
teaching, research and extension activities in which we were involved in our
respective capacities.
We were aware of the information and huge data available on climate change,
food and nutrition security in different regions of the globe. However, our inquiries
revolved around the issue of making the food production, processing and consump-
tion more resilient to the challenges of changing climate. Several researchers,
through their research and accumulated experiences, must have developed their
own insights from their long work experience. We thought that collating and making
available all such experiences and insights from cross-sectional disciplines to the
young readers, research scholars and policy formulators will be a worthy idea.
Therefore, we included the topics starting from soil and water conservation, produc-
tion aspects, processing, to value chain along with the role of allied sectors, animal
husbandry, fisheries and forestry, etc.
The chapters included in this book bring into focus all the diverse views about the
ill effect of climate change and alternatives in solving the impending world food
crisis. It also shows the plethora of opportunities in the agriculture sector to adapt
and its contribution in mitigating climate change. We also included different
dimensions of climate change and resilient issues. We gratefully acknowledge all
the authors’ contributions. All the authors were quick enough to grasp the idea
behind the book and carefully stride with the right focus on the topic and closely
related issues. We welcome all the critique and suggestions while taking more of
such work in the coming days.

Anand, Gujarat, India Vinaya Kumar Hebsale Mallappa

Hyderabad, Telangana, India Mahantesh Shirur

vii
About the Book

The changing climate impacts everyone in the globe in more than one way. There are
growing concerns of adverse impacts of climatic variability on food supplies promi-
nently from the early 1990s, due to doubling of the number of extreme weather-
related disasters. Consequently, crop shortfalls, natural disasters, famines and food
supply emergencies throughout the world have underscored the importance of the
study on the climate-food interactions encircling the complex mechanisms involved.
The book throws light on different views of climate change, the effect of changing
climate on food production and distribution system and the contribution of agricul-
ture in adapting and mitigating to climate change. In the wake of climate change, the
book also discusses several holistic strategies for resilient food and nutritional
security. All the chapters explore and present an array of technologies and practical
policies, which promise to reduce the adverse impact of changing climate on food
production. They need to be heard without further delay in achieving the food and
nutritional security to meet the targets identified under sustainable development
goals.

ix
Contents

1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way

Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Vinaya Kumar Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu
2 From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking Dinner: Some
Futuristic Approaches in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Reshma Gills and J. P. Sharma
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food
Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Ritambhara Singh and Vishita Khanna
4 Resilient Measures in Face of Climate Change to Strengthen Food
and Nutritional Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
D. Vijayalakshmi and Mrunal D. Barbhai
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining
Agricultural Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Abhilash, Alka Rani, Arti Kumari, Ram Narayan Singh,
and Kavita Kumari
6 Climate Change and Its Impact on Rice Productivity
and Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Mangal Deep Tuti, Mahender Kumar Rapolu, and Brajendra
7 Changing the Way We Produce Food: An Overview of the Current
Agricultural Food Production Industry and Worldwide Trends for
Sustainable Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Rowena P. Varela, Raquel M. Balanay, and Anthony Halog
8 Climate Change, Soil Erosion Risks, and Nutritional Security . . . . . 219
Shrikaant Kulkarni
9 Minimizing Weather-Related Risks in Agriculture Through
Agromet Advisory Services in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Santanu Kumar Bal and M. A. Sarath Chandran

xi
xii Contents

10 Farmers-Led Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change

for Sustaining Coastal Agriculture in Sundarbans Region
of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Suchandra Dutta, Sanchita Garai, Subhasis Mandal, and Sanjit Maiti
11 Using Beneficial Microorganisms to Promote Sustainable Crop
Production and Resilience of Smallholder Agroecosystems
to Changing Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Ezekiel Mugendi Njeru and Gilbert Koskey
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms:
Implications on Mushroom Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Mahantesh Shirur, Anupam Barh, and Sudheer Kumar Annepu
13 Climate-Resilient Vegetable Farming: Approaches for Sustainable
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Sudheer Kumar Annepu, Sunil A. Nair, Shivender Thakur,
and Vinay Verma
14 Integrating Local Knowledge in the Climate Services
for Resilience: A Case of “Haiyan” Fishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Ladylyn Lim Mangada
15 Climate-Resilient Livestock Farming to Ensure Food
and Nutritional Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Shahaji Phand and Prabhat Kumar Pankaj
16 Climate Change and Food Security: Two Parallel Concerns . . . . . . 399
Philip Kuriachen, S. Aiswarya, and K. S. Aditya
About the Editors

Vinaya Kumar Hebsale Mallappa is an Assistant Professor at the Department of

Agricultural Extension and Communication of Anand Agricultural University, Anand,
India. He received his doctorate in Agricultural Extension from University of Agricul-
tural Sciences, Bangalore, with ICSSR Doctoral Fellowship and secured four univer-
sity gold medals. His recent publications are “Predictive factors to avoid farming as a
livelihood” (Journal of Economic Structures, 2019), “Impact of rainfall variability
and trend on rice yield in Coastal Karnataka” (Journal of Agrometeorology, 2017),
and “Assessing decision-making and economic performance of farmers to manage
climate-induced crisis in Coastal Karnataka” (Climatic Change, 2017). His research
interests include the climate-induced crisis management, surface and groundwater
management, food and nutritional security, and sustainable development.

Mahantesh Shirur is working as Dy. Director (Agricultural Extension) at the

National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Hyderabad.
He is looking after the Center for Agriculture Extension Policy, PPP in Extension
and International Center for Excellence in Agricultural Extension at MANAGE.
Prior to joining MANAGE, Dr. Mahantesh Shirur was working as scientist (Agri-
cultural Extension) at ICAR—Directorate of Mushroom Research, Solan and
ICAR—Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, RC, Ballari. He has
expertise on transfer of technology, impact assessment, on-farm trials, and ICT
application in agriculture. His contribution in the development of digital content
and video documentaries on mushroom cultivation is popular as learning and
teaching aids. He worked on developing and standardizing the training modules
on mushroom cultivation technology at ICAR-DMR, Solan, India. He has authored
30 research papers, 2 reports, 1 book, 7 popular articles, 4 book chapters, and many
conference proceedings. Dr. Mahantesh Shirur was the Program Director of the
prestigious Feed The Future India Training (FTF ITT) and Indian Technical Eco-
nomic Cooperation (ITEC) International and national training programs of MAN-
AGE during 2018–2020.

xiii
Abbreviations

AAS Agromet advisory services

ACP Agricultural crop production
ACZ Agroclimatic zone
ADA American Dietetic Association
AgriDSS Agricultural decision support system
AI Artificial intelligence
AICMIP All India Coordinated Mushroom Improvement Project
AICRPAM All India Coordinated Research Project on Agrometeorology
AMF Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
AMFU Agro-meteorological field unit
ATMA Agricultural Technology Management Agency
AWC Anganwadi Centres
BCM Bromo-chloromethane
BDO Block Development Officer
BEE Bureau of Energy Efficiency
BES 2-Bromo-ethanesulfonate
BFAR Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
BNF Biological nitrogen fixation
BOD Bio-oxygen demand
BRM Beneficial rhizospheric microorganism
CA Conservation agriculture
CAI Computer-assisted instruction
CBOs Community-based organizations
CC Climate change
CCAP Climate Change Action Plan
CDR Complex-diverse-risk-prone
CD-ROM Compact disc read-only memory
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
CH4 Methane
COVID-19 Coronavirus disease 2019
CPR Common property resources
CRIDA Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture
CS Carbon sequestration

xv
xvi Abbreviations

CSA Climate-smart agriculture

CSM Crop simulation model
CV Climate variability
CWWG Crop Weather Watch Group
DEFRA Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
DMR Directorate of Mushroom Research
DRDA District Rural Development Agency
DSS Decision support system
ESS Ecosystem service
EWE Extreme weather events
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
FARMS Farm activity record management system
FF Fossil fuel
FFS Farmer field schools
FGD Focus group discussion
FIF Field Information Facilitator
FILE Farmer income-led extension
FLW Food loss and wastages
FMD Foot and mouth disease
FNS Farmer Nutrition Schools
FNS Food and nutrition security
FPOs Farmer Producer Organisations
FWB Farmers’ Weather Bulletin
GDP Gross domestic product
GECAFS Global Environmental Change and Food Systems
GEO Global Environmental Organization
GHG Greenhouse gas
GIS Geographic information system
GISS Goddard Institute for Space Studies
GWP Global warming potential
HAIC Haryana Agro-Industrial Corporation
HDPE High-density polyethylene
HLPE High-Level Panel of Experts
HS Heat stress
IAA Indole acetic acid
IARI Indian Agricultural Research Institute
ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research
ICDS Integrated Child Development Services
ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics
ICT Information and communication technologies
IFLED Innovative farmer-led extension delivery
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute
IFS Integrated farming system
IGFRI ICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute
Abbreviations xvii

IIHR Indian Institute of Horticultural Research

IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture
IMD India Meteorological Department
IoT Internet of things
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ITK Indigenous technology knowledge
JFM Joint forest management
KINEROS Kinematic runoff and erosion
KSB Potassium-solubilizing bacteria
KSHMTA Knowledge Systems and Homestead Agriculture Management in
Tribal Areas
KSM Potassium-solubilizing microorganism
KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendra
LCA Life cycle assessment
LCT Life cycle thinking
LGP Length of growing period
LiDAR Light detection and ranging
LISEM Limburg soil erosion
LPA Long period average
MAAS Micro-level Agromet Advisory Services
MDG Millennium Development Goals
MGNREGA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
MH Mycorrhiza helper
MIRCEN Microbial Resources Centre Network
MLP-FFA Multilayer Perceptron Algorithm Integrated with Firefly Optimizer
Algorithm
MNRE Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
MSSRF MS Swaminathan Research Foundation
NAPCC National Action Plan on Climate Change
NARI Nutri-Sensitive Agricultural Resources and Innovations
NARS National Agricultural Research System
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NCAER National Council of Applied Economic Research
NCAP National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research
NCFC National Crop Forecasting Centre
NCMRWF National Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecast
NDC Nationally determined contribution
NGCR National Centre for Genetic Resources
NGOs Nongovernment organizations
NICRA National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture
NMSA National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
NUE Nutrient use efficiency
OF Organic farming
xviii Abbreviations

PA Precision agriculture
PAG- ASA Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services
Administration
PGPF Plant growth-promoting fungi
PGPR Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
PLW Postharvest losses and wastage
PSM Phosphate-solubilizing microorganism
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
RCTs Resource-conserving technologies
RE Renewable energy
RFID Radio-frequency identification
RFS Resilient food system
RICMS Rice-integrated crop management systems
RO Reactive oxygen
RS & GIS Remote sensing and geographic information system
RTF Ready to fruit
RUR Rossum’s Universal Robots
RUSLE Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
SAD Sustainable agricultural development
SAMS Smart agricultural machinery systems
SAPCC State Action Plans on Climate Change
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SDSN Sustainable Development Solutions Network
SF Smart farming
SHGs Self-help groups
SI Sustainable intensification
SLR Sea level rise
SMC State Agromet Centre
SMEs Small and medium enterprises
SMS Short messaging service
SOC Soil organic carbon
SOM Soil organic matter
SRI System of Rice Intensification
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
SWAT Soil and Water Assessment Tool
TBI Tree-based intercropping
THI Temperature humidity index
TPA Tonnes per annum
UCD User-centred design
UHT Ultrahigh temperature
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Abbreviations xix

USEPA US Environmental Protection Agency

USGCRP US Global Change Research Program
USLE Universal Soil Loss Equation
VATICA Value Addition and Technology Incubation Centres in Agriculture
VFA Volatile fatty acids
VRI Vavilov Research Institute
WEPP Water Erosion Prediction Project
WHO World Health Organization
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WRI World Resources Institute
WTO World Trade Organization
WUE Water use efficiency
ZEPT Zero energy polytunnel
Building a Resilient Food System:
Challenges and a Way Forward 1
Vinaya Kumar Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

Abstract

In a growing crisis, various internal and external factors threaten food and
nutritional security in the developing world. These include ample processes of
global climate change, urbanization, the rapid growth of population, unexpected
shocks, natural disasters, economic, political crisis, etc. In this context, we are
discussing various factors responsible for food and nutritional insecurity in
developing countries. To tackle the existing turmoil, we have developed a
theoretical framework for the resilient food and nutritional system and cogitate
how this possibly will be implemented through stakeholder participation to
ensure the resilience of the food system for an individual in society and nation
as a whole. Resilience is conceptualized as the capacity of an individual to
recover quickly from the shocks and intricacy of whole food systems. Also,
from a sustainable perspective, it is viewed as personal, social, psychological,
political, economic, technological, and communication factors operating at vari-
ous scales. It presents the prospect of eliminating weaknesses, deal with future
shocks, and build a resilient food system through institutional, technological,
capacity building, and policy interventions.

Keywords

Crisis · Food system · Resilience · Sustainable development · Shocks

V. K. Hebsale Mallappa (*)

Department of Agricultural Extension and Communication, Anand Agricultural University, Anand,
Gujarat, India
e-mail: vinay@aau.in
S. C. Babu
IFPRI, Washington, DC, USA
e-mail: s.babu@cgiar.org

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 1

Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_1
2 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

1.1 Introduction

The linkages between agricultural advance, industrial growth, and sociopolitical

stability have been long recognized. While there has been undoubtedly significant
progress during this century in increasing food production, the development has
been uneven concerning regions, crops, and categories of farmers. Fluctuations in
production have also been too wide to provide the necessary margin of safety. The
need for a portion of global food and nutritional security system, which will help to
insulate the human race from the threat of hunger and famine, has been realized and
stressed in many national and international seminars, conferences, and other food
and climate change congress forums. Sharp rhetoric at such gatherings does not,
however, shorten the steps needed to build such a system. Experience teaches us that
global cooperation can alone provide the necessary motivation for enduring to build
a resilient food system (RFS). Fortunately, we now find several common
denominators emerging, which could provide the basis for global collective action.
These include the Global Environmental Organization (GEO), Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), World Trade Organization (WTO), etc.
The different nations are blessed with different natural endowments. Countries,
which were once regarded as hopeless deserts, have now thriving economies because
of their fossil fuel reserves. Similarly, countries in the tropics and subtropics, which
were formerly considered to be agriculturally backward and even classified based on
the triage principle into relative grades of hopelessness, are now known to have the
potential for becoming significant “green power” countries because they endowed
sunlight and water. Hence, our spaceship earth is so structured that different
components of it have complementary strengths.
The necessary life support systems in the world constitute a way of a common
heritage (Swaminathan 1981). The tropics and subtropics form the major reservoirs
of genetic variability in crops and farm animals. The temperate countries, in contrast,
have developed methodologies for collecting and maintaining such variability (e.g.,
gene banks). Global atmospheric effects like increased temperature and enhanced
CO2 concentration may adversely affect affluent countries. The considerations of
survival, nations, whether poor or rich, will have to develop a system of organized
cooperation based on principles of symbiosis and synergy. Therefore, we should
continuously seek and identify areas, which will bring nations together irrespective
of their political ideologies into a working partnership just to save our earth from
annihilation. How can we work toward achieving sustainable development objec-
tive? Initially, each nation should begin a well-planned and sustained effort in
building a resilient food system. The solution to the food and nutritional insecurity
problem must create holistic development programs at the community level. Some
of the essential components of a resilient food system are described below:
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 3

1.1.1 Ecological Security

Steps for accomplishing ecological security would comprise measures for guarding
the underlying assets of farming and minimizing the burden on natural resources
(Walker et al. 1969; Pimm 1984). The government alone, however, cannot promote
ecological security. It has to be a joint sector activity involving the people and
private and public agencies. Hence there is a need to create local-level community
management eco-development associations. These associations should actively
work to build societal awareness on judicious use of a scarce natural resource
(land and water) and waste management. It will be more effective if they involve
schools and colleges in organizing community-level programs (Walker et al. 2002).
Such associations should also operate collectively on waste exchanges and collect
and recycle all organic wastes. The economic benefits of eco-development and waste
recycling could provide the motivation necessary for attracting public attention and
participation in sustainable development.

1.1.2 Technological Security

Growth with stability should be the aim of agricultural development programs.

These would call for the breeding of high yield, cum-high stability varieties, and
similar measures in animal husbandry and fisheries. The research system should be
capable of promoting appropriate early warning-cum-timely action programs. Pest
survey and surveillance systems, as well as soil, water, plant, and animal healthcare
programs, will have to be developed. Here again, the total involvement of the local
farming community will be necessary (bottom-up approach). Since, in the case of
pest epidemics, political and administrative boundaries may not always provide the
basis for appropriate early warning and control systems, it will be necessary for all
the countries concerned with the problem to get together and form a regional control
grid. The FAO-sponsored program to improve national and local locust management
is an excellent example of the value of such cooperation.

1.1.3 PostHarvest Technology and Building Grain Reserves

A mismatch amid production and postharvest technologies frequently results in

losses to both the producer and the consumer. Indian farmers incur around rupees
93,000 crore per year in the postharvest losses. If they cut postharvest losses, few
core people can be fed for a year. Therefore, all operations after harvest, such as
drying, storage, processing, transport, and marketing, will have to receive integrated
attention. Depending upon possibilities, every country should maintain a reasonable
grain reserve. India, for example, derived immense benefit during the unprecedented
drought year of 1979 from the grain reserve of about 20 million tonnes built up by
the government. Presently (January 2020), 237.15 lakh tonnes of rice and 327.96
lakh tonnes of wheat are stored. As per the buffer stock norm, only 76 lakh tonnes of
4 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

rice and 138 lakh tonnes of wheat are required. A decentralized strategy of grain
storage would also help under conditions of a free market economy to prevent panic
purchase when conditions for crop growth are unfavorable and distress sale by poor
farmers with no holding capacity when the harvests are good. In fact, a decentralized
plan for storing grain as well as water at appropriate locations all over the country
should be an essential element of the food security system of nations whose
agricultural fortunes are closely linked to rainfall distribution. Besides, the unfore-
seen situations, such as the pandemic caused by COVID-19 in 2020, can be
efficiently managed with decentralized grain reserves.

1.1.4 Social Security

Including India, many developing countries witness the paradox of grain surplus and
widespread hunger. Even when there is food in the market, the lack of purchasing
power leads to undernutrition and malnutrition. Therefore, in countries where
agricultural production keeps ahead of population growth, the food and nutrition
problem could be better stated in terms of person days of employment rather than in
metric tonnes of food grains. The right to work should hence become an integral part
of the plan for food security (e.g., Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act 2005). This is why the integration of employment generation as an
explicit aim in land and water use plans assumes relevance. Social security measures
should include programs like food for work for abled persons, food for nutrition for
young children, pregnant and nursing mothers, old and infirm persons, and rural
development programs designed to provide the minimum needs in the field of
drinking water, education, health, and environmental sanitation. Besides, there has
to be a detailed manpower planning and employment generation strategy in rural
areas based on a careful analysis of the possibilities for:

1. Agriculture, horticulture, sericulture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fisheries:

land- and water-based occupations.
2. Agro-processing enterprises and village industries: non-land occupations.
3. Provision of relevant services.

In developed countries, the service sector tends to provide excellent employment

opportunities. In fact, as agriculture advances, more and more persons working on a
daily wage status tend to be employed in the secondary and tertiary sectors of the
country’s economy (Swaminathan 1981). The standard of living has depended on
the capability of farming to release the workforce to other more industrial pursuits.
Social security measures are as much needed for farmers and fishermen as for
consumers. Suitable devices to insulate farmers against losses due to factors beyond
their control will have to be developed. Old-age pension and insurance measures to
prevent marginal and small farmers and agricultural labor suffering when they
become old and infirm are necessary (Vinaya Kumar et al. 2019).
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 5

1.1.5 Nutrition Education

Even when people have the requisite purchasing power, there may still occur several
forms of nutritional diseases arising from specific causes such as vitamin A-induced
blindness, iron deficiency, anemia, goiter, etc. Such nutritional disorders attributable
to well-identified causes can be easily eliminated within a specific time frame
through concerted efforts in nutrition education and intervention. Drinking water
supply and mycotoxins in food need particular attention. Developments in preven-
tive and curative medicine and improvements in environmental sanitation and safe
drinking water supply will lead to continuous improvement in the average lifespan of
a human being. Family planning programs will hence have to become an integral
part of national food and nutritional security systems.

1.1.6 Population Stabilization

Depending upon the situation prevailing in each country concerning the population-
natural resources equation, an appropriate population policy will have to be devel-
oped and implemented. In countries like India, planning for economic development
will be a futile exercise without the widespread adoption of the small family norm.
Ecological security cannot be achieved, either, without arresting the rapid growth of
human populations (Walker et al. 2002). It would be advisable in all countries where
the food-population equation is not favorable, to have at the community-based
committee on food and nutritional security to provide the necessary political and
policy guidance to ensure the involvement of administrative, academic, and local
communities into a well-coordinated and cooperative action program.
However, the poverty trap in which a majority of developing countries find
themselves in is an example of a feedback loop. The poverty of the land is reflected
in the poverty of the mind. Opportunities for accelerated agricultural production at
home are neglected. Instead, much time is spent in seeking food aid from the rich
nations or in spending valuable foreign exchange in buying from the rich countries
commodities, which can be easily grown by helping small farmers to derive benefit
from the vast untapped production reservoir existing in most tropical and subtropical
farming systems. Developing countries are doubly hit in this process. Fast-growing
population, the small size of farms, high input prices coupled with an absence of
measures to insulate farmers from risks, absence of appropriate land and livestock
reform, poor land and water management, exploitative marketing systems, and a host
of other problems have led to a situation where many low-income countries find
themselves unable to feed their populations unaided. Since the majority of small and
marginal farmers generate a little surplus, they cannot generate capital for being
invested in enhancing the productivity of land and livestock. High interest rates and
urban-centered public policies enhance the unattractive nature of investments in land
and water-based occupations. This is unfortunate since 98% of the global food
supply is land-dependent, the oceans providing only the remaining 2% (FAO
2019). The dilemma of finding adequate financial resources for elevating and
6 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

stabilizing agricultural productivity in the midst of an unfavorable environment for

investment in rural professions will have to be resolved in many developing
countries if agriculture is to move forward (Vinaya Kumar and Shivamurthy 2018).
The farmer works under severe handicaps. His is a very risky profession, and he
will not know what the fruits of his labor will be until the grains have been safely
harvested and stored. In many developing nations, the moneylender is also the
merchant, and the gap between what the farmer gets for his produce and what the
consumer pays is very wide. As is said most often, the farmer is the only man in our
economy who buys everything at retail, sells everything at wholesale, and pays the
freight both ways.
The finite nature of earth’s essential resources underlines the economic and
ecological interdependence of nations. The key to lasting human happiness lies in
strengthening such symbiotic bonds. Building a strong national food security system
is a fundamental prerequisite for developing symbiotic links among nations
(Swaminathan 1981; Walker and Salt 2006). The global food and nutritional security
system will then follow. To understand this, we should know the factors which
determine food availability.

1.2 Factors Are Affecting Food Availability

The nutritional disease is the relative deficiency of one or more specific nutrients.
The various factors, which determine the availability of nutrients for human con-
sumption, are of major significance. Insufficient food supplies are even now an
important cause of malnutrition in many of the developing countries, especially in
seasons and years of scarcity. Moreover, per capita, food production in most of these
countries is actually decreasing as population growth outstrips agricultural
improvement.

1.2.1 Physical Factor

The pertinent factors in the physical environment influencing food production

obviously include the nature and fertility of the soil; topography and type of climate;
the frequency of natural disasters such as floods, droughts, and storms; and access to
lakes, rivers, and the sea.

1.2.2 Biological Factor

Among limitations to food production imposed by the biological environment are

the species of plants that can be grown under the physical conditions of the region
and the types of animals the land can support. Closely related considerations are the
plant and animal diseases, the predators in the environment, and the extent to which
they can be controlled.
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 7

The biological environment will also affect a man’s capacity to produce food.
Regions in which parasitic diseases such as malaria, filariasis, trypanosomiasis,
schistosomiasis, and hookworm are highly endemic may have fertile soil, good
rainfall, and high potential productivity but remain underdeveloped until public
health measures improve the biological environment of the man himself.
It has already been pointed out that social measures change the biological
environment so that infections and predators will less affect a man and his domestic
plants and animals. The physical environment can also be altered by individual and
community effort, as is seen in the irrigation of deserts and the terracing of hills to
obtain level, water-retaining land. Fertilizers, soil conditioners, and soil-building
crops such as legumes can improve the fertility of the soil.
Differences in technical knowledge and its application explain to a great extent,
the impressive discrepancies in agricultural production among areas of similar soil
and climate (Vinaya Kumar et al. 2017b). Similarly, where fish resources are
available, the efficiency of catching, storing, and processing fish–all aspects of the
social environment–will largely determine the availability and cost of fish and
marine products. Eventually, much food will also be produced microbiologically
and synthetically, independently of better climate or agricultural land.

1.2.3 Political Factors

Politics is a feature of the social environment, and governmental actions significantly

affect food production and availability, sometimes determining whether or not
malnutrition will occur. The governmental policy may stimulate or discourage
food production in a number of ways, including subsidies, restrictions on the use
of land, selective taxes, price controls, and even collectivization. In the United
States, price supports the encouragement of producer cooperatives, and the research
and extension activities of land-grant colleges have significantly contributed to
increased agricultural production.
It is hardly necessary to point out the extent to which civil disturbances,
revolutions, and wars and their aftermath have contributed to malnutrition and
even to famine through interference with food production. Throughout history,
civilian populations have suffered varying degrees of malnutrition in times of war.
Today political unrest and guerilla warfare are seriously damaging agriculture in
many countries. Yet, food shortages themselves lead to such unrest.

1.2.4 Economic Factor

Economic aspects of the environment are major determinants of the kinds of foods
produced and the efficiency of the process. Farmers, in general, tend to produce
whatever promises the greatest return for their efforts. In India and other developing
countries, however, farmers frequently are unaware of many desirable crops they
could grow; they are unfamiliar with the methods for cultivating these crops or lack
8 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

access to essentials of modern agricultural production (scale neutral technologies)

such as improved seeds and breeds, fertilizers, pesticides, machinery, and the credit
to acquire them. Ignorance and poverty are, therefore, major links in the chain of
multiple causes leading to widespread food shortages in the developing countries.
Many other economic factors influencing the availability of food could be cited
even where local food supplies are insufficient; much agricultural land is used for
production largely for export of cash crops such as coffee, rubber, and cotton. For
many of these crops, synthetic substitutes are already being produced. The land
would simply not be available today to produce plant sources of the amounts of dyes,
rubber, and fibers, which we now obtain synthetically. This trend can be expected to
continue.
Crops such as cassava or manioc, which fulfill the primary need for calories
though they lack sufficient protein, have replaced food crops of higher protein value
(balanced diet) in some areas because of the ease and cheapness with which they can
be grown and because they can be left in the ground until sold or consumed. Cassava
may prevent overt hunger, but it is responsible for much protein deficiency in young
children.

1.2.5 Food Conservation Factor

Food production is, of course, a primary determinant of food availability; the quality
of food conservation may determine whether or not the quantities produced suffice
for human needs. In most developing countries, the application of modern principles
of food storage, processing, and packaging could make as significant an immediate
contribution to food supplies as comparable efforts to increase primary food produc-
tion (ISUCAED 1967).
Even in the United States, where pesticides are used extensively, standing crop
losses from insects alone are estimated to represent nearly 5 billion dollars annually.
FAO (2019) reported that each year globally, around 20–40% per annum of crop
production is lost to pests. Annually, it cost approximately $220 billion in a global
economy. It is not surprising, then, that in developing countries where there is little
or no insect or rodent control, either in the field or during storage, more than half of
the food produced is lost before it reaches the consumer.
In India, the recurrent food shortages, even in years of normal rainfall, could be
converted to exportable food surpluses through the control of preventable storage
waste. In some of the godowns or storage warehouses, a third of the grain is
consumed by rats while it is being held for high-priced sale during the dry season.
Overall preventable waste of locally produced grain in India and countries with
similar storage practices is probably in the range of 10–15%.
The seasonal scarcity and marked seasonal fluctuations in the cost of food in
developing regions are additional factors in the occurrence of nutritional disease.
These are related, in turn, to climatic cycles, lack of control of insects and rodents,
poor conservation and storage, and profiteering by intermediaries.
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 9

When no satisfactory means of preservation are available for perishable foods in

developing countries, these foods, when they are in season, may be so cheap as to
return little profit to the producer. They are then unobtainable for the rest of the year.
Several tropical fruits and vegetables are in this category. Furthermore, if farmers
cannot store their grain crops properly, they must sell their harvest promptly to
mediators and may even need to purchase part of it back later at a higher cost. If
storage losses are high and administrative restraints are few, cereal grains, which are
the main food staple, maybe several times higher in price in the season of scarcity
than at the time of harvest.
Efficient storage procedures are a significant contributory factor to the grain
surpluses of the United States. Methods of handling and storing food, thus, share a
place with food production in assuring adequate food supplies.

1.2.6 Food Distribution Factor

Distribution may be equally important as production and conservation in determin-

ing the availability and cost of food to population groups. In developing countries,
the phenomenon of surpluses in one region and scarcity in another is very common.
For example, fresh fish may be available near the seacoast and fruit abundant in
tropical lowlands, but because of poor preservation and distribution, these foods may
be scarce and costly in the highlands of the same country.
Food distribution is hindered by such geographical characteristics as mountain
ranges, deserts, and jungles and is facilitated by accessibility to harbors, inland
waterways, railroads, highways, roads, and even trails. Indeed, one cause of malnu-
trition is the inefficient distribution systems in developing countries; improving them
can prevent much malnutrition.

1.3 Means to Increase the Availability of Nutrients

A cultural characteristic of man is his ability to apply science and technology to free
himself from the limitations that nature imposes on animals and primitive man. The
production of synthetic nutrients is a dramatic example. Nutrients need no longer be
obtained only from food in its natural state.
It is now possible virtually to eliminate certain highly prevalent nutritional
diseases from entire population groups by adding synthetic nutrients in which they
are deficient to staple foods. For example, the addition of thiamine to rice could
prevent beriberi, which is still prevalent in some Far Eastern countries. Niacin added
to cornmeal is useful in avoiding pellagra in Yugoslavia, and its addition to wheat
flour was a factor in the disappearance of pellagra from the Southern United States.
The addition of iodine to salt has been repeatedly demonstrated to be effective in
preventing endemic goiter.
Enrichment of wheat and wheat flour with the limiting essential amino acid
lysine, or of corn flour with both lysine and tryptophan, can nearly double the
10 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

otherwise reduced utilization of their proteins. Methionine is already added to

soybean-based animal rations in ordinary commercial practice and can benefit
legume-based foods for human consumption as well.
Not only the amino acids but also all of the essential vitamins and minerals are
now available in chemically pure form, and even synthetic sources of energy are
feasible. A pure organic compound, 1,3-butanediol, which is produced on a large
scale for the plastics industry from a petroleum fraction, has been demonstrated to be
an excellent substitute for carbohydrate or fat in the rations of experimental animals.
Another compound, 2,4-dimethyl heptanoic acid, has been used successfully in
preliminary experiments, and many more such compounds can be devised. It is
only a matter of time until palatable and interesting synthetic foods containing all
essential nutrients are formulated. Eventually, they will undoubtedly play a role in
meeting the nutritional requirements of man.
Attention should also be given to the entire range of unconventional sources of
food for human consumption. In addition to the utilization of oilseed protein and
marine resources, there should be consideration of the feasibility of single-cell
protein from yeasts and bacteria grown on energy substrates from petroleum or
natural gas without the need for agricultural land. Long before synthetic foods are
economically feasible, single-cell protein should be competitive with fish protein
concentrate and dried milk solids.

1.4 Factors Are Affecting the Consumption of Food

By now, it should be clear that neither the production nor availability of food per se
or the precise nutrient requirements of the individual can in themselves explain the
occurrence of nutritional disease. The environmental influences on the actual con-
sumption of available food are often the most significant. Physical and biological
characteristics of the environment are only of minor importance in this regard
compared with social factors. Even where food is available, or could be made so,
irrational dietary habits arising from ignorance and food prejudices are often a cause
of malnutrition. The classic example is the development of malnutrition in young
children as a result of poor dietary practices during and after weaning. Many cases of
kwashiorkor are due, not to a primary lack of essential protein-rich foods in the
household but to prejudice against giving these foods to infants and toddlers. In
some cultures, certain foods are considered too strong for the young child. For
example, in Peru, foods are classified as hot, cold, heavy, and light. Hot and heavy
foods, usually those rich in protein, are not considered appropriate for young
children and sick persons. In one form or another, the classification of foods into
groups, which do not combine well or are believed to have special properties is
prevalent. In India, for instance, the two main classes of food are hot and cold, and
some are considered unsuitable for the feeding of young children.

Personal Factors Personal beliefs and taboos surround many foods of animal
origin. Eggs are believed by various cultures to produce worms, to be too “strong”
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 11

or too “hot” for young children, to cause sterility, or even to embody spirits.
Religious taboos, such as Muslim strictures against eating pork, and the Hindu
belief in the sacredness of the cow, may complicate efforts to improve dietary habits.
The belief that cow’s milk causes diarrhea in young infants and, therefore, should be
avoided presumably stems from the almost universal contamination and adulteration
of milk in primitive societies. It is hard to establish confidence in milk in many
developing countries since it is still sometimes a source of infectious diarrhea.
A tragic and common cause of malnutrition in young children is the practice of
feeding them highly diluted milk. When an impoverished mother is told by medical
or public health advisors to give her malnourished child milk, she either cannot
afford adequate quantities or believes that adding a small amount of milk powder or
evaporated milk to a glass of water is wholly sufficient. The child, of course, goes
rapidly downhill.
The protein needs of infants and young children can be adequately met from a
variety of conventional and unconventional vegetable and animal protein sources.
The biggest obstacle of low cost, protein-rich mixtures, incorporating oilseed meals,
fish protein concentrates, or food yeast is not the development and production of
such combinations but the difficulty of persuading parents to buy them and feed
them to their children.
Food like corn and beans have great traditional value in some cultures but do not
provide sufficient proteins even in their most favorable combinations for the growth
and development of young children. Due to the low protein concentration and
quality of such diets, the young child cannot eat the large quantity of these foods
necessary to provide the amount of protein required.
Nowadays, new foods of poorer nutritive value than those presently consumed
acquire prestige although they contribute little or nothing to the nourishment of the
individual. In some instances, they even lead to malnutrition. Substituting highly
milled wheat flour for whole-grain cereal and machine-milled polished rice for hand-
pounded rice has been responsible for much malnutrition. More recently, the pur-
chase of carbonated beverages instead of foods that would improve the diet has
sometimes had tragic consequences.
Alcoholism is important in the development of acute malnutrition in some
individuals. Not only does it waste money better spent on food, but it substitutes
the “empty” calories of alcohol for food calories. By “empty” calories are meant
those sources of body energy which are devoid, or nearly so, of essential protein,
essential fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins.

Economic Factors It is very important. The relatively high cost of food, particu-
larly of the so-called protective foods such as milk, meat, and eggs, is a major factor
in the appearance of malnutrition in any population. Too often, people do not have
sufficient income to purchase foods of good quality in quantities necessary to
nourish them properly. Measures that will either raise income high enough to
cover the cost of quality foods or lower the prices of such foods to the purchasing
power of larger sectors of the population are often required to prevent malnutrition.
12 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

Political Factors It affects not only the production and distribution of food but also
its ultimate consumption. In developing countries, subsidies and price controls can
make it easier for people to buy food. Systems of food rationing influence the
consumption of foods by the individual, and enrichment programs can ensure that
certain essential nutrients are consumed without changes in food habits. Obviously,
national policies relating to the distribution of food surpluses and the controls arising
out of the war, civil disturbances, and natural disasters have a direct impact on
individual food consumption.

1.5 Means to Combating Malnutrition

Since the occurrence of malnutrition in any human population depends upon multi-
ple causes, it follows that there are multiple approaches to its prevention. In each
situation, the first essential is to identify the factors involved and look for the
approaches which are most feasible to ameliorate a given nutritional inadequacy.
The problem is not only to determine the nutrient deficiencies in a population but
also to identify the other factors involved. The incidence of kwashiorkor, for
example, may be reduced by making available dried skim milk or a protein-rich
vegetable mixture, by preventing the infections responsible for precipitating the
syndrome, and by educating parents to share family food with the preschool child.
Agricultural, economic, educational, political, medical, and public health measures
each help to prevent malnutrition since all of these factors are likely to be involved in
its causation. It is not necessary, however, to alter all of these factors. Changing even
one may be sufficient to prevent malnutrition in some situations.

1.6 Challenges and Way Forward Are the Issues for Resilient
Food System

The primary question posed for those of us who speculate on world food production
potential is how critical is the crisis? We look ahead today from a different base point
from that of only 2–3 years ago when we were preoccupied with crop surpluses and
less alert to prospects of inadequate worldwide reserves of food grains.
Judgments today reflect serious concern not only about long-term food needs but
also the near term of massive starvation in some African and Asian countries unless
there is a vast setup in the use of essential agricultural inputs, including conservation
agriculture, protected cultivation, and integrated approaches for sustainable devel-
opment. Therefore, it should be concerned not only with enhanced efforts to meet
today’s requirement but also with those requirements ahead.
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 13

1.6.1 Challenges for Resilient Food System

Some of the facts we have already discussed. Here we will discuss the institutional
environment, which is lacking in most of the developing countries. More than
570 million small farmers throughout the world have been living in a socio-
economic environment of severe poverty for centuries. The lack of a institutional
framework becoming an obstacle to rural progress, to agricultural production and,
the emancipation of the peasant. We can’t overcome rural poverty unless we deal
with it through an understanding of the specific institutional pattern responsible for
formulating effective plans and policies.
Rural poverty has many aspects (access to basic facilities and infrastructure), each
of which impedes progress. The institutional obstacles appear in widely different
combination and with different degree of severity in various countries and even in
various regions in the same country. Hence, the strategy for overcoming these
obstacles must be adopted to local conditions. There is no universal panacea for
accelerating agriculture progress.
In many rural areas, farmers work in an institutional environment that places two
rather formidable obstacles in the way toward progress: (1) a very weak bargaining
position in the market and (2) a lack of opportunities for securing economies of scale
on their small individual farms. These obstacles call for some kind of organized
group action of cooperation.

1.6.2 Cooperatives in the Developing World

In India, many cooperatives, which have failed, were set up with great hopes. Why
did they fail? Stories abound of incompetent managers, corruption, and clerks
disappearing with the till; of farmers continuing to patronize their old merchants;
and of governments coddling farmers with subsidies and accepting inferior quality
products or getting management snarled up with red tape. Many of these stories
are true.
But, farmers have much to learn in group action dealing with modern marketing
and production problems, and they can learn only by doing–by making mistakes and
learning from them. What alternatives are there to overcome the institutional
obstacles cooperatives are intended to meet? Persuading merchants to pay farmers
the highest price they can afford rather than the lowest price they have to pay? No
farmer would believe in the efficacy of such persuasion. The only other realistic
alternative might be direct government purchase and marketing of farm products
(ISUCAED 1967; Gunderson et al. 1997).
In fact, this alternative is quite tempting for many a government since it provides
a ready source of revenue and many government jobs. But is it an alternative more
conducive to rural development and more in the interest of farmers than cooperatives
struggling along with inefficiency and other imperfections? Maybe, but these imper-
fect cooperatives do offer farmers opportunities for developing in themselves the
behavioral qualities of self-discipline and social responsibility required for group
14 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

action in modern society. Membership participation in a marketing cooperative

involves a farmer is a much more concrete and practical terms than participation in
educational or social or political organizations. It will take time to learn, but learn he
will, if often the hard way.
Indeed, well-managed cooperatives can bring small farmers practically all the
benefits of economies of scale which large-scale plantations and collective farms
enjoy and still retain the decentralization of initiative and managerial responsibility
among many farmers which is so vital for agricultural progress in view of the nature
of the production process and its spatial dispersion. This has been demonstrated
impressively by the milk cooperative, Anand Milk Union Limited (Amul), India.

1.6.3 Farmers’ Cooperatives to Improve Bargaining Power

The basic purpose of marketing cooperatives is to strengthen the bargaining power

of the farmer in the market (ISUCAED 1967). Without a cooperative, he often has no
other choice than selling to the local dealer in the village, who may also be his
landlord and his money lender. He must usually sell all his disposable market surplus
at harvest time when prices are lowest, and a good part of it is used to repay
accumulated debts. Under these conditions, mainly if he is illiterate and cannot
check the merchants’ accounting, he cannot help but accept any price offered to him.
Yet, if he is to adopt modern techniques and produce more, he needs prices
sufficiently attractive to give him incentives to do so and money for buying the
modern inputs.
A cooperative gives him an alternative market outlet and sometimes also storage
space for part of his crops for future sale at higher prices for which he can receive
credit at low-interest rates. Since the manager of the cooperative is responsible for
the farmer members, the farmer feels he can trust the cooperative that his sale
transactions are carried out in his interest. This, at least, is the way a cooperative
ought to function. And if it does, it effectively strengthens the farmers’ bargaining
power in the market and stimulates progress.

1.6.4 Farmers’ Cooperatives to Improve Farm Income

Cooperatives not only strengthen the farmers’ bargaining power in the market; they
also bring him benefits of economies of scale. By handling the combined output of
many small farmers, crops can be graded for quality, and higher prices can be paid
for the right-quality products. The pooling of produce as well as purchase orders
from many farmers permits the use of large-scale storage and often also processing
and packing facilities, which bring higher prices to farmers for things they sell and
permit lower-priced bulk purchases of many things farmers buy. These improve
cost-price relationships and again provide a potent stimulus for the modernization of
farming. Cooperatives can also bring economies of scale to small farmers in produc-
tion, in the use of specific critical modern inputs, such as agricultural machinery and
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 15

specialized equipment and technical advice combined with production credit–which

is a most potent combination of inputs for introducing innovations into farming
techniques.

1.6.5 A Way Forward

In most agricultural areas in the developing countries where small farmers prevail,
where population pressure is heavy, and where local trade is in control of a small
elite of landlords, plantation owners, merchants, and lawyers, the setting up of
marketing cooperatives are necessary despite all the difficulties. This requires strong
government support with a trained workforce and finances for organizing and
managing cooperatives and educating farmers in membership participation and
responsibilities for at least a period of 5 years. It might well be that neither
cooperatives nor a government purchase organization could be made to function
properly until the area had undergone a thorough land reform in which the
intimidating power of landlords and creditors over farmers had been broken.
These obstacles are taken care of in the recent land reforms in India.
Where these obstacles are not as severe, other alternatives for strengthening the
farmers’ bargaining power might be found, such as price supports enforceable on
private trade, publicly controlled storage and grading facilities, current price infor-
mation readily accessible to farmers, and various tax and credit measures to encour-
age merchants to improve the efficiency of their facilities and operations.
Very often, these measures are not in conflict with cooperatives, and the interests
of farmers and agricultural progress might be best served by fostering farmers’
cooperatives side by side with improvements in the functioning of private trade
(ISUCAED 1967). There are usually some farm products and many consumer goods
that are more efficiently handled by private trade than by cooperatives. Experience in
many countries shows that cooperatives and private trade in competition with each
other not only strengthen the farmers’ bargaining power but improve the efficiency
of both types of marketing enterprises.
Here again, no general principle concerning the role of private trade in rural areas
can be established because so much depends on the local power structure, on the
bargaining position of the small farmers and farm laborers, and on the degree and
kind of control exercised by merchants and their attitudes toward modernization of
the marketing system. In many developing countries, marketing cooperatives are
handling an increasing share of the farmers’ staple food and major export crops,
often including processing and packaging. In contrast, farmers continue to sell their
livestock and fruit and vegetable products to private merchants and dealers. Simi-
larly, modern inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery will continue to be
distributed mainly through private trade as long as merchants succeed in meeting the
quickly rising demand efficiently and at prices which the great majority of small
farmers can afford to pay. To this end, governments can help local merchants by
such measures as extension education in marketing, information services on prices,
new sources of supplies, new transport and storage facilities, and new types of
16 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

products–especially modern inputs in farming at the specific time at which farmers

need them–but also new consumer goods which might be of special interest to
farmers. Perhaps the most important single factor which will determine the role of
local merchants in fostering agricultural progress is their ability to win the confi-
dence of the small farmers and to make them feel that merchants respect them as
citizens and want to serve them as customers, rather than dominate their fate and
exploit their weak position. This change in attitudes of local merchants may be fast in
some areas and slow in others; to win the farmers’ confidence, it must manifest itself
in the merchant’s behavior toward small farmers, which might well include
supporting the farmers’ interest in schools, land reforms, and even cooperatives.
Two aspects are very important for agricultural progress which cannot be served
by improving the functioning of the private trade but for which cooperatives are
specifically best suited: (1) bring economies of scale to small farmers and (2) offering
farmers concrete opportunities for developing the self-discipline, social responsibil-
ity, and cooperative attitude which are requisite to participation in any group
organization and public affairs.

1.7 Building a Resilient Food System at the Community Level

A dynamic agricultural system capable of responding to the needs of today as well as

tomorrow can be built only under conditions where the development strategy is in
harmony with sociocultural and socio-economic conditions, as well as the agro-
ecological features prevailing in different parts of developing countries
(Swaminathan 1981; Walker et al. 2002). A great agricultural asset of most of the
developing countries in the tropics and subtropics is the existence of a sizeable
untapped production reservoir even at current levels of technology. In India, the
arable land is the second largest in the world. It accounts for about 159.7 million
hectares. The second largest producer of cereals (rice and wheat) globally, but in
terms of productivity, it is quite low than the global average. How can this potential
be tapped in a manner that does not do damage to the long-term production potential
of land and water? For the achievement of sustained agricultural advance, there is a
need to pay concurrent and integrated attention to the following three major areas of
action:

1. Development of an economically viable and ecologically sound technological

package that can help to bring about continuous improvement in the productivity
of the terrestrial and aquatic farming system.
2. Development and introduction of a package of services which can help all farmers
and fishermen to drive economic advantage from new technology irrespective of
the size of their holdings, their innate input mobilizing potential, and risk-taking
capacity.
3. Introduction of a package of public-private policies which can help to stimulate
and sustain both production and consumption.
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 17

Agriculture starts moving forward only when appropriate packages of technol-

ogy, services, and public-private policies are introduced in a symbiotic manner. The
major ingredients which will have to go into the making of these packages:
Dynamic agricultural research, education, and extension system is a must for
promoting a vibrant RFS. Too often, developing countries have launched ambitious
agricultural production programs without appropriate research and training infra-
structure. Invariably in such projects, success tends to be short-lived. Cynical
comments usually follow such disappointing exercises in agrarian development.
Agriculture is basically a location-specific phenomenon. Therefore, even if suitable
concepts and materials can become available through international research efforts,
it will not be possible to provide the kind of advice and assistance the farmers need
without the support of a strong national agricultural research system. Experience in
yield improvement in countries like Japan characterized by a small size of average
landholdings indicates that productivity improvement is a slow process requiring the
building up of the necessary infrastructure both at the production and postharvest
phases (Swaminathan 1981).
In India, dramatic progress has been witnessed during the Green Revolution in the
improvement of wheat and rice production in parts of the country like Punjab. When
high-yielding and management-responsive varieties of wheat carrying the Norin
dwarfing genes became available in the mid-1960s, wheat production in Punjab
rose dramatically. In India, as a whole, wheat production went up from about
12 million tonnes in 1964–1965 to about 104 million tonnes in the year
2018–2019. However, the production advance has been dramatic only in areas
where certain preconditions for technology to take root existed. For example, in
Punjab, these major prerequisites, viz., owner cultivation, land consolidation, and
rural communication, already existed when high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice
became available. In other words, the substrate requirements for the adoption and
diffusion of technology must be fulfilled if sustained progress is to take place.
For research to be able to find meaningful solutions to farmers’ problems, it is
evident that the scientific program should be organized both on an agro-ecological
region and problem-solving basis (Walker and Salt 2006). Research institutions
should have both short-term and long-term goals. Whenever there is a need for an
immediate step up in production, the research organization should be able to adapt
and adopt suitable existing technology in operation designed to purchase time.
However, simultaneously it should be done, which will help to maximize production
and minimize risks. The technology development should also bear in mind that a
poor farmer bases his decisions not on yield per hectare but on stable income per
hectare. So profit-maximizing technology characterized by the stability of income
and low risk appeals to him more than just production-maximizing technology. This
would then call for close integration of socio-economic research with technology
development. At the same time, policymakers should understand that there will
hardly be any differences between ivory tower research and applied research of
great value if arrangements are not made for the transfer of technology. For example,
the farmer will not be interested in a radio or television program on a high-yielding
variety of a crop plant if seeds of that variety are not available to him. In other words,
18 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

agricultural extension has to be so designed that the transfer of knowledge and the
transfer of the inputs essential to apply that knowledge in the field are synchronized
in time. This calls for a highly orchestrated effort on the part of scientists, extension
workers, and agricultural administrators in charge of input supply. Also, to farmers,
seeing is believing. Hence, demonstrations in farmers’ fields of new technology,
both on a factor basis (i.e., fertilizer application, pest control, salinity reclamation,
etc.) and the basis of a system (i.e., crop-livestock, agriculture-aquaculture, agrofor-
estry, etc.), are potent instruments of extension. Care must, however, be taken to
organize the demonstrations in poor farmers’ fields since the success of
demonstrations in rich farmers’ fields will tend to be attributed to affluence rather
than to technology (Swaminathan 1981).
Agricultural science is now in a fascinating state of development. Several old
practices based primarily on empirical observations and intuitive understanding of
problems are now giving way to more science-based production systems. For
example, in the field of plant breeding, individual plant performance used to be
the method of choice in selection programs in the past. Today population perfor-
mance is the major index of selection. Many other criteria, such as the following,
have been introduced:

1. High productivity per unit of time, water, energy, and air space.
2. High photosynthetic ability.
3. Low photorespiration (where relevant).
4. Photoperiod- and thermo-insensitivity (where relevant).
5. High response to nutrients and other inputs of cultural energy.
6. Multiple resistance to pests.
7. Better nutritive and storage quality.
8. Crop canopies that can retain and fix maximum CO2.
9. Suitability for incorporation in multiple and intercropping systems.
10. Suitability for improved postharvest technology.

As the pressure of population on land increases, it will be necessary to design

farming systems capable of optimizing the returns not only from soil and water but
also from air space. In other words, three-dimensional crop canopies involving a
vertical dimension will have to be designed. More research will have to be done on
root systems in relation to soil profile characteristics. Cooperative combinations of
intercropping and mixed farming will have to be developed. The principles to be
adopted in three-dimensional crop planning are the same as already introduced in
composite fish culture involving the optimum use of a cubic volume of water. Some
of these possibilities are not open in temperate countries covered with snow during
several months of the year. Hence such research is unlikely to be done in those
countries. It is for the scientists in the tropics and subtropics to look at the potential
offered by their own environment and help to derive full benefit from it. National
research systems should investigate the factors which cause instability in production.
These factors can be broadly grouped into three categories:
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 19

1. Weather aberrations.
2. Pest epidemics.
3. Public-private policies.

It is possible now to mitigate to some extent the undulations in production caused

by weather conditions. For undertaking relevant research programs in this field, a
strong agro-meteorological research base will be necessary. The most likely weather
patterns in an area will have to be worked out on the basis of an analysis of the
available information from the past. In chronically drought-prone areas, the only
enduring solution is the introduction of irrigation wherever possible. Even where
irrigation is not available, some yield improvement can be brought about through
appropriate land use and water harvesting and conservation techniques. So far, there
has been very little work on the development of risk-minimizing technology. Such
technology will involve:

1. Development of alternative cropping strategies (location-specific strategies) to

suit different weather probabilities.
2. Standardization of crop life-saving techniques.
3. Development of compensatory production programs in off seasons and in areas
with assured irrigation.

It will be necessary to build appropriate seed and fertilizer reserves to put these
techniques into practice.
For example, if the available moisture is not sufficient to take a cereal crop, it may
be possible to take an early maturing grain legume crop. However, cereal-legume
intercropping is promising. This will, however, call for the building of a suitable
seed reserve of the alternative crop. The investment made in such reserves will be
more than compensated both by the increased production achieved under adverse
conditions and by the morale-uplifting impact of such technology on farmers and
population alike.
Agricultural scientists should pay specific attention to maximizing the return from
the most limiting production factor in each agro-ecological area. Where land and not
water is limiting, the strategy should aim at improving productivity per unit of land.
Conversely, where water and not the land is limiting, the aim should be to maximize
production from a liter of water. Similarly, the research system should look into
every aspect of the production-consumption chain so that products that are produced
at considerable effort are not damaged, either quantitatively or qualitatively, before
they reach the consumer. An action-reaction analysis will also be necessary at every
phase of technology development. Irrigation without an adequate understanding of
soil profile characteristics can lead to problems of salinization. Water reservoirs can
also become the breeding grounds of vectors of important human and animal
diseases. If a nation has a capable and responsive research system, then all these
problems can be faced and solved successfully. Soil and plant health problems of
different farming systems need local research and solutions.
20 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

In light of climate change and scarce land and water resources, it is essential to
build resilient food and nutritional system to bring food security to the regional and
national with global integration.
Resilience was initially termed in the ecological perspective (Holling 1973) and
has recently been anticipated as a way of exploring the complex dynamic systems,
including socio-economic ones (Levin et al. 1998). The resilience approach has
lately been adopted into food and nutritional security literature. The main aim of the
RFS is to measure individual capability to sustain the adverse effects of future
shocks, as a relevant factor of vulnerability study. The first three United Nations
Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs1) are no poverty, zero hunger, and good
health and well-being (UN 2015). This is a clear indication of the renewed effort to
achieve food and nutrition security and develop sustainable agricultural practices at
all levels of the organization. In other words, the achievement of these SDGs
requires strategies that are not only multipronged and sustainable (Tinarwo et al.
2018) but also resilient. Food system resilience is a significant factor that has become
a priority in recent decades in light of the food and financial crises of 2007–2008 and
2011 (Pinstrup-Andersen 2014). This trend requires development initiatives to move
from providing support for relief efforts to building the means for a RFS that can
withstand shocks and stresses. Therefore, achieving food system resilience is imper-
ative in the process of attaining food and nutrition security.
Food and nutritional system approaches are progressively seen as a way to
improve its outcomes and resilience, to deal with challenging priorities, and to
address the multifaceted association that exists within (internal) and between (exter-
nal) components of food and nutritional systems. We have developed a conceptual
framework that explains building resilience through food systems. The definition of
food and nutritional insecurity has a direct impact on the approach used to measure
it, and the theoretical model developed in this paper considers resilience to be an
internal and external factor defined according to four building blocks: significant
factors, interceding factors, action as strategies, access, and community empower-
ment for individual or family to respond and adapt to future shocks.
Most of the research in food and nutritional security in the wake of climate change
has stressed on refining analysis approaches to understanding and forecast of adverse
effects and their scale. In specific, the present food and nutritional insecurity
predicting a capacity concentrate on establishing capabilities to withstand future
crises and shocks, based either on selected ecological, political, technological,
production, and consumer indicators that are considered causes of shocks or on
individual vulnerability patterns that reflect a behavioral pattern. These methods
provide alerts on promising food and nutritional insecurity risks rising from value
changes in selected socio-economic factors (Buchanan and Davies 1995). The most
frequently used definition of vulnerability is that of the IPCC (2001), which states

1
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ (for a brief informa-
tion about UN SDGs refer Annexure I)
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 21

Table 1.1 Food system resilience queries

Question regarding resilience Answer
Of what? Food system activities to deliver outcomes
To what? Food system stresses and shocks
For whom? Food system actors
Over what time period? Short-/long-term interruptions
Source: Authors compilation based on Ingram (2018)

that “vulnerability is the degree to which a system is vulnerable to and incompetent

to cope with uncertainty shocks.”
In order to holistically achieve food and nutritional security, food systems must
accurately provide the means for food availability, food access, and food utilization
(Ingram 2018). These outcomes are reliant on various factors, comprising resilience.
Food system resilience indicates the ability of “people, communities, countries, and
global institutions [to] prevent, anticipate, prepare for, cope with, and recover from
shocks and not only bounce back to where they were before the shocks occurred but
become even better off” (IFPRI 2014).
There are a variety of ways to approach resilience through a food systems
perspective. Table 1.1 illustrates the four critical queries of food system resilience
based on Ingrams’ (2018) definition of the concept.
The first question regarding food system resilience refers to the various activities
that contribute to sufficient food utilization, access, and availability. Such activities
include storing, producing, processing and packaging, retailing and wholesaling,
consuming, and disposing and reusing (Ingram 2018). Resilience enhancement
occurs at several levels and tends to target these activities.
The second question addresses the central importance of building resilience
within food systems: stresses and shocks. Stresses are pressures or tensions exerted
on a system and include demography, social and cultural norms, and climate.
Meanwhile, shocks are sudden, surprising events affecting a system, and include
trade, food scares, and extreme weather (Ingram 2018). This key distinction between
stresses and shocks is an important consideration because depending on its categori-
zation as stress or a shock, every event requires a different resilience approach.
Together, stresses and shocks illustrate the importance of incorporating resilience
practices into the various activities within a food system.
The third question discusses the importance of identifying the several
stakeholders involved in food systems. These actors include the input industry,
farmers and fisherman, traders, processors, and consumers (Ingram 2018). It also
addresses other parties, such as nonprofit organizations, political actors, and other
sectors. Collaboration and communication among these stakeholders are vital in
fostering rigidity in the network of actors in the food system. Consequently, such
efforts will contribute to building resilience.
Lastly, the fourth question takes into account the time frame during which
resilience plays a key role in influencing food system processes. Short-term
interruptions, which tend to be shocking, include fishing and agricultural activities,
22 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

critical ingredient shortfall, and changing consumer shopping patterns due to food
scares. Long-term interruptions, which tend to be stresses, include natural resource
degradation, energy price changes, and changes in dietary preferences (Ingram
2018).
Resilience research directed to date in economically advanced countries has
primarily focused on handling crisis, unexpected changes, uncertainty, and
disruptions, such as issues caused by the climate change and nutritional crisis
(Benton et al. 2012; Wood et al. 2014; Hodbod and Eakin 2015; Vinaya Kumar
and Shivamurthy 2018). It headed in the development of sustainable approaches in a
food system to support lacking capabilities, such as socio-economic-ecological
dimensions that allow actors to recognize, understand, and face future shocks.
This helps to build sustainable food and nutritional security among individual in
society (Pingali et al. 2005; Wood et al. 2014; Babu and Blom 2014a). However, in
India, the predominant challenge concerns the supply and distribution system, and
postharvest loss account for about more than 40% while enabling inclusive socio-
economic welfare of the society (Ericksen 2008b). Hands-on preparation of resil-
ience food systems that draws on the cooperative effort of stakeholders (public-
private partnership) recognizing that empathizing the functioning of socio-
economic-ecosystem factors is not sufficient for explaining the operation of the
resilient food and nutritional system as a whole (Babu and Blom 2014b; Tendall
2015). An integrated view incorporates the analysis and design of supporting
institutions and policies as well. But, to our knowledge, there is a shortage of
field-based studies that comprise food system actors and critical interventions in
the understanding and identification of their contribution in making a RFS on a
global and regional level. The conceptual framework gathered the views of actors
and factors (direct and indirect linkage) on food system resilience from all levels.
Resilience deals a holistic way of viewing the evolution of cultural, social, political,
and economic systems; it offers a means of assessing and employing the
sustainability of such regimes toward a systems capacity to respond to stresses and
shocks inventively and constructively.

1.8 A Conceptual Framework for Resilience of Food

and Nutritional System

According to FAO (2014) report on the 805 million smallholders, approximately

791 million live in developing countries. Nearly 2 billion live on less than $2 per day
and spend 50–80% of their income on food, which makes them vulnerable to food
price volatility (World Bank 2014). A population predicted to be 9.6 billion people
by 2050 will require double today’s food demand (UN 2014). Approximately 32%
of global food production is wasted, which, when converted into calories, equates to
a comprehensive food loss and waste amounting to about 25% of all food produced
(Lipinski et al. 2013). About 80% of food consumed in the developing countries is
produced by the nearly 500 million marginal and small farmers (FAO 2014).
Women contribute around 60–70% of the labor force for food production but gain
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 23

little or no financial and land ownership accountability. Agriculture accounts for

nearly 40% and 48% of employment globally and in India, respectively. The one
who depends directly on agriculture has to respond to long-term climate change and
the direct impact of natural disasters, including droughts and floods.
Conventional agricultural practices, reduced production, decreased productivity,
and increased postharvest losses, coupled with a lack of infrastructural development
in a rural area, poor food supply chain system, inequitable land tenure systems, and
income disparities among members of the society, have contributed to around 805 m
people still being food insecure. The increasing incidents of natural disasters,
economic shocks, pressure on natural resources (land and water), and explosive
food prices are causing additional stress on food and nutritional security among
individuals in a society. Hence there is a need to develop a desirable approach
assisting rural development programs to respond to the diverse needs of rural
resource–poor in sustainably achieving food and nutritional security (Ericksen
2008a).
Agriculture has been able to adjust to recent changes in climate and vulnerability
(Vinaya Kumar et al. 2017c), though improved innovations are needed to ensure the
rate of adaptation of sustainable agricultural and the associated factor system can
keep pace with changing climate over the years. The adverse effects of climate
change on the food system will be influenced by the agrarian’s adaptive responses to
local climate and weather stressors. Adaptation can ensue from the individual
(farmer) scale to a global level. Various determinants influence the adaptive
responses at the societal and individual level (McCarthy et al. 2001; Vinaya
Kumar et al. 2017c).
The importance of employing social-economic-ecological resilience concept in
food and nutritional systems is twofold: first, to define direct and indirect factors that
help to achieve a state in which food and nutritional security for individual and at the
regional and national level is promising and, second, to deliver insights into how to
sustain the food system in this necessary regime. However, the resilience of food and
nutritional security is distinctive from the broader conceptualizations of resilience in
social-economic-ecological systems because of the inherently normative nature of
food systems: humans need food to survive, and, thus, system sustainability is
typically a prime policy objective for food-nutritional system management. How-
ever, society also desires food systems that can strengthen sustainably, i.e., avail-
ability, access, utilization, and stability, and also concerning sustainable
management while responding flexibly to shocks and crises. Current failure in
meeting food and nutritional security objectives can be understood as the lack of
constructive interventions to consider the full and differential dimensions of food
system functions such as socio-economic, cultural, ecological, political, psychologi-
cal, market, and technological factors at suitable scales (Table 1.2). In this paper, we
are focusing on functional and sustainable diversity as two critical attributes of
resilient food and nutritional systems. Achieving resilient food and the nutritional
system will necessitate policy, technology, and institutional and capacity-building
interventions for enhanced response diversity, building dynamic multiple avenues to
fulfill resilient food-nutritional system objectives.
24 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

Table 1.2 Resilience factors are beneficial to assess food and nutritional systems resilience. These
factors are drawn from an extensive review of the literature and other line disciplines. Therefore, the
need to validate both qualitatively and quantitatively with interdisciplinary collaborative work (case
study and behavioral analysis to improve the capacity of an individual)
The resilience of the food system
Factors Internal External
1. Social/cultural • Education level • Population demographics
• Religion • Distribution of wealth
• Caste system • Laws affecting social values
• Changes in lifestyle and trend • Religious issues
• Conflict • Ethical issues
• Leadership • Social rules
2. Economical • Infrastructure • Monetary policies
• Input cost • Inflation
• Leadership value • Unemployment
• Innovation opportunities • Consumer preferences
• Waste reduction • Development of new market
• Saving
• Asset
• Land and livestock
3. Environmental • Soil fertility • Precipitation
• Erosion • Temperature
• Forest resources • Increased CO2
• Drainage facilities • Relative humidity
• Salinization • Wind velocity
• Flood
• Drought
4. Food production • Cropping system • Uncertainty
• Cropping intensity • Pest and disease outbreak
• Crop productivity • Input availability
• Crop competition • Change in the growing
• Limited access to improved season
varieties
5. Processing and • Market planning • Pricing policies
marketing • Grading • Government control
• Intermediaries • Distribution channel
• Branding • Market competition
• Market segmentation • Trade policies
• Value chain • Consumer demand
• Transport
6. Consumer • Income • Culture
• Occupation • Family
• Lifestyle • Reference group
• Personality • Food safety
• Attitude • Social class
• Motivation
• Perception
7. Political/legal • Stability of government • Tax policies
• Government expenditure levels • Bureaucracy issues
• Government leadership • Law and regulation
• Corruption level • Employment and operational
• Services law
• Infrastructure
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 25

Multiple interacting factors influence the food system of a given household. A

food system hence comprises all the phases from food production to consumption,
through intermediating factors. The conceptual definition is general and broad since
it entails multifold dimensions and scales. Figure 1.1 illustrates this theoretical
model for food system resilience. The multidimensionality of the food system
always contains at least three components: the resource base that safeguards the
food supply, the intermediating base that secures the strategies, and the socio-
economic-ecological part that depends on this resource base that provides the food
demand (Fig. 1.1). Nevertheless, the dynamics of food systems, different factors
have to analyze through internal and external approaches that redirect the resilience
of the food system at an individual and societal level.
Direct and interceding factors influence the process of transitioning from an
exposed food system to a RFS. The food system factors refer to variables that
directly consider the food system and include changes to the consumer, processing,
markets, food production, environment, technological advancements, social and
cultural beliefs, and political and legal components. Interceding factors are those
that have a role in affecting the direct food system factors. In other words,
interceding factors are the underlying concerns that differentiate various countries’
food systems. Such factors include attitude, perception, topography, policies, reli-
gious issues, and law and regulation. Eventually, these two types of factors come
together in shaping actions that aim to achieve food and nutrition security through
resilience building of food systems. These actions include, but are not limited to,
health strategies, livelihood strategies, economic strategies, community participa-
tion, and integrated management. These actions take place within the three
subsystems of a food system–policy, institutional, and production (Babu and Blom
2014b). As a result, such actions bring about intermediate outcomes that signal a
nearing achievement toward a RFS.
The efforts are made to develop a workable conceptual framework to assess the
factors responsible for the RFS recognize its strengths and weaknesses. Also, to
identify a critical interventions to establish a dynamic resilient food system at a
community level. System resilience is anticipated to be improved by system’s direct
and indirect factors such as social, economic, financial, environmental, production,
processing, technological, market, consumer, and political consideration. The
interventions such as policy, institutional, technical, and capacity building will
assess governance capacity, public-private-partnership, exposure to the crisis, self-
capacity, individual learning capacity, as well as the existence of a suitable institu-
tional framework with equitable rights and technological advantages (Fig. 1.2).
Various factors have been proposed to assess these resilience qualities in multiple
systems and frameworks: livelihoods, income, household food security, natural
resource management, etc. On the other hand, to what degree are these factors
valid and adaptable for the resilience food system? To date, there is a lack of
understanding of how such factors affect food system resilience, whether the associ-
ation between the factors and resilience is necessarily linear and always positive,
what levels of these factors are desirable? How many different factors interact (direct
and indirect relationship) to strengthen or reduce the resilience? Building resilience
 26

Outcome
Factors Interceding Factors Acons Intermediate outcome
Consumer factor
Processing and Market Atude Health Strategies
factor Percepon Livelihood Strategies Individual Access
Food producon factors Resilience of Food System
Topography Economical Strategies Family Access
Environmental factors (Availability, Access ,
Policies Educaonal Strategies Community Empowerment
Ulizaon and Stability)
Technological factors Religious issues Community parcipaon
Social/cultural factors Law and Regulaon Integrated Management
Polical./legal factors

Trend Shocks Uncertainty Seasonality Disaster/Crisis

Fig. 1.1 Resilience of food system: a conceptual framework (Source: authors’ compilation)
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 27

Capacity Building and Policy Interventions

Feedback
Interventions

Resilience
of food
system

Technological Institutional
Interventions Interventions

Fig. 1.2 Interventions to a build resilient food system (source: authors compilation)

in food systems necessities the identification, understanding, validation and assess-

ment of food system resilience attributes and factors (direct and indirect). To
strengthen our conceptual knowledge of resilience food systems, much more empir-
ical data, both qualitative and quantitative, are needed (FSIN 2014). Collecting these
first-hand data, though, is no simple academic task but must be conducted within an
interdisciplinary framework with key actor involvement (collective approach), to
ensure that the food system is conclusively attributed: essential institutions,
structures, linkage, mechanisms, drivers, outcomes, and key actors are to be consid-
ered. These factors can be compared with measures of food system performance in
the study area over the timeframe, before and after disaster or shocks, to determine
whether the food system is behaving resiliently and where resilience can be
improved in the food system. The cycle for assessing field-based case studies
using factors, attributes, and indicators and enhancing the resilience of those case
studies provides a concrete example of the RFS action conceptualized in Fig. 1.1. In
the durable, these studies must enable a more functional formulation of what
contributes to the RFS.
28 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

1.9 Interventions as a Lever for the Resilience of the Food

System

The method of increasing individual or societal capacity to understand and predict

shocks, by “improving the resilience” of food and nutritional systems. With the
conceptual model, it is evident that the resilience of food systems means both
internal and external factors that the food systems can adapt and transform them-
selves in such a way that no matter what the future shocks, they can still sustain with
access, avoid ecological changes, etc. But how do we impart this?
However, there is a pathway that we can follow. First of all, we need to map and
understand food systems, and then we have to design possible interventions. We
need to verify that interventions curtail negative feedbacks, and, lastly, we need
policies that help food systems to improve themselves. One way to guide the whole
process is by using factors of resilience, such as the degree of self-organization and
regulation within the systems, the spatial and temporal heterogeneity among the
interconnected systems, the dynamic, complexity, redundancy, and diversification of
food chains within a food system, etc. We need a lot of investigation and elucidation
of how food systems work and can be adapted for a sustainable future. This can be
achieved through the following intervention (Fig. 1.2).

1.9.1 Policy Interventions

Policy interventions enhance food system resilience through policies that build
resilience capacity through community empowerment, social safety nets, and ade-
quate warning analytical tools (Babu and Blom 2014a; Tinarwo et al. 2018). Such
interventions must be open, empirical-based, transparent, participatory, and demo-
cratic (Babu and Blom 2014b). To ensure resilient food and nutritional system at the
local and regional level requires policymakers to go beyond the question of accessi-
bility of food at the national and global scale, which is whether there is adequate food
at the local level to feed all individual. Some cogitations are required, including the
following: physical access, economic access, social access, quality and safety access,
and physiological access at the societal and individual level. The most important
determinants of food and nutrition security are enough food supply produced by or
accessible to households; access to income and markets to get food, also on land and
inputs for food production; and therefore the adequacy of sanitation, health, and
feeding practices, and the support of social claims to food. National policies must be
adopted that withstand these critical priorities in political processes so that they’re
not moved aside in times of crisis or maybe of steady growth.
Policymakers need to identify determinants to improve the resilience of the food
system. For a sustainable change, it may be vital to address both sides of the food
supply as well as individual or society access to food. During policy interventions, it
is essential to take into account the various determinants of the resilience of food
interact (food production, processing, transport, retail outlets, and consumers). It
needs to identify points of intervention for improving the community food supply.
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 29

The policy interventions to improve individual access to food depend on their

resources and capacity to acquire and use food. Access to food varies on individual,
family, and societal factors, many of which are associated with social and economic
determinants of health, employment, income, education, residence, and social
inclusion.
To increase individual access to food, it is often necessary to address the financial
and capacity that are required to access and prepare food to enhance income,
financial assistance, transport, and storage, preparation, etc.. The sustainable (suffi-
cient, reliable, safe, nutritious, acceptable food to everyone in the society) policy
interventions needed to improve access to food would also adopt a community
development approach, to ensure that the target population will be able to mobilize
itself in the future shocks and to continue to obtain or generate the resources required
for themselves.

1.9.2 Institutional Intervention

Institutional interventions refer to structural changes within the relationships

between various stakeholders. For example, such an intervention may include the
establishment and management of multi-stakeholder partnerships. In India, agricul-
tural policies are unsuccessful because they do not form the permitting environments
in which marginal and small producers and their groups operate. Policymakers need
to improve their understanding of the determinants that can enable or inhibit
marginal and small producer cooperative performance. To plan capable food resil-
ience policies, decision-makers need to be aware of the crucial function of rural
businesses in accomplishing the resilience of the food and nutritional system. To
improve the accessibility, quality, variety, and price of food, policymakers and
stakeholders need to engage with the institutional linkage of the food system.
Institutional interventions aiming to improve aspects of the food supply that support
the food resilience of individuals, households, and communities usually depend on
collaboration and partnership between sectors of government, private and nongov-
ernment (public-private partnership).
The institutional obstacles appear in widely different combinations and with
different degrees of severity in various countries and even in various regions in the
same country. Hence the strategy for overcoming these obstacles must be adapted to
local conditions. There is no universal panacea for accelerating the resilience of the
food system. In recent years the progressive forces pressing for rural education,
cooperatives, and land reforms have grown more reliably and faster in central
government circles and in cities than in rural villages. The examination of the
institutional obstacles goes a long way to explain why it is that so many governments
have passed well-intentioned progressive legislation but were not able to implement
it effectively on the local farm and village level. The prospects for a faster rate of
introducing technical innovations are becoming better every year and that the
experiment stations, extension services, farmers’ cooperatives, farmers’
associations, and land reforms must play a decisive role in accelerating this process.
30 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

For this challenging task, on-farm action projects through trails and demonstrations
on cultivators’ fields, reenforced by pilot schemes for increasing the number of
cooperating farmers and for making modern inputs and credit facilities available,
offer the best hope for success in modernizing farming techniques. Also, there is a
need to enhance smallholder bargaining power, build their skill and competencies,
allow them to access information and technologies, and besides to engage in
policymaking and partnerships on an equal footing with government and the private
sector. In this way, they can significantly improve their livelihoods and food and
nutritional security directly through increased food production and income stability
and indirectly through empowerment and political action. Such interventions are
essential, and the presences of three different relations—namely, bonding, bridging,
and linking—are vital for an efficient and sustainable institutional building process
to the resilience of food systems at the local and national levels. And this success is
necessary for winning the race between food and population.

1.9.3 Technological Intervention

Technological interventions contribute to food system resilience through initiatives

that enhance research and innovation mechanisms (Babu and Blom 2014a). Appli-
cation of technology is one of the vital means of increasing productivity, primarily in
subsistence farming, where factors of production and resources are highly scarce and
vulnerable to a complex set of factors. The technology adoption decision is strongly
influenced by the availability of education, credit, services, income, farm size, etc.
Within this frame condition, producer choice depends on their needs; benefit accru-
ing and cost incurred on it would be the principal motivating factors for the
acceptance or rejection of a particular technology (Karki 2004).
Technological interventions seek to minimize the possible impact of a crisis event
that may occur (Vinaya Kumar and Shivamurthy 2018). Strategies that develop
different sources of income for a family can allow it to respond better to future
shocks, through technological interventions like drought resistant, pest, and disease-
resistant varieties, multi-cropping, mixed farming, integrated farming approach,
natural resource management, precision farming, storage, value chain, etc. Strategies
for after the shocks need to be managed by relief, emergency response, and safety net
approaches to increase households’ access to food. Not only does this assistance
have a direct impact on family well-being, but it also helps to preserve its assets, and
thus it is potential for long-term food resilience.

1.9.4 Capacity-Building Intervention

Lastly, capacity-building interventions are crucial for resilience building within food
systems. Capacity-building programs for existing institutions can assess the human
resources of a food system and provide capacity-development approaches for build-
ing resilience (Babu and Blom 2014a). Examples of these programs include training
1 Building a Resilient Food System: Challenges and a Way Forward 31

workshops, partnerships, technical assistance, and improved monitoring and evalu-

ation (Babu and Blom 2014b). Capacity building is a key concept in ensuring the
sustainability of resilience within a food system. Capacity building is an area, which
still needs to progress on many fronts, despite the various governmental and private
sector efforts in the past. Attempts to rectify the absurdities in this regard have not
made very satisfactory results. Our reaction is based more on conjecture than
awareness, knowledge, and research. There is more than sufficient material available
with policymakers in crisis management. However, the translation of disaster man-
agement theory into action has always been uneven and superficial. Identifying the
need to modernize efforts on capacity building (knowledge, skill, attitude, and
aspiration) in shock management to build and strengthen the capacity of individuals
or households of shocks empathizing, prediction, preparedness, mitigation, adapta-
tion, and recovery at the grassroots level (McCarthy et al. 2001; Vinaya Kumar et al.
2017a).
Capacity building is essential to crisis management. The resilience in shock
mitigation and recovery cannot be successful without building adequate capabilities
at the individual level. In a broad perspective, resilience focuses mainly on a
capacity-building (understanding capacity, know and avoid shocks, adaptive capac-
ity; alternative options in the face of crisis and transformative capacity; alternative
livelihood options through empowering themselves) approach that enhances the
competency and problem-solving capabilities of a community so that they would
be able to apply their attained knowledge and skills to solve food crisis and improve
their living standard. Sustainable interventions to improve access to food would also
adopt a capacity-building approach to safeguard that the household can mobilize
itself in the future and to continue to obtain the resources required.

1.10 Conclusion and Policy Implication

Looking ahead, the scenario in global agriculture is not a pleasant one. The popula-
tion of the world and in India is predicted to be 9.7 billion and 1.67 billion,
respectively, by 2050. Population stabilization is the number one national task.
Sunlight and green plants provide the primary tools both for feeding the population
and for deriving benefit from the vast human resource. Since the unpleasant nature of
the agricultural scenario is mainly man-made, the process is reversible, provided we
do not remain silent onlookers of this dismal landscape. We have the technology and
the capability to shape a new landscape where development proceeds without the
destruction of ecological assets and where hunger becomes a problem of the past.
Human achievement in science and development is not a museum of finished
constructions. We can add and alter if there is the requisite blend of brain and will.
Our policies are not appropriately equipped to deal with three sets of variables:
(1) organizational aspects regarding how to get resources where they are most
needed and how to improve the production process and food accessibility; (2) moti-
vational, incentive, and socio-economic aspects regarding how to make people be
willing and able to modernize and expand diversified production; and (3) welfare
32 V. K. Hebsale Mallappa and S. C. Babu

aspects regarding how to guide income distribution into a desirable pattern in which
poverty is minimized and increasing the individual purchasing power. It is inappro-
priate to leave the organizational aspects solely to the assumption of the competitive
market and the motivational aspects solely to the assumption of the profit motive and
to neglect welfare aspects almost entirely, as detailed facts about them must be
gathered and analyzed. They must be incorporated into our studies as key variables
or normative parameters rather than ceteris paribus conditions or vague axiomatic
assumptions.
The differences in frequency and severity of nutritional disease with time, place,
and individual can be appropriately understood only through analysis of the epide-
miological factors involved. Given the complexity of the factors so regularly
responsible for nutritional insecurity and malnutrition in developing countries, an
ecological approach to the prevention and control of malnutrition is one which has
the best chance of success. It requires determining not only nutrient deficiencies but
also the physical, social, economic, and biological aspects of the environment which
influence nutrient requirements; affects the production, conservation, and distribu-
tion of food; and modifies the actual consumption of food by individuals and
populations. This is one of the holistic approaches that will guide the development
of programs through which the causative factors most susceptible to change in a
given society can be altered.
Finally, it should be strongly emphasized that the relative availability of food for
human consumption depends on population size and growth. Whether this is con-
sidered a biological or social influence on food availability, a significant determinant
of the future per capita availability of food will be the rate of population increase.

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From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking
Dinner: Some Futuristic Approaches 2
in Agriculture

Reshma Gills and J. P. Sharma

Abstract

Vicissitudes are an inevitable part of the developmental process. Agriculture, for

eras, which has been known for its contribution to the livelihood of the human
population over the world, is not an exception to this fact. The anthropogenic
development happened in all other sectors of the global economy like population
growth, industrialization, urbanization, changed preference in consumption pat-
tern, climate changes, etc. created and accelerated many folded hurdles in the
agriculture. These hurdles are conflicting production and consumption system,
post-harvest losses, food wastage, food crisis, triple burden of malnutrition, etc.
which need immediate action to maintain its sustainability. This chapter
highlights the need and scope of futuristic approaches, including climate-smart
agriculture, nutritional farming, nontraditional and urban farming, diversified
agriculture, robotics in agriculture, ICT-led agriculture, post-production, post-
harvest management, logistics and value chain development, surplus manage-
ment, waste to wealth in agriculture, etc. The chapter also includes the policy
options and its imperatives for farmer income-led agriculture, nutritional-
sensitive agriculture and farming to reach the unfed population, etc. to conquer
the emerging challenges in agriculture.

R. Gills (*)
Agricultural Extension, Socio-Economic Evaluation and Technology Transfer Division, ICAR-
CMFRI, Kochi, Kerala, India
e-mail: Reshma.Gills@icar.gov.in
J. P. Sharma
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu (SKUAST-
Jammu), Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India
e-mail: vc@skuast.org

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 35

Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_2
36 R. Gills and J. P. Sharma

Keywords

Development · Population · Urbanization · Climate change · Malnutrition

2.1 Agriculture as a Development Process

The ethnicity of domestication of plants and herbs among humankind is the origin of
most important science and art, which is known as agriculture. Farming practices
and agriculture have a pivotal changeover in human history, which occurred several
times independently around the world. From the time of the ancient era till date,
agriculture is believed to have been developed at manifold epochs in multiple areas
with different phases. Agriculture has created all the social and economic develop-
ment existing in the world through its magical power to feed and satisfy human
needs. Even the trade and the market economy through which the world has its
existence and developed nations have its dominance over other countries now are the
mere product of the agriculture (Rostow 1960). The majestic role of the agriculture
sector in creating and buffering employment and livelihood options is well figured
(more than 65% of the working adults) by different developmental organizations.
Hence, the development happens in the agriculture sector has been termed as one of
the most powerful gears (assumed with two- to fourfold more effective than any
other options) to battle against the dangerous levels of poverty experienced in
different developing and underdeveloped nations and to create a prosperous food
bowl to cater with an anticipated populace of 9.7 billion persons by 2050 (World
Bank 2019a).

2.2 Challenges in Agriculture: An Overview

In the present development period, this has been called as Anthropocene Age
(Slaughter 2012) due to the increased human influence in all the spears during the
last 100 years, which created many hurdles in agriculture and the production system.
What is notable is that the modus operandi through which mankind was trying to
beat the challenges of production enhancement created an unmindful dangerous
situation to the existed balanced production system and environment before, along
with the irreversible cost to the contemporary and upcoming generation (Solbrig and
Solbrig 1994). The first adverse example of this was the reduction of the enormous
biological diversity of nature at genetic and species level due to the selected and
preferred cultivation along with recurrent chapters of introgression (Turcotte et al.
2017; Walters et al. 2018; Oliver et al. 2019). Numerous other conflicts and
challenges are there in present-day agriculture.
2 From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking Dinner: Some Futuristic Approaches. . . 37

9 000 000
8 000 000
7 000 000
6 000 000
5 000 000
4 000 000
3 000 000
2 000 000
1 000 000
0
1959
1950
1953
1956

1962
1965
1968
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
2010
2013
2016
2019
Fig. 2.1 World population (source: UN 2019a)

2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00 1.78 1.81 1.91 2.05 1.95 1.78 1.77 1.79
1.51 1.34 1.26 1.23 1.18 1.09
0.50
0

Fig. 2.2 Average annual rates of population change (%) (source: UN 2019b)

2.2.1 Population-Induced Growing Global Food Demand

According to the Malthusian theory (1798), the dynamicity of the population growth
is exponential, but food production increases in a slow arithmetic ratio. As quantified
by UN (2019a), the total global population is 7.7 billion as of 2019 (Fig. 2.1) and is
projected to be 9.7 billion in 2050 and 10.9 billion in 2100, respectively.
As indicated in Fig. 2.2, the population growth is happening at a decreasing rate
(peak point was attained in 1968 at a growth rate of 2.1%/annum) and could be
reached at a steady state by the end of 2100. Still, by that time, the population
pressure may be too huge to withstand the food production and carrying capacity of
the planet (FAO 2017b).
Along with the population growth, increased population density is also negatively
affecting the buffering and production capacities of the agricultural land (Gavin
2015). In a mise-en-scenes with modest economic and developmental growth rate,
the increased population pressure is likely to push up global food demand by 70%
between 2005 and 2050 as per the present projections (UN 2019c).
In accordance with the ongoing and perceived global dietary transition (Fig. 2.3),
annual production of cereal (including rice, wheat, maize and minor millets) and
meat will be vital to upsurge to about 3 BT and 470 MT from 2.1 billion and
38 R. Gills and J. P. Sharma

2013

2003

1993

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cereals Starchy Roots Pulses Vegetables Fruits Meat Eggs Milk Fish

Fig. 2.3 Trends in global food consumption (kcal/person/day) (data source: FAOSTAT 2019)

200 million tonnes, respectively, as a greater part of the population will prefer to
consume a fewer quantity of cereals and larger amounts of high-value and calorie-
rich food products like meat, fish and processed food (FAO 2009; Kearney 2010;
Roos et al. 2017). Though a consensus view on production capabilities of the current
production system exists, contemplating the future food needs, the fundamental
interrogation is whether today’s food and agricultural production system are profi-
cient in feeding the ever-increasing population. Considering the hitches associated
with population growth-driven food demand, an intensification of productivity of the
existing food production system at the extensive margin is essential (McNicoll 1984;
Bongaarts 2011). It will further add burdens on already-constrained natural
resources (land, water, environment, etc.) and drive to more land and water degra-
dation, deforestation and climatic aberrations.

2.2.2 Urbanization-Led Drift in Food Demand and Increased

Production System Struggle

Urbanization is a contemporary phenomenon happening mainly in developing

nations. While observing the population dynamics, a major fraction of the world’s
population (more than half) is already residing in urban and near urban areas
(Satterthwaite et al. 2010; Seto et al. 2012). Change in the urban-rural population
composition is well evident with the data that, during 1900, there were 6.7 rural
denizens to each urban denizen, and the present moment the rural-urban population
ratio is decreasing at an increasing rate (Fig. 2.4). According to the projection, by the
end of 2025, it will be in the ratio of 3:2 (Satterthwaite et al. 2010).
Urbanization has many direct and indirect effects on the agricultural production
system like the population federalization-induced conversion of farmland to urban
uses and more production pressure on the agricultural system (Berry 1978; Faulkner
2004; Deng et al. 2006; McDonald 2008; Fita et al. 2013; Pandey and Seto 2015;
Smit 2016; Abu et al. 2019) for the diversified products due to alteration in dietary
2 From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking Dinner: Some Futuristic Approaches. . . 39

Rural populaon Urban populaon

60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
2010 2011
2012 2013
2014 2015
2016 2017
2018

Fig. 2.4 Urban-rural population composition (data source, FAOSTAT 2019)

needs and demands of the urban people (John et al. 2019). Urban and rural food
demand varies on many levels. Urban food consumption is higher (up to 70%) as
compared with the rural areas (FAO 2017b) with more proportion of protein-rich
animal-based (sourced) foods and value-added processed foods (Vorley and Lancon
2016). Urbanization has changed the consumption basket of the urban areas from
conventional to high-priced (Beaulac et al. 2009; Jessica et al. 2019; Larson et al.
2009) and convenience-based (Kiran and Savneet 2018; Abu et al. 2019). The
increased anthropogenic intervention to realize the changing food demand is further
adding to the environmental pollutions and population-induced climatic changes
(Xiaowei et al. 2015; Yan et al. 2016; Patra et al. 2018).

2.2.3 Climate Change and Reduced Crop Yields

A devastating scientific unanimity is observed that the Earth’s environment and

related conditional factors (climate) are changing with a dangerous impetus as an
upshot of unintended anthropogenic activity on the planet other than the natural pace
of its change. This may lead to some adverse effects like an escalation in the
observed concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs), i.e. CH4, CO2 and N2O,
warming (Table 2.1) athwart over the globe along with further gushing ill effects
in the form of escalation in seawater level due to melting of ice, a shift in rainfall
pattern, increased occurrence of weather-induced calamities, etc. (Jayaraman 2011;
Shakeel et al. 2009). More than 25% of greenhouse gas emissions recorded is
estimated as a spillover of the irresponsible practices coupled with land-use change
in agriculture and forestry. Thus, climate change is identified and now treated as the
most apocalyptic global ecological and environmental challenge with repercussions
for natural bio-networks, agriculture and health, which humanity is facing (Parikh
and Parikh 2002; Senapati et al. 2013). In most of the underdeveloped and develop-
ing countries, agriculture is the main livelihood option for more than half of the
 40

Table 2.1 Year-wise world temperature change (data source, FAOSTAT 2019)
Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Temperature change (
C) 0.871 1.007 0.948 1.026 1.333 1.572 1.366 1.191
Emissions (CO2eq) gigagrams 677681.2 682826.1 684284.5 693386.7 690341.1 684634.9 693871.8 704100.2
R. Gills and J. P. Sharma
2 From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking Dinner: Some Futuristic Approaches. . . 41

population, and the changes in climate involve multifaceted interactions which are
altering livelihoods of people with adverse impacts due to low penetration of climate
risk management practices, poor coping mechanisms, high dependency on
monsoons and smallholding nature among them. An increase in temperature
would increase crop respiration rate, reduce crop duration, alter the pattern of pest
attack and nature of weed intensification, accelerate mineralization process in soil
and diminish fertilization use efficiency. All these could noticeably affect crop yield
for the long run (Reddy and Pachepsky 2000; Pathak et al. 2003; Popova and
Kercheva 2005).
Other than this, intense weather conditions at the stage of sowing and harvesting
are the main menace for agriculture. In agriculture, the economic impact of climate
change is myriad. It has a direct impact on the price of the commodity and its supply,
demand induced and the trade cycle, the profitability of the farm and comparative
advantages/disadvantages of the farm produce in terms of time and space. Indirectly
it points to the challenging happenstances of food security and the nutritional
stability of the population (Islam and Wong 2017). The scale and territorial scatter-
ing of such climate-persuaded weather vagaries may affect the existing production
systems’ ability to broaden the food production range, which is required to nourish
the mushrooming population projected for the middle of the next century (Shakeel
et al. 2009). According to the World Bank (2017a), 80 million people per day are
nearly affected by drought-induced food shortage. Smallholder and sustenance
sharecroppers, herder and fisherfolk in many of the developing countries may not
have the resilience to deal with climate change meritoriously, due to abridged
adaptive capability and higher threats of climate defencelessness (Tubiello 2012;
Campbell et al. 2016; OXFAM 2018; Kunmin 2018).

2.2.4 Triple Burden of Malnutrition

The triple burden of malnutrition (Pinstrup 2007; Gomez et al. 2013; Gillespie and
Van den Bold 2017) entailing the co-existing conditions of undernutrition (stunted
and underweight), overweight and obesity and micronutrient deficiencies is a signif-
icant peril in the present global food consumption patterns. Recent data showed that
one in every three persons suffers from one or other form of malnutrition. Almost
1 billion persons munch too little calories, not less than 3 billion don’t have adequate
nutrients and above 2.5 billion eat too copious as required (IFPRI 2018). Nearly
821 million people (approximately 1 in 9) are undernourished in the world
(Table 2.2). Along with almost 3 million childhood deaths reported all over the
world are correlated with the imperfections in the nutrition, especially malnutrition
(NCD 2018; UNICEF 2019; FAOSTAT 2019). More than 260 million women of
reproductive age are affected by iron-amenable anaemia (WHO 2018), which will
ultimately lead to an unhealthy future generation. Though food is considered as the
common entry point for nutrition and agriculture, there is often some obvious
significant disconnect between the two. It is mainly due to the fact that food
availability does not ensure abundant or adequate nutrition always (World Bank
 42

Table 2.2 Number of people undernourished and severely food insecure (million)
Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Undernourished World 822.3 814.4 807.6 800.1 788.8 785.4 796.5 811.7 821.6
Africa 199.8 201.7 204.6 207.1 212.1 217.9 234.6 248.6 256.1
Northern America and Europe – – – – – – – – –
Latin America and the Caribbean 40.7 39.5 38.8 38.4 38 39.1 40.4 41.7 42.5
Asia 572.1 563.5 554.7 545 529.2 518.7 512.3 512.4 513.9
Severely food insecure World – – – – 585 568.2 600.4 657.6 704.3
Africa – – – – 210.7 226.7 268.2 287.5 277
Northern America and Europe – – – – 16.1 16.3 13.4 13.6 10.6
Latin America and the Caribbean – – – – – – – – –
Asia – – – – 305.9 280 264.8 288.5 353.6
Source: FAOSTAT (2019)
R. Gills and J. P. Sharma
2 From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking Dinner: Some Futuristic Approaches. . . 43

2015; Hawkes et al. 2017). Triple burden of the malnutrition relics is a daunting
challenge and a mulish barrier in almost all the poverty eradication efforts.

2.2.5 Alarming Level of Post-Harvest Losses

Post-harvest losses including food loss and wastages (FLW) are a great concern to
food security (including the availability, accessibility and affordability) and envi-
ronmental and economic sustainability faced by the global food production system
(Shafiee-Jood and Cai 2016; Shee et al. 2019; Kuyu et al. 2019) (Fig. 2.5). Though
the accurate estimate of the FLW in quantifiable terms is difficult to get (Landry et al.
2018; Aamir et al. 2018), the meta-analysis and multiregional studies done by
different international agencies under the aegis of FAO observed that more than
30% (about 1.3 billion tonnes per year) of the total food produced globally is being
wasted (Gills et al. 2015; FAO 2017d; Banjaw 2017).
The food and agriculture produce waste quantification shows that wastage is
maximum (35.75%) at the food after cooking or in the plate (Parfitt et al. 2010;
Hodges et al. 2011; FAO 2011; Kummu et al. 2012; Gills et al. 2015; Dusoruth et al.
2018; Aamir et al. 2018; Landry et al. 2018). Food wastage has a straightforward
impact on food supply chain difficulties with reduced availability and accessibility to
food of a major portion of the population, low income to the farmers due to
decreased selling price and increased purchase price, enhanced greenhouse emission
accounted for wasting degradation and increased agricultural activities to produce
more food to feed the ravenous stomach. Data from a populous and developing
country like India shows a dangerous level of post-harvest losses (Lisa and Adel
2015). It is almost 30% in cereals, 40–50% in horticulture crops including fruits and

20
17.75 18 Pre Harvest
18
Harvest
16 Producer
Garding
14
Storage
12 Transport
10 Trading
10
Processing
7.8 8
8 7.6 Packaging
Distripution
6
4.6 5 5.1 Wholesale
4 3 3.5 Retail
2.4 2.75 2.7
2.2 Restaurant
2 Consumer
0 Export

Fig. 2.5 % Post-harvest losses globally (in median value) (data source, FAO 2019b)
44 R. Gills and J. P. Sharma

vegetables, 20% in oil crops, dairy and meat sector and almost 35% in fish (FAO
2015). A study in the SAARC region showed that horticultural crops are showing
greater vulnerability to the post-harvest wastage. Estimated losses are as exemplified
as 20, 29, 38, 46 and 52% in mandarin, banana, mango, tomato and cauliflower,
respectively, in the SAARC region (FAO 2017g).

2.2.6 Low Income and Low Social Status Offer to Farmers

Even though agriculture has all the pride to accept the nomination of the mother of
civilization and social development, many imperfections are still there in agriculture
sector. Due to the overstress given by the officials of the national and international
leaders to the production strategies rather on the farmers’ affairs, majority of the
developing and under developed nations negligibly recognized or rather ill-treated
the farmers who have contributed and sacrificed their life and youth in the sun and
rain to create food to feed and to create a market for the economy of their own
country among other nations. According to the UN (2019c), two-thirds of
impoverished employed workers worldwide are agricultural workers. Spending on
food and consumable showed a contrasting trend as compared to the income level of
the people in developed and developing nations. In a developed country, families
spent 15–25% of their income on food, whereas it is almost 50–80% in developing
nations (Bourne 2014). Malnutrition and associated mortality showed an exponen-
tially increased relation to the high food cost and insufficient quantity of food.

2.3 Pragmatic Solutions and Strategies for Overcoming

the Challenges

In the past centuries, agriculture has been described as a ‘Godly profession’ and
blessed with a large quantum of natural resources, workforce and less pressure on the
land to feed the population as the population was too small as compared with the
present situation. But now the agriculture sector is the most vulnerable and
threatened profession due to the limited resources and lack of workforce due to the
disinterest from the people in farming due to the less remuneration it generally
offers. But pressure on agriculture to feed the population is many folds as compared
with the ancient years. With all these reasons, the farmers need to switch to smarter
techniques that can aid in regulating the proper use of land, water and energy to feed
the planet and elude from the global food crisis.

2.3.1 Nontraditional and Urban Farming as an Alternative

Production System

As indicated earlier, over the last three to four decades, the world has witnessed
continuing and increasing phenomenon of urbanization. Population explosion,
2 From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking Dinner: Some Futuristic Approaches. . . 45

combined with a massive migration, particularly of rural populations to urban

centres and expansions of the existing cities, is the main reason for this. Since the
settlement of the roving old generation of the human race into communities,
conurbations have been indissolubly coupled with the crops that sustain them. But
the urbanization led to severe poverty in some of the area, especially where the
jobless migrants are there. Along with the economic down slopes, increased demand
for the food for feeding all the urban population with the shrinking rate of agriculture
land and less involvement of people in production activities in turn resulted in
malnutrition and starvation among the city people. Here the prominence of urban
and peri-urban agriculture stands for.
Urban and peri-urban agriculture can be defined as the mounting of crops or
plants and rearing of fish or animals in a domesticated environment within and
around metropolises and townships. It includes all the activities like production,
processing and marketing of the agricultural produce using reclaimable and reusable
natural resources, urban trash and waste. In fact, one can say glorious farming is
what gave rise to the first cities in human history. Though the term of urban
agriculture is more pronounced in recent years, it has an extended date back history
in the process of human civilization. Some of the examples are ‘Eridu’ the first city to
ever exist located in Mesopotamia built over 7000 years ago, on the extremely fertile
shoreline of Tigris and Euphrates rivers (Peeter 2015); ‘Machu Picchu’, the ancient
Incan city built around 1450–1460 well-known for hundreds of man-made terraced
and irrigated crop fields surrounding the mountain city (Alconini 2005; Wright
2016); ‘Chinampa agricultural system’, the so-called ‘floating gardens’ of Aztecs
which were found on the shallow lake beds in the Valley of Mexico constructed
during 1519 (Altieri and Koohafkan 2004; Antonio 2017; Roland 2019); etc.
Backyard gardens or kitchen gardens (cultivation of crops on the property of a
home), allotment gardens (vegetable garden of medium size in the municipal area),
vertical farming (producing food in vertically piled stratums, vertically inclined
planes, other plant-growing substrata integrated with other structures in a combina-
tion of a controlled or modified environment for agriculture), fertigation, aeroponic
and aquaponic (Despommier 2013; Ritu and Janakiram 2016), tactical gardens
(a keyhole garden) rooftop gardens (farming on roofs) window farming, community
garden (a piece of land (single or combination of multiple small pieces) planted
communally by a group of people in a region), educational gardens (urban agricul-
ture developed by any educational institution) micro-gardens (intensive cultivation
practice of a wide range of crop) and aquafarming (cultivation of fisheries in
wastewater), etc. are innovative and contemporary approaches added to the urban
and peri-urban farming with many fold benefits (Hendrickson and Porth 2012;
Specht et al. 2014). It gives food for the city dwellers, reduced pressure on the
rural land and farmers, reduction in pollution, reduced poverty in urban areas, and
moreover tension relief and health benefits for the rural people who engaged in
farming activities.
Another nontraditional method of crop cultivation, which gained the attention due
to its wide range of benefits on income, environment and heritage in the near past, is
organic farming (IFOAM 2009; EC 2012). Organic farming is a sustainable and
46 R. Gills and J. P. Sharma

eco-friendly farming practice because it restores the nutrient and carbon to the soil
resulting in higher nutrient density in the soil as well as higher crop yield (Srivastava
et al. 2018). Furthermore, organic agriculture can be more purely defined in compar-
ison to sustainable agricultural practices and takes its allusion theme in ecological
fortification and conservation (Gills 2012). For example, organic farming is funda-
mentally not contingent upon peripheral contributions as external inputs. This
curtails the usage of different resources in the farming practices followed in the
crop production system and limits the nutrient freight in the soil, which in turn clues
to the reduced water pollution level due to dripping effect of over-fertilization and
resulted eutrophication due to increased concentration of nitro-phosphorous
elements.

2.3.2 Internet of Things for the Better Agriculture

From time immemorial, the agricultural world is a field for scientific development in
the form of machines and tools. Recent day’s agriculture is witnessing the robotic or
artificial intelligent era of precision farm operations. The word robotics was made
known to the public through a play titled Rossum’s Universal Robots (RUR) by
Czech writer Karel Capek in 1921 (STANFORD 1998). Throughout history, the
robot was pragmatic in mimicking the behaviour of humans and habitually manages
tasks in a similar manner. Intelligence that allows the robot to behave in a humanistic
way is a programme or system of programmes. To satisfy the food demand in the
challenging situation of increasing climatic aberrations, reducing soil productivity
and adverse environmental impacts, the food production system must turn to a smart
farming system by embrace with advanced technologies, especially the Internet of
Things (IoT) with automated and connected devices. It is the way of the temporal
and spatial application of capital-intensive and hi-tech modern Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs) (big data analysis, artificial intelligence (AI),
machine learning, etc.) in on- and off-field activities. Precision agriculture, weather
monitoring, information system, IT-based post-harvest produce handling, livestock
monitoring, etc. are able to detect minute changes in humidity, light, moisture and
temperature with the help of high precision sensitive gears called sensors. In
accordance with the adaptive and experimental nature of every scientific discipline,
agriculture science has made many strides in the engulfment of the advancement of
ICT in its various fields, and the rate of change in the adoption is upward sloping too.
Almost 84% of IoT deployments happening in the world are addressing the SDGs1
in some or other way (UN 2019d) with the following distribution: 25% to
manufacturing, innovation, and infrastructure (SDG 9), 19% to smart metropolises
and publics (SDG 11), 19% to affordable and clean energy (SDG 7), 7% to good
health and wellbeing (SDG 3) and 5% to responsible production and consumption
(SDG 12). Data on the IoT penetration shows that IoT is very less utilized in the

1
Refer Appendix I.
2 From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking Dinner: Some Futuristic Approaches. . . 47

production system, which would have a direct impact on poverty alleviation. Hence
harnessing the power of machine learning and artificial intelligence is essential to
make a smart way of the food production system. According to Andrew (2016), IoT
device connexions predicted in the agriculture world will reach 225 million by 2024
as compared with 75 million in 2020 (projected) and 30 million in 2015 with a
compound annual adoption growth rate of 20%. IoT applications are expected to
produce a mediocre of 4.1 million data plugs per day from an average farm in 2050,
as compared with 190,000 data points in 2014, which can able to create a smart
intelligence bank to make management decisions to enhance the productivity of
agriculture system further.
IoT in agriculture has many fold benefits like efficiency excellence by virtue of
the informed decisions; cultivable area expansion to skyscrapers’ walls, abandoned
containers and every unutilized point due to its artificial intelligent mechanism to
conserve and utilize the resources efficiently; and agility in food supply with added
components of cleanliness and assured quality (FAO 2017a; World Bank 2017b).
Agricultural androids (robots) mechanize sluggish, tedious and murky tasks of
farmers, countenancing them to focus more on recuperating inclusive production
in terms of yields and profits (RIA 2017). Some of the AI-based applications in
agriculture are smart harvesting, precision farming, mechanized grading, smart
irrigation, quality-controlled processing, variable rate technology, smart
greenhouses, etc. The custom of AI has made the agriculture shrewder than ever
with a touch of intelligence, which is as good as a human in many cases. Smart
agriculture can be used to augment food productivity. It can act as an agent to
address the issue in the food supply chain and make the farms virtually more
connected and more intelligent in decision-making. From drones to sovereign
tractors to robotic artilleries, the technology is being positioned in the creation of
more interactive and innovative applications. The following section will give an
insight into the robotic technology (IoT) applications in agriculture.

2.3.2.1 Planting and Seeding

Life of all the plants begins as seeds in a field. The outmoded and most common
means for seeds sowing are to fling them by broadcasting by hand or by use of
mechanical broadcaster connected to a tractor. This throws many kernels around the
field while the tractor pushes at a sturdy pace. This is not an efficient method of
implanting as it causes more seed rate through some sort of the wastage of seeds.
Seeding and planting through autonomous AI robots with geo-mapping (soil
mapping) are the most efficient way of planting. In this method, a map is made
which displays the soil properties (texture, quality, moisture, density, etc.) at every
point in the particular field. The tractor with mechanical seeding accessory places
these seeds or transplants the seedlings at accurate locations and in calculated depths
so that each has the best chance of budding, e.g. farm guru, developed by Tech
Mahindra. It is a solar-powered portable unit, to assist farmers from the time of
sowing, through the cropping season and then to post-harvest phase.
48 R. Gills and J. P. Sharma

2.3.2.2 Weed Control and Intercultural Operations

Herbicide and pesticide spraying in the field to control the weeds and crop pests
generally creates wastage and severe environmental pollutions also. If AI-induced
robots are doing this job, then it became a much more efficient method. Micro-
spraying robots with AI can distinguish weeds from the crops and then spray a
beleaguered droplet of herbicide with calculated active ingredient onto them. Some
of the weeding robots don’t even want to use chemicals to destroy it, but they could
detect plants as it is pushed by a tractor and then mechanically digs the spaces
between plants to deracinate the weeds. Some others are using lasers to kill the
weeds. Likewise, AI-assisted irrigation robots can effectively and efficiently irrigate
the target plants through autonomously navigating between rows of crops and
dispensing water unswervingly at the base of each vegetal and also have the benefit
as they are able to admittance to the areas where other machines cannot.

2.3.2.3 Harvesting of the Produce

Garnering and picking are some of the most venerated areas in agriculture where
robotic applications are very crucial due to the exactness and promptness that robots
can accomplish. It will help to mend the yield losses and trim down squander from
crops being leftward in the field. The artificial intelligence integrated into it helps the
machine to detect the fruit, senses its maturity and mellowness, moves to clutch it
and gently detaches it (only the ripe fruit) from the tree or plant without any damage.
The robot uses a combination of machine vision and gesticulation forecasting
algorithms to distinguish and locate the ripe fruits which to be harvested. These
machines can detect injured, smashed, ruined, diseased and unripe fruits and have
the inbuilt intelligence to pack the harvested fruits in different boxes according
to size.

2.3.2.4 Primarily Surveillance

Monitoring and reporting of the field and climatic conditions are very important for
the crop cultivation practices to make adjustment in the planting and other
operations. Sensors and geo-mapping technologies are letting farmers to get a
much advanced and sophisticated level of information about their crops and the
microclimate of the field. Drones, the robotic machine used for this purpose, has
hardware and analysis software to do the field surveillance and analysis. The farmer
who is using the drone can move the appliance to the field and commence the
observation activities with the help of software attached to tablet, computer or
smartphone and view the collected and composed crop-related data in real time as
a tangible entity. The airborne shadowing engines can detect stunted crops, ciphers
of pest or weed injury, aridness and many other variables that are part of the exertion
of agricultural activities general. For recording the accurate climatic conditions,
ground-based robots are being used as they are talented to get nearer to the crops.
These data points, which an artificially intelligent machine can make, will enrich the
farmer with decision-relevant information, which in turn enhances the predictability
of the production models.
2 From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking Dinner: Some Futuristic Approaches. . . 49

2.3.2.5 Processing of Farm Produces

One of the most time-consuming processes in the processing is the sorting of fresh
produce before processing. This will help to decide which product can be made from
the farm produce, e.g. from potato products like French fries, potato chips and hash
browns. Sorting of the products is generally done on the basis of size, colour and
texture. Another important thing in the food processing industry is the cleaning of
the utensils. AI-induced robots use ultrasonic sensing and ocular fluorescence
imaging to measure food scum and microbial wreckage in a portion of paraphernalia
and then optimize the cleaning procedure. This will give most hygiene equipments
for the artificial processing intelligence which can be used to decide about which
new products one should create through an unimaginable number of ways of
blending and mixing of an endless variety of options of flavours, spices and
ingredients that exist.

2.3.3 Price Forecast in Agriculture

Artificial intelligence can integrate into the price-predicting model, which forecasts
the upcoming commodity influx and their corresponding prices in a specified area.
This model makes use of strategies and remote sensing data from geo-satellite zones
to imagine the future price of the commodity. The historical data pertaining to soil
character information, fertility status of different crops, etc. are generally used in the
forecasting models to predict particular crop price data, e.g. the Microsoft Price
Forecasting tool.

2.3.4 Diversification and Commercialization of Agriculture

Since agriculture sectors are struggling to create a sustainable economic impact on

most of the underdeveloped and developing nation, it is necessary to reduce distress
in farming, and focus should be more on diversification and commercialization of the
agricultural products which can yield high value in low volume (Singh et al. 2006;
Rahman 2009; Meena et al. 2018; Deogharia 2018). Planned diversification in the
crop husbandry and crop-based product development is an innovative technique to
augment the revenue of the farmers in a lucrative way and a concave to give
extensive options and crop portfolio in the production which has the potential to
help in alleviating poverty, conserving the environment and creating employment
(Hayami and Keijiro 1995; Haque 1996; Joshi et al. 2004; Weinberger and Lumpkin
2007; Maggio et al. 2018). As the tendency of rice consumption per person in a
decreasing line with the rapid urbanization and income growth (Ito 1989; Huang and
Cristina 1993), diversification is essential to meeting the changing dietary demand
(Delgado and Siamwalla 1999; Joshi et al. 2003; FAO 2004). According to Chand
(1996), diversification in agriculture can be indicated as intentional changes in crop
mix, activity mix and enterprise mix at farm level, especially at household level, by
diverting the resources from single crop to a mixture of different crops or livestock.
50 R. Gills and J. P. Sharma

Flower cultivation, honey bee cultivation, fisheries, mushroom cultivation,

protected cultivation of exotic vegetables, nonfarm activities, etc. are some of the
remunerative undertakings in this area (Barrett et al. 2001; Basantaray and
Nancharaiah 2017). Farmers’ income can be improved with increased productivity,
decreased cost of production and increased risk-bearing ability against climate change-
induced yield losses. Consequently, there is a need to boost up diversified agriculture
along with auxiliary agricultural undertakings (Smith et al. 2008; UNFCCC 2009;
Khanam et al. 2018). Crop rotation is another crop diversification action in which the
suitable arrangement of consecutive crops in a pattern is followed to facilitate the
different plants to pull nutrients in different magnitudes from various echelons (Quiroz
and Valdes 1995; Rahman 2009). Thus the crop diversification in crop rotation
model can augment the production and reduce the cultivation cost as in the case of
legume-cereal rotation. It is also a proven solution of the most widespread farm level
rejoinders to climate erraticism and alteration (UNFCCC 2009; Smith et al. 2008).

2.3.5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: Adaptation and Mitigation

Food and nutritional crisis are intensified by the extreme changes observed in the
climatic conditions (World Bank 2019b). It is estimated that climate change will add
up to 122 million more to the population in extreme poverty group by 2030 (FAO
2016). To tackle the catena of food security challenges and climate-related
encounters, an integrative approach is needed (Ericksen 2008; Ingram 2011;
CCAFS and UNFAO 2014; Sapkota et al. 2015; Olorunfemi et al. 2019). Climate-
smart agriculture (CSA) is the new terminology in advanced agriculture options that
has an unequivocal focus on addressing climate change-related agricultural
challenges (FAO 2010; World Bank 2019b).
‘Adaptation’ and ‘mitigation’ are two vital terms that are central in the manage-
ment of climate changes in socio-agricultural-related scenarios (IPCC 2001; Tol
2005; Laukkonen et al. 2009; CIFOR 2011; FAO 2012a). Climate adaptation
denotes to the capability of a system to amend to variability and extremeness
observed in the climatic conditions which can cause moderate to potential mutilation
to all components of a production system and the ability to identify the options to
cope with the cost and consequences produced by the human-induced climatic
changes and to take advantage of opportunities (Pan and Zheng 2010). In contrast,
climate mitigation is any deed made to enduringly eradicate or diminish the long-
term risk and perils of climate change to human life, living components and any
property of the production system (Tol 2005; Lu 2013; Duguma et al. 2014).
In recent days, the adaptation strategies were recognized as important as mitiga-
tion plans by the numerous international negotiations done on the topic of climate
change (Campillo et al. 2017; OECD 2018; UNFCCC 2019). As on today’s esti-
mate, the extent of climate change committed by humankind is at a certain level,
especially in terms of increased temperature, and even the jam-packed level of
possible mitigation efforts and strategies will not prevent the anticipated upsurge
in temperature till 2100. Therefore, instead of the mitigation efforts, the adaptation
2 From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking Dinner: Some Futuristic Approaches. . . 51

measures to deal with adverse climate variability and changes need greater attention
during the planning and implementation stages of climate and environment policy
formulation, research interventions and institutional development (OECD 2018;
Vogel and Meyer 2018). Adaptation is progressions done by the societies; thereby,
they make themselves well competent to cope with an ambiguous and uncertain
future (Jo-Ellen et al. 2005; IPCC 2007). Climate change adaptation strategies help
in choosing the right measures and options to reduce the undesirable effects of
climate change through making appropriate alterations and changes in the produc-
tion system. It can also be defined as the act of choosing or exploiting the positive
effect or changes that happened in nature by dint of climate change. With an eye
toward developing and target appropriate adaptation measures, it is very much
imperative to recognize regions that are comparatively more affected by the adverse
effect of climate change. Generally, the nature of subsistence farming and social-
cultural barriers like a low level of formal education will limit the adaptive capacity
of farmers. Hence, for the climate change adaptation process, there is a need to
develop and implement simple, economically viable and culturally acceptable
strategies and technologies. Furthermore, the research extension and governance
system should effectively transfer the climate change adaptation knowledge to the
end-users. There must be intentional efforts from the government side to make new
technologies, institutional, social and economic resources accessible by the farmers
through integrating them with the existing resources base of farmers. To address the
impact of climate change, the research and development wing of the nation should be
armed enough. Many alternatives resilient to climate change are needed to be
developed and transferred to the farmers filed for wider adaptation. These climate-
smart technologies are crop cultivars tolerant to abiotic stresses like heat and salinity
changes and resistant to flood (Chakraborty et al. 2014), frost and drought, improv-
ing soil and water management practices, altering crop management practices
(mixed cropping, crop diversification, relay cropping, multiple cropping, etc.),
adopting innovative farm management techniques such as resource-conserving
technologies (RCTs) (Altieri and Koohafkan 2008; Lin 2011; Pathak et al. 2012;
Adhikari et al. 2018) improving pest and disease management practices followed,
improved and accurate weather forecasting and efficient governance (Godfray and
Garnett 2014), crop insurance, hitching the indigenous technical knowledge of
farmers with the scientific know-how, etc.

2.3.5.1 Climate-Smart Technologies

The first major challenge to adapt to the climate-persuaded changes is to maintain the
yield stability at the present level. The development of improved crop varieties with
advanced and improved yield potential and resistance or tolerance to multiple
stresses (drought, flood, salinity) is the key to it. Climate change is making not
only an adverse effect on the abiotic element but also many abiotic stresses like
shortening of the growing season; changes in the production environment and
microclimate, too, are the part of it. It is very crucial to develop tolerance to multiple
abiotic stresses for the food crops through multiple breeding programmes (Pathak
et al. 2012). Farmers must be provided with cultivars of the broad genetic base to
52 R. Gills and J. P. Sharma

fight against the climate change-related biotic and abiotic challenges and to mini-
mize the risks of climatic aberrations (Fita et al. 2015). To make a better production
system, farmers should use (access to) a basket of technological options. Examples
of some climate-smart verities of different crops popular in Indian subcontinental
conditions are (1) rice, Pusa Basmati 1509, Pusa Sugandh 2, Pusa Basmati 1121,
etc., and (2) wheat, HD 3086 (Pusa Gautami), HD 3090 (Pusa Amulya), H D 2985
(Pusa Basant), etc. (Hema et al. 2014).

2.3.5.2 The Resource-Conserving Technologies (RCTs)

It involves practices or cultivation techniques that augment resource use or input use
efficiency and can deliver immediate, distinguishable and palpable economic
benefits to the farmers like reduced production cost due to enhanced savings in
irrigation, fuel, nutrients and labour requirements and improved level of yield by
well-timed crops establishment, etc. (Gupta and Seth 2007; Pathak et al. 2012;
Soumya et al. 2018; Patle et al. 2019). Water-saving mechanisms (UNFCCC
2006) like narrow/broad bed planting of crops with crop residues can enhance
farmers’ income through reduced cost of cultivation and enhanced production
(Altieri and Nicholls 2013). It can also provide resistance against lodging of crops
due to rains and hailstorm, which are rousing in an unusual trend in recent years.
Zero tillage, another resource conservation technique experimented in rice-wheat
cropping system, permits farmers to plant wheat immediately after the harvest of
rice; hence the crop could escape from the terminal heat stress (Pathak et al. 2011,
2012). Direct seeded rice (DSR), organic farming and conservation agriculture,
which reduce the water wastage and soil evaporation through cover cropping and
mulching with the crop residues, are some of the other extensively accepted RCTs
(Pathak et al. 2012; Srinivasa et al. 2016). Management of rice straw burning
(a serious issue that is contributing to the GHG emission) can be done through
various on-site soil composting practices to make organic fertilizer with the use of
effective micro-organisms. Similarly, the practice of the use of by-products and
leftovers (e.g. rice straw and hull) as fuel for cooking, inputs for the paper industry,
etc. are some of the greener techniques which can indirectly reduce the adverse effect
of climate change.

2.3.5.3 Carrot and Stick Approach in Knowledge Integration

Farmers are ever experimenting, and their knowledge about the change in the climate
is very crucial to include in the scientific knowledge realm. They can observe the
change in the climate by the disappearance of some varieties of plants and animals.
They are correlating the long-term changes with their knowledge domain and finding
and validating some solutions from nature itself to adapt and mitigate it. Since the
climate change effect on different cropping systems is different, it is better to adopt
location-specific technologies and farmers’ ITKs (MoSTE 2015; FAO 2019a).
Upscaling of farmers’ own climate-smart technologies in partnership with state
departments and research institutions is also an important step. Recognizing custo-
dian farmers for preserving the climate-smart varieties and genome of different crops
suitable for the climate change scenario is a significant step forward to motivate the
2 From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking Dinner: Some Futuristic Approaches. . . 53

farmers to adopt the mitigation and adaptation practices and increase their zeal in
climate-smart farming. Like awards, the penalty for the environment-unfriendly
activities should be realized and firmly watched. Like the carbon exchange and
trade between the low carbon emission countries and high carbon emission, to lessen
the ill upshot of climate change community-level assessment of GHGs generation
and its monitoring should be done.

2.3.6 Nutrition Farming as a Hunger Fighter

The main issue of malnutrition faced by the hunger population over the globe today
is the access to safe and nutrient-rich food than the availability of food (Das et al.
2014; FAO 2017f; Vijaya et al. 2017; UNICEF 2019). The nutrition-sensitive
agriculture focused on the following significant ideologies like increasing availabil-
ity and accessibility of the food, encouraging sustainable and diversified production,
enhancing the nutrition content and making the food more nutritious (FAO 2014;
Nagarajan et al. 2014). Nutri-farms or nutri-gardens attained considerable attention
in the near past as a local solution for malnutrition predominant in the majority of the
developing and undeveloped countries. Nutri-garden provides some essential nutri-
food and additional income by incorporating the nutrition goals in critical entry
points (crop diversification and reduced cost of cultivation) (Jaenicke and Virchow
2013). Nutri-gardens can be created with the integration of high-nutrient-value
vegetable and fruit crops and biofortified crop varieties in cultivation (Bouis et al.
2013; Bouis and Saltzman 2017), along with good agricultural practices for produc-
tivity enhancement and soil quality improvement (Ruel et al. 2018). Biofortification
in different food products showed a positive impact on nutritional security aspects
(Low et al. 2007; Bouis et al. 2013). Some of the dazzling examples are iron-
biofortified pearl millet (Finkelstein et al. 2015; Yadava et al. 2017), zinc-
biofortified wheat (Rosado et al. 2009; Singh and Velu 2017; Sazawal et al. 2018),
vitamin A-biofortified maize (Fabiana et al. 2014; Menkir et al. 2018; Zuma et al.
2018), etc.
International organizations around the world with state support are making many
approaches among the rural population in the participatory and target-oriented way
to fight against all forms of malnutrition. For example, in India, many breeding
programmes were started to increase the nutrient quality of the crop produce by
National Agricultural Research System (NARS) in hand with the international crop
organization. Some of the promising biofortified varieties developed by the NARS
are CR Dhan 310 (protein-rich variety of rice) and DRR Dhan 45 (zinc-rich variety
of rice); WB 02 and HPBW 01 (zinc- and iron-rich variety of wheat); Pusa Vivek
QPM9 Improved (lysine- and tryptophan- and a provitamin A-rich hybrid of maize),
Pusa HM4, Pusa HM8 Improved and Pusa HM9 Improved (lysine- and tryptophan-
rich maize hybrid); Pusa Mustard 30 (low erucic acid variety of mustard) and Pusa
Double Zero Mustard 31 (mustard variety with low erucic acid and low
glucosinolate); Pusa Beta Kesari 1 (cauliflower variety with rich β-carotene content);
and Bhu Sona (β-carotene-rich sweet potato) and Bhu Krishna (anthocyanin-rich
54 R. Gills and J. P. Sharma

sweet potato) (Yadava et al. 2017). Some of the innovative extension strategies
developed by the Indian NARS like Knowledge Systems and Homestead Agricul-
ture Management in Tribal Areas (KSHMTA), Nutri-Sensitive Agricultural
Resources and Innovations (NARI) and Value Addition and Technology Incubation
Centres in Agriculture (VATICA) are showing committed movements to stamp out
the hunger, poverty and malnutrition (Randhir 2017; ICAR 2017; TAAS 2017;
Paroda 2018) which can be adopted by other countries too.

2.3.7 Reaching Zero Hunger Through Zero Wastage and Surplus

Management

Production perspectives that had attained commensurable techno-policy attention

during the last decades merely cannot meet the nutrition demand, as it can address
only the availability dimension. For assured nutrition, food should be accessible and
affordable too. But the quantum of the post-harvest losses and wastage (PLW) makes
it challenging to attain reasonably priced food by the majority of the poor people.
The inducing factor for the post-harvest losses are varied by region, season and crops
across the value chain (Hailu and Derbew 2015; Ndirangu et al. 2017; Macheka et al.
2018; Shee et al. 2019; Khader et al. 2019). But in general, studies conducted
globally in different time and space horizons enlisted specific biotic and spatio-
temporal independent abiotic and developmental factors. It includes playing up of
the food production and supply system (physiological, physical, mechanical and
hygienic conditions) and imperfections in the institutional and policy framework
which are observed before and after the farm gate (Hodges et al. 2010; Arah et al.
2015; Chalak et al. 2016, 2018; FAO 2017e; Yahaya and Mardiyya 2019). Ineffi-
cient value chain management starting from the production to final consumption is a
significant challenge that includes poor infrastructure for storage, marketing and
processing which need immediate attention (Randela 2003; Godfray et al. 2010;
Hengsdijk and de Boer 2017; Rahiel et al. 2018).
The lack of decision pertinent data (five Ws (the person (who), the time (when),
form and context (what and which) and the place (where)), one H (how)) is a major
reason for the post-harvest loss and food wastage issues, and domineering thing
needs to be addressed by those paying attention in captivating battle to trim down
post-harvest loss (Gills et al. 2016; Dumont et al. 2015). The first and foremost
logical step in identifying a proper strategy for plummeting post-harvest losses and
food wastage is the efficient analysis of each commodity production and handling
system at the different entry points. Based on the analytical results, developing and
developed countries need separate strategies to tackle the problem as the reasons and
the stages of the losses may differ in both (Niewiara 2016; Ghosh et al. 2016). By
refining farmers’ custom of good agricultural practices, such as proper field man-
agement, careful handling of harvested crops, etc., significant reductions in food loss
can be made. Infrastructure for appropriate storage of the harvested crops until it
reached the final consumption points needs to be created in all the entry points in the
value chain (Kumar and Kalita 2017). Cold storage, controlled and modified
2 From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking Dinner: Some Futuristic Approaches. . . 55

atmospheric storage facilities, etc. are proven post-harvest loss prevention

technologies. However, derisory extension efforts and inadequate information flow
from potential buyers to the producers limit the degree to which farmers are
conscious of and actively implementing these innovative practices (Pearson et al.
2016). Training, demonstration and education about effective handling and storage
practices, marketing strategies like collective marketing and target marketing,
knowledge development and real-time communication in the supply chain, con-
science building, etc. are particularly critical in diminishing the food wastage and
post-harvest losses (APO 2006; Hodges et al. 2010; Bendito and Twomlow 2014;
ACF 2014; Dumont et al. 2015; Calvo-Porral et al. 2016; FAO 2017c; NAAS 2019).
On-farm marketing, farm-firm linkage and farmers’ portals, etc. are needed to be
emphasized for reducing the market imperfections and attaining more contribution
for producers’ share in consumer rupee (Reardon et al. 2009; Singla 2017). Tum-
bling both post-harvest losses and food waste level necessitates multiple stratagems,
including behavioural modifications like changing consumption behaviour through
increased consumer awareness and refining enticements among various supply chain
participants (Kantor et al. 1997; Parfitt et al. 2010; Aschemann-Witzel et al. 2016;
Calvo-Porral et al. 2016; Facchini et al. 2018; Aschemann-Witzel 2018; Boulet et al.
2019). The tactics for reducing waste and loss will undoubtedly be diverse in
developed and developing regions because the core causes are different, but
shortening waste and loss in all areas will yet be critical to plummeting hunger
and nutritional insecurity and meeting future food demand.
Post-harvest losses and food wastages are reducing not only the nutritional food
bowl very deprived but also creating a major concern of environmental pollution as
most uneaten foodstuff ends up in the plonk. Waste disposal and its management is a
serious issue which is diverting gigantic potions of national and international money
reserve to make a clean environment. In agriculture, the waste created is generally in
the biodegradable form. Though the best fit strategy is zero wastage, due to many
reasons, especially delay in rectifications of identified inefficiencies, wastage in
agriculture is still at its peak point. Now another strategy to reduce its negative
impact on environment and livelihood sustainability is not to lose it as sheer waste
but to view it as a laudable resource to rebuild the productivity of the land and
profitability of agriculture through converting it into the wealthy product (waste to
wealth). Green energy production, compost making, pelleting, integrated farming,
etc. are some of the waste to wealth strategies recommended (Kathiravale and Muhd
Yunus 2008; Obi et al. 2016; TERI 2017; Chunping et al. 2019).

2.3.8 Policy Options and Its Imperatives

Can we imagine a developed world without agriculture? The demand exerted on

agriculture does not end at production; rather, it has an extended function in many
directions. As the majority of the world nations primarily are with the agrarian
economy, the sector must also contribute to economic prosperity, social security,
nutritional safety and communal wellbeing of rural and urban areas. At the same
56 R. Gills and J. P. Sharma

moment, it has the responsibility to preserve and enrich the natural resources and
biodiversity from the dark shadow of challenges like pollution, climate change,
population growth, urbanization, etc. for the future generation too. For the sustained
production and consumption system, a collective action from different nations,
developmental organizations and community groups backed with policy support is
needed. The foremost thing to make a revamped and prosperous agricultural sector
in any country is to have a well-equipped extension system (Garforth and Lawrence
1997; FAO 2003; Budak and Yurdakul 2004; Baloch and Thapa 2017). Since the
knowledge and information gaps identified as the major challenge to the productivity
boosted, nutrition-oriented and post-harvest waste reduced production system,
extensionists and the grass-root-level workers need to be provided with innovative
teaching and communication aids to outreach the art and science of sustainable,
climate-smart and nutrition farming practices to the farmers (Christoplos 2012; FAO
2012b; Fanzo et al. 2015). Technologies are the instruments to compact with the
pressure of food demand induced by the growing population and changing food
preference in a multiplier model (Beder 2000; Anadon et al. 2016; FAO 2003). But
except for some, the majority of the technologies were not diffused properly among
the farmers or end-users due to the lack of awareness and accessibility. Efforts are
needed to be taken at the global level for the wider use of improved crop production,
post-harvest management and marketing strategies with special emphasis on
location-specific needs among the farmers.
For that, a welcoming approach integrated with lessons learned from past for
collaboration in research, international science, technology development and
innovation culture should be adopted by nations. Governments of different nations
need to conduct a committed review about their food and nutritional security policies
to identify the pragmatic obstacles and policy gaps, finding new initiatives for the
international, inter-organization and interdepartmental collaborations. Agriculture
science to prosper, research and extension system need to emphasis vigorous
advocacy and promotional programmes directing to the youth which will help to
retain them in the sector and also help them to make career options in it (Van Enst
et al. 2014; Ravi et al. 2018; Zougmore et al. 2019; Nkiaka and Lovett 2019). One of
the most helpful things policy can do is to form agenda of networking and build a
platform for dialogue with relevant institutions providing multi-sectorial services
that exist in most countries (Kavoossi 1991; Jackson et al. 2009). Similarly extension
scientists at the regional level and field-level extension agent should make networks
with other community-level organizations and agencies for reducing the information
channel length and burden of the farmers and making farming as a profitable
endeavour. The farmer who is the major contributor in the demand sensitive
agriculture needs to be given the prime focus in any development policy directly
affecting sustainable agriculture.
Along with the technological assistance, agricultural system of the nation should
provide a wide range of services like social support, legal advice, financial consulta-
tion, spiritual guidance, job or career counselling, emotional counselling, vocational
training, etc. to the farmers considering their social, cultural and personal needs.
Strategies followed in agriculture need a paradigm shift from the production
2 From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking Dinner: Some Futuristic Approaches. . . 57

orientation to the framers’ income orientation. It can be attained through policies

supporting technological advancement for reduced cost of production and enhanced
productivity, creating alternative livelihood options and off-season employment
opportunities and promoting a transparent price discovery mechanism that provides
assured and remunerative price for farm produce.

2.4 Conclusion

Global agriculture and production system is struggling to fill the empty food plates
with food in many of the developing and underdeveloped nations. The dimension of
conflict with man and production system is changing from production enhancement
to nutrition, climate-smart, income and value chain oriented due to the population
propelled demand drift. In this chapter, we attempted to give a global overview of the
different challenges which are creating an alarming level of burden over the world
agriculture, which has been characterized by fragmented land holding, degraded soil
and water and fearsome level of reduction in the availability of the natural resources
coupled with the anthropogenic adverse climatic condition. For providing a meal
that is able to meet the essential requirements as per suggested standards to the
hunger population, some target-oriented conceptual changes must be adopted in the
coeval agricultural system. The suggested strategies like climate change adaptation
and mitigation, nutritional-sensitive agriculture, post-harvest loss and wastage
reduction through value chain creation, cold storage and innovations in the market-
ing system, using artificial and robotic intelligence in production and post-
production arena, diversified and commercialized farming, etc., are discussed in a
global perspective. Science cannot be able to make a real-time shift in the livelihood
conditions as it hypothesized, if it is not backed up with a strong polices. The
evidence of the failure of science, which has been not supported by the policy
which addresses social capital development, can be figured out from many regions
all over the globe (e.g. Bt. Brinjal in India). The nutritional and food demand of the
growing population highlighted the urgent need of a shift in the agricultural policy
orientation from cereal-centric to smart crop-centric worldwide. It is equally imper-
ative to note that agriculture needs location-specific strategic actions than a blanket
of suggestive measures, as each region and each production system has its own
unique microclimate, resource abundance as well as a social system. The policy
failures often associated with the inability of the governance system to realize the
essentialities and needs of the social system in which the farmers are the key
stakeholders of the agricultural system integrated. Hence it is urged to make a
sustainable social system through capacity building, behavioural interventions,
inter/intradisciplinary linkages. These marketing innovations enable a favourable
and conducive environment for the successful establishment of policy interventions.
58 R. Gills and J. P. Sharma

2.5 Some Policy Suggestions

• The most important challenge, the future generation is going to face, is the climate
change-induced, tangible and intangible natural calamities and menaces. World-
wide collective actions are needed to preserve the nature and natural resources in
a sustainable way. Voluntary agreements and instrumental arrangements are
needed for this. An increase in fuel efficiency by switching to more nature-
friendly cooking arrangements, vehicles, etc. is one of the voluntary arrangements
which individual or small state can practice. Farming can also be in a more
climate-friendly manner by adopting the practice of carbon farming like cover
cropping, zero tillage, crop diversification, etc. which may lead to reduced carbon
emission through sequestering the carbon in the soil by the creation of soil
organic matter. Different countries need to fix specific target coverage for carbon
farming and encourage the farmers to follow it through regular capacity building,
knowledge integration and providing financial assistance or insurance coverage to
cope up with the profitability risk associated with this in the initial periods.
• Alarming rate in the current post-harvest losses and food wastage is another area,
which needs policy attention. As mentioned in the chapter, the post-harvest losses
in the agriculture sector occur in almost all the stages, starting from the field and
farm to consumer level. Most of the developed nations have efficient post-harvest
value chains for the proper handling of the agricultural produces. But the majority
of the developing and underdeveloped nations are struggling to reduce the crop
and produce losses at one end and to meet the food demand in the other end. In
order to reduce the post-harvest losses, it is very essential to develop commodity-
specific as well as community- or region-specific value chains and integrate it
with the global value chains. While making strategic measures in the value chain
development, it is important to give more emphasis on the reduced length of
market chain with a lesser number of players in each, to get better price realization
for both the producers and consumers. The underdeveloped countries are facing
major food losses in the stage of on-farm storage and transportation to the sink.
Lack of cold chain or cold storage facilities are the main trigger in it. The
government should give more emphasis on the development of infrastructure
for the cold storage facilities, accessible and affordable for the farmers to keep the
produce fresh until it reaches the consumers or finds a better market. The
government needs to facilitate the private investment or public-private partner-
ship in the infrastructure development to share the cost and responsibility in the
construction and maintenance. Another most important stage of the post-harvest
food losses is after cooking or on plate. In a developed country like America, food
lose on plate has been reported even as high as 30%. Along with creation of the
habit of no food wastage at the individual level, state needs to promote the
community-owned kitchens or take away outlets to distribute the huge quantum
of the food which is consumable but may be wasted from marriage functions as
well as get together to needy people. It will help to feed the hungry mouth instead
of feeding the bins. Similarly, the government can provide some public accessible
refrigerator facilities near the cities in which the person (living in flats or
2 From an Empty-Plate Lunch to Silk-Stocking Dinner: Some Futuristic Approaches. . . 59

apartments) who has the excess cooked food can keep it instead of wasting and
the needy person can take and consume it.
• Malnutrition and triple burden associated with the insufficient intake of the
nutrient food are other dangerous situations, which need the government and
policy support to tackle with as this may destroy the human wealth of the nation.
If the malnutrition of the city dwellers is mainly due to the changed food habits
and more dependency on the junk food; the villagers, daily wagers, and poor
people have a different story to tell: it can be narrated as the lack of food, lack of
access to nutrients, etc. lead them to a malnourished status. While developing any
policies, the government should give proper attention to balance these two
scenarios. Promotion of nutri-smart villages or Nutri-gardens, which are self-
sufficient to produce nutrient-rich grains, fruits and vegetables and also able to
provide value-added products to the city dwellers, is one solution for it. By this,
the farmers can meet the local nutrient demand of their villages and also get a
good market for the farm products, which are the ingredients for the health drinks,
biscuits or nutrient powders. The government should fix the basic guidelines and
standards for the nutri-smart villages and also should provide inputs and concep-
tual orientation for efficiently developing the same while considering the topog-
raphy, nutrient status and market demand. Since the nutrient-rich coarse cereals
like maize, pearl millet, Sorghum, finger millet, etc. can be cultivated in nutrient-
poor soil without any compromise in yield and nutrient quality, the government
should promote the farming, intake and marketing of such nutrient-rich coarse
grains, which are otherwise known as poor man’s cereals, in a wider way. The
government should take a strategic policy decision in the area of biofortification
with due consideration on the ethical values and the societal norms. More
resource investment needs to be given for biotechnological researches, which
aims to develop the nutri-food through the differential coding of the plant genes.
Policies must be made in more targeted approaches to identify and map locally
available nutrient-rich food commodities (nutrient food map) and food consump-
tion pattern (food intake map) in different areas to make correlation and further
exploration of the possibilities to provide a balanced diet through a diversified
food basket approach.
• Titivated and productive extension system with capable grass-root-level workers
is an essential component of any development programme. Though the extension
system’s history shows the evolution of target-specific, commodity-specific,
orientation-specific and pragmatic variations in the world extension methods,
the principle norm of all those models is to reach the farmers in a most efficient
and effective way to increase the production. The extension system, which is the
bridge between the scientific rationality, government policies and the farm reality,
needs to be strengthened both in terms of quality and quantity. The suggested
FILE framework must have a convergence of different pillars of profitable and
sustainable agriculture like different institutions, which support agricultural
activities, infrastructure, technologies and, finally, incentive structures. Moneti-
zation of farmers’ produce must be done through different strategic policies; those
regulate the marketing through encouragement of collective (Farmer Producer
60 R. Gills and J. P. Sharma

Organizations (FPOs) or Community-Based Organization (CBOs)) and direct

market structure (online agri. Market platforms) creation. Policies must aim to
reorient and strengthen the service function offer to the farmers and recognize
agriculture as an enterprise through diversification and value addition. The
extension system, which is the bridge between the scientific rationality, govern-
ment policies and the farm reality, needs to be strengthened both in quality and
quantity. The farmer to extension person ratio should be shortened by recruiting
the qualified extension staffs or by giving intensive training to the para-extension
workers who could be proclaimed as extension workers after this training.
Extension workers need to be equipped with innovative and user-friendly ICT
tools, which help them to deliver the knowledge, technologies, governing
policies, etc. in the farmer’s door steps in a cost- and time-effective way. It will
also help them to amass the feedback on different policy options as firsthand
information and to communicate it with the governing body for further
refinement.
• Most importantly, there must be a common platform to share, discuss and
refurbish scientific ideas for the development and maintenance of the sustainable
production system. Cross-linkages need to be created in farmer to farmer, farmers
to extension persons, extension person to extension person, farmer to extension
person to governing body, etc. through development of knowledge value chains.
The current agricultural production system needs strong social capital along with
the technologies to cope up with the present challenges and to meet future
demands. There must be solid efforts to evaluate and upscale the innovative
ideas and traditional knowledge of the farmers in different areas like crisis
management, coping mechanisms, technological advancement, nutritional
strategies, etc. The manpower and wisdom of the innovative farmers can be
integrated with the existing extension delivery system as Innovative Farmer-
Led Extension Delivery (IFLED) model in which innovative farmers are the
key extension persons at the village level in the technology transfer and refine-
ment paradigm. While considering the farmers as an extension person or change
agent, there must be strong policies to evaluate and upgrade the innovative
farmers’ services and innovation without diluting the conceptual framework
and the farmers’ rights associated with it.

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Climate Change and Food Systems:
Implications on Food Security 3
Ritambhara Singh and Vishita Khanna

Abstract

Agriculture is one of the prominent activities to contribute to greenhouse gases.

Its contribution is about a third of the total emissions. It was in 2017 when
agriculture was discussed in climate talks. It is an emerging concern that the
changing climate will affect world’s developing countries more compared to rich
ones as they rely more on agriculture for livelihood. Such countries are more
located in the belts, which are more susceptible to droughts, floods, heatwaves,
etc., eventually impacting harvests. On the other hand, the change in consumption
patterns all over the world calls for more energy-intensive production that again
could cause adverse environmental impacts, if not addressed appropriately. That
said, the climate and food systems affect each other, which merits a deeper
analysis and suitable strategies to make sure that its implications on food and
nutritional security are not detrimental. The changing climate is indeed deeply
impacting the quantity and quality of food. Many regions across the globe may
face acute food shortages due to fluctuations in yields. Also, the population does
not seem to be static. Addressing food and nutrition security of the ever-
increasing population amid a changing climate is a growing concern. There are
more stomachs to feed with shrinking resources in hand. A nation is said to be
secure foodwise when the citizens enjoy the access to quality food in a sufficient
amount that satisfies hunger and help to maintain a healthy living. The FAO

R. Singh (*)
Department of Agribusiness Economics and Policies, International Agribusiness Management
Institute, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat, India
e-mail: SinghR@aau.in
V. Khanna
Department of Human Resource Development and Personnel Management, International
Agribusiness Management Institute, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat, India
e-mail: vishitakhanna@aau.in

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 73

Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_3
74 R. Singh and V. Khanna

measures food security via four parameters, viz. supply of food, accessibility of
food, diversity of nutrients in the available food, and stability through time.
Addressing the grave concerns, this chapter discusses in detail the effect of
changing climatic conditions on food systems and vice versa. The chapter also
focuses on the impact on food security and the challenges that lie ahead. It also
suggests various actions to be taken by individuals, by nations and by the world
as a whole to overcome these challenges.

Keywords
Climate change · Food security · Resilience · Sustainability

3.1 Introduction

In recent times, the biggest challenge before of the farmers all over the world is to
produce food in uncertain climate conditions. Increasing incomes and population is
among the drivers of food demand. This further pressurizes production systems to
yield more. However, several studies suggest that higher temperature, uneven
rainfall pattern, soil degradation, etc. will affect the yield of several crops negatively
in certain regions, exceptionally low-income countries. Not just this, the result of
elevated levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere is the reduction of zinc,
iron and other essential nutrients in crops, making them less nutritious. Thus both
food availability and quality are at stake due to changing climate.
On the other hand, as demand for food increases and the consumption patterns
change, our food production systems have become more aggressive emitting more
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. We are living in an era wherein we have
immense challenges in the production systems, while the changing climate makes
things rather difficult. Many nations are still food-insecure, and their vulnerability
gets exposed further as climate changes. The challenge, therefore, is to produce
qualitative food in more and more quantity without causing damage to the climate.
This paper discusses the systems approach to assess and elaborate on the effects of
food systems on changing climate and vice versa. The chapter also discusses the
critical issues in food security and possible ways to resolve these.

3.2 Changing Climate and Changing Food Systems

3.2.1 Climate Is Changing, and That Is for Real

Climate change is not new. As per the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion, in the last 650, 000 years, there have been seven catastrophic cycles; the pace
differed every time. The last of them, called an ice age, is about 11,700 years old and
is characterized by the birth of human civilization. With it began the interaction of
humans with the environment. As the species evolved, the activities too shaped up
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 75

differently. From the wild, humans shifted to practicing agriculture. From agricul-
ture, they started manufacturing and so on. In the evolving exercise of the human
being through several activities were born the greenhouse gases (GHGs), viz. nitrous
oxide, methane, carbon dioxide (CO2), chlorofluorocarbons, etc. As time progressed,
the high release of the gases has thickened the GHG layer so much, so the released
gases remain trapped within the earth’s atmosphere, disturbing the earth’s thermo-
stat. Studies suggest that about 45% of human activities release CO2 that remains in
the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide levels have increased markedly by deforestation,
cement production, burning of fossil fuels, human respiration, agriculture, etc.
Furthermore, gases from decomposed wastes produced in agricultural activities,
ruminant digestion and livestock management are found to be more active than
CO2. However, their contribution is less in quantitative terms. These are nitrous
oxide gases. Others are chlorofluorocarbons that originate from industrial activities/
processes. Chlorofluorocarbons are also GHGs and are released from industrial
equipment like a refrigerator and aerosol sprays. They have a dampening effect on
the atmosphere as they deplete the ozone layer. These gases cause amplified
warming and contribute significantly to the change in the climate. Increasing mod-
ernization and industrialization has led to a rise in CO2 levels to 400 ppm from
280 ppm in just 150 years. It has been found that around 77% of all emissions are
CO2 emissions, 14% are methane, 8% are nitrous oxide and 1% is chlorofluorocar-
bon and others (World Resource Institute 2000). Methane may enter into the system
through natural processes. However, 60% of methane is released by human activities
like mining, livestock rearing, use of landfills and others. Additionally, fossil fuels
are used for energy generation, and it remains a persistent problem as their combus-
tion releases greenhouse gases. Maximum, around 70% GHGs are emitted by energy
resources (electricity and heat, crude and natural gas, etc.) followed by agriculture
and land use and forestry which emit around 14% and 6% of the GHGs, respectively
(IPCC 2018).
While these activities are anthropogenic, volcanic eruptions and seismic activity,
too, cause a substantial rise in the CO2 levels. These occurrences are now becoming
more frequent and high in magnitude. Climate change is thus natural and man-made,
as well. All this has led to the rise in the average temperatures and unexplained
rainfall variations. The American Meteorological Society reports that approximately
80% of the events which have been reported from 2015 to 2017 showed a significant
anthropogenic influence on the event’s occurrence. Furthermore, the temperature
during 2016 was about 1
C higher than the 1850–1900 levels making it the warmest
year on record (World Meteorological Organization 2019). Most of the warming has
occurred in the last 35 years. The block 2015–2019 was the warmest 5-year period
when the temperature rose by 0.2
C over 2011–2015. The WMO also reveals that
the CO2 concentration levels in the atmosphere continue to rise, ocean acidification
continues and the Arctic ice was below 1981–2010 levels.
FAO (2015) coordinated the global forest resources assessment and found that
forest land is reduced by almost 1% between 1990 and 2015. As stated by the UN
biodiversity report, one million species are already on the verge of extinction. The
pace at which the changes are occurring and the unpredictability since 1950 is a
76 R. Singh and V. Khanna

matter of concern globally. As the damage controlling exercise, the global leaders
have decided to commit and control the warming under 2
C above 1850–1900
levels. The Impact of change in climate is visible, and it may aggravate over a while.
It is, however, true that different regions of the world witness it differently.
According to the Paris Climate Change Agreement 2015, climate change can cost
heavily to India: almost 2.8% of its GDP by 2050 (World Bank 2018). It can also
increase the poverty levels, threaten food security and reduce the living standards of
the Indian population. Other countries are facing similar threats from the changing
climate.
Prabhakar (2010/2007) found that The World leaders have risen to this concern
and commitments for emission reduction have been made under the Kyoto Protocol.
While nations have been trying to reduce their emissions individually, there are
certainly many conflicts between the status that the developed and the developing
countries hold on account of reduction in carbon emissions. India, however, has been
prosperous in its commitments to reduce GHGs emissions. Friedman et al. (2018)
found that between 1850 and 2014, as compared to India, the USA and China were
the most significant contributors to climate change as these two countries emit the
maximum of GHGs.

3.2.2 Food Systems Are Changing Too

Humans tend to schedule their food according to lifestyle, culture, society, religion
and occasions. For example, in India, food habits differ as per the region and rituals.
There is a wide variation in the consumption pattern of households as we move
across the length and breadth of this country. South Indians consume fish and rice,
whereas North Indians prefer bread made from whole wheat flour along with meat,
chicken or vegetables. Food is not only the source of energy, but it also brings in the
pleasure.
Interestingly, the food can be broadly categorized into three types:

(a) Food that provides satiety like wheat, rice, etc.

(b) Food that provides nutrition like meat, fruits and vegetables
(c) Food that enhances taste like salt, sugar, spices and condiments

It has been found that the tastes and preferences of people are changing continu-
ously with time. Additionally, globalization has made the world a smaller place.
People have been travelling more than ever until the global movement was restricted
due to the COVID-19 lockdown. In the process of travelling beyond the local
boundaries, people get exposed to and accustomed to the food habits of each
other, thereby throwing enormous opportunities for trade. Therefore, diets do modify
over a period of time. A study, ‘What the world eats’, conducted by the National
Geographic, reveals that the dietary patterns have changed all over the world,
including India. The per capita calorie intake has increased, and the consumption
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 77

Table 3.1 Changing daily diets and meat consumption in gram (g) in selected countries vis-à-vis
world between 1960 and 2011
Meat consumption(g) Daily diet (g)
Countries 1961 2011 % Change 1961 2011 % Change
US 285 381 34 2339 2729 17
China 20 254 1170 872 2368 171
Hong Kong 203 695 242 1160 2143 84
India 17 29 71 878 1317 38
South Korea 45 339 592 955 2167 127
Vietnam 71 260 266 876 1418 62
Australia 343 423 23 2340 2551 9
World 93 173 86 1357 1878 38
Source: What the world eats: National Geographic (2019)

Table 3.2 Global consumption of meat and meat products

Beef and mutton (kcal/person/
Livestock (kcal/person/day) day)
Region 2006 2050 % Change 2006 2050 % Change
European Union 864 925 7 80 75 6
Canada and the USA 907 887 2 117 95 19
China 561 820 46 41 89 117
Brazil 606 803 33 151 173 15
Former Soviet Union 601 768 28 118 156 32
Other OECD 529 674 27 64 84 31
Latin Americaa 475 628 32 59 86 46
Middle East and North Africa 303 416 37 59 86 46
Asia 233 400 72 24 43 79
India 184 357 94 8 19 138
Sub-Saharan Africa 144 185 29 41 51 24
World 413 506 23 50 65 30
Source: What the world eats: National Geographic (2019)
a
Latin America excludes Brazil

basket is driven mainly by more of meat, dairy and eggs (Table 3.1). Meat consump-
tion has increased sharply all over the world.
Global projections for 2050 for livestock and beef and mutton (Table 3.2) reveal
that except for Canada and the USA, the consumption of livestock products will
further increase. It is estimated that the global consumption of these products will
rise by 23%, while, for Asia, the rise is projected at 72%. The maximum growth for
livestock products (94%) is estimated for India, wherein the milk and milk products
continue to gain prime importance in vegetarian diets.
Further, the calorie intake from beef and mutton is estimated to decline in the
European Union (6%), Canada and the USA (19%). The maximum rise in the
case of beef and mutton, like livestock, again is estimated for India (138%) and
78 R. Singh and V. Khanna

China (117%). This should preferably be looked at in absolute numbers. In 2006, the
per capita calorie gain from beef and mutton in India was 8 kcal/day. This is
expected to increase by 19 kcal/person/day, which comparatively is far less than
several countries on the planet. In nations like Canada and the USA, Brazil, Former
Soviet Union, European Union and others, where non-vegetarian diets are more
popular, the consumption of livestock, beef and mutton is several times higher than
India (Devi et al. 2014).
Such dietary modifications conglomerate to change the demand of the food,
which drives the supply side and affects the complete food system. Moreover, a
different trend is visible in the consumption of processed products. Countries like
India and China, where people prefer to consume fresh fruits and vegetables, are
investing hugely to promote processing. This is an effort to make food sustainable
and reduce food wastages, which are more than 40% globally. Food processing
again is an energy-intensive process. Developed nations, on the other hand, now
urge to consume less processed products. There the focus is shifting to consume
fresh products now. Changing consumption patterns are driving change in food
systems. The systems approach is a holistic approach that takes into account all
aspects from the input supply to the consumption of a food product. There is a new
challenge in the modern world, and that is about mitigating climate change amid
changing food systems. Many factors are responsible for such changes in food
systems, and they may be attributed to:

(a) Rise in income levels: An increase in real income leads to a rise in consumption
levels or changes in consumption patterns. With an increase in the income
levels, people tend to spend more on luxurious food items like ready to eat
foods, viz. chips, biscuits, juices, etc., and ready to cook products like noodles,
pasta, etc., which are pre-processed. The target segment for such types of
products is high-end consumers who have high spending capabilities. This
kind of shift is more observable in developing countries.
(b) Rise in nuclear families: Due to the rise in the number of nuclear families and the
increase in the number of working women, preferences increase for frozen meals
and food products that are minimally processed and take minimal time to be
cooked. Such type of food products are also called as convenience foods.
(c) Changing lifestyles or increasing health consciousness: Go vegan and go
organic is the new mantra of calorie- and health-conscious people. Such people
tend to incorporate more fruits and vegetables into their diets and exclude
carbohydrate-rich foods and fried foods from their meals. If they follow an
exercise routine, their diet also includes protein shakes, salads, green tea and
other nutrient fortified products. This is a type of cognitive factor that influences
food preference.
(d) Globalization: As already discussed, the globe has turned down to a small home
and is easily connected now, more than ever. People travel to different countries
and tend to consume different products, creating demand for such products in
their own country. Furthermore, free trade agreements make trade simpler.
Globalization has opened doors to the creation of new markets for
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 79

multinationals in fried foods, burgers, pizzas and sugary drinks. Millennials

crave such foods visible on the supermarket shelves and end up buying and
consuming them. Such foods have high palatability, which makes these chal-
lenging to resist, and the consumer purchases it repeatedly to satisfy the
taste buds.
(e) Urbanization: The social circle in which people stay affects their food habits to a
large extent. People living in villages have comparatively simpler food habits,
and they eat home-cooked meals daily, whereas those who live in metropolitan
cities tend to visit restaurants more often. The elite classes of society have more
social thrust to celebrate with family and friends, which increases their con-
sumption of cakes, pastries, chocolates, snacks and other exotic processed
products. So, when people get relocated from villages to cities in search of
jobs, their eating habits change.

3.3 Changing Food Systems Cause Change in Climate

A food system includes all activities right from the input supply, manufacturing/
production, harvesting, processing, packaging, marketing/distribution and consump-
tion, i.e., from farm to fork. The food system includes essential elements like how the
food is grown in the field and through how many interactions it travels to the
consumers’ plate. The systems approach also consists of the minor components
like infrastructure used and the processes involved in making food reach the
consumers’ plate. Furthermore, it also encompasses the wastes in the food supply
chain and dietary patterns of the population (Mbow et al. 2019). While several
researches have been conducted on knowing the effects of changing climate on
agricultural production/yields of crops, there are not many studies that have tried to
explore the impact of changing food systems on the climate. To understand this, one
must question—what drives the food systems? The main drivers of the food system
are socio-economic (Kearney 2010), natural resources and environmental (Ericksen
2008) in nature. Besides this, the drivers of food systems could also be research,
development and innovation in food systems (Flores et al. 2010). The food systems,
as driven by these factors, are linked with the climate system as various greenhouse
gases are emitted at different stages of food systems through activities like produc-
tion, processing, marketing and distribution. Hence, the focus should be made on the
greener technologies, which will improvise the food system without deteriorating
our climate. The food systems are also linked with the ecosystems as land and water
are utilized at every stage to produce food. The increased greenhouse gas emissions
have also been responsible for the loss of biodiversity. The quest for food for the
burgeoning population further puts thrust on ecological systems and their utilization.
Thus, food systems challenge the ecosystem and vice versa. The food that is
produced by utilizing ecological resources produces waste too, which is disposed
back into the land and water bodies and emits greenhouse gases, also polluting water
bodies, resulting in soil degradation. The food systems are also linked with socio-
economic systems. Socio-economic systems affecting the food system for different
80 R. Singh and V. Khanna

consumer behaviour is responsible for the demand for different foods and their
production and marketing patterns. Several socio-economic constraints also chal-
lenge food systems. All components of the food system need to function efficiently,
so the climate, food system, the ecosystem and socio-economic systems remain
balanced (Mbow et al. 2019). The food systems must adapt to changing climate
conditions, and appropriate mitigation strategies should be carved to reduce GHG
emissions from the food systems. Timely adaptation and mitigation measures help in
a healthy establishment of subsystems.

3.3.1 Emissions During Various Stages of Food Systems

Food systems are estimated to contribute around 19–29% to the global GHG
emissions. Of this, around 80–86% is estimated from agricultural production
activities (Vermeulen et al. 2012). As discussed earlier, the food system is used for
umbrella activities that are core components of backward and forward linkages in the
food supply chain. At all stages, the food systems require an enormous amount of
energy throughout. Transportation is an activity that connects the entire food supply
chain. Besides transportation, several other activities like processing and packaging,
which again are energy-intensive, utilize electricity and heat. Fertilizer
manufacturing is also an energy-intensive process. Food emits GHGs during its
production, harvesting, processing, consumption, transportation and disposal. In the
case of poultry, livestock and fishery, almost 90 million tonnes of CO2 per year
during the rearing activity (Steinfeld et al. 2006). Vermeulen et al. (2012) suggested
that inputs are transported to the farms and there they get converted into outputs. The
transportation of inputs from supply centres to the farms and other land-use changes
release about one-fourth of the global GHG emissions. The farm output then heads
for slaughtering, manufacturing or processing units, and from there, it either heads
for restaurants/schools or in supermarkets/shops/other markets, etc. Consumers
purchase the final products from either of the channels, and then there are some
waste realizations too in the process of consumption. These post-production
components of the food system yield about 5–10% of the GHG emissions. This
sums up to the fact that emissions are at all stages of the food system. It is thus highly
relevant to understand and work on the entire food systems instead of focusing on a
single component. The systems approach is also required to frame appropriate
strategies to mitigate climate change.

3.3.2 Dietary Patterns and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

The consumption activities contribute positively to the food systems. As discussed

earlier, consumption patterns are changing all over the world, with a huge jump in
the consumption of meat. India’s consumption of meat increased by 71% in a period
of 50 years between 1961 and 2011 (Table 3.1). Globally, this rise is to the tune of
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 81

Table 3.3 Contribution of food to annual greenhouse gas emissions in kg

Frequency
Food items Once a week to twice Three to five times a week Once a day
Apple 2 5 12
Banana 5 14 25
Avocado 15 41 72
Berries 9 25 44
Oranges 2 6 11
Beans 7 20 36
Potato 3 9 16
Tomato 13 34 60
Bread 4 12 21
Wheat 2.5 7 10
Rice 26 69 121
Milk 10 35 68
Nuts 1.1 2 5
Tea 3 8 15
Coffee 33 89 155
Beef 604 1611 2820
Chicken 106 284 497
Eggs 43 115 202
Fish 146 390 683
Lamb 339 904 1582
Pork 140 375 656
Prawns 269 718 1256
Calculated from BBC Food Calculator (2019)

86%. Studies suggest (Pathak et al. 2010) that non-vegetarian diets have more
emissions than vegetarian diets.
The contribution of food to annual greenhouse gas emissions is given in
Table 3.3. These emissions were calculated using BBC’s food calculator and were
calculated for three frequency levels: (1) when the food is consumed one to two
times a week, (2) when the food is consumed three to five times a week and lastly
(3) when the food is consumed once a day. The standard portion was assumed the
same for the population across the globe. The standard portion size was taken from
the British United Provident Association and British Dietetic Association. Further-
more, the information regarding the food distance (the distance the food travels) was
also included while calculating these emissions. The distance data was taken from
the European Environment Agency. The agency estimates that driving a conven-
tional diesel vehicle produces 220 g of CO2 equivalent per kilometre over its entire
life cycle, including emissions from vehicle production, fuel production and exhaust
emissions per km. The average distance was based on the survey of 40,000 farms
and 16,000 processors to get global average estimates.
82 R. Singh and V. Khanna

Table 3.4 Contribution of processed food to greenhouse gas emissions in kg

Frequency
Food items Once a week to twice Three to five times a week Once a day
Potato chips 7.5 22.5 45
Whole wheat flour 2.4 10 19
Refined wheat flour 3 16 24
Oil 21 70 153
Frozen food 88 330 665
Soft drink 24 80 125
Juices 30 100 200
Cheese 75 201 352
Tofu 12 33 58
Beer 52 139 243
Wine 24 65 114
Packaged milk 49 131 229
Calculated from Carbon Emission Calculator (2015). The average distances were taken between the
significant producer and consumption centres. Consumer waste percentages were also calculated

It was found that the GHG emissions from vegetarian food items were far lower
than the non-vegetarian diets. Beef, lamb and prawns emit the maximum of GHGs,
while fish, pork, chicken and egg follow. Similarly, the GHGs were also calculated
for processed food products (Table 3.4). In the case of processed foods, the distance
data was based on the average distance the food travels from the manufacturing
centres to the main consumption markets. The wastage was also considered during
the processing of food items. It was found that processed foods have a high level of
emissions as compared to raw products. For example, between raw milk and
packaged milk, raw milk consumption if consumed every day emits around 68 kg/
year of GHGs, whereas as the same amount of packaged milk (UHT) emits up to
229 kg/year due to the processes involving heat treatments, processing, packaging,
transportation, etc. Of all the commonly consumed processed food items, the frozen
foods emit the maximum GHGs, slightly more than that emitted by pork consump-
tion annually.
Studies have revealed that homemade sandwiches produce only half the carbon
footprints than packaged ready to eat sandwiches. This could be attributed to lower
food wastages at home against commercial production. Various reports suggest
around 20% of the food is wasted in industrial production processes.

3.3.3 Food Wastage and CO2 Emissions

Global estimates suggest that close to 1.3 billion food is wasted/lost every year. The
global food loss/wastage generates approximately 4.4 gigatonnes of CO2, which is
almost equal to 87% of the emissions through transportation. The entire supply chain
of cereals generates about 24% as wastages, which contribute 37% to the carbon
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 83

Table 3.5 Major commodities’ contribution to carbon footprint and food wastage
Commodities Carbon footprint (per cent) Wastage (per cent)
Cereals 37 24
Vegetables 23 25
Meat 20 4
Milk and eggs 7 7
Fruits 6 16
Roots and tubers 5 19
Fish and sea foods 5 3
Oil crop and pulses 2 4
Source: FAO (2011)

Table 3.6 Contribution of stages of a supply chain in carbon footprint and food wastage
Stage Carbon footprint (per cent) Wastage (per cent)
Agricultural production 16 31
Postharvest handling and storage 16 22
Processing 13 10
Distribution 14 12
Consumption 36 20
Source: FAO (2011)

footprint, the highest among all the commodities (Table 3.5). The wastages follow it
in the supply chain of vegetables and meat. The wastages of these two commodity
groups contribute around 23 and 20% to the carbon footprint, respectively. The least
wastages are reported for the oil crops and pulses, for which the contribution to the
carbon footprint is 2%. Throughout the supply chain, each added activity of
processing, transportation, storage, distribution, etc. emits carbon, which is added
to the total carbon footprint. During the production activities, the wastages are
highest, around 31%, and these wastages contribute 16% to the carbon footprint.
The wastages from post-production activity or postharvest handling and storage are
next higher (22%) and contribute again around 16% to the carbon footprint. The
processing and distribution add relatively lesser to the carbon footprint and low
wastages, as against the consumption activity (Table 3.6). During consumption, 20%
of the food is wasted, which adds maximum to the carbon footprint (36%). This
suggests that if 1 kg of a commodity gets spoiled on the farm, it has less carbon
footprint than 1 kg of processed product wasted by the consumers, as the amount of
GHGs emitted increases cumulatively after each step of processing. Also, the
average per capita carbon footprint due to food wastage in high-income countries
like those in North American continent is 860 kg CO2 per person per year which
exceeds twice the amount in South and South-east Asian countries where it was
350 kg carbon dioxide per person per year (FAO 2011).
84 R. Singh and V. Khanna

3.4 Changing Climate Has Also Affected Our Food Systems

The earlier section highlighted the activities in the food systems and their impact on
climate. Interestingly, the cycle is vicious. The population demands food. The
consumption patterns change, and new items get added to the food basket, trade
and transportation across the borders makes sure that the countries trade to fulfil
demand. So, the emissions do travel as well. The activities in the food system have
added to the greenhouse gases; their accumulation over time has resulted in global
warming, which further causes variations in the temperature and rainfall. Prolonged
wet or dry spells have been reported in several regions of the world. One very recent
example has been the Australian bushfires that the climate experts predicted long
ago. The change in climate might lead. The frequency and force of bushfires have
increased due to global warming, and around 100,000 square kilometres of area in
Australia was burnt in the 2019 year-end bushfires. About half of the animal
population lost its life, and biodiversity was disturbed. Experts believe that a few
plant and animal species may have gone extinct in the bushfires. The bushfires have
further resulted in warming of the continent, as the emissions from bushfires alone in
2019 were about half of the total emissions of the country in 2018. Increased
incidences of the flood are reported in India now than ever, causing massive damage
to human, plant and animal life and also destroying the infrastructure and GDP of the
country. The interrupted climatic variables make their impact on food systems by
impacting yields, causing distress, increasing disease and pest incidences, etc.
Hence, there lies a vicious cycle. Food systems are chasing climate and the climate
is tracking food systems. The climate affects crop productivity in two ways:

1. Direct—changing temperature, carbon dioxide and oxygen imbalance,

precipitation, etc.
2. Indirect—due to changes in soil, mutation among insects, pests, diseases
or weeds

The majority of the effect of changing climate has been researched and recorded
for production activities or agriculture/farming. Several studies have suggested a
negative impact of rising temperature and irregular rainfall on the yield of crops. The
effect, however, is not found even for all commodities/crops. Some crops are also
expected to make some gains from the changing climate. In totality, the impact is
negative. The projected reduction in the world food supplies may build up pressure
on available resources, especially in low-income countries, and thus may lead to
migration in huge numbers, which in turn may lead to extreme pressure on the
resources making life difficult for everyone and creating socio-economic unrest. An
increase in temperature causes fewer rains with a heavy flow rate, which in turn
reduces soil fertility. As a result of low fertility, the nutrition level of soil goes down,
causing fluctuations in yield/output. Increased temperatures also reduce the activity
level of the human population, affecting their way of life and earnings. In other
words, higher temperatures have ill effects on human health. It summarizes that
global warming leads to a decline in the activity level of both humans and soil,
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 85

eventually leading to declining output levels, rising prices, reduced purchasing

powers, increasing poverty, hunger and deteriorating health.
Climate change, therefore, is going to challenge our food systems and how we
produce our food. Consequently, the food systems need to evolve and adapt to
changing climate, at every level of the supply chain. However, as mentioned earlier,
most of the impact is expected to be on the low-income countries, which do not have
ample resources and measures to mitigate the effect of it. The developed nations, on
the other hand, possess the strength to alleviate the impacts of changing climate.
The IPCC projects that by 2070, the average temperature for India will increase
between 0.4
C to 2
C in Kharif season and 1.1
C to 4.5
C in Rabi season. The
maximum impact is likely on maize. The yield of maize crop may reduce by 7–12%
in North India (Chatterjee 1998).
Ray et al. (2019) conducted subnational analysis and projected crop yields under
changed climate conditions and found that the crop yield has already been affected.
The authors regressed the yield of ten globally consumed crops—wheat, rice, maize,
soybean, oil palm, sorghum, rapeseed, sugarcane, barley and cassava, on weather
variables. They found negative yields ranging from 13.4% in oil palm to 3.5% in
soybean. Declining yields were observed in the European continent, Southern Africa
and Australia, while the positive effect on yield was observed on selected crops in
Latin America. Mixed trend was observed in Asia and North and Central America.
The negative impact on the yield of the selected ten crops was also estimated to bring
a reduction in their consumable calories (1% average reduction) across the globe.
The findings for the world’s two largest populated countries were found contrasting.
For China, the mean change in climatic variables benefitted crop yield and increased
calorie intake for the ten selected crops. There were some provinces wherein the
yields of rice and wheat registered a decline.
On the other hand, for India, some states (especially the core states of Green
Revolution, viz. those in north of the country) showed a settled pattern of declining
yields of all major crops. These findings were consistent with the results of Birthal
et al. (2014) and Singh et al. (2017). Birthal et al. (2014) studied the effect of
changing climate on the yield of nine major crops in India, including cereals, pulses
and oilseeds. They found a significant negative impact of the rise in maximum
temperature on the yield of all crops under study. The marginal effect analysis by
Birthal et al. (2014) revealed that 1
C increase in maximum temperature leads to
decline in yield of rice and pigeon pea by 12%, sorghum by 11%, barley by 10%,
groundnut and wheat by 9%, maize by 8%, rapeseed mustard by 7% and chickpea by
4%. A 1
C rise in minimum temperature was found to have a significant positive
impact on all crops except pigeon pea where the effect was non-significant and in
chickpea where it was negative. The net effect of temperature was found negligible
for maize and rapeseed/mustard and positive for wheat and neutral for chickpea.
Singh et al. (2017) studied climate variables and their effect on the yield of cotton,
wheat, rice, maize, groundnut and pearl millet in the Gujarat state of India for
32 years between 1980 and 2011. The study found that rice was the worst-hit crop
due to rising temperature and will continue to register reduced yields under increas-
ing temperature scenarios. For the state, with every 1
C rise in maximum
86 R. Singh and V. Khanna

temperature, wheat yields were found decreasing significantly by 10%, in rice by

13% and in maize and groundnut by 9%; a rise of one degree in minimum tempera-
ture was also found negatively affecting rice, maize and groundnut yield. Rainfall
was found to have a positive impact on the yield of crops in the state more so because
the state is relatively dry as compared to the northern food-producing states of India.
However, excessive rainfall was found posing threats to the yield of all crops. Pearl
millet was the only crop that was found surviving the increase in temperature. The
yield of pearl millet was found to increase by 5% with a marginal rise in both
minimum and maximum temperatures during the study period. Mishra et al. (2017)
studied the effect on pigeon pea in the state of Gujarat and found that 1
C rise in the
minimum temperature will reduce the yield by 4%. However, a similar surge in
maximum temperature will lead to yield decline by 20%. Rainfall was found to have
a significant positive impact on the yield of pigeon pea, but it was very low as against
the temperature effects on yield. The study suggested that hardy varieties of the crop
that can sustain high temperature should be introduced. Another study at the Indian
Agricultural Research Institute found that a 2
C rise in temperature reduces grain
yield of wheat. The reduction in yield varies with the productivity of the region. The
regions with higher yields tend to be less affected by the temperature change,
whereas the regions with low productivity were found more affected (DEFRA
2016). Also, it was found that rain-fed areas were more sensitive to temperature
change as compared to irrigated regions. In the case of rice, a temperature rise by
2
C to 4
C was found to reduce the yield, but the increase in radiations nullified the
effect as carbon dioxide increases the yield. Thus, Indian agriculture is highly
susceptible to changing climate conditions. The state of Rajasthan has been found
most vulnerable, followed by Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat. A few regions in
Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh were also found vulnerable (Rao et al. 2013).
Niles et al. (2017) pointed out that the increase in GHGs has likely resulted in the
reduction of yield of rice, wheat, soybean and maize, especially in India and China.
A likely reduction in yield of wheat by 0.45 ton per hectare was found for India
(IPCC 2007) if the minimum temperature rises by 0.5
C. IPCC (2007) also reported
that rice productivity would be severely affected by acute water shortages and high
temperature.
As far as the productivity of vegetables is considered, the potato’s productivity is
expected to decline by 18.68% by 2020 (Koundinya et al. 2014). The nutritional
requirements of our body can be fulfilled to a reasonable extent, with the inclusion of
vegetables in our daily diet. However, these crops are more susceptible to change in
the climate, which may lead to many enzymatic and physiological changes along
with the occurrences of various pests and diseases (Koundinya et al. 2014). Not only
yields but climate change may also alter the availability of inputs, especially water
for crops. Alexandratos and Bruinsma (2012) stipulated that due to climate change, it
may not be possible to harness the irrigation potential in many regions as the
availability of water resources in abundant areas may not be so in the future. This
is possible as precipitation and evapotranspiration may get altered due to climate
change. The author duo projected the increase in irrigation potential basis of these
limitations and suggested that one-third of the expansion will be in India and China.
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 87

India alone has around half of the irrigated area among developing nations. Since the
beginning of the industrial era, the ocean waters have acidified more by almost 26%
(IPCC 2014a; Jewett and Romanou 2017). Barange et al. (2018), in one of the
technical papers, discussed the impacts of acidification of oceans as a result of
anthropogenic activities and its impact on fisheries and aquaculture. Since the
beginning of the industrial era, the ocean waters have acidified more, by almost
26% (IPCC 2014a; Jewett and Romanou 2017).
Ocean warming is also not even; for example, the Arctic is warming and
acidifying more than the Atlantic because the cold waters have high potential to
absorb CO2. This could lead to shifts in fish distribution and migration behaviour
and may affect the livelihoods of millions of small and marginal fishers and fish
workers, reducing their level of income and making them more vulnerable to these
changes. Furthermore, it may also hamper their consumption levels. Asia has a
whopping 66% share in the global inland fishery production. China leads in Asia,
contributing 20% to the production, followed by India, which contributes 13%. Low
oxygen concentration as a result of changing climatic conditions may hamper the
production of tunas in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal (Mislan et al. 2017). A
sharp decline for hilsa shed and Bombay duck, two most important commercial
species, is also expected due to such conditions (Fernandes et al. 2016).
Significant fluctuations were observed in the milk yield of cows (Das 2017) due
to a change in climate variables. Das found that the average daily, weekly, monthly
and daily total milk yield reduces by 0.886, 1.868, 2.471 and 4.375 kg, respectively,
with a unit high temperature humidity index (THI). High temperature, along with
high humidity levels, impacts the reproductive ability of cattle and buffaloes. Also,
conception rates decline with higher THI (Sinha et al. 2018).
Climate change affects both the quantity and quality of food (Cramer et al. 2014;
Zhu et al. 2018). Fluctuations in rainfall, groundwater contamination, higher
incidences of pests and insects, more residues of contaminants and metals, higher
pesticide residues, hazardous wastes, etc. hamper the food quality and further
increase the threats on food and nutritional security and may have implications on
international trade and incomes generated (Vermeulen et al. 2012). The FAO (2008)
noted that increasing temperatures would strain the electricity grids as demand for air
conditioning and refrigeration will increase. Storage costs will also double as the
refrigeration costs rise. There will be a high risk for perishable foods. The countries
with inadequate infrastructural facilities will face bigger risks to control the food
distribution systems during floods or other calamities (Ingram 2011). The transport
infrastructure is already a problem in low-income countries, so the situation will
deteriorate further if there are events like floods, drought, etc.
88 R. Singh and V. Khanna

3.5 How Food Security Is Affected Under Changing Climate

Scenario

The second goal under the Sustainability Development Goals focuses on food
security and promoting sustainable agriculture. Changing climate has already thrown
several challenges, which have made it harder to accomplish this goal. Food security
is one of the principal components to define sustainable development. A nation is
food-secure if the population residing there has access to the food, which is not only
sufficient but safe and accessible too. It is essential to sustain healthy living. Thus the
nation which is secure foodwise is considered a healthy society. The FAO (2006)
recognizes four major components of food security. These are:

(a) Food supply and production

(b) The accessibility of food
(c) Stability through time—successive agriculture
(d) Diversity of nutrients in the available food, i.e. food utilization

It is predicted that the per capita availability of food will reduce under changing
climatic conditions (Funk and Brown 2009). FAO estimates reveal that food security
is negatively affected due to the recent wrath of events that support climate change.
The seasonal rains are delayed in Southern Africa, and as a result of prolonged dry
periods, regional cereal output is estimated to decline by 8% below the 5-year
average. As a result of it, 12.5 million people are expected to suffer severe food
insecurity/shortages up to March 2020, which again is about 10% more than the
previous year. Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya and Uganda are facing extreme food
shortages due to poor distribution of rainfall. This has left around 12.3 million
people food-insecure in this region. Somalia was affected by flooding between
October and November 2019. Moving to Asia, Afghanistan witnessed the worst
floods of the decade in March 2019. FAO (2018) estimates suggest that as a result of
this incidence, 13.5 million people are food-insecure in Afghanistan. Out of its
34 provinces, 22 are still recovering from severe drought conditions faced in 2018.
Agriculture accounts for around 14% share in India’s GDP and engages approxi-
mately 60% of the country’s workforce. Agricultural exports contribute between
14 and 18% of the total exports from India. This shows the significance of this sector
in the economy. More than 85% of the farms are marginal (<1 ha) to small (between
1 and 2 ha) in size. About 62% of the cropped area is rain-dependent. It shows the
susceptibility of Indian agriculture to the changing climate conditions. With the
changing climate, rainfall has turned out to be more unpredictable in recent years.
There have been increased incidences of heatwaves, drought, floods and dry spells
that may affect production systems, as discussed previously, thereby weakening the
foundation of the very first pillar of food security, i.e. food availability. At a
temperature rise by 2
C, there are more substantial risks of reduced yield both
globally and regionally, especially in those which lie at the low latitudinal levels
(Rosenzweig et al. 2013; Porter et al. 2014; Rosenzweig and Hillel 2015). Lower
yields will eventually affect the overall availability of food to the population, thereby
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 89

imbalancing the production vs. demand and increasing the prices of food products.
IPCC (2014b) projects an increase in global food prices by 3–84% by 2050, due to
changing temperature and rainfall conditions. Disturbed production cycles may
increase the dependency on imports. Lower production may also result in increased
unemployment and lower purchasing power of people causing variations in their
consumption levels and pushing them more towards the line of undernourishment
and weakening the second and third important pillars of food security, which are
food accessibility and stability. Climate change may, therefore, become a barrier in
the socio-economic development of the nation, creating rural distress, widening
rural-urban income and consumption divide and pushing countries towards food
insecurity. The fourth pillar of food security is all about the utilization of food in a
way that all nutritional requirements, along with drinking water and sanitation
services, for people of all ages are met. Clean drinking water availability is consid-
ered one of the critical parameters to measure food utilization, a component of food
security. Cape Town in South Africa ran out of water in 2018. India is facing an
acute water shortage. The per capita availability of water is estimated to decline to
1465 cubic metres by 2025 and 1235 cubic metres by 2050. If it declines further to
around 1000–1100 cubic metres, then India could be declared as a water-stressed
country. Chennai, one of the biggest cities in India, ran dry due to prolonged
heatwaves and severe drought in 2019. Elsewhere, Eastern Australia has been facing
water crises since September 2019. Many towns and cities like Queensland are
approaching day zero. Due to a visible water crisis, farmers are deciding not to plant
anything and shut down the business in the short run. If this continues, one can think
about the harsh reality of climate crises and food problems. Around 2.2 billion
people globally do not get clean drinking water, as per the World Health Organiza-
tion (WHO 2018). This reflects in terms of goal six of the Sustainability Develop-
ment Goals and has long-lasting repercussions on food and nutritional security of the
country, for water is majorly used in growing crops, manufacturing, drinking,
cleaning and several activities throughout the day.
Usually, it is believed that at 2
C rise in global temperature, a threat to food and
water availability and sustainability is severe as compared to 1.5
C (Cheung et al.
2016; Betts et al. 2018). Regions like African Sahel, the Mediterranean, Central
Europe, the Amazon and Western and Southern Africa were found more susceptible
(Sultan and Gaetani 2016; Lehner et al. 2017; Betts et al. 2018; Byers et al. 2018;
Rosenzweig et al. 2013). Addressing the nutritional concerns, accumulation of CO2
leaches out the nutrients from the crops. It reduces the availability of minerals like
zinc, iron and magnesium and also has adverse effects on some other vitamins and
proteins in several pulses and grains. This has enormous implications not only on
humans but also on animal species that depend on plants for their food. Researches
have shown that cereal crops have shown a reduction in the levels of zinc, iron and
proteins by 3–15% globally. This may not seem an alarming situation for the
developed nations, but for the underdeveloped countries and developing countries,
nutrient deficiency is a more significant challenge. The deficiency of zinc causes a
reduction in immunity and lead to increased incidences of malaria, diarrhoea and
pneumonia. Children below 5 years of age are more susceptible to such diseases.
90 R. Singh and V. Khanna

According to WHO (2018), zinc deficiency causes approximately 1,76,000 diar-

rhoea deaths, 4,06,000 pneumonia deaths and 2,07,000 malaria deaths, worldwide,
every year. Around 30–60% of women in developing countries are anaemic, and this
situation will likely worsen with the non-availability of food under changing climatic
conditions. The effects of protein deficiency are even more severe. It is said to affect
the IQ level and physical as well as mental growth in children. Pelletier et al. (1993)
have documented that protein deficiency increases the mortality rate in children due
to low immunity from infections. Almost 56% of child deaths in developing
countries are due to protein-energy malnutrition. Higher CO2 concentration was
found to have a negative impact on the protein concentration of wheat, barley, rice
and potato, reducing it by 10–15% in these crops. It minimizes the protein concen-
tration in soya bean by smaller yet significantly by 1.4% (Taub et al. 2008). If
unaddressed, by 2050, the impact on protein availability may turn 150 million
protein-deficient (Medek et al. 2017). We already have an alarming situation
concerning food security. This issue will be elevated if left unaddressed. FAO has
evaluated the indicators of food security region-wise, countrywide and for the world
as a whole. Income-wise, low-income and less developed economies are found more
prone to damage due to food insecurity. Region-wise, Africa, Central America,
Central and South Asia are more susceptible to the loss arising out of food insecurity.
In this section, a comparative account of food security indicators is provided, and the
inferences are drawn for India and the world. Below is the list of all the indicators
that were taken into consideration. These indicators were released by the FAO on
October 11, 2019, and are as follows (Table 3.7).
Tables 3.8, 3.9, and 3.10 present the indicators of food security for India and the
world since 2000. Data for certain years was not reported for some indicators for
India, in case of some indicators for the world as a whole. India did not report the
data for certain indicators at all. In such a case, the number for Southern Asia, the
region of which India is a part, was taken into consideration. The availability of food
does not seem to be a problem in India (Table 3.8). Foodgrain production is
increasing every year. However, the concern is that our land is limited and, with
the bulging population, the production is almost reaching a phase of getting stagnant,
and so the people remain hungry. Besides, the problems in India are not related to
production, and it’s more of marketing and distribution.
To assess the food accessibility, rail line density (Table 3.9) is one of the
indicators as the connecting network is necessary for the distribution of food along
the length and breadth of the country. While the global figures are not available,
India’s rail network is one of the strongest in the world. GDP per capita is also an
indicator of accessibility to food as it is generally considered that the increase in
income levels leads to an increase in consumption levels and a change in the
consumption from mediocre to a moderate and better diet. The GDP per capita of
the Indian population increased 70% in 2018 over 2000. Even after this, the
prevalence of undernourishment is high in Southern Asia (data for India was not
reported), higher than the global average. This indicator is FAO’s traditional hunger
indicator and reveals that even though the hunger is decreasing in Southern Asia,
there is a need to thrust on removing undernourishment among people. The number
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 91

Table 3.7 FAO: food security indicators

A. Food availability
a. Average dietary energy supply adequacy
b. Average value of food production
c. Share of dietary energy supply derived from cereals, roots and tubers
d. Average protein supply
e. Average supply of protein of animal origin
B. Food accessibility
a. Rail lines density
b. Gross domestic product per capita (in purchasing power equivalent)
c. Prevalence of undernourishment, 3-year averages
d. Prevalence of undernourishment, yearly estimates
e. Prevalence of severe food insecurity in the total population, 3-year averages
f. Prevalence of severe food insecurity in the total population, yearly estimates
g. Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the total population, 3-year averages
h. Prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity in the total population, yearly estimates
C. Food stability
a. Cereal import dependency ratio
b. Per cent of arable land equipped for irrigation
c. Value of food imports over total merchandise exports
d. Political stability and absence of violence/terrorism
e. Per capita food production variability
f. Per capita food supply variability
D. Utilization
a. People using at least basic drinking water services
b. People using safely managed drinking water services
c. People using at least basic sanitation services
d. People using safely managed sanitation services
e. Percentage of children under 5 years of age affected by wasting
f. Percentage of children under 5 years of age who are stunted
g. Percentage of children under 5 years of age who are overweight
h. Prevalence of obesity in the adult population (18 years and older)
i. Prevalence of anaemia among women of reproductive age (15–49 years)
j. Prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding among infants 0–5 months of age
k. Prevalence of low birthweight
Source: FAO (2019)

of moderate to severely food-insecure people is rising in India over the years

(Table 3.9). About 202 million people (2014–2016 average FAO estimates) are
undernourished in India. This means that all do not access the available food or the
distribution is skewed. There is a need to set up a food distribution network in a way
that everyone gets access to food. The third indicator is food stability—India is the
net exporter of cereals. India’s 45% of arable land is equipped for irrigation, and it
shows how the country could be affected by the water stress or droughts. Of the total
irrigated agricultural area, 60% is irrigated via groundwater resources. According to
 92

Table 3.8 India and the world: food availability and food stability
Food availability Food stability
Share of dietary
Average Average value of energy supply
dietary energy food production derived from Average Average supply Per cent of arable
supply (at constant 2004– cereals, roots protein supply of protein of Cereal import land equipped for
adequacy (per 2006 dollars per and tubers (gm/capita/ animal origin dependency irrigation (per
cent) capita) (in per cent) day) (gm/capita/day) ratio (per cent) cent)
W I W I W I W I W I W I W I
1999–2001 115 106 260 150 54 63 72.9 56.3 26.7 9.0 0.5 1.5 20.6 37.6
2000–2002 114 104 261 145 53 63 73.1 55.3 27.0 9.0 0.5 3.2 20.9 38.4
2001–2003 114 102 263 145 53 62 73.3 54.7 27.2 9.0 0.4 4.3 21.3 39.1
2002–2004 114 101 267 142 53 62 73.4 54.0 27.5 9.0 0.4 4.7 21.6 39.6
2003–2005 114 100 272 147 52 62 73.7 53.7 27.8 9.3 0.5 4.0 21.9 40.1
2004–2006 115 101 277 149 52 62 74.1 54.0 28.2 9.7 0.6 2.3 22.1 40.6
2005–2007 115 102 282 156 51 61 74.9 55.0 28.8 10.3 0.5 2.1 22.3 41.1
2006–2008 116 104 288 162 51 60 75.7 56.7 29.3 10.7 0.4 2.2 22.5 41.6
2007–2009 117 105 292 164 51 60 76.3 57.3 29.7 11.0 0.6 3.1 22.7 42.2
2008–2010 117 105 296 165 50 59 76.9 58.0 29.9 11.0 0.7 2.7 22.9 42.7
2009–2011 118 105 299 170 50 59 77.5 58.7 30.2 11.3 0.7 3.2 23.2 43.1
2010–2012 119 105 303 176 50 58 78.1 59.3 30.5 11.7 0.8 5.6 23.4 43.6
2011–2013 119 106 306 181 50 58 78.4 59.7 30.7 11.7 1.0 8.6 23.3 44.2
2012–2014 120 106 309 184 – – – – – – – – 23.3 44.8
2013–2015 121 107 312 185 – – – – – – – – 23.3 45.0
2014–2016 121 108 313 186 – – – – – – – – 23.3 45.0
2015–2017 122 108 207 122 – – – – – – – – – –
2016–2018 122 109 – – – – – – – – – – – –
Source: FAO (2019), W World, I India
R. Singh and V. Khanna
 3

Table 3.9 India and the world: food accessibility and food stability
Food accessibility Food stability
Prevalence Per capita
for severe food
food production
Rail line insecurity in Political variability
density the total Prevalence for stability and (constant Per capita
(per population, moderate or severe absence of 2004–2006 food supply
100 sq. GDP per capita Prevalence of yearly food insecurity, violence/ thousand variability
km of land (Purchasing power undernourishment estimates yearly estimates terrorism dollar per (kcal/
area) equivalent in $) (per cent) (in per cent) (in per cent) (index) capita) capita/day)
W I W I W W I W I South Asia W I W I W I
2000 0.8 1.9 10393.4 2710.3 14.8 – – – – 18.2 – 1 1.9 1.4 4 27
2001 0.8 1.9 10504.8 2792.3 14.9 – – – – 19.8 – – 1.2 1.9 4 20
2002 0.8 1.9 10662.5 2850 15.1 – – – – 20.9 – 1.21 2.2 1.9 6 23
2003 – 1.9 10,927 3023.6 15.1 – – – – 21.8 – 1.51 3.2 7.3 11 43
2004 0.8 1.9 11361.4 3210.9 14.9 – – – – 21.9 – 1.28 3.5 7.2 14 52
2005 0.8 1.9 11752.8 3411 14.5 – – – – 21.5 – 1.01 2.6 6.5 13 49
2006 0.8 1.9 12225.6 3629.4 13.8 – – – – 19.9 – 1.06 1.5 5.9 7 30
2007 0.9 1.9 12,719 3848.9 13.1 – – – – 18.4 – 1.15 1.6 4.6 3 25
2008 – 1.9 12922.8 3910.1 12.6 – – – – 17.6 – 1.11 1.7 5.9 8 49
2009 – 1.9 12721.2 4158.4 12.3 – – – – 17.3 – 1.35 2.7 6.9 10 60
Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security

2010 – 1.9 13220.5 4451.2 11.8 – – – – 17.2 – 1.28 2.6 5.6 9 49

2011 – 2 13584.9 4624.6 11.6 – – – – 17.2 – 1.33 2.3 4.5 7 25
2012 – 2 13872.7 4817.2 11.3 – – – – 17.1 – 1.29 1.8 4.5 6 13
2013 2 14179.4 5064.6 11.1 – – – – 16.8 – 1.23 1.9 4.4 6 30
2014 – 2 14506.1 5377.9 10.8 8 13.7 23.2 31.4 16.3 – 1 1.7 4.6 – –
2015 – 2 14825.7 5743.4 10.6 7.7 12.4 23.2 30.8 15.7 – 0.95 1.6 1.7 – –
2016 – 2 15149.9 6145.3 10.7 8 10.6 24.1 30.3 15.1 – 0.95 2.2 5.1 – –
93

(continued)
 94

Table 3.9 (continued)

Food accessibility Food stability
Prevalence Per capita
for severe food
food production
Rail line insecurity in Political variability
density the total Prevalence for stability and (constant Per capita
(per population, moderate or severe absence of 2004–2006 food supply
100 sq. GDP per capita Prevalence of yearly food insecurity, violence/ thousand variability
km of land (Purchasing power undernourishment estimates yearly estimates terrorism dollar per (kcal/
area) equivalent in $) (per cent) (in per cent) (in per cent) (index) capita) capita/day)
W I W I W W I W I South Asia W I W I W I
2017 – 2 15543.4 6516.2 10.8 8.7 10.9 25.6 28.1 14.8 – 0.83 – – – –
2018 – 15940.9 6899.2 10.8 9.2 14.4 26.4 34.3 14.7 – – – – – –
Source: FAO (2019), W World, I India
R. Singh and V. Khanna
 3

Table 3.10 India and the world: food utilization in per cent
Prevalence
People People using Prevalence of anaemia
using at safely People People Percentage of Percentage of of obesity among
least basic managed using at using safely children under children under in the adult women of
drinking drinking least basic managed 5 years of age 5 years of age population reproductive Prevalence
water water sanitation sanitation who are who are (18 years age (15– of low birth
services services services services stunted overweight and older) 49 years) weight
W I W W I W W W W I W I W
2000 80.4 79 61.3 55.5 16.4 28.2 32.5 4.9 8.3 1.5 31.6 53.3 17.5
2001 80.8 79.5 61.7 56.3 18.8 28.4 – – 8.5 1.6 31.3 53.3 17.3
2002 81.5 80.4 62.8 57.4 21.3 28.7 – – 8.8 1.7 31 53.3 17.1
2003 82 81.2 63.6 58.5 23.8 29.6 – – 9 1.8 30.9 53.3 16.9
2004 82.6 82 63.9 59.5 26.3 30.6 – – 9.3 1.9 30.7 53.3 16.6
2005 84 82.8 64.2 60.8 28.8 31.5 29.3 5.1 9.5 2 30.6 53.2 16.4
2006 84.5 83.7 64.6 62.2 31.3 32.7 – – 9.8 2.1 30.4 53 16.2
2007 85 84.5 64.9 63.2 33.8 33.8 – – 10.1 2.3 30.2 52.7 15.9
2008 85.5 85.3 65.2 64.3 36.4 34.9 – – 10.4 2.4 30 52.4 15.7
2009 86 86.1 65.9 65.4 38.9 35.9 – – 10.7 2.5 29.9 52 15.5
2010 86.5 86.9 66.5 66.4 41.5 37.1 26.2 5.4 11 2.7 29.9 51.7 15.3
2011 86.9 87.8 67.1 67.4 44 38.2 25.6 5.5 11.4 2.9 30 51.5 15.1
Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security

2012 87.4 88.6 67.7 68.4 46.6 39.3 25 5.5 11.7 3 30.3 51.3 15
2013 87.8 89.4 68.3 69.4 49.2 40.4 24.4 5.6 12.1 3.2 30.7 51.2 14.8
2014 88.3 90.2 68.9 70.5 51.8 41.6 23.9 5.7 12.4 3.4 31.3 51.1 14.7
2015 88.8 91 69.5 71.5 54.3 42.7 23.3 5.7 12.8 3.6 32 51.2 14.6
2016 89.2 91.9 70.1 72.5 56.9 43.9 22.8 5.8 13.2 3.8 32.8 51.4 –
2017 89.6 92.7 70.6 73.4 59.5 45 22.4 5.8 – – – – –
2018 – – – – – – 21.9 5.9 – – – – –
95

Source: FAO (2019), W World, I India

96 R. Singh and V. Khanna

Table 3.11 India water card: water availability 2019

Total water resources available to a population of a
Water stress index region
Water stress 153,663,296 people
Water scarcity 201,170,756 people
Absolute scarcity 262,640,492 people
Percentage of people living in water- 33%
scarce area
Total population 1,41,42,22,266
Source: Water Scarcity Clock (2019)

the World Resource Institute (2019), three-fourth of the India is under high to
extremely high water distress. This could hamper agricultural productivity and
further deteriorate the food security.
The last indicator of food security is reflected through food utilization
(Table 3.10) and exposes a worrisome situation for India. Data suggested that
more than half of the Indian women between 15 and 49 years are anaemic. About
33% people still live in a water-scarce area (Table 3.11), and 40% people do not use
basic sanitation services (Table 3.10, refer year 2017).
India has generally been considered as a politically unstable country, and the
internal unrest by different segments on the name of democracy makes the country
more vulnerable to the food-insecure situations. The fluctuations in these parameters
make the food systems unstable in the country. Despite the policies and efforts of
government and local bodies, India is way behind the global averages. This indicates
that the food is also not wisely utilized. The nutrition component is missing in the
food. This is going to worsen in the climate change scenario and should seriously
deal with it. In other low-income and more poverty-ridden countries, the food crisis
has already emerged. With climate change, poor and low-income countries of the
world may get affected as the people residing there may migrate for a better life
elsewhere. This could further pressurize food systems and create political and
internal unrests with nation-specific policies for migrants. However, migration is
what has defined humanity. The human beings migrated in search of water, food and
other non-food products in the past. They are relocating for a better standard of living
now, and they will keep migrating for ‘survival of fittest’ which is not just a theory
but a common phenomenon when the population is under distress.
Studies suggest that to increase nutritional security globally, the yearly cereal
production will have to be raised by one billion tonnes by 2050 (FAO 2009).
Different ways to adapt climate change with respect to food and nutritional
sustainability could be through:

1. Plant breeding: Breeding new varieties of crops that are climate resistant and are
more nutritious.
2. Soil management: This can be done by sequestering carbon in soil. A study by
Thin Lei (2017) estimated that global croplands can store extra carbon up to 1.85
gigatonnes each year that exceed the carbon emission by the transport sector
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 97

annually throughout the world. Practicing proper crop rotation that includes
legumes, using compost, and minimizing soil disturbances can make soil health-
ier to absorb more carbon.
3. Biofortification: Fortification of the food to recover the nutrient lost due to climate
change and exposure to carbon dioxide to balance the overall intake.
4. Changing our food consumption pattern: Our traditional Indian vegetarian diet,
which consists of cereals, pulses and millets, lacks many pro-vitamins and
minerals, which we can get from green leafy vegetables and fruits like papaya.
These fruits and vegetables can be made available at affordable rates to people by
including it in the public distribution system.
5. Gandhian Approach of self-sustainability: Mr. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi,
or Baapu as Indians fondly remember, always emphasized nutritional security at
the village level. He motivated the villagers to become self-sufficient and grow all
the fruits, vegetables, cereals, pulses, etc. that are required to have a balanced diet.
He also motivated them to eat what is grown locally so that even the poor can
afford it. In this way, each plate would have a portion of food rich in vitamins,
minerals, protein, carbohydrates, fats and micronutrients. Issues related to food
security can also be addressed by reducing the losses at the production side and
also minimizing the postharvest losses by investing in market infrastructure,
processing, reefer vans, cold chain methodologies, etc. (Islam and Karim 2019).
The food processing industry has traditionally been emitting a lot of greenhouse
gases for relying on conventional methods. There is a need for innovative and
green practices to curb emissions throughout the food chain. Some of the ways
that can be addressed via this systems approach are:
(a) Green Processing technology: Many technologies like ultrasound technol-
ogy, ohmic heating, enzyme-assisted food preservation, high-pressure
homogenization, irradiation, pulsed electric field, etc. are green by nature.
These technologies require less temperature and time for cooking to produce
better quality, eventually reducing carbon footprints, adding to the greener
environment and preserving nutritional security (Chemat et al. 2017).
(b) Green logistics: It is an effort to minimize the damage to the environment due
to transportation, storage, distribution, inventory management and
warehousing process. It also encompasses the logistics required for waste
management. Use of electric vehicles, improvisation of operation space by
designing customized packages accordingly, moving closer to the target
customer, reusing, recycling and reprocessing the waste at the consumer
end can be considered as noticeable efforts towards sustainable and green
logistics (McKinnon et al. 2013).
(c) Green packaging: The packaging is the core problem for environmental
sustainability as it uses bubble wraps, thin films, tapes, etc. to ensure the
safety of the material inside. These plastics take almost 10,000 years to
decompose. Green packages made of paper, cloth and other biodegradable
material have been actively encouraged by organizations to reduce their
carbon footprint contribution and contribute to efforts towards a sustainable
world. Multinational companies have invested in innovative concepts like
98 R. Singh and V. Khanna

edible packaging. For example, KFC has launched a comestible cup called as
Scoff-ee Cup. It is made of biscuit coated with white chocolate and glazed
with sugar to make marketing lucrative. This package is entirely edible and
attracts more and more customers, enhancing their brand value (Strom 2015).
Air New Zealand in order to reduce onboard wastage, introduced vanilla
flavoured edible coffee cups. This also brings down the costs effectively and
reduces carbon footprint.
(d) Green consumption: It is more of an attitude where the consumers are willing
to buy the products that pose no harm to the environment. Many campaigns
have been conducted to promote green consumption and biodegradable
packaging, but as soon as the consumers get to learn the higher costs of the
finished goods, the feeling of care for Mother Nature gets subsided. The
efforts need to be made in such a way that the costs to the consumer are low,
and they can afford consuming green. Plastic bags available in the market
were priced at 0.50 INR per bag earlier that are replaced by paper bags at 5.00
to 10.00 INR per bag, which is not welcomed by a large set of population and
acts as a barrier in choosing greenways.

3.6 Global Strategies to Alleviate the Effect of Climate Change

Climate change mitigation means reducing the amount of GHGs in the environment.
Several countries have adopted using cap and trade strategy to reduce carbon
emissions to fulfil their pledge to the Paris Agreement to keep the rise in temperature
under 2
C against the over pre-industrial levels. Expanding carbon sinks through
zero deforestation and harnessing and utilization of alternate green sources of
energy, viz. wind and solar, are also followed by many. However, the irony is that
though all of us are alerted to the call, not everyone is working towards controlling
the damage (IPCC 2014b). Here are a few examples from the nations who have
adopted various ways to decrease the carbon footprint.

Australia To control GHG emissions, Australia has introduced a carbon taxation

system. Under this the country identifies 500 worst polluters who are then taxed for
emitting more carbon. The tax is on per tonne of carbon basis and is effective since
July 2012. Australia plans to reduce total emissions by 28% by bringing down per
capita emissions 50% between 2005 and 2030 (Australian Department of Environ-
ment Analysis 2019). However, Australia has heavily been criticized for not taking
the call of destruction due to changing climate during the 2019 bushfires.

China China’s economy was heavily dependent on coal-based energy generation

until 2010. Since 2010, China has adopted a proactive climate mitigation policy as
the country felt the need to shift to renewable energy almost a decade before the Paris
Agreement. China reduced the production and consumption of coal and shifted to
solar, hydro and other renewable sources of energy. Between 2013 and 2017, China
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 99

reduced the consumption of coal at a rate of 1.1% per year and has shifted to other
sources like gas, nuclear and hydropower. China has now emerged as one of the
leading solar and wind power technology producers in the world. China’s focus lies
on three fronts, namely, energy security, controlling air pollution and strengthening
the existing economic model. The Government of China laid regulations for the
electricity companies to buy a certain amount of power generated from clean energy
sources and has also declared subsidies to promote clean energy sectors (RE100 The
climate group 2015).

European Union (EU) The European Union pledged to enhance renewable energy
consumption in the total energy requirements and reduce the emissions of GHGs by
40% over 1990. The EU has already achieved a 22% reduction in emissions up to
2017. To achieve these targets, the EU adopted policy initiatives like putting up a
ban on the single-use plastics and emphasizing on waste management and recycling.
The EU has guidelines for all member countries which cap the carbon amount to be
emitted. The companies that emit less compared to the allowable limits can sell it to
other firms that exceed the permissible limits. The EU has also proposed a ‘Green
Deal’ package of regulations to curb GHGs. A ‘carbon border tax’ is also offered
under this deal for importing polluting goods from countries that have less strict
policies to tackle climate change (National Public Radio 2011). This, however,
remains debatable as it looks like violating the most favoured nation criteria under
the principle of free trade of the World Trade Organization. Individually, the
countries in the EU are putting their best foot forward. Paris is promoting green
transport and is building more bike lanes. The number of people cycling to work is
still low (3%), but the French Government is encouraging people to bike to the
workplace too. Around half of the electricity in Sweden is generated through
renewable energy sources. Sweden has one of the lowest carbon emissions in
Europe. Only 1% of the waste goes to landfill in Sweden as it uses advanced
incineration and recycling techniques. Denmark, too, is focusing on becoming
carbon-neutral by promoting all renewable energy sources, replacing coal stations.
The people prefer cycling and are contributing significantly to the energy saving.
Spain, too, is marching towards renewable energy. The country has proposed a $53
billion climate fund. On the other hand, Norway aims to cut its GHG emissions by
40% by 2030. The country promotes electric vehicles. Europe plans to be the first
carbon-neutral continent by 2050.

Bhutan Bhutan is the first carbon-negative country. Bhutan’s constitution makes it

mandatory to cover 70% of its land by forests. It has created green corridors so that
the animals are free to move all along the country. A landlocked and small country in
the Himalayas, Bhutan, primarily practices subsistence agriculture. The country
produces a surplus of hydropower that is exported to India and is one of the major
sources of foreign reserves. Rising temperatures have caused several glaciers to melt
in Bhutan. Floods have caused disasters. All this reflects that the actions of one
country may cause havoc in another country. Yet, the committed carbon sink (70%
forest cover) has helped Bhutan to remain carbon-negative. Bhutan’s primary thrust
100 R. Singh and V. Khanna

is on hydropower generation, development of the industrial sector and agricultural

prosperity to assure sustainable development of the country.

3.7 The Indian Way

Climate change sustainability, mitigation and adaptation have been India’s focus for
long. The country promotes clean energy and the use of clean technology to a large
extent. The market for energy efficiency is estimated at US$ 22.81 billion. In 2001,
India enacted the Energy Conservation Act to reinforce energy efficiency. The act
established the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE). The BEE has energy efficiency
schemes for each of the sectors. To manage the demand side, the BEE had launched
various schemes for the agriculture sector, municipal bodies and distribution
companies. To strengthen the efficiency in the agriculture sector, the BEE also
entered into a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research. Through this, the BEE aims at creating awareness about the
energy-efficient pumps and their low-cost use on farms. Furthermore, India has
explored three scenarios to estimate its energy-saving potential. The first scenario
is the least effort scenario, i.e. without any technological and policy intervention. In
this scenario, no change in fuel mix was proposed, i.e. the country’s situation at the
time of proposing the policy. Scenario II is about slight changes at the technological
and political levels. Technology-wise the scenario calls for a mix of renewable
energy and electricity-based energy use over fossil fuel use in various demand
sectors. This is the scenario in which India expects to achieve the targets set for
different programs for efficient utilization of energy by several sectors. In the end is
scenario three, which calls for aggressive technological and policy push. For tech-
nology, this scenario calls for aggressive fuel mix and a shift towards renewable
sources of energy. This is the scenario in which the program targets will be
overachieved (Ministry of Finance, Economic Survey 2018–2019). Under each of
these three scenarios, the energy-saving potential for various sectors was estimated.
It was found that even with the most aggressive efforts, India’s potential for energy
saving is enormous. The projected energy saving in the three scenarios is shown in
Table 3.12.
The focus of India’s strategy is on the cleaning of exploited natural resources and
resource efficiency policies. India has invested heavily in renewable energy
resources. The cumulative wind power capacity has exceeded 36 GW. Under the
National Solar Mission, the solar power-installed capacity was increased signifi-
cantly. By March 2019, India’s hydro potential was only 31% utilized, and it leaves a
bigger room for the country to harness the remaining hydropower potential, which is
more climate-friendly against the conventional ways of power generation. Not only
this but the electric vehicles are also making their way in India. Not just this, in 2008
the country devised its own National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC),
which is all about reducing the emission intensity of the gross domestic product by
20–25% between 2005 and 2020. In 2014, India had already brought it down by
21%. The estimates from India’s Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 101

Table 3.12 India’s energy-saving potential in various demand sectors in 2031

Least effort Moderate savings Aggressive savings
Sector Mtonne Mtonne Per cent Mtonne Per cent
Agriculture 64.4 5.7 9 9.9 15
Commercial 232.9 15.8 7 23.8 10
Domestic 98.6 12.1 12 15.1 15
Commercial 29.5 4.9 7 6.4 22
Municipal 8.0 0.9 12 1.5 19
Industries 443.4 47.5 11 72.3 16
Total (Mtonne) 876.8 86.9 10 129.0 15
Total (TWh) 10,198 1010 10 1500 15
Note: TWh ¼ terawatt hour
Source: Ministry of Finance, Economic Survey (2019)

Change (Economic Survey 2019) reveal that the country emitted 2.607 billion tons
of CO2 equivalents, out of which natural carbon sinks offset 12%. The maximum
emissions were from the energy sector (72%), followed by agriculture (16%). Waste
also emits around 3% of CO2 equivalent. Remaining 8% is emitted by industrial
processes and product use.
The NAPCC plan also dealt with adaptation requirements and scientific planning
to combat climate change. On similar lines, the states and Union Territories of India
framed State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCC). Overall, India has
33 SAPCCs in force. In 2014, the Climate Change Action Programme (CCAP)
was launched to build capacity for climate change assessment, create a suitable
institutional framework and implement all plans on the ground for sustainable
development. The 3-year budget outlay (2017–2020) for the scheme was 132.40
crores. Furthermore, in 2015, the country created a National Adaptation Fund on
Climate Change to help vulnerable regions and to cover their cost of adaptation to
the changing climate. The scheme is to continue until March 2020 and includes
sectors such as agriculture, forestry, eco-diversity, animal husbandry and water.
India has ratified the Paris Agreement, an essential feature of which is the
contribution of each country to mitigate the risks of climate change and reduce
carbon footprint, to the best capacity. This is called a Nationally Determined
Contribution (NDC). India has prepared its NDC. However, climate funding remains
a challenge as the country has so much diversity, and several technological
advancements are going on. According to some studies, by mid-century, the cost
of adaptation and mitigation to climate change may reach US$ 1 trillion per annum.
The multilateral climate change funds that were pledged during the Paris Agreement
are still falling short. India’s NDC states need of US$2.5 trillion (at 2014–2015
prices) between 2015 and 2030. Climate financing thus remains a more significant
concern.
The world aims to end global hunger by 2030, and India’s role is crucial in it as
we are home to more than a billion people out of the total 7 billion on earth. While
the numbers suggest that more than 200 million in India still remain undernourished
102 R. Singh and V. Khanna

(2014–2016 average) and people suffering from acute food insecurity are around
10% of the population, eliminating hunger is a tedious task that too when we face the
challenges arising out of climate change. The shrinking Himalayan glaciers which
source the Ganges, the major lifeline of India, and many other rivers could turn out to
be a bane as this may result in an expansion of deserts, retreating rivers, droughts,
floods, etc. which will hamper the food security. The Government of India has
various schemes and programmes to attain and sustain food security. The
programmes are related to the improvement of soil health (Soil Health Card
Scheme), expansion and improvement of irrigation facilities to expand cultivable
land and enhance productivity, schemes to provide food to low-income population
(Annapurna Scheme, Antyodaya Anna Scheme, Food Security Act) and the schemes
to cover risks related to crop failure (Prime Minister Crop Insurance Scheme). India
also has a midday meal programme to promote enrollments in primary schools and,
at the same time, provide food security to all kids. There are several programmes in
place. However, effective implementation at each stage is needed to make sure that
the food and nutritional security of the population can be improvised.

3.8 Suggestions at Different Levels

India is a developing nation, and with development, there are apparent costs to be
borne. The nation’s economic growth is directly proportional to its per capita
emissions. As the standard of living increases, the emissions tend to increase due
to the haphazard usage of coal and other natural resources. Climate change has
already caused irreversible changes to the environment, and now when we have
realized this, we need to have a strategy so that further damage can be controlled.
Many mitigation strategies have been suggested by the United Nations, IPCC
(2014c), European Union and International Financial Institutions, which have been
discussed in this chapter. These strategies cannot be successful unless implemented
at three levels: individual level, national level and global level.

3.8.1 Individual Front

We all are responsible for this scenario of global warming by exploiting the earth’s
resources for our comfort and development. Now, it is our job to create a sustainable
plan for the survival of our future generations. Our efforts will be like a drop in the
ocean and may not yield immediate results, but a population of 7.8 billion people
taking steps towards climate resilience may help us to maintain global warming
below 2
C.
There is a need for climate education among the people and making them
responsible for the outcomes. Creating awareness among the public could change
their way of thinking towards the non-renewable resources. Children should be
educated to respect forest and rivers and promote forestation. Many researchers
have suggested that minor steps like reduction in travelling, growing our own food,
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 103

Table 3.13 Technical mitigation potential of changing diets by 2050 according to a range of
scenarios examined in the literature
GHG
mitigation
potential
(GtCO2-
Diet Composition eq yr–1) Researcher
Vegan No animal source 7.8–8.0 Springmann et al. (2016),
Stehfest et al. (2009)
Vegetarian Grains, vegetables, fruits, sugars, 4.6–7.2 Springmann et al. (2016),
oils, eggs and dairy, and generally Tilman and Clark (2014),
at most one serving per month of Stehfest et al. (2009)
meat or seafood
Flexitarian 75% of meat and dairy replaced by 5.2–5.4 Springmann et al. (2018),
cereals and pulses; at least 500 g Hedenus et al. (2014)
per day fruits and vegetables; at
least 100 g per day of plant-based
protein sources; modest amounts
of animal-based proteins and
limited amounts of red meat (one
portion per week), refined sugar
(<5% of total energy), vegetable
oils high in saturated fat and
starchy foods with relatively high
glycaemic index
Healthy Based on global dietary guidelines 2.8–6.4 Springmann et al.
diet for consumption of red meat, (2018a), Bajželj et al.
sugar, fruits and vegetables and (2014)
total energy intake
Fair and Global daily per capita calorie 0.7–7.3 Bajželj et al. (2014)
frugal intake of 2800 kcal/cap/day
(11.7 MJ/cap/day), paired with
relatively low level of animal
products
Climate 75% of ruminant meat and dairy 3.4 Hedenus et al. (2014)
carnivore replaced by other meat
Source: Mbow et al. (2019)

going vegan, using more renewable energy like natural gas and solar-based equip-
ment, the use of fresh and local food, etc. should be practiced to reduce carbon
emissions at the individual level (Table 3.13). However, the question remains how
can we make sure that lowering emissions at an individual level will also help us in
staying food-secure. Mbow et al. (2019) presented the mitigation potential of several
diets, as researched by several scientists. It was found that the vegan diet has a
reduction potential (Springmann et al. 2016) of the reduction potential of 8 GtCO2-
eq yr–1, maximum of all possible diet combination. Stehfest et al. (2009) suggested
that under the vegan food for all scenario, sufficient food could be produced in 2050,
that too from relatively lesser land than what is available today. However, it is
possible only when forests are regenerated, and GHG emissions are reduced to about
104 R. Singh and V. Khanna

a third of the ‘No Change or Business as Usual’ scenario. This will reduce the
reductions to around 7.8 Gt CO2-eq yr–1. FAO (2018), however, suggests that all
diets should include nutrients, including micronutrients, as complementary to make
sure that nutritional security is not disturbed. Besides this, on the individual front, the
scientists and researchers have been working on improving the performance of
equipments since long to curb the issue of carbon emissions and inventing energy-
efficient refrigerators and cars, but the overall carbon emissions are still increasing as
the number of vehicles per household is increasing, and people are commuting
longer distances for work and leisure. The demand for such luxuries and immature
spending of resources has to be governed in order to regulate the productions.
We need to opt for greener options for all our needs. Shifting near to the
workplace and commuting on bicycles or in public transport instead of personal
cars could be incentivized. Preference could be given to the local products, and the
concept of healthy kitchen gardens should be promoted. Consumers should focus on
having a balanced diet that would emit less carbons per calorie of food, as discussed
before. Also, a one-child policy should be implemented to reduce the consumption
of the resources and control population growth further.

3.8.2 National Level

Since 1750, developed nations have contributed to about 70% of the carbon
emissions on account of uncontrolled and unregulated industrialization (Friedrich
and Damassa 2014). A developing nation, on the other hand, faces enormous
challenges towards their growth and development that encompasses all three—
agriculture, manufacturing and services sectors of the economy. As the economy
grows, disposable incomes rise, and development is unavoidable due to an increase
in disposable incomes, living standards and globalization, but the real challenge is
development without contributing to climate change or operating under the permis-
sible limits. However, developing nations do not have sufficient alternate
technologies to mitigate climate change. Also, food sustainability is a more signifi-
cant threat as the existing ways of making food sustainable for the growing popula-
tion are all going to exhaust energy resources leading to climate change. So, we need
a more significant course of innovation here.
India has promised in the Paris Agreement that by 2030 it will cut down its
emission per unit of GDP by 33–35% as compared to 2005 (Climate Action Tracker
2019). To achieve this target, the biggest contributors have to be identified, and their
usage has to be limited or banned. National-level policies can be made to levy extra
charges on the usage of non-renewable sources like coal, petroleum, etc. The three
major contributors to carbon emission in a developing nation are the energy genera-
tion sector, industrial sector and agriculture and food sector. Countries have to revisit
their policies for the same and waste management practices.
For energy generation, countries should focus on hydro-based power, solar
energy and wind energy and prohibit the usage of wood and coal. The second
most crucial sector is the industrial sector. This sector has lifted millions of people
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 105

out of poverty and provided them employment. However, the sector has substan-
tially contributed to GHG emissions globally. The sector needs to develop ways to
promote climate resilience for sustainable growth. This sector should focus on the
vulnerable sections by providing them the necessary infrastructure, food security and
service to increase their resilience towards climate change. Public-private partner-
ship models need to be assured to ensure efficient technology transfer, attract
investments in various climate-resilient sectors and apply the best industrial practices
to become a responsible corporate. The complete value chain has to be reformed
from raw material quality to waste management practices.
In the case of agriculture and food sector, the existing subsidies that the govern-
ment is giving should be redirected towards the usage of green technologies.
Fertilizer subsidy and minimum support price on certain crops in India promote
farmers to grow water-intensive crops and increase productivity (ET Bureau 2019).
These subsidies should be diverted towards drought- and temperature-resistant crops
and encourage the use of solar power for farming practices (GOI 2008).

3.8.3 Global Front

There are many fronts on which global countries should work, like energy creation,
infrastructure, transportation, land, industry and finance. Adoption of renewable
sources up to 30% of the global electricity generation in 2020, green infrastructure
like decarbonized buildings with zero emissions and the electricity-based common
transportation system should replace the existing system, and motivation should be
given to the usage of public transport and reduction of deforestation with a focus on
sustainable crops that help binding carbon dioxide to the soil. For all these efforts,
funds are required, and so IPCC (2014c) has suggested collecting a Green Climate
Fund by introducing various tariffs and market-based financial schemes to increase
investment in clean energy. Approximately one trillion US $ per year will be
required to be invested in climate mitigation solutions.
Every country has its strategy to resolve the issues coming up with the change in
climate, but this is a global issue, and the whole world is required to come together to
manage this challenge effectively. There is a mean carbon budget of 600 gigatonnes
left to emit in order to reach a situation where the average temperature rise would be
more than 2
C. All the countries undertook the targets during the Paris Agreement
which are still not fulfilled by many countries. We are still far away from achieving a
net-zero carbon emission state. The countries who have achieved their targets and
are having even better reductions as promised in the agreement receive carbon
credits, and these credits can be traded off with countries who are having a shortfall
and get financial or technological help in return. This carbon trading could be a
win-win situation for both parties and for the world as we will achieve our overall
target of reducing carbon emission without compromising the development part. To
achieve these targets, we need substantial technological as well as behavioural
transformation.
106 R. Singh and V. Khanna

3.9 Conclusion

According to the United Nations, only 10 years are left to tackle climate change. If
strong actions to reverse climate change are not taken by 2030, it would rather be
difficult to prevent the earth from the climate-related downfall. Studies suggest that
anthropogenic activities have contributed positively to climate change. Various
reports indicate that humans have caused massive destruction to plant and animal
life and have disturbed the ecological diversity by harming the land, air and water
resources. But humans need other species—plants and animals—to thrive
on. Biodiversity helps establish the earth’s equilibrium by balancing different food
chains. While food systems have changed climate, changing climate has affected
food systems too. All that is needed is to adopt a systems approach to the problem
and address all aspects. A systems approach will also help to resolve food insecurity.
Agriculture’s contribution to the GHGs could be mitigated by the adoption of proper
livestock and crop management practices. Soil conservation and carbon sequestra-
tion ways should be considered. Efforts should also be made to predict the occur-
rence of droughts, storms, earthquakes, etc. to minimize the destruction and resulting
crop loss. This, alongside, the efforts, should also be made to save energy across
supply chain activities. Resources, including water, should be used very efficiently.
People should be educated about healthy diet and economic costs of an
impoverished diet and unhealthy living style. Diets that are low on carbon footprint
should be preferred. This is recommended as livestock rearing is highly water
consuming and greenhouse gas emissions are much higher. Approximately
15,000 L of water are used to produce 1 kg meat, whereas only 1250 L of water is
sufficient to produce 1 kg of grain. Hence, cereal-based diet reduces the impact on
climate by 7 to 12 times as compared to non-vegetarian food. Also, the emphasis
should be given to the consumption of food in natural form as mass processing leads
to wastages, which increase the carbon footprint. Reduction in wastage of food at
each level of value chain like harvesting, storage, processing, transportation, etc. can
increase the global food and nutritional security ratio and can feed millions of people
in an economically viable manner.
Wastages should instead be brought down to zero. In order to save the food
systems from the changing climate, biotechnology and other innovative ways are
required to develop crop varieties that are hardy, drought-tolerant and temperature-
resistant. Furthermore, the diversification should be promoted, especially on small
farms in countries like India, wherein around 85% of farm holdings are <2 hectares.
Good agricultural practices should be followed, and universities, industries and the
government should adopt a collaborative approach to resolve the issues of yield
destruction under changing climate scenarios. The contingency plans must be
prepared given the climate challenges and should be promoted under contingency
situations.
3 Climate Change and Food Systems: Implications on Food Security 107

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Resilient Measures in Face of Climate
Change to Strengthen Food and Nutritional 4
Security

D. Vijayalakshmi and Mrunal D. Barbhai

Abstract

A distinct but complex relationship exists between climate, food, and nutritional
security of human beings. Climate change impacts agriculture, livestock,
fisheries, etc. reducing its productivity and yield leaving an adverse effect on
the economic condition of the people, which in turn affects food availability,
accessibility, and utilization. With increased food and nutritional insecurity, the
nation is at risk of higher malnutrition. To address these insecurities, all sectors
like agriculture, food, environment, health should join hands. Various solutions
can be taken up for tackling the problems like diversification of agriculture,
leading to diet diversification and introduction of innovative alternative nutritious
food sources. Bringing into limelight the underutilized fruits, vegetables, cereals,
and grains could help reach food and nutritional security. Blending indigenous
knowledge and scientific understanding can pave ways to improve the utilization
of existing resources. Value addition of empty-calorie food with food wastes
obtained during processing such as vegetable and fruit peels, cereal brans, etc. can
increase the nutritional quality of such food products contributing to nutritional
security. To remove food and nutritional insecurities, nutrition education will
render a helping hand alo with the capacity building of people.

D. Vijayalakshmi (*)
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,
Bengaluru, India
M. D. Barbhai
Department of Foods and Nutrition, Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University,
Hyderabad, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 113
Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_4
114 D. Vijayalakshmi and M. D. Barbhai

Keywords

Climate change · Nutrition security · Malnutrition · Diet diversification ·

Indigenous knowledge

4.1 Introduction

Climate change significantly influences agriculture, forestry, livestock, health, etc.

Climate changes have not been defined universally in a concrete way. It is referred to
as “change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical
tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and persisting for
an extended period, typically decades or longer” (IPCC 2014). According to
UNFCCC, “climate change is directly or indirectly attributed to human activities
in addition to natural climate variability that alters the composition of the global
atmosphere over comparable periods.” This separates climate variability associated
with natural causes from anthropogenic activities caused by climate change. A
general term by WMO (World Meteorological Organization) encompasses all the
inconsistencies in climate despite their statistical nature and physical cause. A more
restricted term used by WMO (1992), updated in 2005, suggests climate change as
“significant change, with important economic, environmental and social effects, in
the mean values of a meteorological element (particularly temperature or amount of
precipitation) during a certain period, where the means are taken over periods of a
decade or longer” (FAO 2008). WMO uses an average period of 30 years that helps
to eliminate the climate variations within year to year.
Human activities fuel climate change significantly. It has accelerated the process
of global warming by releasing greenhouse gases (GHGs) through fossil fuel
ignition, changing earth’s average temperature. Industrial revolution escalated
quantities of GHGs like carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, etc., creating a
blanket effect trapping the heat on earth’s surface. Global average temperature rise
recorded by the Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) is up to 1
C since 1880
(NASA 2020). Influences of climate change are already obvious, like a rise in
surface temperatures, melting glaciers leading to rising sea level, heat and cold
waves, drought, and declining quality of water and air (Riebeek 2010). All these
factors affect agriculture as it is closely related to and depends on weather and
climate. Agricultural production is adversely affected by climatic conditions like
drought, floods, heat waves, cold waves, etc. (Niles et al. 2017). Agriculture is
deeply intertwined with food systems. Both agriculture and food system have
impacted climate change and vice versa. Food systems contribute approximately
19–29% to the world’s GHGs out of which 80–86% is contributed by agricultural
activities (Vermeulen et al. 2012). Soil erosions and deforestation also contribute to
climate change (Niles et al. 2017). Food systems include all the activities related to
production, processing, distribution, preparation, and consumption of food and their
interactions within and between biogeophysical and human environments, and they
enclose the effect of these acts on food security, viz., (1) food availability related to
4 Resilient Measures in Face of Climate Change to Strengthen Food and Nutritional. . . 115

production, distribution, and exchange; (2) food access related to affordability,

allocation, and preferences; and (3) food utilization associated to nutritional and
social value and food safety (GECAFS 2005). Vermeulen et al. (2012) reported that
the food systems affect climate through its pre- and post-processing, storage (chill-
ing, cold storage), transport, and wastage (wastage during production, processing,
storage, transport, and also plate waste). Food security is defined as “all people, at all
times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to
meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (FAO
1996) and is supported by food systems. Thus, it can be understood that food
security can be reached by fulfilling four dimensions: availability, accessibility,
utilization, and stability.
Food insecurity can lead to compromising the nutritional status of individuals
leading to nutritional insecurity. Food security and nutrition security go hand in hand
and share a complex relationship (Hwalla et al. 2016) emphasizing on nutritional and
health components of individual or community with access to a wholesome and
adequate diet and clean drinking water, combined with hygienic and excellent
health-care services for all individual members of the community (FAO, WFP and
IFAD 2012). In this era of climate change, where the burden of undernutrition and
overnutrition exists, it is the need of the hour to adapt agricultural practices and diets
for achieving food and nutritional security.

4.2 The Linkage Between Climate Change, Agriculture, Food,

Nutrition, and Health

Agriculture, food, nutrition, and health go hand in hand and share a complex
relation. If food production is insufficient, then it may lead to hunger and malnutri-
tion. The linkage between agriculture, climate change, food system, nutrition, and
health is illustrated in Fig. 4.1. Anthropogenic actions are one of the major reasons
for climate change that are rapidly affecting the composition of the global atmo-
sphere. Emission of GHGs has resulted in increased temperature, which in turn has
accelerated melting of glaciers, rise in sea levels, and extreme weather conditions,
viz., frequent and intense floods, dry spells, storms, etc. Agricultural activities and
allied sectors like livestock production, fisheries, etc. get affected and add up to
climate change. The extensive application of synthetic fertilizers is one of the prime
contributors of GHGs from the pre-production activities. Animal feed production
from livestock fields accounts for 45% of emissions (Vermeulen et al. 2012).
Agricultural activities are dependent and deeply intertwined with local climate and
weather, e.g., rainfall, temperature, and winds affect crop production, productivity,
and cultivation. Elevated temperatures and resulting heat stress, elevated CO2 levels,
extreme weather events, pests, changed rainfall patterns, etc. are affecting agriculture
and food production (FAO 2008; Otieno et al. 2013; Thornton et al. 2018). All the
abovementioned changes are adversely affecting food supply locally and globally.
Agriculture not only is the main provider of food, which satisfies the basic human
need, but also generates employment for 36% world population and 40–50% in Asia
116 D. Vijayalakshmi and M. D. Barbhai

Fig. 4.1 Climate change linkages between agriculture, nutrition, and health

and the Pacific (FAO 2008). Around 78% of the world’s poverty-struck people
reside in rural sectors depending majorly on farming (World Bank 2014). Thus, the
negative consequences of climate change on farming also affect a population’s
socioeconomic status, which further reduces their purchases and buying ability
resulting in inadequate consumption. Reduced food supply, consumption, purchas-
ing power, and accessibility results in hunger and malnutrition. The food system and
environmental conditions are also affected by climate change, further risking human
health as a whole. Post-production activities in food system such as processing,
distribution, cold chain, and marketing also pitch into climate change. These account
to long-term effects of climate change on all the four dimensions of food security
(Vermeulen et al. 2012; Masipa 2017). Increased frequencies of rainfall, floods, heat
stress, etc. may damage the roadway and railway infrastructure, compromising the
transport of food and food distribution. This will reduce access to food to certain
groups of the population (Rao et al. 2017). Environmental health conditions related
to sanitation and hygiene are at risk with changing climate. Changes in rainfall pose a
4 Resilient Measures in Face of Climate Change to Strengthen Food and Nutritional. . . 117

threat to water availability. A shift in rainfall may cause the risk of water scarcity and
unavailability of good quality water. Climate change may also increase incidences of
food-, vector-, and water-borne diseases affecting health and diminishing nutrient
absorption leading to a vicious circle of malnutrition. Vector such as mosquitoes,
flies, and ticks can carry pathogenic bacteria and viruses causing various diseases
and infections. Altering air composition due to climate change might lead to
increased allergies, asthma, respiratory tract problems, and also cardiovascular
problems in the population (USGCRP 2016).

4.3 Urbanization Influence on Climate, Agricultural

Production, Lifestyle, and Consumption Pattern

The concept of “urbanization” has been explained by the theory of modernization of

infrastructure (Srivastava 2017). It is referred to as a shift of population from village
areas to metropolitan cities (McGranahan and Satterthwaite 2014). The process of
urbanization started with the industrial revolution. It is estimated that 6 billion will
dwell in urban areas due to urbanization by 2050 (McCarthy et al. 2010). Urbaniza-
tion is associated with economic growth (Regmi and Dyck 2001) and better-
centralized infrastructure, educational systems, and health facilities (Knorr et al.
2018). It has a significant effect on lifestyle both in positive and negative ways. On
one hand, it is associated with economic growth, but on the other hand, it also poses
challenges of income inequalities, environmental burden, health issues, and increase
in urban poor population. It affects the rural-urban dynamics. Urbanization has
always posed a risk on the environment due to pollution, overburden on resources,
unplanned expansion of metropolitan cities, urban heat islands, etc. Land use
changes with urbanization resulting in the creation of heat islands (Zhou 2004).
Regions with a high growing population in urban areas also have the potential to
cause urban heat island causing a dramatic effect on the health of the people. These
urban heat islands in populous cities have to project been shown a similar or greater
climate change effect as compared to that of GHG emissions (Stone 2007;
Campbell-Lendrum and Corvalan 2007). Thus, urbanization can be associated
with warming, increased CO2 emission, and extreme heat events resulting from
increased energy consumption, use of electrical appliances at home and in industries,
ever-growing vehicle congestion on roads, etc. (Pigeon et al. 2007; McCarthy et al.
2010). The health of the urban population is also at risk due to floods and storms
resulting because of housing construction with a poor quality, unplanned, inade-
quate, and improper drainage system. In such situations, heavy rains, resulting in
flash floods and water logging, make people vulnerable to water- and vector-borne
infections (Campbell-Lendrum and Corvalan 2007).
Urbanization also decreases the direct interaction of people with food production
as they are not involved with farmers or in any food production activities (Jennings
2015). Urbanization also has affected the food demands, consumption patterns,
lifestyle due to increased working hours, and per capita income of the population
(Regmi and Dyck 2001; Jennings 2015; Knorr et al. 2018). Convenience ready-to-
118 D. Vijayalakshmi and M. D. Barbhai

Fig. 4.2 The linkage between urbanization, climate change, and health

eat food and processed foods high in fat, salt, sugars, etc. have become parts of the
diets accompanied with less physical activity, sedentary lifestyle, and stress increas-
ing the risk of non-communicable diseases like metabolic syndrome X, diabetes,
cardiovascular diseases, increased obesity, etc. (Fig. 4.2).

4.3.1 Effect on Agriculture and Allied Sectors

Agriculture faces a negative impact due to climate change in low-latitude and

tropical areas especially affecting major staple cereals (wheat, rice, etc.). In contrast,
there might be some beneficial effects for crop production in high-latitude regions.
The decline in agricultural productivity is estimated to affect more in regions like
sub-Saharan Africa (9% decline) (Masipa 2017). Several studies conducted reveal
agriculture being adversely affected in countries like Kenya, India, and Korea
(Otieno et al. 2013; Chakrabarty 2016; Cenacchi, et al. 2016) (Table 4.1). Cereals
are a staple diet for the majority, and changes or decrease in cereal crop production
affects availability and distribution. Smallholding farmer groups are highly at risk,
especially those depending on rainfed farming due to the changing seasonality
exerted by climate change. A rise in CO2 levels in the atmosphere might indirectly
affect the nutritional composition of crops such as cereals, pulses, legumes, and
beans, reducing nutrients, viz., protein, iron, zinc, and calcium (Tirado et al. 2013;
Myers et al. 2014; Thornton et al. 2018; Hummel et al. 2018; Beach et al. 2019). This
will indirectly affect the nutritional status of human beings. Animal fodder also gets
affected nutritionally, reducing milk and meat yield (Thornton et al. 2018). This will
adversely affect the livestock sector. Undernutrition, coupled with obesity and
4 Resilient Measures in Face of Climate Change to Strengthen Food and Nutritional. . . 119

Table 4.1 Summary of direct and indirect consequences of changes in climate

Changes in climate Effects on End results
Agriculture and allied sectors
Rise in temperature Reduced crop yields, crop Reduced income from
Extreme climatic events production agricultural sources
Altered rainfall Reduced production of Increased food prices
Heat and cold waves livestock Reduced affordability
Droughts Water shortage for irrigation Decreased food access
Increased floods Degradation of soil Leading to conditions of food
Storms/change in wind insecurity
patterns Adverse impact on health of
farmers, agricultural labor
Adverse impact on fisheries
Water and sanitation
Increased floods coupled with Unhygienic water Health problems associated
an improper drainage system Water shortage for drinking with water-borne diseases
and urbanization, releasing Scarcity of clean drinking
untreated wastewater in local water
water bodies Increase in vector- and food-
Altered rainfall pattern borne diseases
Food systems
Extreme climatic events Decreased production Reduced food availability,
Increased floods Food wastage (from increased food prices,
Storms/change in wind production to consumer plate decreased food consumption
patterns, erratic rainfalls waste) especially by poor
damaging connectivity Improper transportation Alerted nutritional and health
connectivity due to floods, status
extreme climate events
damaging road and railways

hidden hunger, i.e., micronutrient deficiencies, still prevails even after continuous
ongoing efforts with a slight reduction in malnutrition over the past few decades. In
addition to this, decreased nutritional composition of plants will further contribute to
malnutrition and slow down the process of attaining food and nutritional stability,
especially in Asian, Middle Eastern, and North African countries. Climate change
via extreme events may even have a deleterious impact on the health of farmers,
agriculture, and fisheries due to extreme heat, droughts, inadequate drinking water,
etc. (Meybeck et al. 2018).

Challenges Faced by Agriculture and Allied Sector

• Changes/decrease in the production of crop: e.g., production of rice, maize,
wheat, and cash crops like cocoa and coffee is affected in many regions.
• Changes in nutritional content: Crops produced may be rich in carbohydrates and
deficient in other nutrient content, viz., protein, iron, zinc, and calcium. Even the
forages and fodder will have similar effects of reduced nutritional content.
• The decreased nutritional content of fodder, leading to reduced livestock produc-
tion and milk yields.
120 D. Vijayalakshmi and M. D. Barbhai

4.3.2 Effect on Food System

A food system includes all agricultural activities, transport and intake, and these
together affect food and nutrition security (Table 4.1). As discussed earlier, declining
production and increasing population will cause stress on food availability that is
defined by FAO (2008) as “physical quantities of food produced, stored, processed,
and transported.” It also includes imports and exports and is calculated using food
balance sheets. It accounts for net food remaining after deducting exports from
production, stock, and imports of all items included in food balance sheets (FAO
2008). The growing population increases the number of households to be fed. When
this is coupled with decreased agricultural production and an increase in food
demand, the food prices also tend to increase, leading to reduced food availability
forcing the poor to buy and consume less than their requirements. This will, in turn,
result in food insecurity by affecting the nutritional status of individual and increase
malnutrition (Nelson et al. 2009). Inadequate consumption increases the risk and
vulnerability to infections due to malnutrition and compromises body’s ability to
absorb nutrients (Crahay et al. 2010). According to FAO (2009a), food-deprived and
hunger-struck population almost exceeds 1 billion globally.
On one hand, it is estimated that agriculture production should increase more than
60% for fulfilling the demand for the increased population. Still, on the other hand, it
also should be noted that out of the current production, one third percent of the edible
food portions is wasted or lost every year (Meybeck et al. 2018). The wastage can
take place right from the production site, such as harvesting losses, processing losses
due to lack of processing technology, and storage losses due to inadequate
warehouses, storage facilities, and plate wastes. The wastes contribute to GHG
emission, via., the landfill sites affecting climate change (Vermeulen et al. 2012).
Higher temperatures can affect the shelf life of food, especially perishable items.
Lack of proper transport facilities, viz., lack of road and rail facilities, may also
contribute to food losses and wastage as a result of poor transport from its production
site to the consumers. This may also limit the food access and increase food prices,
again affecting the utilization of food by the consumers away from production sites.

4.3.3 Effect on Water and Sanitation

Safe and hygienic water, along with sanitary conditions, are needed to maintain
health and nutrition. With changing climate and alteration in rainfall, the surface
water resources are getting depleted (Table 4.1). It affects not only the quantity but
also the quality of water (IPCC 2001; Crahay et al. 2010). Climate change, along
with urbanization, adversely affects water quality with increased pollutants due to
untreated drainage water, which may end up in local water bodies, leaving the water
bodies polluted (USEPA 2002; Franco et al. 2018; Cullis et al. 2019). Increased
frequencies of flood may pitch in unsanitary conditions leading to a spike in water-,
food-, and vector-borne disease incidence, e.g., malaria, dengue, etc.
4 Resilient Measures in Face of Climate Change to Strengthen Food and Nutritional. . . 121

4.4 Transformation in Food Consumption Pattern and Its

Consequences on Climate Change, Food, and Nutrition
Security

The food consumption pattern is based on culture and food availability, determining
individuals’ nutritional and health status (Prabhat and Begum 2012) (Table 4.1).
Diets have been changing due to increased urbanization associated with a sedentary
lifestyle and increased income (Regmi and Dyck 2001; Popkin et al. 2012; Tilman
and Clark 2014). Global nutrition transition with changed diets of individuals is
evident over the period of several decades (Ghattas 2014). They have become more
calorie-dense (Niles et al. 2017), especially in high-income countries. Some studies
also suggest that the calorie intake of individuals, e.g., in Portugal, people have
increased above recommended intakes (Galli et al. 2017). There is an increase in
consumption of meat, processed and packaged convenience ready-to-eat products,
bakery and confectionery items, energy-dense foods, etc. (Tilman and Clark 2014;
Ghattas 2014) resulting in increased prevalence of non-communicable diseases like
obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and hyperlipidemia, lowering the
life expectancy of the individual (Ng 2014; Popkin et al. 2012).
Urban dwellers’ meat consumption pattern was found high than among the rural
population in nations like China, Indonesia, Pakistan, etc. (Regmi and Dyck 2001). It
has also upsurged the intake of meals outside the house, e.g., fast-food consumption
at food joints, eating in restaurants, mobile food trucks, local food vendors, etc.
(Knorr et al. 2018). Changes in lifestyle have also resulted in increased snacking
habits like consumption of fried foods, bakery and confectionery products, and
processed foods (Tefft et al. 2017). Urbanization provides a wide range of market
for the purchase of food, but the urban poor still consumes limited food products due
to a limited budget. Because of increased and irregular working hours of both men
and women, there is limited time to prepare meals at home. Thus, they popularly
prefer energy-dense foods; easy-to-prepare or ready-to-eat, convenience food; or
eating outside the home (Jobbins and Henley 2015). Processed and packaged foods
are gaining lots of attention due to their high palatability, advertisement promotion,
and availability in various outlets, thus growing faster in low-income nations
compared to high-income nations (Tefft et al. 2017).
Diets of people significantly affect GHG emission from a food system
(Aleksandrowicz et al. 2016). Analyzing the effects of these changing dietary
patterns and food consumption trends on food and nutrition security is vital. Diets
with higher animal products have high GHG emission compared to plant-based
diets. Reduction in animal-based foods and focus on vegan, vegetarian, and
pescatarian diets may positively influence the environment. Vegan diets had a higher
capacity to reduce emission of GHGs. More than 70% reduction in GHG emissions
and land usage and a 50% reduction in water usage were observed as a result of a
shift in western to environmentally suitable dietary patterns (Aleksandrowicz et al.
2016).
The varying diets and shift from nutrient-dense meal to consumption of energy-
dense meals coupled with a sedentary lifestyle are increasing the burden of
122 D. Vijayalakshmi and M. D. Barbhai

malnutrition with overnutrition leading to obesity and related complications.

Increased consumption of processed foods and ready-to-eat foods adversely affects
the climate with the emission of GHGs during processing and also affects the health
of an individual, putting them at a higher risk of nutritional insecurity. Diets only
focusing on energy-rich foods tend to cause micronutrient deficiencies. Other
changes like reduction in consumption of leafy vegetables and fruits with increased
snacking habits due to availability of more processed, ready-to-eat, deep-fried
snacks in the market shelf and their access to even rural areas are having an adverse
effect on health and contributing to malnutrition and nutritional insecurity. The
double burden of malnutrition is experienced with increased obesity on one hand
and undernourishment, stunting, wasting, and micronutrient deficiencies on the
other.
In one scene, increased income due to urbanization has led to increased calorie
consumption. However, micronutrient deficiencies still prevail, and, in another
picture, due to insufficient purchasing power, majority rural population and urban
poor are forced to decrease consumption resulting in hunger and undernutrition.

4.5 Possible Innovative Solutions/Alternatives to Strengthen

Food and Nutritional Status Amid Climate Change

Malnutrition is still a major problem that needs to be addressed at the earliest.

Multiple malnutrition grades, undernourishment (wasting, stunting, underweight),
overnourishment, obesity, and nutritional deficiencies (especially micronutrients)
are affecting all the countries. Insufficient access to a balanced and nutritious diet
affects the health of the population (Govender et al. 2017). Globally, almost 45% of
children from middle-income and low-income countries die due to undernutrition,
but there is also a rise in childhood obesity. Among all the adults, 1.9 billion are
above normal weight or obese, and 462 million are underweight (WHO 2018).
Along with these prevailing conditions, climate change through increased heat
stress, droughts, floods, storms, pollution, and changes in air composition has further
worsened the situation by growing threats of diseases, hunger, malnutrition, and
food and nutritional insecurity. This is especially more conspicuous among the urban
poor and majority rural population (Watts et al. 2015). Tackling climate change to
maintain individual’s nutritional status remains the biggest challenge of twenty-first
century. A multi-sectorial adaptation and mitigation approach is required to solve
this problem. Adaptation is the process to adjust with existing climate or expected
changes and its effect. It also includes facilitating interventions for adapting to
expected climate and using opportunities for reducing harm. Mitigation measures
in terms of climate change are human interventions to reduce sources of emissions
and increase the sinks of GHGs (IPCC 2014). The following section highlights the
possible adaptations and mitigation solutions that can be taken up to combat the
adverse effects of climate change on human health and food and nutritional security.
4 Resilient Measures in Face of Climate Change to Strengthen Food and Nutritional. . . 123

4.5.1 Possible Solutions Through Acclimatization and Mitigation

in Farming and Food System

The food system, as discussed earlier, includes activities right from production to
food consumption, i.e., reaching the consumer’s plate. In addition to agriculture that
deals with food production, all the activities related to storage, transport, and food
handling also come under the food system. Various pathways on climate change can
be adopted to make agriculture sustainable, resilient for combating its harmful effect.
Sustainable, nutrition-sensitive, and climate-smart farming could be a possible
solution to be adopted against climate change. Sustainable agriculture aims at
conventional and organic production practices helping to improve resource effi-
ciency and minimize waste. This system unifies plant and animal production, which
aims at producing human food, animal feed, and fuel for satisfying the need of the
ever-growing population. Sustainable agriculture intends to save the environment
and maintain soil fertility. It also ensures food and nutritional security for everyone
in present and future (Velten et al. 2015; HLPE 2016).
Nutrition-sensitive agriculture directs at providing affordable, nutritious, safe
food in both quality and quantity to meet the nutritional requirements of the
population, thus improving health and nutritional status of an individual. Adding a
nutrition lens to agriculture requires coordination and cooperation of multiple
stakeholders from agriculture and health and nutrition sectors. Nutrition sensitivity
in agriculture includes approaches such as diversification of agriculture, improving
horticulture productions, production of nutrient-dense crop varieties, and improving
the quality of livestock and fisheries (Harvey et al. 2014; FAO 2017). Agriculture
caters to food needs, and it is an integral part of reducing hunger and malnutrition.
Only increasing the food production is not enough to improve the nutritional status
of the population; thus, nutrition-sensitive agriculture programs focusing on diversi-
fication of agriculture, rearing livestock, and dairy and promoting micronutrient-rich
crops may lead to dietary diversity (Ruel et al. 2017). For making agriculture
nutrition-sensitive, some steps can be taken like incorporating nutrition objectives
in agricultural projects and timely assessment of indicators to ensure achievements
of nutritional goals. Following up impact of the project from farm to plate (produc-
tion to consumption) for checking complete implementation and nutritional benefit
of the project is essential. Collaborating and involving all the stakeholders in a
project also make it more successful (Garrett and Kennedy 2015).
Climate-smart agriculture includes a set of approaches aiming at sustainable
increase in productivity, resilient agriculture and food security system, reduction
or removal of GHGs, and promotion of food and nutritional security (FAO 2013a).
In many developing nations like India, agricultural productivity needs improvement
to cater to the needs of a growing population (Chakrabarty 2016). Climate-smart
agriculture also focuses on poverty reduction and economic upliftment of farmers
(Steenwerth et al. 2014).
124 D. Vijayalakshmi and M. D. Barbhai

4.5.2 Water Management

Water is the main resource for agriculture as it is mainly dependent on rainfall and
climate. Thus, scarcity of water in the era of climate change is the biggest challenge
to be faced, and climate-resilient practices need to be adopted. Irrigation facilities
should be focused on managing water properly. The wise use of irrigation facilities
and promoting micro-irrigation could be possible solutions for water resource
management. Efficient irrigation practices like micro-irrigation, drip irrigation,
sprinkle irrigation, and water harvesting according to field situations will be benefi-
cial strategies (Dickie et al. 2014; FAO 2015; Rao et al. 2017). Similarly, drought-,
pest-, and disease-resistant, temperature-tolerant crop varieties can also be devel-
oped and adopted. This may help to reduce crop losses due to extreme climatic
conditions and improve productivity.

4.5.3 Reduce Deforestation

Forests are one of the best examples of carbon sink. Forest management via ensuring
agroforestry and reducing deforestation will improve resilience to climate change.
Planting trees will not only help in removing carbon, but it will also contribute to
food security (FAO 2015). Deforestation resulting from transforming the forest into
cultivable lands is one of the sources of emission of GHGs, which can be mitigated
through sustainable agricultural intensification and conservation of forests.

4.5.4 Diversification of Agriculture

Diversification of agriculture could contribute to dietary diversity as it aims at

increasing the availability and accessibility of diverse foods. Thus, agriculture
extension services can promote crop diversity and integrated approaches for
improved nutrition. Rice production is a major contributor to GHG emissions from
agriculture (Saxena et al. 2018). Thus, efforts to reduce emissions from rice fields,
popularizing and expanding no-tillage farming, and water management are essential.
New varieties of rice with enhanced yields and nutritional qualities and less water
requirement need to be developed. Consultative Group for International Agricultural
Research (CGIAR) and FAO are promoting soil, water, and nutrient management
through Rice Integrated Crop Management Systems (RICMS) (FAO 2008). Grow-
ing non-paddy crops and focusing on the production of other cereal grains can also
help to reduce emissions and increase dietary diversity (Rao et al. 2017). Focusing
on horticulture and olericulture can also add variety to the diets by including various
vegetables and fruits, thus improving vitamins, antioxidants, and micronutrients in
the diet.
4 Resilient Measures in Face of Climate Change to Strengthen Food and Nutritional. . . 125

4.5.5 Blending Traditional Knowledge with Modern Technology

and the Preservation of Resources

Traditional expertise or indigenous knowledge stems from an accumulation of

experience throughout generations, which is passed on orally from generation to
generation. Indigenous knowledge has a cultural base specific to particular tribes,
locality, region, etc., and it is learned from observation of nature, thus being nature
friendly. Combining indigenous knowledge with newer technology can provide a
powerful tool to promote food and nutritional security during climate changes
(Gyampoh et al. 2009; Porter et al. 2014). Understanding the importance of indige-
nous practices, FAO promotes and develops innovative projects supporting the use
of traditional knowledge (FAO 2009b). Traditional knowledge regarding agricul-
tural practices are the local experience of thousands of years of the folk. Cropping
systems like mixed cropping where farmers grow more than two crops at a time
increase the diversity of crops and also reduce the risk from failure of a single crop
(Singh and Singh 2017). Agroforestry is blending agriculture with forestry. It
benefits the farmers by growing trees in fields and improving soil fertility, creating
a favorable microclimate for crops, providing fruits, wood, etc. (Mbow et al. 2014;
Meybeck et al. 2018). Integrated farming with conservation goals and wildlife-
friendly and land-sharing practices is one way of protecting biodiversity (Garnett
et al. 2013). Some, e.g., of agriculture from different ethnic-cultural groups of
Vietnam, include “rock pocket agriculture” that can be adopted in other places
where similar conditions exist. In rock pocket agriculture, rock walls are created
on a slope which protects the soil inside it from erosion for almost 6–7 years, and
maize or other such crops are cultivated there (Vien 2003). Complementing and
supplementing agriculture with livestock, aquaculture, and horticulture in the
integrated farming system can be useful in dealing with current conditions
(Descheemaeker et al. 2016; Meybeck et al. 2018), e.g., an integrated farming
system with fish farming, where the farmers can benefit from synergism of both
conventional farming and fish cultivation. This approach can be utilized by various
smallholding farmers. It will also help in improving food and nutritional security.
Such integrated agriculture-aquaculture is practiced in various countries in Asia,
such as Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Bangladesh, China, India, Thailand, etc.
(Phong 2010).

4.5.6 Promotion of Millets Through Increasing Their Production

Millets are termed as “nutri-cereals” as they are nutrient-rich and provide various
health benefits. Minor cereals and millets have a lower carbon footprint compared to
rice and wheat. Millets are also drought-resistant crops and can survive in conditions
like less water and higher temperature (Saxena et al. 2018). Major millets are
popularly cultivated, and minor millets, viz., kodo, proso, barnyard, foxtail, little,
and browntop millets, are also gaining importance due to their nutritional content.
All these millets are stress and drought tolerant and can be grown in regions with
126 D. Vijayalakshmi and M. D. Barbhai

water scarcity, as they require low inputs. Both their nutritional benefits and ability
to withstand lack of water and increased temperature coupled with reduced GHG
emission make them the most suitable solution for food stability during climate
change. Agrarian-nutritional importance of millets calls for the attention of promot-
ing millets through various agriculture and nutritional programs. These underutilized
grains have wide natural diversity and can be further explored to have high yielding
varieties with more research attention (Kumar et al. 2018; Upadhyaya and
Vetriventhan 2018).

4.5.7 Soil, Crop, and Livestock Management

Soil restoration and maintenance of soil health and grasslands are some potential
mitigation solutions having low to moderate costs. Regular soil testing will help to
make an appropriate decision in nutrient management. Crops grown in healthy soils
will produce higher yields, thus increasing availability of better and nutritious foods.
Crop yields can be managed or increased by changing crop dates, especially for
cereals and oilseeds, to prevent from drought. Early sowing and transplanting may
improve crop yields (Porter et al. 2014). Livestock management can also help in the
reduction of GHGs. Improving feeds and feeding practices for livestock can help in
the reduction of methane from animal production and increase productivity in terms
of milk, eggs, and meat. This can lead to increased availability, thus making diets
diversified and nutritious (Dickie et al. 2014; FAO 2015).

4.5.8 Management of Fertilizers and Its Better Application

This can be achieved through genetically modified plant breeds that provide the
same or increased yields even with the application of lesser fertilizers. Training on
the precise and appropriate use of fertilizers and their optimum dosage for particular
crops can reduce the burden on soil and environment. Excessive use of synthetic
fertilizers poses a serious threat on the crop as well as soil. It also has an adverse
impact on climate (Dickie et al. 2014). Organic fertilizers should be used to enrich
soil nutrients.

4.5.9 Use of ICT (Information and Communication Technology)

and Remote Sensing Tools

Remote sensing can help in providing a location-specific solution for the problems.
Once the site-specific personalized issues are identified, personalized messages can
be sent through mobile SMS. Various such pilot studies are being taken up globally.
Efforts are also taken in developing countries. One such pilot study conducted
during 2015 in India at Anantapur district is Harita Priya, a precision agricultural
initiative by the government of Telangana in collaboration with the Centre for
4 Resilient Measures in Face of Climate Change to Strengthen Food and Nutritional. . . 127

Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) providing personalized agro-

advisories based on information collected from farms to farmers in regional language
(Telugu), viz., SMS (CDAC 2016).
Technological advancement in agriculture should help in establishing, monitor-
ing, and detection systems to give precautionary warnings about climate change and
pest attacks. Warning system providing early detection of pest and diseases outbreak
can help in taking quick preventive measures (Rao et al. 2017).

4.5.10 Decreasing Food Wastage and Adopting Nutritious Diets

Nutrient-sensitive sustainable climate-smart agriculture should be coupled with a

nutrition-smart food system, and for it to be nutrient-sensitive, focus should be on all
its stages right from producing to consuming. Avoiding food losses and wastage is a
core concern to achieve sustainability in the food system (SDSN 2013). Food losses
occur at crop production stage due to deficient food supply chain; improper infra-
structure, technology, knowledge, and skills; and inadequate access to a market,
whereas food waste occurs at consumer stage due to discarding foods unfit for
human consumption (e.g., packaged food crossing expiry date, plate waste, etc.). It
compromises the availability of food and adds to the burden of agriculture, demand-
ing an increase in production (FAO 2013b; Garnett et al. 2013). It also poses an
additional burden on water, land, and emission of GHGs. Food wastage is estimated
to be one third of that associated with consumption. If we can reduce the food losses
and wastage at each stage of the food chain, then we may help in reducing the burden
on agricultural production (Dickie et al. 2014). Post-harvest storage and processing
play an essential role in maintaining the quality of the food. Inadequate storage
facilities, transport facilities, and processing plants may increase the food wastage.
Thus, adequate infrastructure should be developed for the same.
Along with reduced food wastage, shifting to nutritious diets is most important.
With urbanization there is increased consumption of refined carbohydrates, sugars,
and fats leading to declining in dietary diversity. Unhealthy diets are a global burden
in promoting diseases (Caron et al. 2018).

4.5.11 Increasing Focus on Underutilized Crops (Fruits, Vegetables,

Pseudo-Cereals, Grains, Etc.)

Diversification of agriculture has been discussed in the sections earlier. Diversifica-

tion, in its extended form, will focus on underutilized crops, leading to increased
options of a variety of nutritious food items in the shelf. This, in turn, may reduce
food prices. Thus, scaling up and focus on diversification of underutilized crops are
required at a local, regional, national, and global level (FAO 2017). Improving yields
of underutilized crops and wild foods will help in providing numerous options,
especially for the poor. Various underutilized cereals, fruits, and vegetables are
available, which can add to food and nutritional security, such as quinoa, drumstick
128 D. Vijayalakshmi and M. D. Barbhai

leaves (Moringa oleifera), karonda (Carissa carandas), jujube, etc. For example, in
India drumstick leaves—with abundant antioxidants, protein, and minerals espe-
cially iron—have the potential to be used as a source of functional food for value
addition of baked goods. It can also be used in preparing chutney (Durst and
Bayasgalanbat 2014). Quinoa—an underutilized pseudo-cereal also called as golden
grain of Andes, with ample amount of proteins, amino acids, minerals, and
phytochemicals such as phenols, saponin, etc.—also helps in diversifying diet and
making it nutrient-rich (Farinazzi-Machado et al. 2012). Backyard home gardening
of some indigenous, underutilized food can be promoted to increase the nutrition of
family diet.

4.5.12 Biofortification, Fortification, and Value Addition of Available

Food Products to Enhance Their Nutritional Composition

There are still nutritional deficiencies existing in population. Thus, biofortification of

foods will help to improve nutritional value of foods. Promoting biofortified food
will improve food and nutritional security (Garnett et al. 2013). Efforts are being
taken by various organizations like the ICAR-Central Research Institute for Dryland
Agriculture (CRIDA) to grow biofortified crops. ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice
Research (IIRR), Hyderabad, and ICAR-Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI),
Cuttack, are genetically modifying rice to make it more nutritious. The ICAR-
Directorate of Mushroom Research and ICAR-Central Institute of Post-Harvest
Engineering and Technology, Ludhiana, and CSIR- CFTRI, Mysore, are developing
products from biofortification of different crops. Developing low-cost nutrient-rich
foods will improve health status. This can be done especially for the children as they
are the most vulnerable. Involving government agencies, NGOs, and women SHGs
in the development of nutritious value-added food can help to combat malnutrition,
and involvement of women SHGs will make them financially stronger. ICRISAT is
developing agribusiness platforms to support such ventures where entrepreneurs can
be encouraged and linked to market facilities (Satarupa et al. 2018).
Food fortification is a cheap source to combat micronutrient deficiencies. Food
fortification is an addition of essential nutrient or trace element to food for preventing
or correcting the nutrient deficiency of a population. It includes restoration and
enrichment, i.e., addition of nutrients lost during manufacturing (Allen et al.
2006). Popular examples of fortification are iron and iodine fortified salt, vitamin
A and D fortified oils, fortified wheat flours, etc. Fortification can be mandatory/
compulsory or voluntary and market-driven or mass (for the population as a whole)
or target fortification (for specific groups).
Various processing methods such as dehulling, dehusking, polishing, milling, etc.
are responsible for the removal of bran and bran fractions from cereals and millets.
Processing techniques used to prepare fruit juices, pulps, jams, jellies, etc. are
responsible for removal of peel and pomace from fruits. All these processing
techniques result in improved palatability, but reduced nutritional qualities of the
product. Removal of bran and peel results in removal of fiber component. It is also
4 Resilient Measures in Face of Climate Change to Strengthen Food and Nutritional. . . 129

evident from some researches that these components are a rich source of
antioxidants, minerals, etc. These by-products generated during processing are
discarded as waste or some time used in animal feeds. Researchers are finding
ways to incorporate such food wastes as novel food ingredients in an edible food
product for value addition (O’Shea et al. 2012; Ahmad et al. 2018).
Brans of rice, wheat, oats, barley, foxtail millets, barnyard, sorghum, etc. are
identified as a potential source of nutrients and are used in the value addition of
products. These brans obtained as waste from processing industry could be exploited
as nutraceuticals to enhance the value of products having less nutrients such as
bakery items (Patel 2015). Various researches are taken up to develop products like
high-fiber pasta incorporated with wheat bran (Sudha et al. 2011), sorghum bran-
supplemented bread (Dahlberg et al. 2004), wheat bran-enriched muffins (Romjaun
and Prakash 2013) and cookies (Ertas 2015), biscuits developed using rice bran
protein concentrates (Yadav et al. 2011), etc. Phytochemical-, polyphenol-,
carotenoid-, and dietary fiber-rich mango peel biscuits were developed by another
researcher (O’Shea et al. 2012; Baddi et al. 2015). Peels and pomace of some fruits
like apple and citrus lime are used alternatively as animal feed (O’Shea et al. 2012).
Apple peels and pomace having high concentrations of antioxidants and phenolic
compounds can be used in the preparation of sausages, jams, muffins, cereal bar,
fruit bars, fruit leathers, etc. (Wolfe and Liu 2003; Henríquez et al. 2010; O’Shea
et al. 2012). Grape seeds, skins, and stems, lime, orange, peach peels, and vegetable
peels from carrot, onion, tomato, etc. can also be used as functional foods (O’Shea
et al. 2012). Fruit seeds from avocado, jackfruit, longan, mango, and tamarind—rich
source of antioxidants—can also be used as additives in the functional food industry
(Soong and Barlow 2004). Banana pseudo-stem contributes to a lot of waste
generated from banana cultivation every year, which is rich in sugar and minerals.
It has many therapeutic benefits and can be used in value addition of foods. Research
has been conducted to develop fermented beverages (Puranik 2017) which also
contribute toward generating additional income for banana growers through waste
utilization. Scaling up and popularization of such value-added foods can provide a
helping hand in promoting food and nutritional security. It may also reduce some
GHG emission that is contributed from food wastes.

4.5.13 Alternative Innovative Food Products

Innovative alternatives should be promoted and implemented to alleviate malnutri-

tion. Some such alternatives include consumption of edible insects, lab-grown meat,
seaweeds, etc. Edible insects are consumed traditionally in various parts of Asia and
Africa. They are rich sources of proteins, amino acids, fat, vitamins, and minerals,
nearly similar to that of consumed livestock. Some insects popularly consumed are
crickets, silkworm pupae, beetles, larvae, bees, ants, etc. (Tao and Li 2018). Insect
production/harvesting/rearing is a low-cost affair. Thus, in the face of growing
malnutrition and climate change, edible insects could prove as super-food as they
are nutrient-rich and also emit less GHGs (Huis et al. 2013). With all the nutritional
130 D. Vijayalakshmi and M. D. Barbhai

benefits spoken, insects are not part of the majority of diets. This is due to the
disgusting concept associated with the consumption of insects and also some section
of the population being vegetarians and vegans. For the other section of the popula-
tion who merely reject edible insect due to disgust factor, innovative processing
techniques can be applied to convert insects into flours and pastes to be value-added
to other products. Lab-grown meat or cultured meat is one such innovative approach
to deal with malnutrition in an era of climate change as it can help to cut down GHG
emission. But there are a lot of factors to be considered before it popularly hits the
market floor, such as safety regulations; cultural, social, economic, and political
background; consumer acceptance; etc. (Stephens et al. 2018). Seaweeds are another
such alternative with a highly nutritive profile containing vitamins, proteins,
minerals, dietary fiber, and essential fatty acids (Ortiz et al. 2006). Seaweeds form
part of traditional diets in China, Japan, and Korea with wide range of products that
can be prepared like sushi, noodles, pickles, soup, tea, wine, jams, jellies, cheese,
chocolates, salad, curry, etc. (Kaliaperumal 2003).

4.5.14 Empowerment and Capacity Building

Training and capacity building will help to improve their skills in adjusting to
climate changes (Suchiradipta and Saravanan 2018). Making communities aware
about climate change through various empowerment and capacity building
programs, teaching them regarding the causes, impacts, and adverse effects, will
make them more aware of climate change and help in adopting new ideas and
experimenting with new crop varieties to adopt climate change (Kindra 2010).
Empowering women socially and economically and politically should be focused,
as they are more at risk of malnutrition and undernutrition as they lack access to
many facilities. It is also observed that if a woman is controlling the household, there
is an improvement in child nutrition (Chung 2012). In many countries, women eat
last after feeding the whole family. They also have to face secondary status com-
pared to men in decision-making. Agriculture extension service can help in building
a more robust program with integrating gender and nutrition in agriculture. This will
help in enhancing the contribution of women to household income, reducing gender
gaps, and improving the nutritional status of families. It has been observed in many
studies that involvement of females in decision-making in agriculture, family expen-
diture, and food distribution can improve the nutritional status of the family
(Satarupa et al. 2018). Women can be involved in activities like the value addition
of food products. Further market opportunities can be created for these products to
increase their economic stability that will contribute to improving household
practices of preservation and nutrition improvement.
4 Resilient Measures in Face of Climate Change to Strengthen Food and Nutritional. . . 131

4.5.15 Nutrition Education Through Educational Institutions,

Farmer Field Schools, and Mass Media

Nutrition education helps in acquiring nutrition-related knowledge and skills

through instruction and training (ADA 2011). It assists the population to make an
informed decision regarding their food choices, health, and well-being. Nutrition
education is a good solution to tackle malnutrition and climate change (FAO 2017).
Nutrition, agriculture, environment, and extension departments should join hands to
tackle the problem of food and nutrition security coupled with climate change.
Strengthening extension services is one step toward addressing these issues (Garnett
et al. 2013).
The integration of nutrition intervention within agricultural platforms is a must to
reach a larger section of the population. Nutrition education through already existing
agriculture programs as complementary services will fetch larger participation at the
village level. Thus, imparting nutrition education to people via agricultural extension
systems as they already have established infrastructure, close connection with
farmers, and community trust will prove beneficial (Babu et al. 2015; Fanzo
2015). Collaboration is required within government staff, health-care workers,
agriculture subject matter specialists, and extension workers, to create awareness
and adopt high-impact nutritional practices (SPRING Bangladesh 2017; Aakesson
et al. 2014).
Using technologies with the participation of the villagers, health workers, and
women self-help groups (SHGs) while preparing and disseminating the nutrition-
related videos will help in educating more people in a rural area as they well accept
the information (Kadiyala et al. 2016).
Farmer field schools (FFS) are based on experiential learning principles, where
farmers with same interest join together for a weekly meeting to learn about
agricultural practices. A similar approach can be used to promote nutrition educa-
tion. The concept of FFS can be used as a base to develop Farmer Nutrition School
(FNS), which will help to reduce malnutrition (SPRING Bangladesh 2016).
School-based approach nutrition education can help in improving child nutrition
(Tirado et al. 2013). Including nutrition education and backyard gardening exposure
to children at an early age can help in developing healthy eating habits. Connecting
people and farms is one way to diversifying the diet; based on the concept of
connecting farms, farmers’ and consumers’ efforts can be taken to involve the
non-farming community in agriculture production via exposure visits to farms,
especially for the preschool and school-going children. This will create awareness
about locally grown foods and understanding their importance in the diet. An
excellent example of nutrition education based on such concept is created by Rutgers
Cooperative Extension (RCE) for 3–8-year-old children called “From Our Farms”
(Hughes 2002).
132 D. Vijayalakshmi and M. D. Barbhai

4.5.16 Policy Changes and Support

Policy-level changes and support should be given to adopting climate-smart

technologies to achieve sustainable agriculture, reduced GHGs, effective and effi-
cient food system, and equal access to food for all (Suchiradipta and Saravanan
2018). Encouraging research on linkages between food, nutrition, health care, and
climate change for developing models providing holistic solutions is needed. More
investment on researches can help to improve monitoring and surveillance systems
and provide a better, realistic, implementable solution (Watts et al. 2015).
The collaboration of various research agencies, a multidisciplinary approach on
research, will throw light on all angles of the problem. Coordinating government and
non-governmental organizations will also improve the reach and access to extend the
climate-smart interventions toward food and nutritional security. Dealing with
climate change alone is not going to fetch any positive results; thus, the multidisci-
plinary, multi-sectorial approach is required. Thus, collaborating and empowering
different government ministries and departments, viz., environment, agriculture,
women and child development, and health, will help to fight climate change with a
holistic approach (Watts et al. 2015; Meybeck et al. 2018).
Developing national and international cooperation such as South-South coopera-
tion, where expertise is exchanged between the developing countries helping each
other with knowledge, technical assistance, and/or sometimes investments, will help
to get a wider vision of the problem and access to new solutions or technologies used
by other countries to deal with similar problems (Meybeck et al. 2018).
Public and private sector tie-ups and collaboration between all stakeholders, viz.,
scientists in various fields (agriculture, water, environment, health, and food
research), farmers, policymakers, technology providers, and engineers, were
suggested in Extreme Weather and Resilience of the Global Food System
Report (2015).
Developing a reliable monitoring system to observe and analyze weather and
climate will enable providing early warnings (FAO 2008) and help in better utiliza-
tion of available weather information and management tools. Other policies include
promoting soil testing and soil health card schemes and strengthening crop manage-
ment system. Insurance schemes can be implemented to deal with climate change
risks.
Promoting agrobiodiversity and effective use of natural resources is an approach
that assists in tackling and increasing adaptability toward deleterious impacts of
climate change. Integrated policies should be formed and implemented to boost
agroforestry. Funds should be provided for such initiatives. Various trained groups
at the local level can be formed to promote, educate, and train people about
agroforestry (Meybeck et al. 2018).
Poverty can be a root cause for undernutrition. Thus, poverty eradication should
be focused by policymakers, and initiatives should be taken for the same. Policies
promoting access and availability for the consumption of nutritious foods should be
taken up to reduce food and nutritional insecurities (Ghattas 2014).
4 Resilient Measures in Face of Climate Change to Strengthen Food and Nutritional. . . 133

Health-related issues are still increasing due to climate change. Thus, policies
providing maternal and child health care should be strengthened, and more invest-
ment and planning should be done to formulate such policies. Strengthening surveil-
lance systems giving early alerts of infectious diseases and environmental risk
factors can help in the prevention of various food-, water-, and vector-borne diseases
(Tirado et al. 2013).
Policies should be established to promote, protect, and utilize underutilized foods
and traditional knowledge and practices. Protecting traditional knowledge and
practices with the help of intellectual property rights can safeguard them. Policies
should be formulated to develop standards for underutilized foods. The promotion of
traditional knowledge can be done through its inclusion in school and college
curriculum. Incentives should be given for the people who help in documenting
and following traditional practices based on indigenous knowledge as this is a way to
deal with climate change (Durst and Bayasgalanbat 2014).

4.6 Summary and Conclusion

With the majority relying on farming, and extreme stress on natural resources, the
influence of climate change on agriculture is visible globally, especially in
low-latitude and tropical regions. These forecasted impacts may further decrease
yields of staple cereals in many countries contributing to food insecurity. Livelihood
security of poor will be worst hit in the long run due to difficulty in maintaining
agricultural productivity and the consequences of climate change.
All the four dimensions of food security, important in meeting dietary needs, can
be affected by changes in agricultural production resulting from climate change, thus
lowering food production. Some short-term impacts on many food crops include a
reduction in yield which can be offset by adaption measures based on available
technologies like altering planting dates, heat-tolerant varieties, efficient water
management, conservation agriculture, protected cultivation, etc. But addressing
long-term impacts requires investments in strategic research, extension, and helping
farmers in risk management through innovative insurance services. Droughts,
floods, and extreme weather events decrease crop yields and nutritional properties
and also affect incomes and livelihoods of farmers and farm laborers due to loss of
wages. The nutritional quality of foods can be compromised in terms of protein and
mineral content due to depletion of micronutrients in the soils.
Existing statistics on malnutrition suggest high rates with 39% of adults globally
are overweight or obese and approximately 20 million babies have low birth weight
thus are more prone to malnutrition. Anemia is also one of the major prevailing
problems in women and girls. It is also a well-known fact that deficiency of
micronutrients like iron and zinc can cause hidden hunger. Climate change, coupled
with the current malnutrition status, may worsen the situation further. There are few
technology and policy direction, which need attention in planning adaptation toward
climate change, i.e., prioritization and focus on vulnerable hotspots, investments on
technology generation and dissemination, prudent use of natural resources,
134 D. Vijayalakshmi and M. D. Barbhai

leveraging the ongoing schemes and missions, livelihood diversification and risk
transfer, financing adaptation costs, and capacity building. Investment plans and
policies in agriculture, rural infrastructure, and water resources need to be tailored
according to the requirements of regions and communities. Apart from climate
change, rapidly changing food preferences and habits are challenging agriculture
to produce quality food across the seasons. Preferences for proteins, carbohydrates,
specific fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and other secondary metabolites, fiber, etc.
have increasing trends for a complete diet. Growing fruit trees at the farm, kitchen
garden, and along farm borders and roads provides easy access to fruits, which will
help in sequestration and achieving ecological balance. Food basket has to be
expanded by exploiting edible neglected or underutilized species. These can encour-
age the farmers toward diversification. Nutrition education, along with the diversifi-
cation of crops and kitchen gardening, can help in improving the dietary habits
leading to better nutritional status among the population.
A multidisciplinary perspective is necessary for dealing with climate change and
food and nutritional security. Measures need to be taken for ensuring the food quality
at production and consumption levels. Collaborations within various departments
linked with climate, agriculture, food, health, and NGOs should be strengthened, and
interconnections between social activists, health workers, extension personnel, etc.
will help to combat climate change more effectively.

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Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated
Approach for Attaining Agricultural 5
Sustainability

Abhilash, Alka Rani, Arti Kumari, Ram Narayan Singh, and

Kavita Kumari

Abstract

Impacts of climate change (CC) and climate variability (CV) are felt throughout
the world as it’s getting hotter. As a result, irregular distribution of precipitation, a
progressive rise in the oceanic levels, and more frequent occurrence of extreme
weather events (EWE) have become a common phenomenon in recent years.
Extended episodes of drought, floods, and shifts in the agroclimatic areas are
threatening agricultural crop production (ACP) throughout the globe. However,
their severity is especially felt and perceived more in developing and least
developed nations from southern Asia and African regions. Their impacts are
expected to become further severe as the average global temperature of Earth is
projected to rise by another 1.1
C to 6.4
C till the end of the twenty-first century.
In addition to being affected by CC and CV, agriculture also exacerbates it via
emitting a large amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. The
GHG is reported to be intensive in usual production methods, such as conven-
tional cultivation and plant nutrient and irrigation management systems by the
farmers. In this context, climate-smart agriculture (CSA) can bring adaptation and

Abhilash (*)
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana, India
e-mail: abhilashaanu92@hau.ac.in
A. Rani
ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, MP, India
A. Kumari
ICAR -Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna, Bihar, India
R. N. Singh
National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management, Baramati, Maharashtra, India
K. Kumari
ICAR – National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 141
Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_5
142 Abhilash et al.

mitigation strategies to sustain ACP. For instance, CSA contributes to the devel-
opment of climate-resilient agricultural systems by increasing soil characteristics
and the efficiency of water and nutrient use and by providing more stable yields
and reducing emissions of GHGs. Although the advantages of CSA are broadly
recognized, there is still a limited and dispersed holistic assessment of adaptation
and the mitigation potential of CSA techniques.

Keywords
Climate-smart agricultural practices · Climate change · Climate variability ·
Climate change mitigation and adaptation · Sustainable agricultural development

5.1 Introduction of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA)

Human interferences like industrialization, deforestation, etc. have augmented the

concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere. As stated by the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
2007a), the atmospheric CO2 concentration has been amplified more than 50%
concerning to the pre-industrial concentration. The contribution of GHG emissions
varied in different sectors like energy (57.8%), industry (21.7%), agriculture
(17.6%), and waste areas (3%). Significant sources of GHG emissions are the
cultivation of rice (20.9%), soils (13%), and burning of crop residues in fields
(2%), which adds 35.9% of total emissions from agriculture (INCCA (Indian
Network for Climate Change Assessment) 2010). All these factors have given rise
to the problem of CC and CV. The impacts of CC and CV are felt as the global
temperature is increasing and there are irregular precipitation pattern, gradual rise in
sea levels, and increased frequency of EWE. Their negative impacts are expected to
deepen shortly. Not only is agriculture affected by the impacts of CC and CV, but it
also intensifies this problem by emitting GHGs through various farming practices. In
this context, the CSA can bring adaptation and mitigation to sustain ACP. As
identified and addressed by the FAO at the 2010 Hague Conference on Agriculture,
Food Security, and CC, CSA corresponds to the accomplishment of sustainable
development objectives. This combines three elements (financial, environmental,
and social) of sustainable agricultural development (SAD) by tackling food, nutri-
tion, and climate security challenges together.
CSA is a strategy for improving scientific rule and investment setting to achieve
SAD to ensure food availability in the light of CC (FAO 2012). CSA is a strategy to
design a framework of policy, capital, and technology to accomplish SAD for
ensuring FNS in the context of changing climatic scenarios. CSA also seeks to
improve the livelihoods and food safety, particularly of small and marginal farmers,
by enhanced management and utilization of natural endowments and employing
suitable production, development, storage, processing, and marketing strategies for
agricultural commodities. CSA takes account of the socioeconomic and environ-
mental conditions in which the potential gains are to be maximized and trade-offs
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 143

minimized. Impacts on available regional resources and energy are also evaluated.
The holistic landscape strategy, which embraces the concepts of environmental
conservation, is centered on balanced land and water usage, which is an essential
component here.
CSA is not a standard, specifically relevant agricultural technology or procedure.
It is a methodology that calls for site-based evaluations to determine the correct
techniques and methods for ACP. This approach:

a. Attempts to recognize and examine interconnected alternatives that establish

synergetic advantages and reduce trade-offs in complex and closely related
problems of SAD, FNS, growth, and CC
b. Identifies the choices sculpted by specific situations and capability of each nation
and by the particular socioeconomic and environmental condition to which they
are used
c. Evaluates the relationships among industries and the demands of various
stakeholders engaged
d. Recognizes obstacles to adoption, particularly between farmers, and offers effec-
tive policy, strategy, intervention, and opportunity strategies and solutions
e. Strives for the integration of strategies, financial investment, and institutionalized
structures to build supporting environments
f. Endeavors to accomplish several goals by recognizing the need to prioritize CSA
practices and to agree together on its various potential advantages and
compromises
g. Ought to give priority to improve living standards, particularly livelihoods of
small farmers by enhancing access to information, awareness, knowledge and
capital, resources, financial products, and marketing sector of economies
h. Improves resilience and enhances adaptability to shocks, particularly that
associated with CC, as weather impacts have severe consequences on rural and
agricultural development
i. Acknowledges the mitigation of CC as a probable secondary advantage, particu-
larly for poor farming people
j. Strives to define the possibilities and recognize transparency gaps for climate-
related funding and incorporate them into conventional agricultural investment
financing outlets

CSA puts together and incorporates methods, strategies, and organizations which
are not precisely firsthand but which are not familiar to peasants, shepherds, farmers,
growers, or fishermen in the light of changing climate. What’s unique and innovative
is also the idea that the integrated and comprehensive solution to several challenges
concurrently and internationally experienced by agriculture and food processes is
approached concomitantly and comprehensively, which prohibits detrimental and
ineffective strategies, regulation, funding, and investment. CSA primarily focuses on
the following three objectives:

a. A sustainable rise in income and productivity

144 Abhilash et al.

b. Enhanced adaptability to CC and CV

c. Contribution toward mitigation of CC

5.2 Climate Change and Climate Variability

It is imperative to understand the concept of CC and CV before gaining insights into

CSA. According to IPCC, “Climate change is defined as a change in the state of the
climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean
and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period,
typically decades or longer. CC may be due to natural internal processes or external
forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions, and persistent
anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use” (IPCC
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 2018).
CC is a long-term gradual shift (rise or fall) in normal (e.g., normal temperature)
or the range of weather conditions (e.g., frequency and severity of EWE). It is slow
and steady and is quite hard to observe without scientific records of statistical data of
climatic variables as it progresses gradually, dissimilar from year-to-year variability.
It is attributable to both natural variabilities and human activity. It takes place as a
result of variations in the earth’s atmosphere, such as deviations in its orbit around
the sun or alteration in the atmosphere due to human activities. There’s nothing
fundamentally wrong with CC. It was experienced in the past and will happen in the
future again. The present problem comes from the rate of change – how rapidly
changes are happening. There is strong evidence enough to prove that human-driven
anthropogenic activities are causative of this exceptional, unprecedented rate of
global temperature rise. Since the pre-industrial era in the mid-twentieth century,
anthropogenic actions such as fossil fuel (FF) burning and land clearing for intensive
agricultural practices and industrialization have enhanced to drastic GHG emissions
in the atmosphere, which is responsible for trapping more thermal energy to raise the
surface temperature of the earth.
CV is more harmful to agriculture and livelihood as compared to CC. According
to IPCC, “Climate variability is defined as variations in the mean state and other
statistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the
climate on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events.
Variability may be due to natural internal processes within the climate system
(internal variability), or to variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing
(external variability)” (IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 2018).
Scientists believe CV in the manner that it oscillates around the long-term statistical
value of climatic normal on seasonal, annual, or decadal time scale. For easy
understanding, this scenario can be divided into two parts: average and range.
Working out the range gives a rough idea about average, and the converse is also
true. So, both are complementary to each other.
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 145

5.2.1 Average

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Geneva, Switzerland, defines

climate as the average weather conditions over 30-year time intervals. Such
30-year averages are termed as climatological normal, which are used to calculate,
observe, and define the climate—or a particular subset of the climate—at a specific
area. A 30-year data is sufficient enough to estimate the average, which is not
affected by year-to-year fluctuations. Normal is determined using the data collected
from weather stations for a number of climate parameters, like temperature and
rainfall, in the area of concern. Normal is computed for many weather parameters,
such as temperature or precipitation, depending upon available data from weather
stations of the concerned region. In these 30-year averages, significant year-to-year
variations can be notable. For example, in Fig. 5.1, the normal annual maximum
temperature (Tmax) for India is 29.61
C from 1981 to 2010. But the annual Tmax is
not precisely 29.61
C for each year in that range (e.g., in 1995 it was 30.18
C; in
1997 it was 29.05
C). This year-to-year instability around the statistically derived
normal is CV.

5.2.2 Range

Only half of the story of CV is covered by average; the fluctuations around the
average are another half, i.e., the range. To calculate the average, the variety within
data is “smoothed,” but there is so much to learn by studying this variation,

Fig. 5.1 Representation of all India long-term annual maximum temperature (Tmax) (Data source:
https://data.gov.in/resources/annual-and-seasonal-maximum-temperature-india)
146 Abhilash et al.

particularly the extremes. For example, in Fig. 5.1, the long-term average for annual
Tmax in India is 29.11
C from 1901 to 2011. But during that time frame, the lowest
Tmax was recorded in the year 1917 (28.11
C), and the highest Tmax was recorded in
the year 2009 (30.29
C), which shows the range of annual Tmax around the long-
term average. So, CV is the unanticipated and sporadic monthly or seasonal or
periodic fluctuation in climate or its components without following any explicit trend
with the past events. Both CC and CV have a significant effect on the ecosystem,
agriculture, livelihood, and FNS. These problems are becoming severe due to a
continuous increase in GHG emission owing to anthropogenic activities.

5.3 Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability

on Agriculture

The latest documented fifth assesment report of IPCC (2014) shows that the atmo-
sphere of the earth was exposed to extraordinary heating in recent decades, due to
which hydrological cycle and rainfall trends across the planet will be significantly
affected. All through the period from 1880 to 2012, global temperatures escalated by
0.85
C. Weather and climate are the primary driving force that is thoroughly
interlinked with ACP (Selvaraju et al. 2011). The amount, intensity, and nature of
precipitation distribution are crucial to assess the features of rainy season, irrigation
scheduling, and agricultural and livestock production systems. The inter-annual and
intra-seasonal fluctuations in precipitation hinder ACP in tropical and subtropical
ranges. The consequences of CC would have a remarkable impression on ACP, by
decreasing productivity in many regions and increasing uncertainty in production to
the degree that improvements would be required to sustain the ACP in the geograph-
ical region in which food is grown. Economically fragile tropical and subtropical
nations that are already uncertain of their FNS will be severely altered by a decline in
ACP and livestock production because of CC (IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change) 2007a). This will lead to insignificant trades, market shifts, cost
fluctuations, and net food imports among the different nations, which, as a result,
will escalate the gap among developed and developing economies (Padgham 2009).
Small and marginal farmers will face these complicated, regional effects (IPCC
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 2007a).
Frequent happenings of natural hazards, like droughts, heat waves, wildfires,
floods, cyclones, storms, etc., are also the characteristic traits of CC in the upcoming
future. Tackling the effects of climate shocks in the current scenario may offer
valuable insights for future situations. Overall, the length of growing period (LGP)
in cropping season during which crop plant is subjected to temperatures above a
critical point has lengthened, putting several crops under heat stress in different areas
of the world.
Higher evaporative demand of atmosphere along with unpredictable precipitation
patterns on the soils of semiarid tropical areas with high runoff and reduced water
retention capability leads to an elevated risk of moisture deficit at every point during
crop growth (Lipiec et al. 2013). Soil moisture deficits during initial plant growth
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 147

stages lead to increased mortality of seedlings, disrupted plant growth, and dimin-
ished ACP. During late plant growth stages, several cases are observed in which
moisture deficit is evident. Throughout the monsoon season, wet spells and
occurrences of heavy precipitation produce waterlogging in the vicinity of roots,
decrease crop growth, and impede operations in the farmland.
The length of the rainy season is among the key drivers, which significantly
influence the opportunities for ACP. At any particular location, the onset and
withdrawal of rainfall in the monsoon season differ immensely from 1 year to
another. Along with the volatility in regional precipitation, higher temperatures
during the crop growth period can have drastic effects on crop yield, agricultural
income, and FNS (Battisti and Naylor 2009). In the course of crop-growing period,
the temperature sometimes crosses the optimum limits ideal for metabolic, biochem-
ical, and physiological processes like attaining different phenological stages, expan-
sion of the leaf area, assimilation of photosynthates, and filling of grains. Higher
ambient temperature prevailing near the flowering stage of a crop may decrease the
viability of pollen grains, hence reducing the overall grain setting as well as ACP in
most of the cereals grown in tropical areas (paddy, maize, pearl millet, jowar, etc.).
Throughout plant development, the prevalence of elevated soil temperature is indeed
a risk in semiarid and arid ecosystems like Indian, sub-Saharan African, and
Australian regions where a failure of seedling emergence or thermal damages to
the crop are common.
Current variability and extremes being observed in different climates are putting
pressure on ACP systems, but additional CC-related issues that will arise in upcom-
ing years will affect agricultural systems in the respective regions (Karl et al. 2008).
In the current century, the severity, strength, and magnitude of tropical cyclones and
extreme precipitation events are likely to rise over different regions of the globe
(Knutson et al. 2010). Simultaneously, the fractions of arid acreage are expected to
rise (Bates et al. 2008), which can be attributed to long dry summers, particularly in
low- and mid-latitude subtropical areas. The occurrences of drought are also
expected to escalate because of reduced rainfall and intensified evapotranspiration
in these regions (IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 2012).
CC is also jeopardizing the biodiversity of agriculture. If the global mean
temperature exceeds 1.5–2.5
C as compared to what it was in 1980–1999, then
roughly 25–30% of flora and fauna species evaluated this far are prone to the
excessive danger of extinction (IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
2007a). The spectrum of crop weeds, pests, insects, and diseases is expected to shift
to higher latitudes (Lamichhane et al. 2015). Coastal areas, especially fishing
industries, are vulnerable to potential risks of rising oceanic level, change in
concentrations of sea salinity, cyclones, and a reduction in fishing stocks because
of rising oceanic water temperatures (Hall-Spencer et al. 2008).
Farming has been tremendously affected by CC, which is further projected to,
directly and indirectly, impact the ACP (Lobell et al. 2011). Intensifying global
temperature; variations and unpredictability in temperature and precipitation
patterns; fluctuations in the availability of moisture; severity and intensity of
EWE; rise in oceanic level and salinity; and disruptions in the agro-ecological
148 Abhilash et al.

system will have dramatic effects on livestock, agriculture, forestry and fishery
(FAO 2008). The scale of such disruptions not only is determined by the frequency,
intensity, and periodicity of these impacts but also depends on their combined effects
depending upon the regional factors.
ACP in developing nations is projected to decline, but the scenario in developed
nations is probably the opposite (Fischer et al. 2001; IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change) 2007b). The rising temperatures will extend the LGP in
cropping seasons, favoring farming, at higher latitudes where plenty of developed
nations are situated. However, this impact will not be noticed in developing
economies, which are primarily in the tropical regions. Investment potential
among various agricultural industries should be recognized if the decline of yield
from any sector is to be balanced (Crosson 1997). However, a reduction in yield
would lead to an escalation of agricultural commodity prices, and its significant
effects will be observed in food-insecure tropical developing nations (Rosenzweig
and Parry 1994).
An unarguable rise of air temperatures across India, of around 0.6
C, has been
noticed in the previous century from 1901 to 2010 (Krishnan and Sanjay 2017). In a
broad sense, while keeping everything else constant, CC impacts on ACP are
projected to be pervasive throughout the earth, as researchers have found that
agricultural productivity in mid- to high-latitude temperate regions may see a rise.
In contrast, tropical and subtropical areas like the Indian subcontinent and
sub-Saharan African regions are prone to the most drastic impacts owing to their
high dependency on low-input rainfed agriculture and small adaptation potential
(IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 2007a; Mertz et al. 2009).
Overall, CC is going to affect agricultural productivity by fluctuations in growing
environmental conditions explicitly and secondarily by shifting of geographical
location, the spread of agricultural pest and disease endemics, related effects on
soil, irrigation water quality, biological activity, and linked biological diversity in
agricultural ecosystems. Although many projections of the effect of CC appear to be
detrimental to ACP, increased CO2 will add to improved fertilization effects—
however, there are lots of discussion regarding the degree to which it will
improve ACP.
In the changing climatic scenario, India has witnessed various types of EWE like
heat and cold waves, hefty rain, cyclone, etc. During the year 2015, following the
flooding in February and March attributed to unseasonal precipitation, one of the
lethal and worst heat waves claimed around 2,300 lives in the month of May,
succeeded by a below-normal rainfall during monsoon season (NOAA 2015).
Further, rains during August, and during December in Chennai, had huge
repercussions (Livemint 2015).
These occurrences have become more severe, and their frequency has increased
in recent decades, with catastrophic consequences on human health and life, agricul-
ture, and natural resource endowments. High intra-seasonal variability increases the
number of EWE that directly influence crop productivity and, ultimately, the farm
income. For instance, an unexpected 49% shortfall in mean precipitation of India for
July in 2002 inevitably resulted in a significant drought. This resulted in a drop in
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 149

agricultural productivity, causing a loss of around more than 10% of total food grain
production, specifically because of mid-season breaks in monsoon (Samra and Singh
2002).
CC puts added pressure on a country’s FNS by threatening ACP in several ways.
For example, there may be a dramatic expansion in the range of inter-annual and
intra-seasonal monsoon precipitation variability. Based on the current policy sce-
nario of the International Energy Agency and other energy sector economic models,
the World Bank’s figures suggest that in a 4
C global warming situation, annual
average monsoon precipitation intensity and inter-annual precipitation variability
will rise by 10% and 15%, respectively. It forecasts a higher probability of drought
conditions in northwest India whereas increased wetness in the southern peninsula
(World Bank 2013).
CC implications on ACP are influenced by the sensitivity of the crop to average
temperature and its fluctuations, the physiological reaction of the plant to rising
levels of CO2, the dynamics between moisture stress and CO2, and the relationships
between multiple factors and their relative adjustments (Challinor et al. 2009). In this
changing climate scenario, an elevated concentration of CO2 is expected to benefit
many crops. Still, an associated rise in temperature and variability in precipitation
would pose a significant threat to the production of food grains. The latest IPCC
assessment reports and several other global research findings suggest a possibility of
a 15–40% reduction in ACP in the Indian subcontinent because of the rise in
temperature by 2080–2100. Accelerated melting of glaciers in the Himalayas will
alter the availability of irrigation, particularly the ACP in the Indo-Gangetic Plains,
which is a region of utmost importance to sustain FNS, as it significantly contributes
to ensuring food buffer stocks in India. Also, the rising temperatures would probably
decrease the efficacy of fertilizer used. To meet the future food grain requirement of
the rising population of the country, the demand for fertilizer will also rise. Conse-
quently, the excessive use of fertilizers will lead to increased GHG emissions. In the
context of rising global warming due to excessive GHG emissions, this might be an
issue of significant concern during international negotiations in the future.
Rising oceanic temperature is expected to influence the breeding, migration, and
harvesting of fish. The coral ecosystem is also expected to collapse significantly in
the Indian seas to a great extent within the next few decades. Because ACP is tightly
linked with its environment and ecosystem, principally the local climate, most of the
CC- and CV-related prediction would have a tremendous effect on ACP and,
therefore, on the FNS. It is, therefore, essential to evaluate the effects of CC on
agricultural field crops to address the sensitivity of the system to CC and its
variability.
Extreme temperature, especially in the northern and southern regions of India, is a
crucial factor influencing the production of annual crop plants. However, deviations
in the average temperature and its effects on the rates of crop growth may be more
significant as compared to the heating stress caused by various events of extreme
temperatures in the same season. However, this relies upon the sensitivity of the
distinct genotypes (Challinor and Wheeler 2008).
150 Abhilash et al.

CC affects the agricultural sector by altering the dynamics of pests and diseases
such as weeds, insects, nematodes, fungi, bacteria, and viruses. Fluctuations in
weather variables amend the dynamics of their population that consequently leads
to a decline in ACP. Increased temperatures and deviations in rainfall, humidity, as
well as other abiotic variables influence the heterogeneity, diversity, and sensitivity
and broaden the spectrum of various pests and diseases across different agroclimatic
regions (Estay et al. 2009). Among all the climatic variables affecting ACP because
of agricultural pests and diseases, the temperature is considered to be the most
crucial weather variable to influence insect ecology, epidemiology, and dissemina-
tion. In contrast, humidity and precipitation trends determine the sensitivity of
pathogens toward crop plant (Hatfield et al. 2008).
Global warming may escalate the water, shelter, and energy needs for farm
animals to fulfill the predicted milk requirements. CC is going to amplify the
problem of hyperthermia in cattle that will negatively affect their milching yield
and reproductive efficiency. Therefore, the overall area where high-yield dairy
animals can be economically raised is shrinking. In this way, we can realize that
CC and CV may result in having severe impacts on all components of agriculture.

5.4 Need for CSA in the Present Scenario

CC and CV are adversely affecting agriculture, and their impact is projected to

become more severe shortly. CC and CV are going to pose a serious risk to the FNS
in the near future. It is estimated that ACP in Asia will decline by 2.5–10% from
2020 and 5–30% from 2050, with the most horrific decline in South and Central Asia
(Cruz et al. 2007). The FNS of India is also going to be influenced by it. Low crop
productivity is among one of the greatest challenges faced by the agricultural sector
in India. The productivity of cereals in India is significantly lesser as compared to
developed nations/regions like North America, South Africa, East Asia, the
European Union, etc. (see Fig. 5.2). Apart from lower global productivity, there is
a wide variation in the yield among different states of India (see Fig. 5.3). This
condition is going to become worse in the near future due to CC and CV.
Global research findings show the statistical likelihood that ACP in India will
drop from 10 to 40% because of rising temperature by 2080–2100. There is a high
probability of a loss in wheat production up to 4–5 Mt with each 1
C increase of
temperature all through the crop-growing season even when carbon fertilization is
taken into account, excluding other adaptation measures (Aggarwal 2008). This
decrease in wheat production is expected to hit 19 Mt and 27.5 Mt, respectively,
with a rise of 3
C and 5
C. The General Large-Area Model (GLAM) for annual
crops was used to forecast the groundnut production where it was concluded that the
production of groundnut could decline as much as 65–70%, based on genotype
responses of the cultivars used and resource management practices on the field
(Challinor et al. 2007).
Some recent Crop Simulation Model (CSM) studies have advocated that the
production of maize during monsoon season is expected to experience adverse
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 151

Fig. 5.2 Cereal yields of different geographical regions of the world for the year 2017 (Source:
World Bank Database)

effects of increased global average ambient temperature. Increased precipitation,

however, can partially offset these losses, and spatial fluctuations in predicted
temperature and precipitation will result in distinct effects in respective areas.
Investigations on sorghum also stated that a projected rise in precipitation could
counterbalance a decline in crop production because of increasing temperature. But,
even if the amount of precipitation got doubled, a complete improvement to offset
the loss of crop yield over 2
C cannot be achieved. CROPGRO soybean model-
based studies predicted a rise of 50% in ACP in central India because of the doubling
of the concentration of CO2. However, an escalation of 3
C in mean ambient
temperature may nullify these beneficial effects of increased CO2. Assessment of
the scenarios of future CC has shown that production of mustard is likely to decline
in irrigated as well as rainfed areas, but these shortfalls in production have spatial
variability in the distinct mustard-producing regions of the country. It is evident that
CC and CV are going to influence approximately all kinds of cultivated crops, which
provide carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals to us. Thus, there is a
risk to our FNS. The calorie and protein intake of Indians is depicted in Figs. 5.4 and
5.5, respectively. This calorie and protein consumption is projected to increase
marginally by the year 2023 (see Fig. 5.6). So, there is a need to achieve sustainable
ACP under CC scenario to attain FNS in India, which is possible through the
adoption of CSA practices.
152 Abhilash et al.

Fig. 5.3 Yield of cereals in different states of India for the year 2017–2018 (Source: Directorate of
Economics & Statistics)
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 153

Calories 2321 kcal/day

Other;
Fish; 0% 2%
Dairy; 7%
Meats; 1%
Fruits & Veg; Cereals; 57%
5%

Oilcrops, Oils;
11%

Pulses; 5%

Sugar; 9%

Roots; 3%

Fig. 5.4 Estimated daily calorie intake by food items in India (2009). Data source: FAO (2013),
FAOSTAT (database), http://faostat.fao.org/

Proteins 56.6 g/day

Fish; 3% Other; 4%

Dairy; 12% Cereals; 55%

Meats; 3%

Fruits & Veg;

6%
Oilcrops, Oils;
3%

Pulses; 12%

Sugar; 0%
Roots; 2%

Fig. 5.5 Estimated daily protein intake by food items in India (2009). Data source: FAO (2013),
FAOSTAT (database), http://faostat.fao.org/

A minor fluctuation in temperature at the critical crop growth stage may compro-
mise the ACP. Because fluctuations in variability are easier to grasp and understood
by farmers, the early adaptation measures to tackle the variability can be the priority
154 Abhilash et al.

India’s calorie and protein consumption projection

3000 80
Calories Protein (right axis) 70
2500
60
kcal/day/person

2000

g/day/person
50
1500 40
30
1000
20
500
10
0 0

Year

Fig. 5.6 Projection of India’s calorie and protein consumption (Data source: OECD and FAO
Secretariats (https://doi.org/10.1787/888933099333))

of farmers (Padgham 2009). Thus, it is essential to differentiate and classify the two
impact categories to illustrate two ways of adaptation, both with different time
frames: improving resilience in case of more significant variability and improving
adaptive capacity and preparedness in case of slow-onset changes. In this context,
CSA is important for maintaining SAD in the CC scenario.
The adoption of CSA has several benefits. CSA ensures diversification of land
use and crop species, which can reduce ecological risks associated with uniform crop
covers such as vulnerability to insect-pest attack and unexpected EWE (Scherr et al.
2012). Thus, it leads toward higher resilience with lower risk. Kim (2012) conducted
a study on one approach of CSA, i.e., intercropping of Gliricidia and maize. He
reported that there was a net annual gain in the soil organic carbon (SOC) of about
3.5 t/ha through sequestration, as well as there was mitigation of nitrous oxide
equivalent to 3.5–4.1 t CO2/ha due to elimination of the use of synthetic nitrogenous
fertilizers as atmospheric nitrogen was fixed by Gliricidia plant. In terms of energy,
the adoption of biogas in Nepal by an average household of six to seven persons
saved 2–3 tons of fuelwood per year, which reduced GHG emissions of about 5 tons
of CO2 equivalent (Blank 2009). According to IPCC estimates, the no-tillage
intervention of CSA has a mitigation potential of 0.17 tons of carbon per hectare
per year under cool-dry conditions.
In contrast, under warm-humid conditions, it is 0.72 tons of carbon per hectare
per year (Smith et al. 2014). Therefore, it is evident from many studies that the
adoption of CSA is quite relevant in the present scenario for mitigating CC and CV
and promoting resilience in agriculture for future scenarios. This would ultimately
reduce the impacts of CC on agriculture, which would ensure FNS and enhance
ecosystem services.
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 155

5.5 Pillars of Climate-Smart Agriculture

CSA deals with the three aspects of sustainable development (economic, social, and
environmental) to tackle the challenges of FNS and CC (FAO 2010). CSA has the
following three main pillars:

5.5.1 Productivity

First pillar deals with the sustainable enhancement of agricultural productivity and
livelihood. CSA is a way of achieving both sustainable development and green
economy objectives. This aims to achieve FNS as well as the protection of natural
resources (Amin et al. 2015). Productivity enhancement can be achieved through the
use of renewable energy, efficient resource management, resource conservation
technologies, land use management, etc. which are discussed in the further section.

5.5.2 Adaptation

Second pillar deals with adapting and developing resilience toward the impacts of
CC. Adaptation aims “to reduce the vulnerability of human or natural systems to the
impacts of CC and climate-related risks, by maintaining or increasing adaptive
capacity and systems resilience” (OECD-DAC 2011). Adaptation initiatives tackle
CC impacts by reducing the vulnerability of human and natural systems toward
it. CC adaptation in the agricultural system can be achieved either by specific actions
like cultivating the improved crop variety or by systemic changes involving liveli-
hood diversification, better resource management through institutional reforms, etc.

5.5.3 Mitigation

Mitigation deals with the reduction of atmospheric GHG concentration by tackling

its emission sources. The strategies for CC mitigation involve the assimilation of
those technologies which reduce GHG emissions and inputs per unit of output.
Agriculture and deforestation activities contribute to 30% global emissions of
GHGs, which provides adequate potential for mitigation. The three ways to mitigate
CC in agriculture are given below:

a. Reducing GHG emissions: The emission of CO2, CH4, or N2O can be minimized
by efficient management of carbon and nitrogen flows in the agricultural
ecosystems.
b. Avoiding or displacing emissions: There is much scope in improving energy
efficiency in the agricultural sector. For instance, the use of biofuels in place of FF
in agricultural operations can avoid or displace a significant amount of GHG
emissions.
156 Abhilash et al.

c. Removing emissions: The GHGs or their precursor can be removed and

sequestered from the atmosphere through CSA operations.

All these pillars can be achieved by embracing various interventions of CSA.

5.6 Interventions for Climate-Smart Agriculture

There is a need for integrated, scientific, multidisciplinary, and diversified

approaches that concentrate on natural resource management. It is the most promi-
nent of a paradigm shift that will transform traditional agriculture into modernization
under CSA. Therefore, many interventions in the areas of land, water, soil, ACP,
energy, livestock, etc. are essential for making agriculture climate-smart. The holis-
tic and integrated adoption of these approaches based on site-specific resources is the
need of the hour.

5.6.1 Land Use Management

Land acts as a storage house of GHGs and has a remarkable role in the interchange of
materials between soil and atmosphere. Land bio-networks are most susceptible to
continuing CC as well as EWE, to various extents. This calls for eco-friendly land
management, which contributes to decreasing the adverse effects of CC and
variability. Land use management includes widespread choices of farm practices
and techniques, including the restoration of degraded and wastelands, which ulti-
mately enhances the soil’s nutrients and its water holding capacity. Land use
management requires developing comprehensive land cover (LC) database and
expert systems, which help in providing a baseline for natural resource management
and land use planning. Various farm practices and technologies like minimum/zero
tillage, efficient management of irrigation and nutrients, as well as the incorporation
of residue can enhance crop productivity, water use efficiency (WUE), and nutrient
use efficiency (NUE) and decrease the release of GHGs from various agricultural
operations (Branca et al. 2011; Jat et al. 2014). Several activities which will help in
increasing productivity sustainably along with contributing to CC mitigation and
adaptation are mentioned below:

• Land use management options like afforestation, agroforestry, reforestation, SOC

management, and biochar addition to soil contribute to delivering carbon seques-
tration (CS) in soil or vegetation and help in mitigating the negative effect of CC.
• Conservation and restoration of natural bio-networks such as wet and coastal
lands, peatlands, and forests and biodiversity conservation, minimizing antago-
nism for land management as well as disaster risk management, also help in
reducing GHG emissions and ultimately contribute to sustainable development
under CSA.
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 157

• Soil degradation through agricultural activities can be tackled via sustainable land
use management options like green manuring and cover crop production, reten-
tion of crop residue, minimum/zero tillage, and improved grazing management
with co-benefits for CC adaptation. Mass production of forage legumes such as
lablab, cowpea, pigeon pea, lucerne, and sesbania as sources of protein to
enhance feed conversion efficiency ultimately decreased methane emissions by
about 25–33%.
• Forest and crop diversity, appropriately diversified crop rotations, range and
pasture management, etc. can also maintain or enhance forest carbon stocks,
which also help in lowering GHG emissions and can contribute to CC adaptation.
This diversification will also enhance the nutritional value of the food intake.
Such type of interventions successively raises overall herd productivity as well as
its adaptability to CC through the diverse use of land resources.
• The most commonly used farm practices like adding soil organic matter (SOM),
controlling soil erosion, improved fertilizer, crop management (fallow rice man-
agement), and cultivation of drought and flood-tolerant varieties, etc. can signifi-
cantly contribute toward attaining CC adaptation and mitigation.
• Spatial and integrated landscape planning and land use zoning can achieve
positive adaptation and mitigation outcomes under CC.
• The restoration of wastelands for forestry, grassland, agroforestry, and ACP by
the management of water and nutrients.

Altering land use practices like cropping pattern, livestock production, and
shifting crop or livestock production from vulnerable areas, altering the frequency
of application of inorganic fertilizers and chemical pesticides, capital, and labor can
assist in reducing the risks posed by CC to ACP. Apart from it, land use management
options like trees grown in fields as windbreaks, live fences, fodder banks, alley
cropping, or improved fallows can sequester atmospheric carbon in biomass as well
as soil and provide fuelwood and other forest-based commodities. This also helps in
preventing the destruction of natural forests and helps in adaptation and mitigation
under CC (Awazi and Tchamba 2019). In areas prone to drought and heat under CC,
the agroforestry system can play a crucial role in CS and making effective carbon
sinks. Keeping in view, sustainable land management with co-benefits for CC
mitigation helps in integrating land, water, biodiversity, and environmental manage-
ment to meet the FNS of burgeoning populations.

5.6.2 Crop Production Management

ACP with appropriate management practices is very significant for attaining

sustainability under CC scenarios. Sustainable crop production intensification
(SCPI) is essential in this aspect. SCPI is a method of ACP that conserves and
enhances natural resources and reduces the harmful impacts on the environment by
using natural biological inputs and processes. It contributes to making agricultural
systems resilient concerning CC. SCPI is formulated on the management practices,
158 Abhilash et al.

Conservation
Crop agriculture Crop
rotations diversification

Integrated Integrated
Nutrient Pest
Managemnt Management

Integrated Integrated
Weed Farming
Management System

Crop
Mulching
Production Agroforestry
Management
for CSA

Precision Organic
agriculture agriculture

Improved Changing
varieties cropping
and seeds pattern

Cover Efficient Protected

cropping water & cultivation
irrigation
management

Fig. 5.7 Crop production management strategies for CSA

which maintain soil health, avoid monocropping, and cultivate well-adapted, high-
yielding varieties with the use of good quality seeds or planting materials, integrated
management of nutrients, pest, weeds, and diseases, as well as efficient management
of water. Thus, climate-smart ACP is the sustainable production of crops in the
context of CC such that crops grown are less vulnerable to CV. The examples of
approaches for CC adaptation and mitigation are shown in Fig. 5.7 (FAO 2011).
These approaches are discussed below:

• Conservation agriculture (CA), which is formed on the dogma of less soil

disturbance, residue retention, and crop rotation, should be adopted. With the
adoption of zero tillage, the farmers can sow wheat crops soon after the harvesting
of paddy or cotton. This practice saves the wheat crop from terminal heat stress
during the grain-filling period (Pathak 2009). No-tillage reduces the emission of
GHGs and sequesters SOC (Zingore 2010). Resource conservation technologies
(RCTs) consist of techniques that enhance efficiency in resource management or
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 159

input application and thus use direct, identifiable, and comprehensive economic
advantages such as declining cost of production; reducing the use of fuel, labor,
and water; and timely crop seeding, resulting in enhanced productivity (Amin
et al. 2015).

CA technologies involve no or minimal tillage with direct seeding and planting of

crops, residue management, and crop diversification. It has the potential to improve
productivity and soil quality, primarily by building up SOM. Conservation farming
systems seem to be a viable option for achieving safe and intensive ACP in various
agro-ecological environments because they allow effective use of available
resources and preserve soil fertility (Amin et al. 2015).

• Integrated nutrient management, which supplies nutrients to the crops from all
possible sources like inorganic fertilizers, green manure, biofertilizers, and
organic manure, can drastically reduce the demand for chemical fertilizers,
thereby reducing GHG emission. Site-specific, demand-driven, optimum, and
balanced utilization of fertilizers and nutrients is required. Application of
microbes for augmenting soil fertility and crop productivity is also useful in the
form of biofertilizers.
• Mulch cropping and cover cropping are very useful in maintaining soil health and
favorable soil conditions for crop growth. These practices also protect the soil
from erosion. The emergence of weeds is suppressed, which eliminates the use of
weedicides.
• Changing cropping patterns and crop rotations, particularly with legume crops
and millets, can avoid the infestation of specific insects, pests, diseases, and
weeds in a particular area along with maintaining proper nutrient balance in the
soil. Inclusion of millets in the cropping system can increase the CC adaptability
as millets can adapt to a wide range of agro-ecological conditions, require less
external inputs for their cultivation, and have less vulnerability to stress. Also,
millets are nutritionally rich than major cereal crops (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2017).
Therefore, the adoption of legumes and millets in CSA is essential for attaining
nutritional security.
• Diversification of crops can build resilience in several ways, such as creating the
capacity to control pest outbreaks, dampening pathogen spread, protecting ACP
from the harmful effects of increased CV as well as EWE, and rising household
income. Diversification of crop as well as livestock, including replacement of
crop types, varieties, and hybrids, along with animal breeds possessing improved
drought or heat tolerance, is recommended as they may have the potential to
enhance productivity under heat and moisture stress. Diversification of the seed’s
genetic structure and composition is also identified as a potent defense against
outbreaks of pest and disease and climate hazards. A substitution from the rice-
wheat system to high-value cash crops will augment farmers’ income, leading to
the minimization of water use and chemical fertilizers (Sapkota et al. 2015). This
diversification will enhance the nutrient value of the food.
160 Abhilash et al.

• High-quality seeds or planting materials should be used for sowing the crops for
obtaining a better germination rate and vigor of the crops. Resistant or resilient
cultivars toward the adverse effect of CC like insect-pest attack, drought, high
temperature, etc. should be planted for increasing adaptation and reducing
vulnerability.
• Integrated pest management, which combines various physical, chemical, and
biological techniques for controlling pests like biocontrol agents, traps, mulches,
soil sterilization, pesticides, resistant varieties, etc., should be practiced.
• Integrated weed management is an approach for managing weeds by cultural,
mechanical, biological, and chemical methods to minimize the use of weedicides
for avoiding its harmful effects to the environment and, thus, can contribute
to CSA.
• Efficient water and irrigation management through a sprinkler or drip irrigation,
avoiding water conveyance losses, reducing water losses through evaporation,
runoff and drainage, application concerning the demand of the crops, and so on
should be practiced in the agricultural fields.
• Organic agriculture, which supplies nutrients to the crops through organic sources
of nutrients and eliminates the use of chemicals, can also be an alternative.
• The nutrient-use efficient crop varieties should be cultivated to minimize the need
for external application of fertilizers, thereby reducing GHG emissions.
• Integrated farming system by the involvement of crops, poultry, dairy animals,
and fishery is a better option for CSA along with sustaining livelihood, especially
for small and marginal farmers. This integrated farming system provides nutrients
from various food sources and, thus, plays an important role in achieving
nutritional security.
• Energy crops required for the production of biofuels should be cultivated, which
tends to eliminate the use of FF.
• GHG emission can be significantly decreased by reducing fuel consumption in
mechanical farm operations.
• Improved rice cultivation techniques as cultivation of rice crops under flooded
conditions leads to the emission of methane gas, which is a GHG with high global
warming potential. Its cultivation can reduce methane gas emission from rice crop
through the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) technique. In the SRI technique,
soil condition is kept moist, 8–15-day-old rice seedlings are transplanted at wider
spacing, chemical inputs with organic matter are applied, and frequent weeding is
done. Another method is the cultivation of aerobic irrigated rice for CSA adapta-
tion (Friedrich and Kassam 2009).
• Agroforestry is also an efficient method for CSA. It is estimated that agroforestry
system sequesters 50–75 Mg C ha1 as compared to row crops with less than
10 Mg C ha1 (Verchot et al. 2007).
• The release of methane gas from the rice crop can be minimized by the applica-
tion of properly fermented organic waste like compost made from biogas slurry
rather than unfermented waste (Pathak and Wassmann 2007).
• It is important to distinguish agroclimatic regions and crops, which are highly
sensitive to the adverse effects of CC to reposition them in more appropriate
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 161

areas. For instance, a rise in temperature will severely influence the growth of
crops like tea and Basmati rice. So, suitable regions for their growth need to be
identified to protect the crop from yield loss. Another alternative is to change the
crop sequence by modifying the time of crop sowing, applying pesticides, irriga-
tion, fertilizers, and harvesting crop produces for obtaining optimum yield under
the altered LGP and the associated change in the heat and humidity levels (Amin
et al. 2015).
• Precision agriculture, which involves the application of inputs at the appropriate
time, by the appropriate method, and at the appropriate location through the use of
RS and GIS, sensors, and variable rate applicators, should be adopted for increas-
ing productivity, increasing input use efficiency, and protecting the environment.
• Protected cultivation of crops through various technologies like polyhouses,
greenhouses, shade houses, hotbeds, cold frames, etc. for providing favorable
environmental conditions for crop growth by controlling temperature, moisture,
insects, pests and diseases, etc. can also be practiced.

In this way, it is clear that appropriate crop management is a very crucial

component for attaining the objectives of CSA. The farmers can adopt these
practices for sustainable agriculture along with CC mitigation and adaptation.
These practices will help to ensure FNS in the long run under CC scenarios.

5.6.3 Soil Management

Soil is a crucial natural resource for achieving sustainability through CSA. Soil acts
as a medium for cultivating plants and providing various nutrients and water for their
growth. It supports soil biodiversity and regulates carbon, oxygen, and many other
nutrient cycles. So, proper soil management is a crucial practice in the CSA. CC
impacts soil through the following ways:

• Erratic rainfall patterns and frequent drought deplete the water and nutrients
supplying capacity of soil to the plants.
• Increased risk of soil erosion by higher rainfall intensity.
• Increased rate of mineralization of SOM due to rise in temperature.

SOC sequestration has the tendency to decrease the CO2 content in the atmo-
sphere and, thus, contributes to CC mitigation. According to Lal (2004a, 2015), there
is the global potential of SOC sequestration of 0.9  0.3 Pg/year via adopting
recommended practices like residue retention, CA, rational utilization of farm inputs,
etc., which may counterbalance 25–33% of the annual increment in the atmospheric
CO2. Through recommended management practices, the SOC sequestration rate fits
a sigmoid curve in which the maximal level of SOC sequestration rate is attained in
5–20 years (Lal 2004b) that further continues at diminishing rates till SOC stock
reaches new equilibrium level in 20–30 years (IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on
162 Abhilash et al.

Climate Change) 2007b). The management of the soil for CSA can be done in the
following ways:

• Before adopting any CSA practice for soil management, various physical, chem-
ical, and biological characteristics of the soil influencing soil health and SOC
sequestration should be assessed by in situ inspection through soil testing kits or
by taking soil samples and analyzing it in the laboratory. The CSA practice
should be adopted by these analyzed properties (Faurès et al. 2013).
• The practice of minimum or no-tillage substantially decreases the runoff rate,
increases the soil water infiltration, and avoids the formation of plough pan in the
subsoil. CA also augments the SOM and decreases SOC mineralization rate,
which further facilitates the process of SOC sequestration. In this way, CA
contributes to the reduction of GHG emission (Faurès et al. 2013). Crop rotation
in CA, especially with leguminous, will reduce the infestation of pests and
diseases along with boosting the soil nutrients. CA reduces soil erosion by
making protective cover over the soil, which reduces runoff and increases soil
water infiltration. Altieri et al. (2011) reported a 90% decrease in soil erosion in
no-till plots in comparison to conventionally tilled plots in a study conducted in
Parana, Brazil. CA based on rice-wheat systems emits 10–15% less GHG as
compared to conventional systems by creating more aerobic soil environments
(Sapkota et al. 2015).
• In areas having steeper slopes, the soil erosion can be prevented in many ways,
like by plantation of the vegetation across the slope or by the construction of soil
and water conservation structures like tied ridges, bunds, terraces, trenches, etc.
The excess runoff water can be safely disposed of the slopes by using grassed
waterways, chute spillway, drop inlet spillway, etc. (Faurès et al. 2013).
• Many agronomic practices like agroforestry, mixed cropping, cover cropping,
contouring, strip cropping, etc. also help in decreasing soil erosion and increasing
SOC sequestration.
• In arid and semiarid regions, there is a problem of wind erosion, which may either
take away the fertile topsoil or deposit the blown away sand dunes on the
productive soils. This can be prevented by planting drought-resistant species,
rotational grazing, and planting windbreaks in the direction perpendicular to the
prevailing wind.
• Mulching by crop residues is also an essential practice for buffering soil temper-
ature, decreasing soil water evaporation and nutrient loss, and increasing SOM,
which further enhances the soil moisture content, soil biodiversity, soil structure,
and soil water infiltration. This practice also reduces soil erosion by avoiding the
dispersion of soil particles by raindrops or runoff. The risk of development of
salinity or waterlogged condition in the soil can also be reduced by it (Faurès et al.
2013).
• The proper nutrient management in the crop is very important in CSA as improper
nutrient management leads to an increase in GHG emission from the soil. Among
all nutrients, proper application of nitrogenous fertilizer is crucial as it may
convert to nitrous oxide gas under the anaerobic condition, which has a global
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 163

warming potential of 300. The nitrate ions produced by mineralization of nitrog-

enous fertilizers move freely with soil water, which increases their leaching from
the soil through drainage. The placement of nitrogenous fertilizers in the reduced
zone of the soil also reduces the emission of nitrous oxide. These fertilizers
should be applied in the zone of active root uptake. In CSA, the proper
recommended amount of fertilizers and manures should be applied at the
recommended time as required by the crop to increase their efficiency and reduce
their wastage.
• Integrated soil fertility management should be performed in CSA as it provides
nutrients to the plants through various sources like compost, organic manure,
green manure, crop rotations, intercropping, and inorganic fertilizers in the
desired amount along with conservation of soil and water in order to achieve
decreased nutrient losses, increased soil CS, enhanced water storage, reduced soil
erosion, increased NUE, and reduced GHG emissions.
• Precision nutrient management can improve fertilizer use efficiency by applica-
tion of nutrients in the appropriate form, in the optimum amount, at the appropri-
ate time synchronizing with crop demand, and at the correct place. The tools for
precision nutrient management of nitrogenous fertilizers are Leaf Color Chart,
chlorophyll meter, and optical sensors like GreenSeeker (Singh et al. 2015).
Decision support systems, which are computer or android mobile-based, such
as Nutrient Expert and Crop Manager, can also facilitate the farmers for precise
management of nutrients (Pampolino et al. 2012).
• The agroforestry system with leguminous trees or shrubs can also be practiced.
• Integrated and site-specific nutrient management should be done as it stores SOC
and reduces GHG emissions. It prevents the wastage of inputs, which improves
the quality of soil and water.

5.6.4 Water Management

Water is the finite natural resource, which is diminishing at a faster pace due to
haphazard and unscrupulous exploitation. Due to the ever-increasing population,
water resources are under enormous pressure, which emphasizes the need for
sustainable use of water resources. Presently, agriculture consumes about 70% of
the total water withdrawn, primarily for irrigation purposes. Irrigation is not viable if
provisions of water resources are not sufficient. Particularly in water-scarce regions,
the prerequisite for irrigation development is to reduce losses caused by percolation,
evaporation, seepage, etc. The impacts of CC on agricultural water is estimated to be
through the increased rainfall variability, higher temperatures, and life-threatening
EWE like floods and droughts. In this scenario, sustainable water management is
essential under CC mitigation. In the water management practices, more attention is
given to irrigation scheduling, precision irrigation, efficient drainage systems, in situ
moisture conservation, and rainwater harvesting structures to contribute toward three
pillars of CSA (Fig. 5.8). However, both irrigation methods and scheduling are
interrelated.
164 Abhilash et al.

Sprinkler

Drip

Center
pivot
system

IoT based
irrigation
Farm Pond

Fig. 5.8 Water management options for climate change adaptations

The adaptation strategies under CC for smart water management are given below:

• Micro-irrigation systems (micro-sprayers, trickle, or drip irrigation) are efficient

methods for irrigating crops in which water is directly applied to the root system
of plants. Micro-irrigation system saves 20–48% irrigation water, 10–17%
energy, 30–40% labor cost, and 11–19% fertilizer and enhances the ACP from
20 to 38% (PMKSY (Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana) 2019). These
localized irrigation options are not only vital for conserving water but also
pertinent to save energy (Shah 2009) and decreasing carbon emissions. Moreover,
the adoption of a solar-powered drip system can help in saving water and energy
as well as ultimately reduce carbon emissions. Due to the initiatives of the central
government through Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKYS), the
area under micro-irrigation is increasing in the various states of India, as depicted
in Fig. 5.9 which is a positive step toward CSA.

• Pressurized micro-irrigation systems with sensor-based irrigation scheduling

have great potential for enhancing crop water productivity by maintaining soil
moisture content at field capacity in the root zone of crops and helps in solving
problems related to manual irrigation. Keeping in view, various soil moisture
sensors like tensiometers, gypsum or resistance blocks, frequency domain reflec-
tometry (FDR), time domain reflectometry (TDR), etc. have been used for
irrigation scheduling to monitor in situ soil moisture (Cardenas and Dukes
2012). Apart from it, wireless sensor array is also used for irrigation scheduling
on a real-time basis. For monitoring plant water stress, plant-based sensors like
sap flow, infrared thermometer, trunk diameter variation, and leaf turgor
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 165

Fig. 5.9 Area covered under micro-irrigation in various states of India (Source: Department of
Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare)
166 Abhilash et al.

pressure-related sensors are used. These are the utmost adaptation strategies to
mitigate CC.
• Latest advances in information and communication technology (ICT) support
development of irrigation scheduling and soil water balance softwares like
BEWARE (Chartzoulakis et al. 2008), IrriSatSMS (John et al. 2009), IrriSat
(Urso et al. 2013), IRRISA (Boyer and Campagnaud 1996), CROPWAT
(Smith 1991), PILOTE (Khaledian et al. 2009), or SIMDualKc (Rolim et al.
2007) which help in irrigation scheduling of different crops. Apart from it, under a
CC scenario, regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) or subsurface irrigation (SSI) can
be adopted under CC, especially in water-scarce regions.
• To minimize the water losses during conveyance, distribution, and application
networks, advanced technologies like telemetry systems, RS, and GIS are very
beneficial under CC.
• Solar pumps can serve as an ideal alternative for the usage of available ground-
water with less emission in an area where groundwater availability is at shallow
depth. Despite it, solar-operated groundwater pumping system coupled with
micro-irrigation systems also provides an alternative in minimizing diesel con-
sumption and carbon emissions.
• RS and GIS can be applied in different aspects of water management like
command area development and management, mapping of cropping pattern and
crop yield projection, flood monitoring and hazard mapping, as well as environ-
mental impact assessment in interlinking river project.
• Remote sensing is the new surveying technique, which also helps in the identifi-
cation of groundwater occurrence, development, storage, and flow direction. This
technique is also helpful in aquifer mapping and identification of the potential
area for groundwater recharge.
• Similarly, ICT-based automated irrigation systems, crop and agro-meteorology
advisories, and insurances for crops and livestock can also assist farmers in
minimizing the adverse effects of CC and CV (Altieri and Nicholls 2013; Mittal
2012).
• Development of efficient on-farm infrastructures like land levelling, minimum or
no-tillage, SRI, direct-seeded rice, crop diversification, appropriate irrigation
scheduling, rainwater harvesting, site-specific soil and water conservation
structures, and improved agronomic practices helps in enhancing on-farm irriga-
tion efficiency and arrests the declining water table which ultimately helps in CC
mitigation and adaptation.
• The promotion of rainwater harvesting in rainfed areas is very beneficial and also
acts as a drought proofing strategy. Apart from it, integrated watershed manage-
ment and the construction of artificial recharge structures can also be the adapta-
tion approaches to mitigate CC.
• For the same water efficiency, many high-pressure drip irrigation structures have
lower-energy efficiency than gravity-based irrigation. Therefore, in order to
achieve sustainability, adjustments must be addressed to attain a balance between
increased energy efficiency and water efficiency.
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 167

Sustainable water management helps in solving problems regarding erosion, drain-

age, irrigation, flood, drought, etc. In a technological era, the Government of India
has also given the urgency for conservation and management of water resources by
launching PMKSY (Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana) (2019) for fulfilling
the dream of “more crop per drop” and “Her khet ko Pani.” In this context, more crop
per drop is achieved by familiarizing modern irrigation like drip and sprinkler as well
as sensor- and IoT (Internet of Things)-based irrigation and “Her khet ko pani” by
on-farm development, integrated farming, as well as integrated watershed
management.

5.6.5 Livestock Management

The livestock sector contributes to the CC as well as it is influenced by its effects

(FAO 2006). Eighteen percent of GHG emissions are from livestock (Steinfeld et al.
2006). Livestock mainly emits methane gas through an enteric fermentation process,
which has 25 times more heat-trapping capacity than CO2. This methane emission
from livestock can be decreased by improving their diet. The diet can be improved
by feeding them with good quality feed additives as well as by replacing feeds
having low digestibility with that of high digestibility. Inclusion of higher fats and
protein and providing antioxidants, vitamins, and mineral supplementations in the
livestock diet are beneficial in CC adaptation and mitigation (Hristov et al. 2013;
Havlik et al. 2013). Grazing management through rotational grazing helps in the
restoration of degraded grasslands, improves soil health, and enhances climate
resilience. Improved varieties of pastures should be cultivated in grasslands for cattle
grazing. Research developments are in progress for developing vaccines against
methanogens present in the rumen of livestock, which would eventually minimize
the release of methane gas (Wright and Klieve 2011). Manure also releases GHGs in
the atmosphere. Therefore, better manure management techniques like composting
should be adopted. The adoption of these measures has a total mitigation potential of
417,000 Gg CO2 eq. (Thornton and Herrero 2010; Herrero et al. 2016).
Livestock diversification is an approach in CSA for increasing resistance against
CC-related pests and diseases (Batima et al. 2005). The breeds having a higher
tolerance to temperature and humidity, resistance toward diseases, and the ability to
survive under low input conditions should be reared (Pankaj et al. 2013). Many
managemental strategies can help in building CC adaptation in livestock (Pankaj
et al. 2013). A regular supply of clean and cool water to animals is one such strategy.
Splashing cool water on animals during a hot period at regular intervals can reduce
heat stress. The stocking density of animals should be reduced during the hot period.
Animals should be kept under proper shade as well-designed shades can reduce the
heat load of about 30–40% on animals. Roofs of cattle sheds composed of hay or
corrugated steel sheets are good for shading purposes. Ventilation and air circulation
should be increased in animal sheds by the use of fans and open housing system or
by increasing the height of buildings. Plantation of trees around cattle sheds can
provide long-term cooling effect (Das 2017).
168 Abhilash et al.

5.6.6 Genetic Approaches for Building Climate Resilience

The genetic makeup of the crops determines how a particular crop responds to the
external environmental conditions and cope with the various abiotic and biotic
stresses resulting from extreme temperatures, flood, drought, attack of pests and
diseases, etc. The genetic makeup also regulates the LGP and phenology of the crop
as well as influences the efficiency of the crops to utilize inputs like fertilizers and
water. Conservation of genetic resources of various crops is essential for their
contribution to breeding crops having better adaptation under CC conditions. For
CC adaptation, the following traits are mainly required in the crops (Faurès et al.
2013):

• Tolerance to water and temperature stress

• Tolerance or resistance to pests and diseases
• Ability to efficiently utilize scarce nutrient supply
• Capacity to grow under poor soil conditions
• Phenotypic plasticity

Conservation of genetic resources by both in situ and ex situ methods can be

done. However, ex situ conservation in gene banks and botanical gardens is more
cost-effective and easily accessible to the users. Genetically modified organisms can
be created by the insertion of genes from a foreign organism or deletion of the
existing genes by the use of specific enzymes.
Emission of methane gas from the rice crop can be minimized by the cultivation
of varieties having higher root oxidative activity, few unproductive tillers, and
higher harvest index (Nagargade et al. 2017).
There is a need to cultivate varieties of crops that can reduce the emission of
GHGs (Barfoot and Brookes 2014). Genetically modified crops can help in
alleviating the emission of GHGs by reducing fuel use for farm operations and by
increasing the uptake of atmospheric CO2 gas and their conversion to oxygen
(Nagargade et al. 2017). The NUE of the crops can be improved by genetic
engineering or by breeding methods. By increasing nitrogen use efficiency of the
crops, the amount of nitrogenous fertilizers applied to the crops will be reduced,
which thereby minimizes the emission of GHGs. The target gene for improving
NUE in crops for breeding purpose is the alanine aminotransferase gene found in
barley (Shrawat and Good 2008). There are some genes in plants like Brachiaria
humidicola and Leymus racemosus, which release such compounds from their roots
that inhibit the nitrification process in the soil by suppressing the activity of
Nitrosomonas bacteria (Subbarao et al. 2007). The results of research on transferring
the nitrogen-fixing genes from atmospheric nitrogen-fixing leguminous plants to
non-nitrogenous fixing plants may enable them to fix nitrogen on their own without
application of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers (Lutz 2013).
Methane gas released from ruminants can be minimized by breeding the livestock
for high feed efficiency through genetic selection as it provides a permanent solution
(Alford et al. 2006). Bentley and Hegarty (2008) found that the development of
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 169

composite cattle breeds by crossbreeding of locally adapted breeds with good quality
breeds has improved heat tolerance, disease resistance, health, and reproductive
traits as evident from the study in tropical grasslands of Northern Australia. So,
crossbreeding can be an option for building climate resilience in the livestock.
Transfer of stress-tolerant or resistance genes through genetic engineering or
molecular plant breeding to the target crop can make the crops adaptable to
CC. The tolerance to high temperatures in the plant is possible by various
mechanisms such as maintaining membrane stability or through ion carriers,
osmoprotectants, proteins, and anti-oxidants (Hasanuzzaman et al. 2013). There
are few successful examples of building heat stress tolerance in crops by transgenics
like the insertion of ROB5 genes from bromegrass to canola and potato enhanced
their performance under high temperatures. Similarly, a heat shock protein gene
“hsp101” was transferred from Arabidopsis to Basmati rice, which improved its
growth under heat stress (Katiyar-Agarwal et al. 2003).
Metabolites like trehalose, glycinebetaine, and mannitol or indirectly controlling
gene expression via transcription factor and kinases in signal transduction could
provide enhanced tolerance to drought (Bhardwaj and Yadav 2012). Arabidopsis
plant has a drought- and salt-tolerant “HARDY” gene, which on transferring to the
transgenic rice crop improved its WUE by increasing photosynthetic assimilation
and minimizing transpiration (Karaba et al. 2012). Castiglionit et al. (2008) found
that the insertion of cold shock protein B (CspB) encoding gene derived from a soil
bacterium Bacillus subtilis enhanced the adaptation of transgenic maize plant under
drought stress through interrupting the disruption of trehalose sugar by trehalase
enzyme, thereby slowing growth rate of the plant and conserving water for the
essential processes. Few rice varieties are also released in India, which are tolerant
to droughts, such as Sahbhagi Dhan (Dar et al. 2012) and IR64-Drought1 (Haefelea
et al. 2016).
There is an increase in the development of salinity due to CC. Hence, there is a
requirement to develop salt-tolerant crop varieties through either conventional
breeding or genetic engineering for improved CC adaptation. Genes improve plant
resistance to salinity by using many mechanisms like reducing the absorption rate of
salts from the soil and inhibiting further transportation of salts within the plant
system, controlling the leaf growth as well as plant senescence, and modifying the
ionic and osmotic cell balance in roots as well as shoots (Chinnusaamy et al. 2005).
He et al. (2005) developed transgenic cotton plants having an expression of an
Arabidopsis vacuolar sodium/proton antiporter gene “AtNHX1” and found that
these transgenic plants yielded more fiber content and biomass when subjected to
salt stress under greenhouse condition.
Developing new crop varieties having higher yield potential as well as resistance
or tolerance to multiple stresses such as drought, salinity, flood, etc. is essential for
maintaining yield stability. Under the CC scenarios, it is crucial to develop varieties
with tolerance toward multiple abiotic stresses and a variety of responsive inputs.
The need for the hour is to move from C3 to C4 plant to enhance the efficiency of
radiation use and water use. Improving the root efficiency for water mining and
nutrient absorption is critical. The use of genetic engineering for “gene
170 Abhilash et al.

pyramidization” has become necessary to consolidate all the desirable traits within
one plant to obtain the “ideal plant form” (Pathak et al. 2012).

5.6.7 Energy Management

Energy is very crucial for the agriculture sector and non-renewable energy sources
like FF responsible for emissions of GHGs, which are interrelated to CC. Therefore,
there is a prerequisite to address these challenges by introducing renewable energy
sources. The huge demand and exhaustive use of energy in agriculture call for
prudent management of both renewable and non-renewable energy sources. Energy
management mainly focuses on optimization of energy in context to sustainability.
The main focus of energy management is on energy conservation and energy
efficiency.
Globally, agricultural energy is dependent mainly on FF due to the marked shift
from human and animal power to tractors, electricity, and diesel power. In this
regard, Smith et al. (2014) reported that the agriculture sector adds 5.0–5.8 Gt CO2
eq./year, which forms approximately 10–12% of total anthropogenic GHG
emissions. But, the average contribution of agriculture-based emissions is about
35% of global emissions, which are generated in developing countries. The highest
growth rate of 10.4% energy use in the agriculture sector, 3.6% in industry, and 3.2%
in the transport sector has been reported during the past years (Jha et al. 2012). The
energy consumption in agriculture can be mostly divided into two categories, viz.,
direct and indirect use of energy. In agriculture, basically, energy is directly con-
sumed for pumping and mechanization (tractors, power tiller, etc.) and indirectly
through fertilizers and pesticides. The electricity consumption in agriculture is
mainly due to greater irrigation demand for various crops and subsidized electricity
given to farmers. This calls for efficient use of a non-renewable source of energy and
their substitution with economically feasible renewable sources. In the context of the
Indian agriculture sector, most of the energy used, particularly electricity, is in
pumping water for irrigation purposes. So, it is of utmost importance to save energy
in all possible ways in water pumping, which can be achieved by enhancing the
efficiency of pump sets (Fig. 5.10).
The activities that will help in managing energy efficiently in a sustainable
manner under CC are given below:

• There is a need to increase bio-based product inventories for replacing petroleum-

based products to reduce GHG emissions. Biomass like wood, animal dung,
agricultural waste, etc. can be decomposed by anaerobic microorganisms to
produce biogas. This biogas can be utilized for the purposes of heating and
lighting. The slurry left behind biogas production is rich in nitrogen and phos-
phorous and also used as manure for crops.
• Laser-aided land levelling has also been proven one of the promising
technologies to mitigate CC, which saves water up to 40%, improves fertilizer
use efficiency, and enhances crop yields. This technique decreases GHG
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 171

Fig. 5.10 Energy

management options for
climate-resilient agriculture Wind
Mills

Biogas
Photovoltaic
Extraction
lights
Units

Energy
Management
Options

Solar Hydrothermal
Panels Conversion
Tools
Solar
Operated
Irrigation
Pumps

emissions through many farm operations, particularly by minimizing irrigation

water demand resulting in the reduction of energy needs for pumping water.
• The micro-irrigation system, which reduces pumping energy requirement, should
be promoted to save energy. Irrigation during hot sunny and windy days should
be avoided.
• It is essential to promote CA machinery like zero till, Happy Seeder, seed-cum-
fertilizer drill, raised bed planter, and laser-guided land leveller as they have
already proved to be a better option for saving energy during various farm
operations.
• It is very crucial to choose the right capacity of pumps to meet the irrigation
requirement and their matching pump sets with the source of water—canal or well
for saving energy under a CC scenario.
• Installation of variable speed drives (VSDs) on pumps is also an important
energy-saving measure that provides variable speeds through which pumps can
operate at the optimal rate. It was also reported that reducing the speed of a motor
by just 20% can cause an energy saving of up to 50%.
• Regular pump maintenance not only prolongs pump life but also provides
optimum energy efficiency of pumping machine.
• IoT-based smart irrigation system can help to irrigate the field at optimal times
and under optimal conditions, which is also beneficial under CC adaptation
measures.
• For energy-smart food systems, a number of novel technologies that can be very
relevant consist of windmills, photovoltaic lights, solar panels, power generators,
units for biogas extraction, bio-oil mining, and purification tools, pyrolysis units,
ethanol extraction by fermentation and distillation processes, tools for hydrother-
mal conversion, bio energy-operated water pumps, renewable energy-powered
172 Abhilash et al.

vehicles, ICT, and monitoring systems, cooking stoves, tools for water purifica-
tion, supply and distribution.
• Methods, like replacing synthetic artificial fertilizers with manure and farm
residues that need less external inputs and improve crop yields may together
lead to improved energy efficiency as well as sustained productivity, farm
income, and profits.
• In situ renewable energy production may enable farmers to raise their incomes
sustainably by selling solar power to the electricity grids or biogas to the regional
marketplace or minimal purchases of FF.
• In situ generation of biogas may enable the use of its by-products as liquid organic
fertilizer that will augment the crop yields and minimize environmental pollution.

Keeping in view, under CC, there is a need to promote energy-smart

technologies, which can help in reducing energy consumption during farming
operations and also help in reducing crop water requirements.

5.6.8 Modelling and Forecasting

CC and mainly the related EWE are presently one of the major concerns of the
scientific and farming fraternity. For achieving sustainability of the ACP system and
to feed the burgeoning population under prevailing CC, crop modelling and
forecasting help in mitigation of CC. Crop modelling has played a crucial role in
simulating the relationship between plant and environment and in predicting future
CV. To understand the effect of CC on crop growth, development, and yield, crop
simulation models played a significant role. Crop models also integrate different
components and help in understanding genotype and environmental interactions.
Crop models help the policymakers to address the complex problems in agricultural
livelihoods. They can be used in crop management and evaluating the weather risks
in crop planning under CC. They also play an important role in deciding the best
management practices under certain cropping systems. Apart from that, they also
help in comprehending the spatial and temporal variation in agricultural farming
systems. There are various kinds of models available for assessment and prediction
of crop growth and yield like deterministic and stochastic, dynamic and static,
empirical, statistical, mechanistic, etc. Generally, modelling helps in simulating the
behavior of the system. Presently, crop models like APSIM, AquaCrop, CERES-
Wheat, CropSyst, DSSAT, EPIC, GLAM, ORYZAv3, SORKAM, SorModel,
SWAP, and WOFOST, etc. are most commonly used. The minimum input data
required for any crop models are shown in Fig. 5.11.
The WOFOST, CropSyst, EPIC, and CERES-Maize CSMs are mainly used for
simulating maize crop, whereas SorModel, SORKAM, and SORGF CSMs are used
to deal with the problems related to sorghum crop management. DSSAT is also a
CSM with different modules that not only simulate the crop growth, development,
and yield but also calculate the water, soil heat, and nutrient dynamics, which helps
in economic and weather risks associated with CC. Despite it, EPIC (Williams et al.
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 173

Crop Experimental site

variety information

Crop
Soil management
Minimum
input data
Weather for Crop
Pests
Simulation
Models
(CSM)

Fig. 5.11 Minimum input data for crop models

Water
budgeting
and nutrient
dynamics
Gene Assessment
phenotype of Weather
modelling risks
Applications of
crop models
for CSA
Selection of
Yield best
forecasting management
practices
Advice to
policy makers
for decision
making

Fig. 5.12 Applications of crop models for CSA

1989) also simulates 80 different crops through one generic crop growth module and
also consists of soil erosion module. APSIM model with a plant, soil, and manage-
ment module is able to simulate several different crops along with some trees and
weeds under climate risk (Keating et al. 2003). The major limitations of CSMs are
availability, quality, and accuracy of input data. In spite of it, crop models also
require multidisciplinary knowledge, technical skills, and a large amount of input
data. Therefore, proper calibration is needed before predicting the future scenario of
agricultural systems. The application of crop models that are supporting CC adapta-
tion decisions is given below in Fig. 5.12.
174 Abhilash et al.

Simulation of
activities involving
GHG emission
GHGs Carbon
emissions cycle
models
Atmospheric GHGs Global
concentrations climate
models
Change in global climatic
Regional
parameters like temperature,
climate
rainfall, etc. models
Climate variability at a Crop
particular region simulation
models
Forecasting climate
change impact on crops

Fig. 5.13 Generalized schematic diagram of integrated assessment model for CC impact on
agriculture

Early warning and weather forecasting systems also play a crucial part in
decreasing the risks of climate losses. When integrated with ICT, these may assist
the policymakers in planning contingency measures. The new technique Multi-
criteria Analysis (MCA) tool has also executed for alerting mitigation and adaptation
alternatives under CC (de Bruin et al. 2009). RS and GIS also help in the preparation
of risk and hazard maps, which played a significant role in disaster risk management
under CC. Keeping in view, these adaptation strategies must be promoted under CC
scenarios.
The integration of CSM with the outputs of simulation models of the climate,
carbon cycles, etc. in a sequential manner having cause and effect relationship can
provide an appropriate way to forecast the effects of CC and CV on a specific crop in
a particular region. This is possible by integrated assessment models. According to
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (1996), a full-scale integrated
assessment model has several sub-models which simulate the activities responsible
for the emission of GHGs, carbon cycle and processes to yield atmospheric GHG
concentrations, CC and CV due to changes in atmospheric GHG concentrations
through global and regional climate models, and finally the impact of CC on crops
through CSM. The schematic diagram of the integrated assessment model for
simulating the effects of CC on agriculture is given in Fig. 5.13.
Thus, in an integrated assessment model, the output of one model is used as input
to another model. In this way, these models incorporate scientific knowledge from
different areas for forecasting the effects of CC and CV on agricultural crops. These
models serve as an effective medium for understanding the complex interactions
between various components at different scales. They can help policymakers for
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 175

better decision-making. An example of an integrated assessment model is

MOSAICC (Modelling System for Agricultural Impacts of Climate Change) devel-
oped by FAO, which integrates five components, i.e., climate, crops, hydrology,
forests, and economy. Thus, modelling and forecasting are a significant intervention
for enhancing understanding and making decisions about CC mitigation and adapta-
tion in CSA.

5.6.9 Development of Sustainable and Inclusive Food Value Chains

Food wastage is nearly 1/3 of the food produced (Gustavsson et al. 2011). According
to FAO (2011), approximately 38% of the total energy used by the entire food chain
is consumed in annual food losses. All components involved in food value chains,
i.e., agriculture, transportation, processing, storage, cooking, and consumption, are
possible fields for improvement of energy efficiency concerning CSA. Therefore,
there is a need to develop a sustainable and inclusive framework for a food value
chain that paves the path toward CSA. FAO (2013) defines sustainable and inclusive
food value chain as “the full range of farms and firms and their successive coordi-
nated value-adding activities that transform raw agricultural materials into food
products that are sold to final consumers and disposed of after use, in a manner
that is profitable throughout the chain, has broad-based benefits for society and does
not permanently deplete natural resources.”
Food wastage occurs at every stage ranging from food production to final disposal
of food (Amin et al. 2015). At the food production stage, food wastage is due to poor
production practices, pest and disease damage, poor water management, and so
on. This can be reduced by improving production, cultivation, and harvesting
practices. In the case of livestock, wastage occurs due to poor nutrition, diseases,
and bad milking techniques. This can be managed by proper maintenance of
housing, feed, diet, water, milking hygiene, and animal health. In the next stage of
post-harvest handling and food storage, food losses are due to poor storage and
inadequate transportation infrastructure. This can be minimized by investing in
proper food storage, cooling, and transportation facilities. Food wastage at the
processing stage takes place through substandard processing and packaging
techniques, which need to be counteracted by enhancing their standards. The losses
at the distribution phase occur due to poor transport and marketing infrastructure,
which need to be improvised through policy interventions.
The reasons for food losses at the retail stage of developing nations are different
from that of developed nations. In developing countries, the main factors for food
wastage at retail markets are food handling through unhygienic methods, inadequate
food storage, and improper cooling conditions. In contrast to this, the food losses in
developed countries are due to the display of food commodities in large quantities
and varieties at supermarkets, packaging in large quantities, and high-quality safety
regulations for food products. For combating this problem in developing countries,
appropriate infrastructure development in the storage, transportation, and processing
of food products is required. The steps for reducing this wastage in developed
176 Abhilash et al.

Table 5.1 Improving energy efficiency by direct or indirect technological and social measures
across the food chain
In situ Ex situ
• Precise irrigation methods like drip and • Design and operation of transport vehicles
sprinkler • Electric motors of adjustable speed
• Adopt and maintain motor engines with • Effective lighting and temperature control
higher fuel efficiency • Cold storage insulation
• Site-specific application of fertilizers • Minimization of food packaging
• Adopt zero and minimum tillage • Improve cooking and space heating efficiency
techniques • Improvement of highway infrastructure
• Microclimate Controlled building • City planning to lessen distance and time for
• Thermal heat control in greenhouses distribution and purchase of food
• Design and model of fishing vessel • Reduce the loss of crop production at all stage
propeller • Changing food habits by curtailing animal-based
• Low-input-requiring cultivars and products in the diet
animal species • Reduce the levels of obesity
• Less input demand of crop varieties and • Identification of food products by labelling
animal breeds
• Soil erosion control
• Lower moisture demand and losses
• Use of organic manures and
biofertilizers
• Economical manufacture of efficient
machinery

countries include smaller packages, fewer varieties of food products on shelves,

increasing shelf life by improving packaging material, coordinated and coherent
regulatory frameworks for food safety, labelling and legislation, and alternative
markets and food uses. The ultimate consumer of the food causes food wastage at
the food consumption stage, which can be tackled by spreading awareness among
consumers. The food value chain can be strengthened at the final stage of disposal of
food by improving the waste separation and management practices. In this way, a
sustainable and inclusive food value chain needs to be adopted for CSA (Table 5.1).

5.7 Policy Instrumentation

Interventions of CSA should be aligned with and promoted by governmental policies

along with a strong legal, regulatory framework. The policies and legislation have
considerable influence over each component of CSA, which could facilitate or
obstruct their adoption by the stakeholders. In this context, the Indian government
has launched the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in 2008 with
the following eight national missions which directly or indirectly contribute toward
the attainment of CSA objectives:

1. National Solar Mission: This mission aims to promote the production and utiliza-
tion of solar energy for electricity and power generation in order to make solar
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 177

power competitive with other alternatives of FF-based energy. It also involves

setting up a solar research center, enhanced global technology development
cooperation, increasing domestic production capability, and increased funding
by government agencies and international support. India generates more than
74 GW of energy through renewable resources, out of which about 25 GW is
contributed by solar energy (Press Information Bureau (PIB), Government of
India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change 2019). Recently, the
government of India launched a 750 megawatt solar project in Rewa, Madhya
Pradesh, on July 10, 2020, which will reduce carbon emission equivalent to
approximately 15 lakh ton of CO2 per year along with providing electricity
(Press Information Bureau (PIB), Prime Minister’s Office 2020).
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: This mission endorses that
specific energy consumption reductions be required in broad energy-intensive
industries, with a framework for businesses to exchange energy-saving
certificates, and funding for public-private collaborations to decrease energy
consumption via demand-side management systems in the industrial, construc-
tion, and agricultural sectors, along with energy incentives, constituting minimal
taxes on energy-efficient devices. Schemes such as UJALA for the distribution of
LED bulbs have covered more than 320 million households, whereas UJJWALA
for the distribution of clean cooking stoves has reached more than 63 million
families of women below poverty line (Press Information Bureau (PIB), Govern-
ment of India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change 2019).
3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: The goal of this mission is to promote
energy efficiency as a crucial part in urban planning by expanding the current
Energy Conservation Building Code, improving the implementation of
regulations for automotive fuel economy, and applying price policies to facilitate
the procurement of efficient vehicles and public transport opportunities. It also
focuses on the management and recycling of waste.
4. National Water Mission: This mission places a target of a 20% increase in WUE
by pricing and other steps to tackle water scarcity resulting from CC. Assessment
of 138 blocks of Punjab and 128 blocks of Haryana was carried out, out of which
109 and 78 blocks were categorized as “Over-exploited,” respectively (Central
Ground Water Board (CGWB) 2017). This is primarily because of the cultivation
of rice as these areas use two to three times more irrigation water for producing
1 kilogram of rice than West Bengal and Bihar. To tackle such issues, National
Water Mission launched a campaign named “Sahi Fasal” in November 2019 so
that the income of farmers can be enhanced with appropriate ACP, using less
water on a sustainable basis (National Water Mission (NWM), Ministry of Water
Resources, River Development, and Ganga Rejuvenation 2019).
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: This mission aims at
preventing the melting of the Himalayan glaciers and protecting the Himalayan
region’s biodiversity.
6. Green India Mission: This mission aims at afforestation of degraded forest lands
of 6 M ha area and increasing the forest cover from 23% to 33%. The forest and
tree cover of India has increased by 1 percent as compared to the assessment in
178 Abhilash et al.

2015 (Press Information Bureau (PIB), Government of India, Ministry of Envi-

ronment, Forest and Climate Change 2019).
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: This mission focuses to promote
climate adaptation in agriculture by developing climate-resilient crops and
expanding mechanisms for weather insurance, along with improved agricultural
operations. Because of readiness and introduction of climate-resilient varieties,
total food grain production has significantly increased from 208.60 Mt in
2005–2006 to 284.95 Mt in 2018–2019, as well as horticulture production has
increased from 116.9 Mt in 2004–2005 to 313.85 Mt in 2018–2019 (Press
Information Bureau (PIB), Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, and
Farmers Welfare 2020). It also includes interventions like Soil Health Card
(SHC) where around 115 million SHC were distributed under Soil Health Card
Scheme from 2017 to 2019 among different states of India (Fig. 5.14) and more
than 267.8 million soil samples were taken under the scheme to assess the nutrient
status and health of soil (Directorate of Economics Statistics (DES) 2020). This
will enable the farmers to improve farm productivity and farm economics by
applying fertilizers, only to the particular patch, instead of the whole field,
following the site-specific nutrient management approach. Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) has also developed 45 models for climate-resilient
integrated farming systems (IFS) that are promoted by Krishi Vigyan Kendras
(KVKs) by demonstrating and extending them to farmers through the Rainfed
Area Development (RAD) program (Press Information Bureau (PIB), Govern-
ment of India, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change 2019).
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change: This mission
envisages a new Climate Science Research Fund, better climate modelling, and
improved international collaboration to attain a good knowledge of climate
science and its impacts and constraints. It also supports private sector projects
to use venture capital funds to develop adaptation and mitigation technologies.

In this way, NAPCC mainly aims at the enhancement of understanding of CC and

its adaptation and mitigation, improving energy efficiency, and conservation of
natural resources contributing toward the attainment of CSA. Apart from NAPCC,
several other schemes were initiated by the Indian government for the promotion of
CSA. These schemes include National Project on Organic Farming (NPOF),
National Project on Promotion of Balanced Use of Fertilizers (NPPBUF), National
Food Security Mission (NFSM), and Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme
(AIBP). Crop insurance scheme named as Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
(PMFBY) was launched to provide financial insurance to farmers in case of crop
losses caused by natural calamities like hailstorm, cyclone, flood, drought, etc. as
well as by attack of pests and diseases. This scheme also insures for post-harvest
losses caused within 14 days of the harvested crop. PMFBY alone has benefitted
around 44.2 million farmers in 2018–2019, and around 51.9 M ha, that is, around
26.35% of gross cropped area of India (Directorate of Economics Statistics (DES)
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 179

Fig. 5.14 State-wise number of SHCs distributed during Soil Health Card Scheme (2017–2019)
(Source: Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare)
180 Abhilash et al.

2020). The state-wise gross cropped area under all kinds of insurance schemes is
depicted in Fig. 5.15.
National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) program is initiated
by the ICAR in February 2011 with the following objectives (Nagargade et al.
2017):

a. Increase the resilience of Indian agriculture to CC and CV by development and

implementation of production and risk management strategies.
b. Demonstration of site-specific technologies on farmer’s field.
c. It is enhancing the capacity of scientists and other stakeholders for climate-
resilient agriculture research and its application.

Under the NICRA project, climate-resilient villages are developed in the

151 districts of India. The collaboration of the International Food Policy Research
Institute (IFPRI), International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT),
and CGIAR’s research program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security
(CCAFS) has proposed to cover 237,000 hectares area under climate-smart villages
in India. The Indian government has launched many schemes for fulfilling the
objectives of CSA. The effective participation of all the stakeholders like
bureaucrats, farmers, government agencies, private sectors, and people in business
is required for the effective implementation of these policies. The timely assessment
of their impact, monitoring, and evaluation of these policies should be conducted to
quantify their effectiveness. There is a need to spread proper awareness about these
policies and about CSA practices, along with their implications among the farming
community through extension personnel and awareness programs. Proper feedback
mechanism for improvising these policies or formulation of a new policy should also
be established in conjunction with researchers, farmers, and other stakeholders.
There is a need to increase investment for improving the storage, transportation,
processing, and marketing facilities of agricultural produce at ground level.
Incentives or subsidies should be provided to the small or marginal farmers for
adopting CSA practices. An effective and strong policy for promotion and successful
adoption of CSA by all stakeholders is essential for attaining sustainability in AP and
FNS under CC scenario.

5.8 Constraints and Opportunities

For the successful adoption of CSA practices, there is a requirement to identify

constraints in its adoption by various stakeholders and harnessing of the available
opportunities. The main constraints for adoption of CSA practices by Indian farmers
are mentioned below (Deepika and Saravanan 2018):

a. Farmers with small landholdings don’t have space for the installation of water
harvesting structures, specifically in rainfed regions.
b. Less availability of labors for carrying out CSA practices.
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 181

Fig. 5.15 State-wise gross cropped area insured under all crop insurance schemes (2018–2019)
(Source: Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare)
182 Abhilash et al.

c. Unavailability of the good quality inputs to the farmers by the local dealers or
traders.
d. Lack of awareness and willingness among farmers for adopting CSA practices.
e. Unavailability of proper marketing infrastructures.
f. Inaccessibility of farmers to credit facilities for insurance of their crops.
g. Conflicts among farmers while conducting extension activities like
demonstrations, training programs, etc.

Other constraints include lack of proper awareness about CC and its mitigation
and adaptation by CSA practices among the various stakeholders. Lack of proper
storage, processing, and transportation facilities for agricultural products is another
barrier. Unavailability or lack of timely availability of machineries, implements, or
various inputs required for practicing CSA also creates an obstruction. The poor
financial condition of most of the farmers and unwillingness to change their attitude
toward innovative CSA practices also hinder them from adopting it.
Despite all these constraints, there are ample opportunities available that need to
be harnessed. Cooperative farming can be promoted among small and marginal
farmers so that they can easily adapt to CSA practices by reducing their risk.
Weather forecasting and early warning systems could be quite helpful in reducing
risks linked with weather and climate. ICT has great potential in developing and
communicating contingency plans with the help of researchers and administrators.
The seed banks should be created in appropriate numbers for timely providing
quality seeds to the farmers, particularly in case of crop failure caused by unwanted
weather events. There are enormous opportunities for improved post-harvest
technologies that aids in energy efficiency, as well as a sustained rise in productivity
and revenue generation, like better quality storage of crop, produce, its packing, and
supply.
The awareness can be spread among farmers and other stakeholders by using
voice messages and videos through mobile phones, which may bridge the knowl-
edge gap. Climate-smart model villages can be developed, which can act as a model
village among farmers and encourage them to adopt CSA practices. The rewards
should be provided to incentivize innovative farmers or agencies involved in CSA,
and their success stories should be promoted for sensitizing farmers and
stakeholders. Appropriate financing and funds should be provided to various sectors
for the development of proper infrastructure and spreading awareness, which may
facilitate the adoption of CSA. So, there is a need to increase investment in
promoting CSA adoption.

5.9 Future Perspectives

Reliable and accurate weather forecasts for several locations can help to develop
contingency plans for various crops and cropping systems. There is a need to refine
the outputs of CSM for better decision-making for the policymakers and for
providing suitable and timely advisories to the farmers. There is a need for
5 Climate-Smart Agriculture: An Integrated Approach for Attaining Agricultural. . . 183

conducting further research on precise and site-specific management of inputs

suitable for small and marginal farmers. There is also a need to research nano-
technology for improving input use efficiency in ACP.
Further research should be conducted to study the long-term effects of
CA. Integrated farming system models should be developed based on the location
and resources available to the farmers. More crop varieties should be developed,
having more climate resilience. Research should be conducted to develop sensors
which can monitor the performance of CSA practices and real-time condition of
crops while using green energy for its operation. These sensors should be able to
notify farmers through text messages about field operations. Robotics has great
scope in the mechanization of CSA practices. Research is required to evaluate the
application of drones in CSA. Innovative extension systems should be developed for
convincing farmers and stakeholders toward the adoption of CSA. There is a
requirement to develop a proper integration framework of policymakers, private
partners, farmers, researchers, bureaucrats, traders, and governmental agencies for
successful and effective implementation of CSA at field level.

5.10 Conclusions

CC and CV are affecting agriculture, and its adverse effects are projected to become
more grave in the future. CSA is very pertinent for mitigation and building resilience
or adaptation of agricultural system along with increasing or sustaining production in
CC scenarios. There are various CSA practices which should be adopted based on
the farmers’ condition and availability of resources. These practices include cultiva-
tion of improved varieties resistant to insect, pest, diseases, high temperature,
drought, or salinity; CA; using energy-smart technologies like biofuels, solar energy,
etc.; efficient water management by micro-irrigation, rainwater harvesting, drainage
structures, etc.; precision farming, integrated farming system; integrated pest, weed,
and nutrient management; agroforestry, crop, and livestock insurance; improved
breeds of livestock; modelling and forecasting for appropriate decision-making; and
so on. The effective adoption of these CSA interventions can be possible by a
holistic and integrated approach of all stakeholders involved in agriculture. CSA
has huge potential in combating CC and CV. Appropriate policies and their effective
implementation at the field level are essential for the success of CSA. The policies
should focus on spreading awareness by ICT-based technologies and demonstration
of climate-smart villages along with providing financial assistance for the adoption
of CSA practices. Appropriate and energy-efficient storage, transport, processing,
and marketing facilities should also be developed for the promotion of CSA. Thus,
CSA has huge potential for attaining agricultural sustainability, providing FNS, and
improvement of livelihood and income in an environment-friendly way.
184 Abhilash et al.

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Climate Change and Its Impact on Rice
Productivity and Quality 6
Mangal Deep Tuti, Mahender Kumar Rapolu, and Brajendra

Abstract

Most of the population of Asian and African countries completely depend on rice
for their daily food, and 90% of world rice comes from Asia. Nearly four and half
billion of the total world population completely depend on rice as a primary
source of their food. In India and other parts of the world, rice is taken as a staple
food. Considering its importance, the United Nation declared the year 2004 as the
International Year of Rice. The sustainable goals of the United Nation are to
reduce hunger, poverty, malnutrition, yearning, and ailing health of the world. A
100 g of white, short-grain, and cooked rice contains 130 calories, 28.7 g
carbohydrate, 2.36 g protein, and 0.19 g fat. Agriculture, horticulture, agrofor-
estry, and all agriculture-related ecosystems are very much closely linked with
climatic variables. So climate change and its impact on all these agro-ecosystems
have been the prime agenda for research in recent times. Environmental changes
and extreme biotic and abiotic stresses are posing genuine hurdles for rice
production which affects badly to farmers’ livelihood. There is an earnest need
to devise and outline systematic procedures against these extremes, to adapt
against these negative effects of climate change. The current chapter gives an
outline of the ongoing studies on climate change and its likely effects on rice
productivity and quality. Further, it suggests the mitigation strategy through crop
improvement and crop management technologies.

Keywords
Climate change · Ecosystems · Livelihood · Rice quality · Rice productivity

M. D. Tuti (*) · M. K. Rapolu · Brajendra

ICAR-Indian Institute of Rice Research, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
e-mail: mangal.tuti@icar.gov.in

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 191
Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_6
192 M. D. Tuti et al.

6.1 Introduction

In India, 40% of the total cropped area is irrigated, and rest 60% of the total cropped
area is rainfed and completely dependent on an uncertain monsoon. This shows the
dependency of Indian agriculture on climate. The worldwide population at the
current pace will be in excess of 9 billion by the middle of the twentieth century
and will prompt a significant increase in demand for rice. Approximately 20 million
hectares of the world’s rice-growing areas especially in India and other Asian
countries are directly affected by climate change. It leads to an increase in the
price of rice between 32 and 37% due to a reduction in productivity. By 2050, the
International Food Policy Research Institute predicted that an increase in rice price
will be 10–14% in Asia and 15% in sub-Saharan Africa. The major climatic
parameters that influence rice productivity in India and most of the Asian nations
are (1) rise in temperature, (2) uneven distribution of precipitation, (3) emergence of
new insect pest and diseases, (4) greenhouse gas emission from rice fields, and
(5) natural calamities, for example, long dry spell during the cropping season, heat
waves, landslides, and flooding. Climate change affects not only rice productivity
but also rice quality. To begin with, more than 80% of the world’s rice is consumed
by people, and rest of the cereals are used as animal feed or to produce other food
product (GRiSP 2013). Again, in low- and middle-income countries, other than as
staple food, rice is the major source of protein and micronutrients. Further, its
appearance and biochemical properties are crucial for consumer acceptance because
rice is generally consumed directly (Lyman et al. 2013; Cooper et al. 2008). So,
studying and exploring the relationship between different climatic parameters and
grain quality is very much important. Similarly, suitable strategies need to be
discovered for rice crop to adapt to these climate changes. There is an alarming
increase in earth’s atmospheric temperature due to an increase in greenhouse gases
(methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide). Rice contributes significantly to
greenhouse gas like methane. Weather pattern changes due to an increase in earth’s
surface temperature. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2001
reported that there is an increase of 0.6  C in worldwide temperature in the past
century. It was estimated that average temperatures will increase up to 5.8  C by
2100 (Nguyen 2002) which will lead to emergence of harmful insect pest and
diseases. Further, it will have a greater harmful effect on agriculture ecosystems.

6.2 Rice Productivity and Climate Change

A higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere leads to an increase in

temperatures which further leads to a decrease in rice production globally. Rice crop
fixes lesser CO2 than that of efficient C4 crop. Rice grown in all ecosystems emits
greenhouse gases (methane and nitrous oxide gases) and contributes significantly to
global warming. Rice cultivation contributes more than 10% of released methane
from the rice field. It was found that an increase in CO2 level and rise in temperature
decrease the productivity of rice. Temperature more than 45  C is detrimental for rice
6 Climate Change and Its Impact on Rice Productivity and Quality 193

Table 6.1 The critical Temperature ( C)

temperature for growth and
Rice growth stage Low High
development of rice
Germination 16 45
Rooting 16 35
Elongation of leaf 7 45
Active tillering 9 33
Panicle initiation 15 –
Anthesis 22 36
Ripening 12 >30
Yoshida (1978)

Table 6.2 Various symptoms of rice crop affected by heat stress

Growth stage Symptoms
Vegetative Reduction in height, tillering, white leaf tip, white bands and specks, chlorotic
bands and blotches
Reproductive Reduction in number of spikelet, increase in sterility
Ripening Reduction in grain filling
(Yoshida 1981)

growth and adversely affects its productivity. The critical temperature ranges for rice
growth at different phases are given in Table 6.1. Temperature plays a major role in
rice growth and shows different symptoms in rice (Table 6.2). A higher temperature
during the most sensitive stages of rice, i.e., reproductive and grain filling stage,
results in decreased grain yield and quality.

6.2.1 Climate Change and Rice Yield

By 2039, rice yield is going to be reduced significantly (4.5–9%) due to changes in

climatic parameters (Guiteras 2009). In kharif season, in India, not only monsoon
rainfall but also its arrival and distribution pattern affect the rice yield (Cruz et al.
2007). Global panel studies indicated an increase in the frequency of hot and warmer
nights which will put additional challenges to achieve higher rice yield (IPCC 2013).
Climatic parameters such as rainfall, temperature, solar radiation, and atmospheric
CO2 play an important role in rice production (Nyang’au et al. 2014). An increase in
rainfall and temperature variation was found to be harmful and beneficial to autumn
and winter rice yield, respectively; however, these climatic parameters were found to
be insignificant for summer rice (Nath and Raju 2018). Daily maximum temperature
plays a crucial role in rice spikelet fertility, and increase in temperature adversely
affects the yield. However, an increase in the atmospheric CO2 level could increase
the yield of rice (Dharmarathna et al. 2012). The higher temperature at critical
growth stages increases spikelet sterility and reduces rice crop duration (Jagadish
et al. 2008), reduces the duration of grain filling (Kim et al. 2011), and enhances the
rate of respiration (Mohammed and Tarpley 2009) resulting in lower grain yield and
194 M. D. Tuti et al.

grain quality (Fitzgerald and Resurreccion 2009). The flowering stage of rice is
highly susceptible to high temperature (Jagadish et al. 2008). Similarly, the duration
of solar radiation plays a crucial role in rice growth and yield (Tao et al. 2012).
Increased night temperature along with global warming decreases rice yield. Higher
minimum temperature (Wassmann et al. 2009) and lower solar radiation during the
latter part of crop growth stages reduce rice yield (Peng et al. 2004). Studies on rice
phenology revealed that warmer climate over the past 30 years had shortened the rice
crop duration in China (Zhang et al. 2013). Similarly, higher temperature during the
flowering stage of rice results in more spikelet sterility (Nakagawa et al. 2003).
The yield of rice crop may increase by 10–15% due to increase in CO2 level from
340 to 680 ppm (Allen 1990; Cure and Acock 1986); at the same time, it will
decrease the incidence of photosynthetically active radiation by 1% (Hume and
Cattle 1990). It was revealed that physiological parameters (membrane stability
index, relative water content, chlorophyll content, photosynthetic rate) increase
under elevated CO2; however, these traits were negatively affected due to elevated
temperature (Dwivedi et al. 2015). The similar study confirmed that the panicle
initiation stage of the rice crop was severely affected due to water stress and resulted
in lower grain yield (Zaman et al. 2018).

6.2.2 Photoperiod and Temperature

Emergence to flowering stage of rice is generally responsive to photoperiod dura-

tion. Among the three stages of the pre-flowering period, only inductive phase is
affected by photoperiod duration (Roberts et al. 1987; Yin et al. 1997). The
pre-inductive phase which is also called as vegetative phase duration was extended
due to increased photoperiod duration (Vergara and Chang 1976). These studies
further validate that simply ambient air temperature studies may not be enough but
remodeling of climate change responses with respect temperature is crucial. A study
revealed that temperature at the growing point of rice plant affects a lot (Jamieson
et al. 1995). Rice plant cooling effect by transpiration is reduced due to large
differences between air and tissue temperatures at higher CO2 concentration.
Hence, the timing of flowering within a season is largely controlled by responses
to temperature and photoperiod. So water-saving technologies and heat- and
drought-tolerant cultivars will play a major role in enhancing the rice yield under
future hotter climates (Jagadish et al. 2015).

6.3 Abiotic and Biotic Stresses and Rice Crop Yield

6.3.1 Abiotic Stress

Several abiotic stresses have emerged due to climate change. These have affected
negatively the rice plants and reduced their overall growth and development. Most of
the abiotic stresses are elaborated below:
6 Climate Change and Its Impact on Rice Productivity and Quality 195

Drought Rice is very much sensitive to water stress. Among all abiotic stresses,
drought has a devastating effect on rice crop affecting millions of hectares of
cultivated land in India and Asia. In India, drought affects more than 50% of
cropland and causes a huge loss in rice crop. In a few states of India, i.e., Jharkhand,
Orissa, and Chhattisgarh, drought is more frequent and may cause yield loss more
than 35%. Drought severely affects germination, plant height, tillering, spikelet
fertility, flower sterility, seed quality, chalkiness, and time of flowering ultimately
reducing the yield. Increase in temperature increases respiration rate and reduces rice
yield. So in the coming days, rice crop yield will reduce significantly due to an
increase in temperature. Various studies revealed that there is a positive correlation
between CO2 and drought. Moisture stress reduces growth and physiological
parameters such as photosynthesis, rate of transpiration, stomatal conductance,
membrane stability index, water use efficiency, relative water content, and abscisic
acid content and thereby reduces its yield (Pandey and Shukla 2015). Water stress at
reproductive stage reduces grain formation and inhibits pollen development and
panicle exsertion which leads to 75% spikelet sterility (O’toole and Namuco 1983).
Water stress also inhibits pollen germination, anther dehiscence, and pollen fertili-
zation (Ekanayake et al. 1990).

Submergence/Flooding Flooding significantly reduces the rice grain yield espe-

cially when it is grown under rainfed lowland condition. Frequent flooding happens
in major eastward river basins of India. Flooding has a severe effect on rice crop due
to improper drainage facility in rice fields. Flooding can happen at any stage of the
rice crop. Rice can tolerate partial submergence; however, it dies within a few days
of complete submergence. Flooding in rice creates anaerobic conditions which favor
more emission of CH4 from the rice field (Sun et al. 2016). This anaerobic condition
affects ethanolic fermentation pathway and reduces glycolysis promoting ethanol
and lactate production (Chirkova and Yemelyanov 2018). Ethanol is toxic to plant
since through diffusion it forms acetaldehyde which is an intermediate toxic sub-
stance (Rahman et al. 2001). Submergence at early vegetative stage showed varied
response among the varieties. Duration of submergence had a significant effect on
rice morphology (Sultana et al. 2018).

Chilling Stress The seedling stage is affected the most by chilling temperature
(Buti et al. 2018). There is more accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in
rice plant cells due to chilling stress (Cen et al. 2018). Indica cultivars are more
sensitive to cold than japonica cultivars.

Soil Salinity Major part of cultivable land in Asia and India are not suited for rice
cultivation due to higher accumulation of salt. Higher temperatures prompt high
evapotranspiration rates leading to more salt accumulation in rice fields. Salt stress
on rice plant has a similar effect as that of drought stress leading to lower yield. Soil
salinity affects more than 20% of total worldwide cultivated area and 33% of total
irrigated agricultural lands. In addition to this, the salinized areas are increasing at a
rate of 10% annually. It has been estimated that more than 50% of the arable land
196 M. D. Tuti et al.

would be salinized by the year 2050. Rice crop produces less yield in saline soils due
to high osmotic stress, nutrient toxicities, and poor soil physicochemical properties.
Rice is especially susceptible to salinity during the seedling stage and panicle
exsertion stage. In India, nearly 6.7 million ha cultivable lands are affected by soil
salinity stress. The detrimental effect of soil salinity on rice crop is further
aggravated by high temperature and relative humidity (Tack et al. 2015). Moderately
salt-sensitive rice crop significantly reduces yield under high-salinity conditions.
Under high-salinity conditions, accumulation of reactive oxygen species damages
the cell of rice plant (Apse et al. 2003).

Acid Soils Acid soils (defined as soils with pH <6.5 in the top layer) in India cover
around 49 million hectares arable land of which 25 million hectares have pH below
5.5 and 23 million hectares have pH between 5.6 and 6.5. Acid soils have toxic
levels of iron (Fe), aluminum (Al), and manganese (Mn) coupled with lower levels
of phosphorous (P) (Kochian et al. 2004).

6.3.1.1 Water Management and Rice Yield

Water demand for rice is going to be changed due to climate change. Climate change
will affect rainfall pattern, soil water balance, and rate of evapotranspiration. Water
demand for rice will increase with an increase in temperatures and variability of
precipitation. Rice crop may require more irrigation water in the future than now.
Water stress at anthesis stage may result in the sterility of rice crop. It has been
observed that total precipitation is increased in the high-latitude regions of northern
hemisphere and tropics. Similarly, semi-tropical regions of the world witnessed a
decrease in precipitation over the past several decades.

6.3.2 Biotic Stress

Generally, insect pest and diseases pose a major threat to rice cultivation. On an
average farmers lose 37% of their rice yield due to pests and diseases. Rice yield loss
may vary from 15 to 20% depending upon the pressure of insect pests. It is estimated
that the average yield losses in rice vary from 21 to 51%. The major pests of rice, i.e.,
yellow stem borer (25–30%), plant hoppers (10–70%), and gall midge (15–60%),
reduce the plant growth and cause severe yield loss. At national level, stem borers
accounted for 30% of the losses, while plant hoppers 20%, gall midge 15%, leaf
folder 10%, and other pests 25%. Yield losses due to the incidence of insect pests
vary depending upon the stage and duration of rice crop.
6 Climate Change and Its Impact on Rice Productivity and Quality 197

6.4 Climate Change and Rice Grain Quality

There is very much urgency to study the effect of climate change on food quality
(Högy and Fangmeier 2008; Porter and Semenov 2005; Loladze 2002). A large part
study focused on nitrogen and protein concentrations under elevated CO2
conditions. Furthermore, the studies on the effect of climate change on nutritional
value and quality of rice grain are very few. Moreover, this insufficient information
does not help us to draw firm conclusions on how the climate changes will affect rice
grain quality for human consumption. It was found that few degree variation in
temperature has more pronounced overall effects on quality than that of increased
CO2. To assess the effects of temperature and CO2 interactions on rice grain quality
needs understating about assimilate supply and demand (Morison and Lawlor 1999).

6.4.1 Milling Quality

6.4.1.1 Carbon Dioxide

Milling quality is directly related to the market price of rice (Cooper et al. 2008).
Carbon dioxide studies on rice grain quality revealed deterioration of processing
quality of rice grain under elevated CO2, whereas a different free-air CO2 enrichment
(FACE) study in Japan confirmed that the milling quality of japonica variety was
significantly reduced under elevated CO2 condition (Terao et al. 2005). Similarly,
decrease in milling rice percentage (3%) and head rice recovery percentage (24%) of
japonica and IR24 variety was reported under elevated CO2 (Yang et al. 2007). The
changes in processing quality induced by elevated CO2 influenced the yield of head
rice, brown rice, and milled rice.

6.4.1.2 Ozone
Higher ozone level reduces the processing quality of rice. Indica hybrid also shown a
decreasing percentage of brown rice and milled rice due to ozone stress (Wang et al.
2012, 2014). Shen et al. (2016) also reported that the brown rice percentage and head
rice percentage of japonica varieties were reduced due to higher ozone level.
However, the effect of higher ozone on milled rice percentage was prominent.

6.4.1.3 CO2, Temperature, and Ozone

Grain filling stage is susceptible to a higher temperature and affects the grain quality
which further reduces the milling quality of rice (Lyman et al. 2013). Madan et al.
(2012) did not found any interaction between temperature and CO2 level during
short-term studies at flowering stage of rice. However, a long-term study revealed
that there is an interaction between temperature and elevated CO2. Xie et al. (2009)
reported that elevated CO2 and air temperature together affected the processing
quality of japonica cultivar while their individual effect did not reflect the same.
Usui et al. (2014) also found that the grains are damaged due to elevated temperature
and CO2 grown under many seasons. Contradictory to previous studies, interaction
198 M. D. Tuti et al.

effects of CO2 and O3 did not influence the processing quality of rice (Wang et al.
2014).

6.4.2 Appearance Quality

6.4.2.1 Carbon Dioxide

Appearance quality can be defined as the physical appearance of brown rice or
polished rice. It is the first sensory impression of rice consumers. Generally, elevated
CO2 increases grain size and chalkiness. There was a significant increase in rice
grain chalkiness (3%) due to elevated CO2 (Terao et al. 2005). Yang et al. (2007)
also reported a similar increase in chalky area (3%), chalkiness degree (28%), and
chalky grain percentage (17%) under elevated CO2. Similarly, white-base grains
increased by 8.4% in ambient plots. The white-base grain increased by 17.1% in
sensitive cultivars; however, the same for heat-tolerant cultivars were 2.1% and
4.4%, respectively (Usui et al. 2014). This confirmed that the grain chalkiness varies
with cultivars also apart from elevated CO2. Milling quality deteriorates due to
elevated CO2 (Yang et al. 2007). However, no change (Madan et al. 2012) or a
decrease in grain chalkiness (Xu et al. 2008) due to elevated CO2 is also reported.

6.4.2.2 Ozone
Ozone stress increases chalkiness but reduces grain size. Higher ozone level
increased the chalky grain percentage (15%), chalkiness area (42%), and chalkiness
degree (61%) of japonica cultivars (Shen et al. 2016).

6.4.2.3 CO2, Temperature, and Ozone

Lighter and smaller grains are formed due to high temperature during grain filling
stage (Yamakawa et al. 2007). High temperature increases the percentage of milky
white rice and white chalky rice by inhibiting grain filling (Tsukaguchi and Iida
2008). The formation of more chalky grains under high temperatures is attributed to
less starch accumulation. Jing et al. (2016) reported that there was no significant
interaction effect of CO2 and temperature on grain weight or size. However, grain
chalkiness was increased due to elevated CO2 and temperature. The interaction
effect of these two further increased the chalky grain percentage, chalkiness degree,
and chalkiness area. This result confirmed the additive interactive effects of CO2 and
temperature on rice chalkiness formation (Jing et al. 2016).

6.4.3 Carbohydrate

In rice, grain quality is determined by amylose content and gelatinization. Elevated

CO2 did not affect amylose content and palatability of rice (Terao et al. 2005).
However, Yang et al. (2007) found lower amylose content (3.6%), decreased grain
hardness, and improved palatability under elevated CO2. Elevated CO2 negatively
affected the milled rice percentage and head rice percentage; however, it increased
6 Climate Change and Its Impact on Rice Productivity and Quality 199

the chalky grain percentage and chalkiness degree by 16.9% and 28.3%, respec-
tively. This inconsistent finding may be due to various cultivars used in the above-
cited studies. Ziska et al. (1997) reported that increased amylose content of rice grain
at higher temperatures might be associated with increased stickiness.

6.4.4 Minerals

Seneweera and Conroy (1997) reported that elevated CO2 reduced the
concentrations of N (14%), P (5%), Zn (28%), and Fe (17%) but increased the
concentration of Ca (32%) in rice grain.

6.4.5 Proteins and Their Fractions

Sometimes higher nitrogen fertilization and most of the times normal recommended
levels can minimize protein content in rice (Stafford 2008). However, reduced
protein content in rice grain was also reported under elevated CO2 (Taub et al.
2008). Application of a higher dose of nitrogen fertilization would be unwise in
terms of costs and environmental consequences. Again, a higher dose of nitrogen
may affect the physical quality of rice grain as reported by Yang et al. (2007).

6.5 Mitigation Strategies

Climate change requires global attention to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from
agricultural lands. This strategy needs long-term solutions to the climate change
problem. Specially to control methane emission, there are several options available,
e.g., technologies such as mid-season drainage and switching to alternative fertilizers
and heat /drought-tolerant rice varieties. Agronomic management practices such as
adjusting sowing dates and efficient crop establishment methods are some of the
measures to reduce the methane emissions from rice fields. New techniques of plant
breeding and genetics can also be used to counteract the negative impact of climate
change. Proactive, proper strategies and policies from different countries are very
much needed to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from rice cultivation. Refine-
ment of water-saving technologies and adoption of more efficient water management
practices are the need of the hour to mitigate drought stress.

6.6 Mitigation Strategy Through Crop Improvement

• Development of high temperature- and drought-tolerant varieties with better

adaptation to other biotic stresses. Developing submergence- and flood-tolerant
rice varieties suitable for various agro-ecological conditions.
200 M. D. Tuti et al.

• Salinity- and alkalinity-tolerant cultivars should be developed to grow at salt-

affected regions of India.
• Varieties resistant to emerging insect pest and diseases need to be developed to
overcome the biotic stresses.
• Holistic research is needed to convert from C3 rice to C4 rice.

6.7 Future Perspectives

The study of the effect of climate change on grain quality is lagging behind as
compared to rice yield. Even as the study is picking pace now, many aspects in these
studies are inconclusive, and not yet completely established. These uncertainties
greatly influence global food security. This chapter indicated that elevated tempera-
ture and CO2 significantly reduce the grain yield and quality. So, there is an urgent
need to improve our understanding of the impacts of climate change on rice yield and
quality through systematic investigation.

1. Strengthening the basic climate change research consists of all the climatic
parameters. Further research on the response of rice quality to climate changes
specially to study the biotic and abiotic factors. In-depth studies of these
interactions will help to develop effective adaptation and mitigation strategies
for climate change.
2. Strengthen the research through new biotechnological tools which include geno-
mics, metabolomics, and proteomics and need to be introduced to study the rice
quality and its response mechanism. To understand the response mechanism is
very much needed (Long et al. 2006; Ainsworth et al. 2012).
3. An in-depth study on the adaptation strategy of rice under the different climatic
regime is very much needed. The research focus should be on increasing the yield
with better grain quality under various biotic and abiotic stresses.

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Changing the Way We Produce Food: An
Overview of the Current Agricultural Food 7
Production Industry and Worldwide Trends
for Sustainable Production

Rowena P. Varela, Raquel M. Balanay, and Anthony Halog

Abstract

The rapidly expanding population and the changing lifestyle amid climate change
pose tremendous challenges to the way food is produced globally. Various food
production strategies have been tested worldwide to guarantee adequate food
supply. This chapter puts together the findings and insights of the various
initiatives in the food production industry to ensure sustainable production. The
shift from the green revolution to sustainable agriculture has significantly
changed the agricultural production landscape by integrating the market, policy,
research and innovation, and society’s perspectives. Agriculture is undergoing a
technology revolution, now the Agriculture 4.0, with the introduction of artificial
intelligence (AI), sensors, and the Internet of Things (IoT). With the current food
production and consumption patterns impacting the environment, life cycle
assessment (LCA) is crucial to improve food-related supply chains. Therefore,
a sustainable agricultural production system that embraces technological
advancement, ecological soundness, and sociological perspectives is the way
forward to ensure food supply.

R. P. Varela (*) · R. M. Balanay

Department of Agricultural Sciences, College of Agriculture and Agri-industries, Caraga State
University, Ampayon, Butuan, Philippines
e-mail: rpvarela@carsu.edu.ph
A. Halog
School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD,
Australia
e-mail: a.halog@uq.edu.au

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 205
Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_7
206 R. P. Varela et al.

Keywords

Climate change · Food security · Sustainable agriculture · Agriculture 4.0 · Agri-

food life cycle assessment

7.1 Overview of the Agricultural Food Production System

The changing lifestyles of people and the challenges posed by climate change call for
modifications in the way food is produced. After World War II, the “Green Revolu-
tion” was the trend in agriculture where agrochemicals (fertilizers and pesticides)
were applied to increase agricultural productivity. This era was marked by pollution
and degradation of the environment. The extensive use of highly toxic pesticides in
agriculture and forestry killed non-target organisms, which prompted Carson (1962)
to publish the Silent Spring that documented the adverse environmental effects
caused by the agrochemicals. Since then, the USA and other countries initiated
agricultural programs that promote the safe use of agrochemicals, such as sustainable
agriculture, ecological agriculture, and bio-intensive agriculture. This era led to more
research on alternative agricultural production systems that are environment-friendly
and have improved agricultural input-output efficiency.
With the current global population growth rate and the changing lifestyles of
people, the Earth has been under extreme pressure. Ensuring food security to feed the
increasing population with minimal environmental impacts and easing the
biosphere’s pressure are today’s biggest challenge. Citing the UN population
projections, Alexandratos and Bruinsma (2012) pointed out that an adaptive food
production system is essential to meet the global population’s food demand, which
by 2050 is projected to balloon up to 9.15 billion. The adaptive food production
system considers the repercussions of agriculture on biodiversity conservation,
habitat loss, judicious use of external inputs in farming, and the use of methods
that optimize water use efficiency. With the challenges posed by climate change,
adaptive agriculture is necessary. In sub-Saharan Africa, the leading approach to
analyzing climate change and its impact on food security is modeling the effects of
future climate scenarios on food production to provide valuable information on the
next production levels (Connolly-Boutin and Smit 2016). However, socioeconomic
data (e.g., income, health, and assets) are necessary as food accessibility and
utilization are among food security issues. The recent decisions at the micro and
macro level are dictated by the use of data with the help of advances in data modeling
and simulation with virtual resources.
A new revolution called Agriculture 4.0 is being advocated to optimize food
production with minimal environmental impacts. Agriculture 4.0 is a new concept in
the agri-food production system that considers the use of digital technology for more
precise and smart decision-making to improve efficiency. This concept aligns with
the Fourth Industrial Revolution, which harnesses the use of sensors, computers, and
information and communication technology (ICT) in agriculture systems to increase
food production efficiency. Precision agriculture (PA) and the integration of digital
7 Changing the Way We Produce Food: An Overview of the Current. . . 207

technology are becoming the modern approaches to food production in Europe to

increase input-output efficiency with less environmental footprints (Lindblom et al.
2017). The applications of ICT are imperative for lasting and sustainable develop-
ment in agriculture through computer-human interaction toward developing a deci-
sion support system (DSS). In literature, the uses of ICT in agriculture are referred to
as “smart agriculture,” “intelligent agriculture,” and “digital farming” or “digital
agriculture.” These ICT-based agriculture approaches are based on the ideas of
precision farming (Zambon et al. 2019). Some researchers looked at Agriculture
4.0 as a concept beyond smart agriculture (De Clercq et al. 2008; Himesh et al. 2018;
Huh and Kim 2018; Yahya 2018) and, from the perspective of Agriculture 4.0,
shared that establishing smart farms is essential to monitor and manage carbon
emissions in real time. According to Wolfert et al. (2017), smart farming is impacted
by big data required in decision-making along the whole supply chain. Hence,
research is crucial in line with governance and business models.
With climate change disrupting the food production system, disturbances in the
markets ensued, posing risks to the food supply. The instabilities in food production
systems due to climate change impacts can be reduced. The countries all over the
world need to initiate programs on enhancing the adaptive capacity and the resilience
of farmers and on increasing the resource use efficiency to produce food despite the
threats of climate change continually. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is advocated
internationally to stimulate coordinated actions by all major agricultural production
players. According to Lipper et al. (2014), the agri-food production system’s key
players need to participate actively in critical aspects of CSA. The aim is to increase
institutional efficiency at the local level and ensure consistency of agricultural
policies concerning climate matters and agricultural investment related to climate.
This is the underpinning of CSA, as it focuses on capacity building among farmers
and support groups to implement solutions to climate-linked issues. Richardson et al.
(2018) cited that the vulnerability in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia to
food insecurity is estimated to increase significantly under all emission scenarios.
However, high levels of adaptation and mitigation in farming communities can
improve food production in the future compared to present-day circumstances.
This scenario then highlights the impacts of combined mitigation and adaptation to
avoid the worst impacts of climate change and to make gains in dealing with food
insecurity. Varela et al. (2019) assessed climate risks in agriculture toward initiating
climate-resilient agricultural initiatives in Caraga Region, Philippines, and they
found that communities have existing knowledge about climate-smart agriculture.
Nonetheless, the farmers and the support groups need to enhance their under-
standing of climate change resilience and focus on improving their adaptive
mechanisms toward food security. With limited knowledge of the likelihood of
food insecurity under different climate change scenarios, providing information to
farmers on the impacts of climate change is crucial in achieving food security (Antón
et al. 2013). Recently, there have been programs and activities in various parts of the
world to offset climate change impacts in the agri-food production system. These
initiatives also address the need for greater input-output efficiency as a requirement
for sustainability. The current agriculture-food production system adopts the
208 R. P. Varela et al.

Food Security to feed the

Growing Population

Sustainable Food
Production

Climate Smart Agriculture/

Agriculture 4.0

Food
Production
Policy

GHG Emission

ICT-based Smart Agri-food production LCA/Life Cycle

Farming systems Climate Change Thinking

Soiland water
stress

Supply
Chain

Fig. 7.1 A framework of the agricultural production system to ensure food and environmental
sustainability amid climate change. The agri-food production practices result in GHG emission and
soil and water stresses that contribute to climate change. Addressing these through ICT-based smart
farming and understanding the supply chain, life cycle thinking, and food production policy will
lead to sustainable climate-smart food production and food security

framework shown in Fig. 7.1 to achieve food security and ecosystem sustainability
with the challenges posed by climate change.

7.2 The Current State of Food Production Globally

Conventional agriculture is still the foundation of modern agriculture. The usual

farming and soil management principles remain a solid basis in current food
production systems. However, modifications in conventional agriculture are made
to adapt to the demands of time and society amid the challenges of climate change.
Agriculture is identified to contribute significantly to GHG emissions. About
7 Changing the Way We Produce Food: An Overview of the Current. . . 209

52–84% of global anthropogenic methane and nitrous oxide emissions are deter-
mined to come from agriculture (Scheehle and Kruger 2006). The global targets for
greenhouse gas mitigation can be realized by making significant adjustments to food
supply chains (Whitfield et al. 2018). Hence, they outlined the research space to
make adjustments in the agricultural system to adapt to changing and unpredictable
climatic conditions. As agriculture ensures food availability to spur local develop-
ment and alleviate poverty without altering ecological functions and services,
innovative technologies supporting climate-smart food systems must be in place to
ensure sustainability.
The advent of Industry 4.0 has also affected the agriculture sector; hence it is now
undergoing a new technology revolution globally. Industry 4.0 is under the Fourth
Industrial Revolution that involves the digitalization of industrial processes,
allowing better connectivity between customers and supply chains through real-
time access to production and consumption information. In this era, the use of novel
approaches (AI, sensors, and IoT) becomes trendy. While these technologies have
been regarded as essential inputs in achieving agri-food system efficiency, the social
implications of these technologies are being put aside. Sociological studies suggest
that there may be concerns among farmers and associated communities about
revolutionary agricultural technologies. Thus, Rose and Chilvers (2018) argued
that agricultural innovations be further developed and tested among farming
communities to be considered as promising farm technologies. They added that
frameworks on ICT-based smart innovations in agriculture be field-tested to see if
these can influence the agenda of agricultural innovation. Agriculture 4.0 involves
smart farming (SF) for intelligent decision-making in response to the need of the
growing population and the changing climate. In Agriculture 4.0, the ICT-based
technologies have been integrated to facilitate decision-making concerning
agriculture-food systems. In Brazil, ICT-based systems are the main limiting factors
to smart farming evolution (Pivoto et al. 2018). The ability and skills of farmers to
understand and handle smart farming tools are also regarded as limiting factors.
They noted that countries with more research and development investments usually
led to smart farming.

7.3 Environmental Issues Created by Conventional Food

Production Processes

Analysis of life cycle assessments (LCA) of 742 agricultural systems shows organic
systems have greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) comparable to conventional
methods (Clark and Tilman 2017). Smith and Gregory (2013) reviewed and outlined
some of the likely impacts of climate change on agriculture. They looked at the
mitigation measures to reduce GHG emissions and how to produce food sustainably
for ten billion people. With the enormous challenge, radical alterations in the
production and consumption patterns of food systems are inevitable. Increasing
agricultural input efficiency would benefit both crop and livestock systems environ-
mentally (Clark and Tilman 2017).
210 R. P. Varela et al.

The production and consumption patterns in agriculture-food systems are the

leading causes of environmental impacts. Therefore, these are crucial in assessing
the food production systems and food supply chains to mitigate environmental
footprints and gas emissions that contribute to climate change. However, it is
challenging to conduct LCA due to the intricate food production systems and supply
chains. Notarnicola et al. (2017) suggested that dedicated modeling approaches have
to be adopted to address the critical variability of agriculture-food production
assemblies. These models tackle the distinction between the technosphere and the
ecosphere. Likewise, these consider the biological systems’ multi-function and the
emission modeling linked with LCA. Food production and consumption pose a
significant challenge, considering the environmental impacts of agricultural systems
(Liu et al. 2015). Also, the competing demands from the expansion of biofuel
production, implications of using genetically modified organisms, and the changing
lifestyle of people amplify the global food crisis. There will be trade-offs if practical
solutions are not determined as these are crucial for agricultural sustainability. As a
result, life cycle thinking (LCT) and life cycle assessment (LCA) are critical
elements in determining more sustainable solutions to address global food
challenges (Sala et al. 2017). In outlining the solutions, LCA should be used to
assess agri-food supply chains and be considered a reference. They identified LCA
and life cycle thinking as necessary for identifying hotspots of impacts along food
supply chains, food supply chain optimization, and assessment of future scenarios,
particularly in consideration of climate change.

7.4 Current and Future Sustainable Production

and Consumption Trends in the Food Industry Worldwide

In producing food, the impacts of climate change are evidenced by the crop failures
leading to food shortages and rising food prices. Thus Whitfield et al. (2018)
discussed climate-smart agriculture (CSA), which considers strategies used by
local communities and integrates technological solutions to complex issues that
would set out a direction for change toward improved food production. They
emphasized the need to discuss broad systemic perspectives to provide adequate
healthy food for the growing population, ensure sustainable land use, and adapt and
mitigate climate change. The idea is to discuss these approaches concerning the goal
of designing climate-smart food production systems. In the era of Industry 4.0,
decision support tools are an essential part of the pursuit of a decision support
system (DSS) for agriculture to improve productivity and reduce environmental
footprints. Rose et al. (2016) investigated the factors affecting the use of DSS
tools by farmers and advisers in the UK. They found that there were 15 factors
influencing farmers and advisers to use DSS tools. These include usability, cost-
effectiveness, performance, relevance to the user, and compatibility with compliance
demands. A better understanding of these factors is imperative for a more effective
design of DSS tools to entice farmers to use these with CSA. The Thailand Ministry
of Agriculture and Cooperatives has been promoting smart farming and upgrading
7 Changing the Way We Produce Food: An Overview of the Current. . . 211

farmers to “smart farmers,” who can use technology in food production and market-
ing for better prices (Jones and Pimdee 2017). The Thailand 4.0 program of the
government adopts the principle “not to leave anyone behind.” However, farmers
and other agriculture players must use the DSS in their transactions. In this context,
human labor must not be replaced by machines; however, humans need to develop
the ability to speak foreign languages and evolve to be “smart people.” The impor-
tance of food innovation is valued and recognized in Thailand as the next big thing,
as the human population continues to increase.
Nanotechnology and its application in the food industry have been recognized to
have many contributions to food processing, food packaging, and food preservation.
The introduction of nanotechnology in the food industry has made the transport of
foods to different parts of the world easy and resulted in less spoilage of most food
products (Hamad et al. 2018). However, nanotechnology has not been proven
effective, being a burgeoning field of science; thus, more research is needed. In
the aspect of food safety, nanotechnology can contribute to reducing food wastage
caused by microorganisms that result in food spoilage. In Agriculture 4.0, many
innovations are associated with sustainable agriculture, interacting and co-evolving
as “agricultural innovation systems” (Klerkx et al. 2012). These are facilitated by the
emerging smart technologies that are computer-based and the smart farmers
involved in community-based agricultural innovations (Waters-Bayer et al. 2015).
However, in embracing smart technologies to make food production systems effi-
cient and ecologically sound, the community’s perspectives and the various players
in the system should be considered. Macnaghten and Chilvers (2014) stated that
addressing sustainable agriculture problems has to incorporate public concerns about
emerging science and technology. This action promotes the cultivation of shared
responsibilities across innovation ecologies. With collective responsibilities, there
will be better governance and coordination between key actors in directing agricul-
tural revolutions toward more socially responsible actions.

7.5 Challenges for Implementation and Adaptation of More

Sustainable Food Production Processes

The global climate unpredictability resulted in crop productivity reduction, particu-

larly in arid and semiarid areas, causing food scarcities and food price increases.
Adaptation of more sustainable food production systems and processes, therefore,
has been in discussion in several forums due to the increasing demand for food and
to the uncertainties brought about by climate change. However, adaptation and
mitigation initiatives at the national and global levels tend to have a disconnect
resulting from a range of constraints. Harvey et al. (2014) demonstrated that climate
change mitigation and adaptation benefits were associated with tropical agricultural
systems, considering the landscape approach. The landscape-scale agricultural
systems have better mitigation and adaptation potentials resulting from synergies
due to the spatial arrangements. However, this approach will require re-shaping of
current policies, institutional arrangements, and funding mechanisms to enhance the
212 R. P. Varela et al.

adoption of climate-smart strategies in agricultural landscapes. On managing trans-

formative processes in agriculture, Vermeulen et al. (2018) suggested providing
more comprehensive and long-term approaches to climate adaptation planning.
Within this framework are financial and technical packages, and incentives are
given to multifunctional farming systems to improve the effectiveness of outcomes.
Agroforestry, which is advocated to make agricultural production similar to
natural systems, can make a significant contribution to climate change mitigation
and adaptation. The limited knowledge in agroecological principles and the need for
stable finances are among the key limitations in adopting agroforestry. Hence, the
indirect solutions suggested are training programs and the development of economi-
cally and ecologically feasible climate-smart agriculture investment (Hernández-
Morcillo et al. 2018). The recommended solutions are adopting practices through
the implementation of multifunctional hedgerows and windbreaks capable of
increasing soil organic carbon for nutrient cycling. Intensive agriculture (e.g.,
monoculture, use of agrochemicals) has led to biodiversity loss, climate change,
and groundwater stress. In the Philippines, rice production, which is usually
adopting intensive agriculture, has been re-oriented to Palayamanan, taking the
principles of agroecology to preserve agricultural biodiversity and restore the soil
fertility naturally. Palayamanan is an agriculture-food production system
highlighting the purposive integration of other components to rice farming (Corales
et al. 2004). In 2011 dry and wet seasons, results showed that rice insect pests were
relatively low in the Palayamanan rice field compared to those in rice monoculture
(Arida et al. 2016). The agro-biodiversity in the Palayamanan rice field includes the
dense populations of beneficial organisms that result in a high incidence of egg
parasitism in brown plant hopper. Between the Palayamanan system and the rice
monoculture system, there is a striking difference in the overall rice field productiv-
ity. However, Mariano et al. (2012) identified some aspects of the Palayamanan to
make the farming system more adopted by farmers. This is focused on the social
benefits such as technical and financial assistance to the farmers. In addition, the
government policies should include intervention packages toward ensuring food
production by offsetting environmental adversities during climate extremes (e.g.,
drought and flooding). Moreover, an adaptive management approach for creating
and utilizing learning tools tailored for biodiversity-based agriculture may provide
“safety nets” for climate variabilities (Duru et al. 2015).
Countries in the tropics such as Africa and Asia are more economically associated
with natural resource and climate-dependent sectors. In Africa, Misra (2014)
highlighted the importance of groundwater recharge by utilizing wastewater using
the soil aquifer treatment (SAT) method in irrigation. He presented options under
climate change to ensure water and food security as inputs in the formulation of
effective adaptation and mitigation policies and strategies to reduce the impact of
climate change on water resources and irrigation. Iglesias and Garrote (2015)
pointed out that the implementation of climate-smart agriculture requires
overhauling current water policy and providing adequate training to farmers and
viable financial instruments to improve their adaptive capacity. These arrangements
will assist farmers and other key players in addressing the adaptation challenge,
7 Changing the Way We Produce Food: An Overview of the Current. . . 213

thereby developing mechanisms to reduce the vulnerability of agriculture to climate

change.
Similarly, sustainable intensification (SI) is currently a catchphrase in food
security discussions as an approach to meet the demand for food while conserving
land, water, and other resources. SI is emerging as an exciting approach nowadays,
as it considers the human condition, nutrition, and social equity. However, the
method requires a new set of metrics and indicators to track progress, assess trade-
offs, and identify synergies. Smith et al. (2017) assessed indicators and metrics and
concluded that some indicators require strong sets of parameters.
The introduction of ICT and digital technologies triggered an evolution in
agriculture in the early 2010s leading to the era of Agriculture 4.0. The introduction
of sensors and actuators, low-cost microprocessors, and other ICT-based analytics
has been changing the agricultural systems’ landscape. The agriculture evolution,
which promotes smart agriculture, started in the more developed countries in the
west, but China and Japan have also joined the trend in the east. Table 7.1
summarizes the initiatives in changing the agriculture landscape with the introduc-
tion of Agriculture 4.0.
Along with the new technologies introduced concerning Agriculture 4.0, there
have been discussions about the precision farming evolution perspective, Industry
4.0 in agriculture perspective, digital technologies perspective, informed decision-
making perspective, beyond the farm boundaries perspective, and ultimate goal
perspective. With many innovations coming in, the concept of Agriculture 4.0 has
become challenging to comprehend at the grassroots level. For farmers in develop-
ing countries, education to acquire knowledge and skills related to the use of sensors,
computers, and others is essential to make them accustomed to the changing way of
producing food. These are both challenges and opportunities in the age of climate
change and innovations.

7.6 Moving Forward for Facing the Challenges in Ensuring

Food Security

The challenges associated with changing the way we produce food in the era of
climate change and agricultural innovations can be dealt with through progressive
education of the various players in the food supply chain. In the past decades, if food
production is intended only for household consumption, the current agriculture-food
system has ballooned due to the exponentially growing population globally and with
the people’s changing lifestyle. Sustainable agricultural production system, which
embraces ecological soundness and sociological perspectives, are, therefore, the way
forward. This production system has to consider the production-processing-market
linkage, gas emissions, and related environmental disturbances along the food
production chain. Food production system digitalization is also crucial in managing
inputs and outputs. Likewise, the policy to support farm mechanization in tropical
countries in South Asia and Africa is necessary to improve the food production
system’s timing and efficiency.
214 R. P. Varela et al.

Table 7.1 Agricultural innovations and policy interventions to make agriculture attuned to the
changing climate and lifestyle of the people
Brief description and highlight of the
Agricultural/ICT-based innovation project Author/s
Multi-perspective approach in A systematic review to provide a clear Sponchioni
agriculture 4.0 and holistic definition of agriculture et al. (2019)
4.0 and the related boundaries
Swedish project on developing an The project was to apply a user- Lindblom
agricultural decision support system centered design (UCD) approach. et al. (2017)
(AgriDSS) There had been pitfalls; however,
despite the challenges, ICT has been
contributing to developing DSS
Ecosystem service (ESS)-based ESS is marginally considered an Huq et al.
adaptation (EbA) to climate change in adaptation component, especially at (2017)
Bangladesh’s policy-making process the top strategic level (vertical
mainstreaming). The arguments
related to policy and institutional
capacities have offset the EbA
mainstreaming process that needs to
be addressed for climate change
adaptation
Industry vs. agriculture in future Analysis of the farming supply chain Zambon et al.
development for small and medium to permit the effective (2019)
enterprises (SMEs) implementation of industry 4.0
guidelines. There are questions about
how industry 4.0 approaches can be
improved and be pertinent to the
agricultural sector to progress at a
much faster rate
Forecasting soil temperature to The hybrid MLP-FFA model is Samadianfard
estimate monthly soil temperature drawn upon a limited set of et al. (2018)
(ST) at multiple depths with a hybrid predictors. This can be used to
multi-layer perceptron algorithm visualize the degree of similarity
integrated with firefly optimizer between the observed and forecasted
algorithm (MLP-FFA) soil moisture
Understanding the concepts of Consistent supply chain management Braun et al.
innovative supply chain management re value creation is a common (2018)
approach in the industrial sector.
However, the processes require
reconsidering the supply chain:
Empirically characterized processes,
stochastic environmental conditions,
mobility of the production facilities,
and low division of work need to be
considered
Green growth engine in Thailand’s The model follows the 20-years Jones and
food sector, to create sustainability national strategic plan by building Pimdee
through environmentally friendly strength from within and connecting (2017)
development Thailand to the global community
under the principle of sufficiency
philosophy
(continued)
7 Changing the Way We Produce Food: An Overview of the Current. . . 215

Table 7.1 (continued)

Brief description and highlight of the
Agricultural/ICT-based innovation project Author/s
Smart farming using ICT Smart farming is influencing the Wolfert et al.
entire food supply chain. Smart (2017)
farming may unravel into a highly
integrated food supply chain or
collaborative systems involving the
production-processing-market
linkage
IoT and radiofrequency identification Agricultural information is TongKe
(RFID) technologies constructed with a combination of (2013)
IoT and RFID. This system
significantly improves the efficiency
of hardware resources in the
agricultural information network
Smart agricultural model in Japan Four machines were developed,
Morimoto
using data-on-demand information namely, smart rice transplanter, smart and Hayashi
exchange based on smart agricultural second fertilizer applicator, yield (2017)
machinery systems (SAMS) monitor; and farm activity record
management system (FARMS)

The promise of the sustainable agricultural production system is bright for

advanced economies. However, for the developing economies, more education of
the various players of the agriculture-food system and policy reforms have to be
undertaken to meet the food demands of the growing populations amid climate
change challenges.

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Climate Change, Soil Erosion Risks,
and Nutritional Security 8
Shrikaant Kulkarni

Abstract

The climatic changes at a global level may further aggravate the risks of soil
erosion due to temperature variations and precipitation in the time to come. The
factors like continuously growing ocean temperature, sea level, ice meltdown
from glaciers and icebergs, frequent floods, storms, cyclones in tropical areas,
rainfall, and temperature pattern shifts are the indicators of climatic changes
which can hamper soil stability and influence erosion dynamics. Further, there
would be a rise in the rate of runoffs, particularly in high altitude and erosion due
to arid areas. The extent to which wind and water erosion increase depends on the
ecosystem, topography, and management and is region-centric. The developing
world would be more vulnerable to the effects of climatic changes on potential
risks associated with soil erosion in the form of a greater degree of eroded soils
and lack or inadequate access to soil erosion remedies effectively. Rise in erosion
by the wind in semiarid or arid areas is attributed to high temperature and low rate
of precipitation. Wind erosion has already damaged severely cultivable lands to
the extent of 25% in arid regions. The fallout of soil erosion is a substantial
reduction in biomass and grain production. Reduction in vegetation cover and
crop residues can exacerbate soil erosion and have a cascading effect on soil
degradation and desertification. On farm experiments and modeling are the two
major approaches adopted for understanding the potential effects of change in
climatic conditions on soil erodibility. To simulate global warming effects, small
plots of land are warmed up using underground electric cables and heaters. Soil
response based on its quality in crop production subjected to conditions created

S. Kulkarni (*)
Department of Chemical Engineering, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Bibwewadi, Pune,
India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 219
Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_8
220 S. Kulkarni

artificially is monitored over a given period. This chapter reviews the effect of
climatic changes on soil erosion, the cause of the soil erosion, approaches
employed to monitor the impact of climatic variations and global warming on
soil erosion, and measures to maintain soil fertility, crop productivity, and
nutritional security.

Keywords
Climate change · Erosion risks · Ecosystem · Topography · Erodibility ·
Simulation

8.1 Introduction

Climate change at the global level is recognized across the board. It is a fallout of
human intervention activities (anthropogenic), which in turn are major causes of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) (Bergh and Linder 1999). The concentration level pres-
ently of GHGs in the atmosphere is at a peak from 650,000 years (Blanco-Canqui
and Lal 2007). The potential global warming effects are ascertained by the heat-
trapping capacity and the pace at which each GHG decays against carbon dioxide
(CO2). The CO2 is the major GHG candidate and contributes 61% of the total GHG
contribution (Boardman and Favis-Mortlock 1993). The pace of CO2 liberation has
grown up substantially since 1995, and the increase annually till 2005 was at the rate
of 1.9 ppm/year as against 1.4 ppm from 1960 to 2005 (Buol et al. 1990). Further
during 1750 to 2005, the increase in CO2 was 31% (379 ppm from 280 ppm),
methane (CH4) by 151% (1774 ppb from 715 ppb), and nitrous oxide (N2O) by 17%
(319 ppb from 270 ppb) (Ci 1998; Gao et al. 2002).
Burning fossil fuels added substantive amounts of CO2. Alterations in land usage
patterns (e.g., deforestation, tillage of the soil, application of fertilizers, burning of
biomass, extrication of crop leftovers) led to furtherance in the generation of GHGs.
Agricultural operations are a major cause of CH4 and N2O liberation. The present
pace at which CO2 emits by the burning of fossil fuels supersedes that from a change
in land usage varying from cultivating vegetation to agricultural produce. Still, the
contribution in totality made by land usage to GHG liberation since the beginning of
established agricultural practices is substantial (Groisman et al. 2001).

8.2 Effects of Various Factors on Climate Change

8.2.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions

The gradual increase in GHG emissions in the atmosphere and the commensurate
climatic changes have brought about an alteration in the balance in the energy of
the Earth (Harte et al. 1995). Precipitation and alteration in temperature patterns are
the fallouts of these changes globally, and climatic changes predicted to be severe in
8 Climate Change, Soil Erosion Risks, and Nutritional Security 221

the time to come. The greenhouse effect is the trapping of long-wave infrared
(IR) radiations by the greenhouse gases, leading to the heating up of the Earth’s
atmosphere, rise in oceanic temperature, ice and snow meltdown from glaciers and
bergs, and rise in seawater level, which are the implications of global warming.
There has been a disparity with some regions getting drier, while others are receiving
increasingly heavy but uneven rains attributed to either a decrease in precipitation or
an increase in evapotranspiration rates. Sharp or sudden change in patterns of
temperature and rain too is expected in the time to come (IPCC 2007), which will
have its own but greater manifestations than progressive changes. Predictions made
based on simulations show that the rise in GHG levels in the future will have more
severe effects on climatic changes.
In the twenty-first century, warm climate may, on the one hand, raise the rate of
precipitation and runoff in humid regions and on the other, causing acute scarcity of
water in dry areas (IPCC 2001). Water resources, both qualitatively and quantita-
tively, are affected both by precipitation and temperature pattern changes.

8.2.2 Temperature

The average temperature in the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems is on the rise.
During 1995–2006, a major chunk of the period was warmer on average as against
earlier years. An increase in mean air temperature by 0.75
C from 1851 to 2006 has
almost doubled during the last 50 years (1955–2005) compared to the past 100 years
(1855–1955). There has been a consistency in trends about the maximum and
minimum soil temperature rise with air temperature. It is predicted that with the
increase in temperature of about 0.21
C/decade, the sea level will rise to about
24 mm/decade by 2100. The mounting atmospheric GHG concentration level
reflects upon its own consequences in the long run. The present level of GHGs
would carry on to bring about a rise in temperature of the order of 0.1
C/decade,
even if we stop its emissions immediately. It is attributed to thermal inertia that
indicates the present GHG concentration levels have not still shown their impact on
the climatic conditions in full.

8.2.3 Droughts

The amount of precipitation has reduced substantially in arid as well as semiarid

areas across continents such as Africa, Asia, and South America. This reduction is
reflected upon not only frequent droughts but also an increase in drought periods,
and intensities since the 1970s attributed to high temperature, reduced amounts of
precipitation, an increase in the rate of evaporation, and intense wind storms. Risk
potential associated with drought and flood occurrence is vulnerable to increase with
latitude. Soil yield gets lowered under both drought and higher temperatures.
222 S. Kulkarni

8.3 Climate Change Indicators

Frequency of flood occurrences, prevailing heat wave conditions, wind storms,

cyclones in tropical areas, and other extreme climate change events are on the rise
in recent past. The extent of water vaporization, degree of salinity of the sea or
oceans, and rise in sea level are also on the rise, over the decades. The mean sea
level has increased to the extent of 1.7  0.6 mm/year from 1860 to 2002 and
3.0  0.6 mm/year from 1992 to 2002. The reduced ocean’s ability to absorb carbon
sink may decrease, which will further aggravate the global warming problem by
increasing the temperature across the globe by about 4.4
C in 2100 (Lal 2006). A
rise in air temperature has resulted in a reduction in ice in the Arctic sea by about
28.82% in 2015 as per the satellite image data obtained by NASA. There have been
an expansion in size and an increase in a number of glacial lakes in recent decades
because of ice and snow meltdown in a sustained manner as well as soil quality
degradation in arctic and boreal regions.

8.4 Impacts of Climatic Changes

8.4.1 Soil Erosion

It is predicted that climatic changes will affect increasing the potential soil erosion
risks, which will further bring about soil degradation and desertification (Lal 2007).
Conditions will govern the magnitude of this effect in enhancing the water and wind
erosion risks at local and regional level (Larson et al. 1997). It may lead to an
increase in soil erosion by 5–95% and loss in a runoff by 5–100% in cultivable lands
(Lavelle et al. 1997). Precipitation pattern changes, in conjunction with the factors
like land usage, vegetative cover, and soil erosion behavior that influence the soil
erosion rate. Global predictions about soil erosion are given in Table 8.1.

8.4.1.1 Site-Centric Dependence of Climatic Variations on Soil Erosion

In developing nations, as the farmers are resource-poor, the impacts of climatic
changes on soil erosion are expected to be greater in intensity and severity. It may be
prominently due to larger areas of degraded soils and either nonexistent or inade-
quate erosion control practices. Heavy rainfall would cause flooding of low-lying
areas due to heavy runoff. Indeed, the magnitude and erosion capacity of rain may
decrease in semiarid and arid regions that are prone to further water erosion as in the
humid areas (Lee et al. 1996). Thus, reduction in precipitation velocities, however,

Table 8.1 Global Year Potential soil erosion quantity (Pg/year)

predictions about soil
2001 34.9
erosion
2012 35.8
2023 36.7
8 Climate Change, Soil Erosion Risks, and Nutritional Security 223

may not necessarily lead to lowering soil erosion behavior. Downsloping lands and
undulating terrains are responsible for a significant amount of losses of runoff water.

8.4.2 Landscape Stability

Runoff sediment is a cause of grave concern to downstream water bodies. Highly

concentrated or saturated runoffs in lands sloping down are responsible for an
increase in landslides, stream bank erosion, and mudflows. Landscape characteristics
are affected by runoff rise as well as soil erosion and temporary and permanent
gullies. Intense rainstorms and large runoff volumes can lead to severe flow erosion
of farmlands. Large runoff volumes move downslope with its own field topography
end up as natural swales therefore, can cause concentrated flow erosion. The erosion
at large can become increasingly significant and is influenced by rainfall intensity
and frequency.

8.4.3 Water Erosion

Based on available data (observed and simulated), it is found that runoffs and soil
erosion rise with the amount of precipitation. The intense rainstorms give rise to
water erosion due to variations in rainstorm intensity, which primarily affects soil
erosion over occurrence and quantum of rainfall. The proportional rise in water
erosion with the increase in precipitation takes place in a few areas because of
positive feedback effect, i.e., a rise in soil erosion vulnerability. Average runoff rates
and CO2 levels are projected to grow by 31–41% in high latitude and southeast areas
and reduce by 11–31% in arid and semiarid drought-prone regions like Central Asia,
South America, and Africa by 2050. Coastal areas and degraded agricultural lands
are vulnerable to an increase in runoffs and soil erosion risks. More substantial
rainstorms and flash floods have further escalated the runoff losses in northern
latitudes. Predictions base on simulation studies show that in the Midwest USA,
there would be rise by about 85% over the next five decades in soil erosion rates.

8.4.4 Nutrient Losses in Runoff

It is projected that the increase in soil erosion by virtue of climatic changes can bring
about contamination of water bodies with soluble and insoluble (turbidity imparting)
impurities. Sediments transported by runoff to water downstream further increase the
precipitation (Lukewille and Wright 1997). Soil heating triggers decay and mineral-
ization of organics in soil; dissolved nutrients and chemicals in soil may be passed on
to runoffs. The dissolved impurities may, therefore, be transferred to surface and
groundwater reservoirs by leaching and runoffs, e.g., in Norway, runoff from
synthetically heated fields had more concentration levels of nitrates and ammonia
than those without warming (Melillo et al. 2002). Excessive nutrient supply may
224 S. Kulkarni

lead to eutrophication of water bodies. Various bio-channels, including earthworm

burrows, may lead to preferentially bypassing the flow of water contaminated with
hazardous chemicals into the low-lying areas (Nash and Gleick 1991). Cracks in the
soil are also routing responsible for bypassing flow of the rainwater and soluble
chemicals. Such flow bypassing may enhance the pollution risk potential of water
both ground and underground with nutrients and agrochemicals.

8.4.5 Wind Erosion

Wind erosion may further reduce precipitation and temperature rise both in semiarid
and arid regions of about 25% of cultivated lands. The increase in temperature of the
air can enhance evaporation and lower soil humidity with a warming of the soil while
reducing vegetative cover as well as biomass generation. These conditions are
conducive for a rise in the rate and erodibility of wind, increasing wind erosion
rates (Nearing et al. 2005). Water erosion substantially enhances wind erosion,
particularly in dry regions. An increase in time span and intensity of dry seasons
in conjunction with intense wind can improve the potential soil erosion risks in
drylands. In China, severe sandstorms have raised by fivefold in the 1950s as against
20-fold/year in the 1990s (O’Neal et al. 2005). In North China, with temperature rise
by 1
C, the increase in average wind erosion takes place by 31 Mg/km2year, and the
shift in land use was the primary factor responsible for the wind erosion risks (Pruski
and Nearing 2002). An increase in CO2 concentrations may to inevitable extent
influence wind erosion because of increase in biomass generation and vegetative
residue (Rastogi et al. 2002); the reduced and increased rates of precipitation and
evaporation, respectively, result into thermal and drought stress as well as a decrease
in plant production.

8.4.6 Climate Change Complexity Impacts

Climate change in the future will have its impact on soil erosion, which is varying
and complex in nature on ecological, managerial, climatic, and landscape fronts. The
variations in the precipitation and temperature patterns exacerbate soil erosion
effects. Few of the soils are vulnerable to erosion due to their typical nature. Climate
change predictions show that their impacts on soil erosion are uncertain because of
many other governing factors like rainfall, soil erodibility, vegetation cover, etc. In a
few areas, a slight change in precipitation may bring about a substantial rise in
runoffs and soil erosion because of the synergistic effects. In contrast, in other areas,
it may reduce erosion rates of wind and water due to more vegetation generation with
higher temperature and rainfall (Reay 2007), as shown in Table 8.2. In sandy soils in
the northern part of China, an increase in temperature by 1
C lowered the water
erosion mean rate by 5 Mg km2 year1 (Rillig et al. 2002).
8 Climate Change, Soil Erosion Risks, and Nutritional Security 225

Table 8.2 Synergistic effect of various factors on climate change

Increase in temperature (
C) Precipitation decrease (%) Runoff reduction (%)
2
C 10 20
4
C 20 30

8.5 Effects of Climatic Variations on Soil Erosion

8.5.1 Rainfall Distribution

There has been a substantial change in the rainfall distribution patterns across the
globe due to the global warming effect and a change in mean total precipitation too.
It is predicted that a shift in rainfall distribution patterns shall be rampant to a higher
degree in the twenty-first century. The 2019 annual precipitation over India at large
was 109% of its long period average (LPA) value for the period 1961–2010. The
monsoon season (June–September) precipitation was 110% of its LPA, while during
the northeast monsoon season (October–December) over the NE monsoon core
region of the south peninsula, precipitation was 109% of its LPA. From 1950 to
2018, average annual precipitation has increased in 90% of the US states analyzed
(NOAA 2016). Eighteen states have recorded a rise of 5 in or more, such as New
Hampshire (7.0 in), Vermont (7.0 in), and Indiana (6.6 in). The eight largest
increases are from the Northeast and Midwest, where heavy rainfalls are intensifying
the most (Blunden and Arndt 2016).
Rainstorms are far robust than before (Shipitalo and Gibbs 2000). Although the
amount of rainfall is steady in a few areas, the frequency of strong storms increased
in the northern and southern parts of Europe that occurred from 1970 to 1998 than
from 1909 to 1971. In the USA, overall precipitation has enhanced from 1911 to
1995, of which 52% was attributed to climate-based events. The predictions show
that throughout the twenty-first century, the number of times the intense storms will
occur will increase by 20–60% (Soil and Water Conservation Society 2003).
Loss and transport of soil by runoff depend on the intensity and quantity of
rainfall. Experimental findings show that erosion due to rains is to rise significantly
with the climatic changes in the future. Rainfall intensity affects erosion profoundly
over its quantity and frequency of occurrence. Soil erosion depends on rainfall
erosion behavior, as rainstorm energy multiplied by peak half an hour intensity.
Even a small amount of intense rainstorms can bring about substantial damage to the
soil. A rise in 1% of total rainfall may cause an increase in soil erosion rate by 1.8%,
with the rise in rainfall intensity to the commensurate amount.
In comparison, an increase in erosion rate by 0.85% would occur if rainfall
intensity remains constant (Sarah 2005). An increase in erosive energy of rainfall
increases rate of soil erosion. Rain causes both positive and negative impacts on soil
resilience. It works against soil stability by enhancing the loss and transport of soil
particles in runoffs. It favors by improving the water holding capacity of the soil and
boosting the growth potential of plants and the vegetation cover. The more biomass
226 S. Kulkarni

generation shields the soil from erosion caused by rainfall and checks runoffs and
damage to the soil. The favorable effect of rainfall on biomass generation, however,
counterbalanced by rising temperatures, which may increase evaporation rate,
drought stress, and lower water content available to plant. An increase in temperature
of air causes snow melting with rapidity, which furthers runoffs and soil erosion as
snowpacks break and melt down quickly with a rise in temperature. Transitions from
snowfall to rainfall because of the increase in temperature being considered as the
next possible source responsible for storm enabled runoff instrumental in soil
erosion. Snowstorms are expected to be substituted by rainstorms with changes in
climate (Southworth et al. 2002a). The runoff during winter is more significant than
during summer because of the premature melting of snow and higher rainfall-to-
snow ratio.

8.5.2 Soil Erodibility

Soil erodibility is affected by the variations in water runoffs and temperature and can
substantially affect soil mechanisms and characteristics. It brings about a reduction
in macroporosity and water infiltration rates. Degraded soil structures lose soil to the
maximum by wind and water erosion. Alterations in the subsurface soil
environments like surface plugging, crusting, and densification are the processes
caused by changes in climatic conditions, which are instrumental in increasing soil
erosion. Soil particles on aggregation and subsequent stability of it may reduce with
the rise in temperature and reduce during rainfall because of variations in vegetation
cover (Southworth et al. 2002b). Changes in land usage, crop types, tillage
techniques, and species of plants in tune with the variation in climate, too, are
expected to influence soil erodibility. Soil structural stability is determined by land
usage and management, soil type, organic matter contents, and rates of water
infiltration that will decide the sensitivity of soil to erosion. Climatic changes
make an impact on surface runoff, draining of water through the soil. Change in
climate causes changes in vegetation cover due to variations in land usage, and
management can profoundly affect soil erosion (Wigley 2005). Axing trees from
forestlands removes the protective cover of vegetation and can enhance soil erosion
after heavy rainfall. Soil surface residue cover and canopy are necessary to contain
both wind and water erosion.
Runoffs and soil erosion increase with loss in vegetative cover. With a higher
generation of biomass under climatic changes, more is the vegetative cover and
therefore less is the soil erosion. Rise in temperature and scanty rainfall in hot
regions can alter the vegetation cover in forests with huge trees to grasslands. In
contrast, the situation may be another way around in the subhumid areas (Young
et al. 1998). Arid regions with sparse vegetation have a deserted look when exposed
to high temperature and low rainfall, which is amenable to more wind erosion.
8 Climate Change, Soil Erosion Risks, and Nutritional Security 227

8.5.3 Cropping Systems

The choice of cropping is influenced by global climate change. Farmers adapt to

changing climatic conditions by shifting cropping patterns in the form of crop
rotations, varieties, and planting schedules. Farmers may advance their crop planting
timings than usual to check soil thawing and warming effects because of higher
temperature in silking or having two crops per year. Such planting rescheduling
leads to a rise in the cropping season spans. It is observed that the cropping system’s
effectiveness in the form of a reduction in the wind, as well as water erosion, is
influenced by the amount of vegetative cover and the leftover after harvest. Replace-
ment of higher biomass crops by lower biomass ones enhances soil erosion, e.g., in
the Midwestern part of the USA, crop rotation shifts from corn, wheat, to soybean in
conjunction with a higher degree of precipitation are responsible for increasing soil
erosion to the extent of 301% in 2041–2058 as against 1991–1999 (Yuan et al.
2005). Corn to soybean crop rotations aggravate soil erosion because of the reduc-
tion in biomass production (Zhang 2006).

8.5.4 Soil Formation

Climate change is predicted as a factor of paramount importance that affects soil

formation. Soil property profile is a function of independently variable factors, as
shown in Eq. (8.1) (Zhang and Nearing 2005):

S ¼ f ðCl, O, P, T, t, . . .Þ ð8:1Þ

where.
S is property of soil.
Cl is climate.
O is biota of soil.
P is principle material.
T is topography.
t is time required for the formation of soil.
Climate is a highly active and productive parameter as it covers vast geographical
regions. The significant factors like temperature, precipitation, humidity in relative
terms, and radiation affect soil weathering, profile, etc. Temperature apart from
rainfall regulates the way soil formation takes place in terms of evaporation
velocities, storage of water, leaching, bio-based activities, etc. Soils are vulnerable
to more significant erosion in areas having more temperature and precipitation. The
local climatic conditions predominantly decide the soil development and degrada-
tion rate based on soil management. Climate together with soil development factors
like a vegetative cover, organisms in the soil, properties of landscape, a host
material, management of soil, and time has a cumulative effect on, e.g., breakdown
and deposition of organic contents, retention of water, biomass generation, and the
role played by soil organisms, and may further have its own effect on soil
228 S. Kulkarni

development. Climate also checks uptake of nutrients, germination of seeds, and root
formation pace, diversity, count, growth, and role of soil organisms. Deserted areas
with elevated temperatures and reduced precipitation having a lower vegetative
cover, with sparse biomass, are prone to rapid decomposition as against cold and
the humid regions possessing more organic contents and microbial activity.

8.5.5 Soil Process Mechanisms

Climatic changes can affect both the kind and magnitude of soil formation processes.
The velocity of physicochemical and biochemical degradation may rise with tem-
perature. Weathering due to physical forces dominates chemical one, particularly in
dry and hot regions. Precipitation translocates colloids and ions to low-lying areas
with the help of eluviation and illuviation processes. The climate which is amenable
to an increase in rainfall may be instrumental in bringing about leaching of soluble
chemicals. Gradual depletion in inorganic ions (e.g., Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+) from the
topsoil acidifies the soil. Highly acidic soils demand more alkali, such as lime, to
restore crop yield. Soil temperature has its effect on chemical processes underlying
soil dynamics, dissolution and diffusion of inorganic and organic compounds, and
maintenance of equilibria (Aguilera et al. 2003). Rate of reactions, increase in
solubility, and diffusion of salts in soil take place with temperature. Small variations
to the extent of <5
C in temperature are responsible for changes in chemical
processes that may be detectable after many years. Evaporation exceeds precipitation
in semiarid and arid areas. When the evaporation is in excess, dissolved salts in water
transport to the top with the help of capillarity action and deposit in the topsoil,
causing its salinity. Rise in temperature and decrease in precipitation under changing
climatic conditions could facilitate the development of lands in dry areas world over.
Climatic changes that are responsible for the rise in sea levels may also leave coastal
areas saline.

8.6 Effects of Climatic Alterations on Soil Properties

8.6.1 Temperature

Soil temperature changes are the fallout of air temperature. Soil surface temperature
is approximately 1.0
C higher than the temperature of the air in temperate areas. The
rise in soil temperature leads to warming and thawing perpetually of the soils,
enhancing available land for cultivation in northern latitude, and can be responsible
for croplands to move northward and crop growing seasons to expand.
The rise in soil temperature, in turn, affects soil structure by changing its physical
properties such as shrinking to swelling and freezing to thawing and biological
properties such as organic matter breakdown and microbial activity. Simulation
studies of soil warming and its impacts exhibit a decrease in aggregate stability
due to variations in wetting/drying and freezing/thawing reduction with the rise in
8 Climate Change, Soil Erosion Risks, and Nutritional Security 229

soil temperature because of fast organic matter degradation and decline in microbial
activity. High temperature is also responsible for soil desiccation and crack devel-
opment and poses a threat to both buildings and crop yields. However, moderate
drying will be beneficial to poorly drained, wet, and clayey soils. Higher temperature
brings about drying in excess of soils followed by compaction.

8.6.2 Humidity Content

Soil humidity level depends on the amount of precipitation. Thus, soil water regime
is influenced by even slight changes in rainfall due to climate change, which would
reflect upon variations in biomass generation. Rise in air temperature due to climatic
changes is amenable to give an impetus to evapotranspiration and water consump-
tion by plants, cutting down water holding capacity. An Ohio state study observed
that soil humidity gets reduced with temperature because of the removal of vegeta-
tion cover from no-till farms (Alberts et al. 1995).

8.6.3 Color

Soil weathering and humus decay can aggravate because of an increase in soil
temperature. Global warming, floods, and waterlogged conditions may render soils
redder (e.g., Oxisols, Ultisols) with a rise in temperature over long periods because
of the effect on drainage rates.

8.6.4 Structure-Property Profile

Soil structure, too, is susceptible to alterations in its temperature and degree of

precipitation (Altesor et al. 2006). The variation in climatic conditions influences
soil structure not directly but as a result of a change in air temperature, microbial
activity, plant growth, and precipitation. Alterations in soil structure under the
futuristic climatic changes can be understood by:

• Estimating the rainwater infiltration rate with which it gets in the soil or results
into a runoff.
• Assessing the soil resilience to forces of erosion by wind and water.
• Regulating water, air, and heat fluxes.
• Degradation of soil organics and soil organism activity.
• Estimates of organic carbon in the soil and the organics fate in the time to come.
• Absorption of buffers and degradation of pollutants (Arnalds 2000).
230 S. Kulkarni

8.6.5 Precipitation

Intense rainstorms may bring about the damage to the structure of the topsoil and
further soil erosion. The rate of soil depletion increases with rainfall enabled erosion.
More soil erosion takes place due to more precipitation rates by reducing the
thickness of topsoil and exposing soil with poor structure. Rise in rainfall at lower
intensity strengthens the structural stability of soil by increasing biomass develop-
ment as against semiarid and arid regions wherein the situation can be another way
around (Blanco-Canqui et al. 2005). Highly clayey soils are vulnerable to greater
shrinkage and swelling potential and therefore respond rapidly in tune with the
changes in precipitation levels. Rain in excess makes soils moist unstable structur-
ally and amenable to compaction.

8.6.6 Impact of CO2 Concentration

Higher CO2 level in the atmosphere has its effect on soil structure by increasing
biomass production on the ground both from below and above in both quantitative
and qualitative terms. Residues of plants containing lower N contents but with
higher carbon/nitrogen ratio are amenable to decomposition at a slower pace leading
to maintenance and improvement of soil structure (Briske 1996). The high CO2
levels although have positive effects on soil structure in the form of increase in
biomass generation, the rise in temperature can check it by reducing vegetation cover
and soil desiccation.

8.6.7 Soil Biota

Climate change predictions show that it will influence interactions between soil,
plants, and animals. Soil microorganisms respond to sudden temperature changes.
Variation in biomass generation too affects soil organisms in terms of the number,
activity, and diversity (Caldwell and Hodgkinson 1986). Global warming can create
conditions conducive to the growth of organisms, including termites and
earthworms, which have an important role to play in bringing about the decomposi-
tion of organic contents and determining their distribution profile and decomposition
rate. Soil organisms like earthworms, termites, and others affect soil structure-
property profile and erodibility. Soil structure houses present a suitable environment
for the organisms to live, grow, and multiply and further provide all the necessary
organic binding agents instrumental in developing soil structure and stability. Soil
structure dynamically changes in accordance with changes (temporal and spatial) in
climate, management, and biota of soil.
8 Climate Change, Soil Erosion Risks, and Nutritional Security 231

8.6.8 Soil Organic Carbon

Climate change can cut down soil organic carbon content while increasing CO2
losses. The organic carbon stored in soil controls an increase in temperature and
improves the humidity of it. The rise in soil temperature furthers the decay of crop
residues. An estimated 3
C rise in temperature may decrease soil organic carbon
content levels by 11% approximately at about 30-cm soil depth while increasing
CO2 emissions by about 8% (Carlassare and Karsten, 2002). The CO2 emission rates
in the initial stages in response to a sudden rise in soil temperature can be of higher
order (Chanasyk et al. 2003; Daniel et al. 2002).

8.6.9 Labile and Stable Organic Materials

Soil organic carbon contents may exist as either active or labile and stable or not
active, and the former is mainly sensitive to temperature and decomposition behavior
than the latter one. The latter fraction is composed of complex aromatic compounds
against the former one, which consists more of polysaccharides. The CO2 emissions
predominantly result from the decomposition of the active fraction. Preferentially
reduction in dynamic organic carbon contents under the impact of climatic changes
lowers down the concentration of carbon contents in soil.

8.6.10 Land Usage Pattern

Depletions and gains in soil organic carbon contents depend on variations in land
usage and its management. The shift in land use from carbon sink to carbon source
brings about an alteration in the overall terrestrial carbon cycle. The primary causes
of the depletion in soil organic carbon and global warming are heavy tillage,
deforestation, and removal of crop leftovers. The detrimental effects of global
warming on soil organic carbon storage may reduce over time depending on soil
type, management, and ecosystem features, e.g., in temperate regions, rise in soil
temperature by 5.1
C by artificial heating enhanced decay in soil organics and raised
CO2 emissions by 27% in the first 6 years. At the same time, the effects declined in
the past 4 years of the 10-year investigation, which showed that the carbon loss in the
initial stages was transient in nature (De Baets et al. 2006).

8.6.11 Impacts of Climatic Zones

Soil organic content decay rate, however, can be checked with the rise in precipita-
tion, particularly in humid and temperate areas. The decomposition of soil organic
contents is found enhanced in cold and moist climatic conditions. The effects of soil
heating on variations in organic carbon contents in the soil are region-specific. Rate
of organic matter decay and accumulation differs from soil to soil. Variations in soil
232 S. Kulkarni

temperature can affect soil organic carbon dynamics in soils with poor structures.
Rise in soil temperature and fall in soil humidity can have effects at a slower pace on
clayey soils rather than sandy soils that are vulnerable to erosion, e.g., taking off corn
stumps systematically from downslopes and with soils containing silt sensitive to
erosion leads to a rise in average soil temperature and fall in soil holding capacity
that results into fast depletions in organic carbon contents but affects not much on a
clayey but flat soil in a temperate region in particular (Descheemaeker et al. 2006).

8.6.12 Crop Yield

Soil erosion brings about a substantial reduction in the thickness of the topsoil,
which in turn cuts down the crop productivity depending on conditions prevailing at
the sites (Ruddiman 2003). Soil erosion is responsible for reducing the nutrient-rich
soil retention capacity and badly influences crop yields. The soil erosion velocity
given climate change in time to come may be too high, which cannot be easily made
up by the slow but natural soil renewal rate. The detrimental effects of soil erosion
may be weak on sound-structured and fertile soils and high in shallow but stony soils
with lower intrinsic fertility and root depth. Extreme runoffs can severely affect the
resilience of soil and damage irreversibly soil complexion.
Climatic changes enabled soil erosion to further influence crop productivity in a
quite complex manner and, at times, detected after a long span of time. Negative
impacts on crop productivity are often overshadowed by the use of more copious
amounts of fertilizers and high-yielding seeds. The crop cultivation is undertaken
using higher doses of chemical-based fertilizers. However, it may enhance nonpoint
source contamination. More soil erosion has detrimental effects at both on-site and
off-site levels. Topsoil loss and crop productivity reduction and water pollution are
some of the fallouts of it.
Climate change predicted can have a great effect on cultivable lands, forestlands,
and pastures. Models of climate and crop predict that crops are, in particular,
vulnerable to alterations in CO2 concentration, precipitation, solar radiation, and
temperature (Dormaar and Willms 1998). Change in climate affects planting,
harvesting schedule, maturity time, crop productivity, and farm operations and, in
turn, an economy based on agricultural activities. Table 8.3 shows the list of
agricultural practices that have been employed so far and recommended practices
for the future to improve productivity and exacerbate the quantity of carbon in soils.

8.7 Positive Impacts of Climatic Changes

Rise in precipitation, temperature, and CO2 levels may give an impetus to crop
production. It can lengthen the cropping season and permit cropping seasons two in
succession to complete in a year. More CO2 concentration can further enhance
efficiency with which water is utilized by plugging stomas while still enhancing
photosynthesis. The estimations show that soybean and wheat yield may improve by
8 Climate Change, Soil Erosion Risks, and Nutritional Security 233

Table 8.3 Traditional and recommended agricultural practices for improving yield and carbon in
soils
Traditional practice Recommended practice
Low external inputs Using fertilizers and integrated nutrient management system
judiciously
Constant use of Application of site-centric soil management
fertilizer
Uncontrolled use of Use of sound water management/conservation, water table
water management, irrigation techniques
Monoculture Enhanced farming systems and numerous crop rotations
Summer fallow Growing vegetative cover
Plough tillage No-tillage or conservation tillage
Residue either taken off Residue retained in the form of mulch
or burnt
Draining wetlands Restoring wetlands

about 40% and 20%, respectively, from 2050 and 2059 (Drewry 2006). A 9% rise in
CO2 concentration boosts wheat production by 4% in the Midwest of the USA
(Dunn and Dabney 1996). Higher soil temperature will enhance nitrogen minerali-
zation and microbial activity, thereby making the nutrients of the soil productive.
The availability of the nitrogen in the soil would boost the growth of plants and
carbon retention in tissues to contain carbon losses. The carbon storage in hardwood
trees increases the liberation of nitrogen by heating soil in an artificial manner to
increase the temperature by 4.9
C, equivalent to losses from the soil over a span of
9 years in a forest area (Dyksterhuis 1949). Since the rise in soil temperature
enhances organic matter decay, generation of biomass with more carbon/nitrogen
ratio, however, in turn, checks decomposition and boosts gains in soil organic
carbon.

8.8 Adverse Effects of Climate Change

Global warming causes the growth of the plants in mid- and higher latitude nations
such as Alaska, Canada, Russia, and the USA, unlike arid, semiarid, and tropical
regions, which may have adverse effects (e.g., Amazon). Plant and soil organisms at
higher latitudes are, at times, adaptable to variations in rainfall and temperature,
unlike those in hot regions that are more vulnerable to climate changes. A little
change in temperature does not have much effect at high latitudes, although it can
have a reasonable effect at low latitudes. However, in the USA, crop productivity in
northern parts improves against the southern ones in the context of changing climatic
conditions.
The high CO2 concentrations are beneficial to biomass generation; however, they
are negated by elevating the temperature of the air and lowering precipitation in dry
areas. Higher soil temperature can enhance evaporation and minimize water reten-
tion, leading to a decrease in crop yield. Higher temperature too causes prematurity
234 S. Kulkarni

of crops and lower production. Arid and semiarid areas may increase demand and
competition for resources of water. Increased vegetation growth due to more CO2
liberation and soil humidity too dwindles nutrients, which ultimately cuts down plant
growth. Soils poorly fertile are affected a lot by enhanced nutrient use. Supplemental
use of fertilizers is required to make up for the large nutrient recovery. More
mineralization of soil organic contents causes losses of nitrogen. An increase in
temperature promotes insect and pest proliferation in comparatively colder areas.

8.8.1 Complex Interactions

Rise or fall in biomass production depends on rising air temperature accompanied by

parameters governing plant growth, namely, CO2 liberation and rainfall. Moreover,
the growth of vegetation is affected by the availability of water and essential
nutrients to plants apart from air temperature and atmospheric CO2 concentration
levels. Vegetation growth is the cumulative effect of all the parameters mentioned
above. The rate at which CO2 is absorbed depends on age and type of crop. The C3
category plants such as soybean, rice, and wheat are more vulnerable than C4 type
plants like sugarcane, sorghum, and corn to changes in CO2 flux.

8.9 Soil Warming Simulation Studies

Simulation studies of global warming effects in the future on soil characteristics,

organic carbon, and erosion have been undertaken by artificially heating plots of
land. Numerous methods of warming soil artificially are adopted as follows:

8.9.1 Underground Electric Cables

The use of underground electric cables is the most common method to heat small
plots of land. The technique involves a burial of electric cables parallel to one
another in soil separated 10 or 20 cm from one another and 10 cm deep. A
temperature gradient of 5–10
C in between the control and artificially warmed
plot is kept during simulations. An automatic data logger is used for controlling
the temperature on land plots. It provides for switching off and switching on when
the temperature is above or below the margin, respectively, to keep temperature of
the soil within 0.1
C. A network in the form of an array of thermistors is employed
to keep a vigil on the temperature of plots of land regularly.

8.9.2 Overhead Heating Facilities

It involves the use of electrically operated heaters, which are kept suspended on soil
under experimentation at a given distance, say, 2 m or 3 m (Elliott and Carlson
8 Climate Change, Soil Erosion Risks, and Nutritional Security 235

2004). Heating of the plot uniformly is assured by applying radiometrical and

temperature-based measurement techniques, which demand reflectors with sound
design to reduce the dissipation of heat outside plots. Light generated artificially by
the heater should be made to propagate in such a way that it doesn’t interfere with the
process of photosynthesis as well as heaters kept suspended above the plots without
blocking sunlight.

8.10 Modeling of Effects of Climatic Alterations

The climatic models have been in use for predicting the effects of climatic changes
on soil erosion, carbon dynamics, and crop development. A host of scenarios of
climatic changes, soil hydrological mechanisms, vegetation, numerous ecosystems,
and their management are developed and simulated to study their impact on soil
erosion. Various models, too, are in use to extrapolate the data from small plots of
land or laboratories, landscapes, and watershed projects. The models on climatic
changes used so far are as follows:

• LISEM (The Limburg Soil Erosion).

• USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation).
• RUSLE (Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation).
• KINEROS (Kinematic Runoff and Erosion).
• SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool).
• WEPP (Water Erosion Prediction Project) (FAO 2000; Florine et al. 2006).

Models are put into use to simulate the below-mentioned variations that straight-
away influence soil erosion:

• Variations in atmospheric CO2 levels.

• Changes in rainfall frequency and intensity and precipitation.
• Spontaneous or progressive change in temperature of soil and air.
• Types of vegetation with shifts in land usage and management.
• Alterations in the evapotranspiration velocities, water holding capacity of soils,
and drought spans.
• Changes in soil erosion tendency influenced by soil organic matter and surface
characteristics.
• Variations in cropping patterns because of alterations in cropping seasons,
schedules, and prices.
• Crop rotations in accordance with soil types, topography, and the effect of
fluctuations in water and heat.
236 S. Kulkarni

8.10.1 Water Erosion Prediction (WEPP)

It is one of the most widely used models for making predictions about the soil
erosion behavior with the changes in climate as it provides for simulating:

• Complexity and dynamism in rainfall and temperature patterns.

• Residue decay rates due to effects of integration of variations in soil temperature,
water content, and microbial activity.
• Rainwater percolation, compaction of soil, evapotranspiration velocities, vegeta-
tion and canopy, surface heterogeneities, and vegetation decay rates are key
factors responsible for soil damage and runoff according to WEPP model.
• Model predictions show a rise in soil erosion and runoff velocities to the extent
governed by conditions prevailing locally and regionally.

8.11 Adapting to Effects of Global Warming

Climatic variations are predicted to bring about more negative effects on the
conservation of water and soil. The rise in wind and water erosion is the fallout
which has already come to the fore (Goldsmith 2006). Unless sound and concrete
conservation approaches are adopted, climatic changes in foreseeable future will
bring about a reduction in soil productivity and promote wind and water erosion
risks accompanied by deterioration in quality standards of water. Modern soil
conservation approaches are aimed at designing, developing, and managing data
pertaining to past climate and not based on projected climate, which therefore
demands reengineered and redesigned conservation practices taking into account
the climatic changes in the future. Present conservation strategies ought to be useful
to sustain futuristic strong and heavy precipitation and more significant amounts of
runoff. Soil erosion is caused by infrequent and intense rainstorms (Guretzky et al.
2005). Conservation practices have to be redesigned adapted to the climatic changes
so as to contain greenhouse gases and water pollution and enhance crop yield.
Management of soil in a prudent manner is of pivotal importance to address global
warming problems ecologically. The most preferred way of doing it is to harvest the
carbon. All those strategies that invest atmospheric CO2 and give an impetus to
terrestrial carbon sink in soil should be encouraged.
The practices used are:

• Controlled tillage, no-tillage.

• Use of organic manures.
• Postharvest return of vegetative cover.
• Growing trees and grasses.

Soil is a potential source of CO2 liberation on axing trees, heavily ploughed, and
vegetative cover removed postharvest. Reforestation of marginal and eroded soils
that are deserted can increase CO2 uptake. Since the introduction of intensive
8 Climate Change, Soil Erosion Risks, and Nutritional Security 237

agricultural activities, there has been a loss of carbon ranging from 40  109 to
90  109 Mg (Haan et al. 1994). Employing no-tillage farming with crops that
protect or mulch of residue on a rotation basis is an alternative to harvesting organic
carbon in soil and counterbalancing net emissions of CO2 (Hall 1998). Models of
predictive nature show that no-tillage is the better option to cut down the rise in soil
erosion influenced by the new climate change (Herrick and Lal 1995). It reduces
wind erosion in the drier region through water conservation and brings down
evaporation rates. Till now, at times, no-tillage practice is employed in countries
such as Australia, Brazil, Canada, South America, and the USA. The small, mar-
ginal, and resource-stricken farmers from the southern part of Asia and Africa where
erosion problems are too grave, aren’t able to employ much of the tillage practice
(Hunt et al. 2003). Therefore, these regions are hit hard under climate change as
predicted. Thus, innovative strategies for the adoption of no-till and relevant conser-
vation practices are effective enough to cope up with climate change vulnerable to
erosion susceptible environment. Developing nations are resource-deficient wherein
farmers use residues of crops to feed animals and burn as a fuel. Hence, no-till
practice with no return of vegetative cover is as detrimental as plowing soil subjected
to tillage (Johnson 2003).
Crop residue management is vital to combat the influence of climatic changes.
The other prominent practices are the use of bioenergy crops as cover, rotating crops
with nitrogen-fixing legume forages, and rotating plants for a short period as fuel and
food. Strategies that help restore vegetative cover on surface permanently present
organic contents to better the soil resilience. Checking overgrazing or the use of
wheel traffic can be employed to contain soil erosion and compaction. Grass and
vegetative cover strips as buffers for conservation are formed at the croplands that
catch hold of and degrade sediment deposits and nutrients at the bottom, thereby
stemming down pollution. There is no universal conservation strategy that is appli-
cable, confirming to soil conditions across the board. Therefore site-centric manage-
ment based on the nature of individual ecosystem and soil has to be engineered and
redesigned to nullify the potential adverse effects of climatic changes (Kamm 2004).

8.12 Impact of Soil Erosion on Nutritional Security

Climate change has its own deleterious effects leading to rise in soil erosion, decline
in food production levels, and nutrient levels (Kouwen 1992). The following are the
areas to be looking into preferentially in this regard:

8.12.1 Availability of Nutrients

Climatic changes affect the availability of food and nutrients, and therefore the
following measures can be taken for preserving and bettering the nutrient levels:
238 S. Kulkarni

• Initiatives to further quantify and check uncertainties in regard to processes

finding a place in crop models employed for contemplating effects on food
availability keeping intact their nutrient levels. It demands further experimental
studies based on variations in temperature, CO2, soil humidity, and ozone,
separately and together, for a host of crops of significance in food and therefore
nutrient security. The experimentation will be typically crucial in tropical areas
wherein they have been almost not in existence in the past. Another approach that
can be adopted involves testing current ecophysiological models given the
variations in productivity and weather conditions, at scales varying between
independent fields and regions in entirety. Further similar outcomes employed
are in time series and panel-based fronts (Kouwen and Li 1981).
• They are furthering the efforts to measure and check uncertainties on the front
futuristic climatic changes. Outcomes of a host of climate models are to be used.
Upgradation of downscaling techniques will help a lot, but not by overestimating
such initiatives, as downscaling is of vital importance for rainfall. In contrast, the
implications of rainfall patterns are comparatively low as against tropical areas.
• A lot much of work is required to evaluate the reliable water supply in areas under
irrigation, a parameter used in conjunction direct with the effects on productivity
as well as the impacts of stratospheric ozone, pathogens, weeds, pests, and sea
level rise on crop and nutrient yield that are yet to be ascertained and demand
scrutiny in quantitative terms. Incorporating complexity to models may not
necessarily be the only goal of futuristic research challenges, as at times it may
not substantially change outcomes. We need to make out the domains, their sizes,
and the key factors wherein present models are inadequate. At times, a model that
works or otherwise in a given situation and set of conditions is either accepted or
rejected in other circumstances.
• There are many issues about how rapidly and effectively various measures can be
adapted that involve how well farmers understand and take trends in climatic
conditions, the resilience of their crops to these changing patterns, how fast they
are at learning and implementing novel technologies, and the risk potentials and
possibility of success on adaptations. All such issues should be subjected to
evaluation, in particular, by using the latest data from tropical regions, which
are warming fast. The other vital questions are regarding the potential for the
development of technology, and better liaison between the models and scientists
of crops will be of great help. However, the effects of frontier technologies are not
so easy to predict unless we know what the technologies would be like in the
future.
• Not much of work has so far been carried out to assess the true potential of
expansion of cropland in cold areas. Further, now how will the soils in these
regions be amenable to crop production with the right balance of nutrients, and
how rapidly will expansion happen (Tubiello et al. 2007)?
8 Climate Change, Soil Erosion Risks, and Nutritional Security 239

8.12.2 Accessibility of Nutrients

The following are the issues to be taken care of as far as maintenance of food
production level and nutrient balance are concerned:

• The majority of poor populations from rural areas have their incomes substan-
tially affected by yield. Many economic assessments have assumed agriculture
independent GDP growth, although not so typically in the developing countries.
Futuristic works should preferentially consider the effects on income and nutrient
security in foods.
• Not relying solely on agriculture shows a viable adaptation approach for
populations insecure in terms of nutrients.
• We are bereft of basic understanding of how climatic changes are aimed at
bettering agricultural productivity in terms of nutrient contents and in turn
incomes by using fertilizer and better agrarian technology as the central strategy
to give an impetus to rural livelihoods and for minimizing potential risk in the
event of a fluctuation in climatic conditions. Another question is: Will the change
in climatic conditions in the future inhibit technology adoption (Wang et al.
2008)?

8.12.3 Utilization of Nutrients

The following questions have to be answered in respect of nutrient security and

balance:

• Higher levels of CO2 in the atmosphere will lower down protein and micronutri-
ent concentration, and people are caught unaware of the health implications of
such developments. How to address this issue?
• Will these changes be more or less critical as against corresponding changes in
calorie intake, and how do they interact with one another?
• Which management strategies are in existence to prevent a decrease in proteins or
micronutrient concentration in crops?
• How will the climatic changes affect the rate of exposure and contraction of
numerous diseases in humans?
• How will such changes affect variations in nutrient security?
• How are the hunger and disease correlated with one another, and what should be
intervention strategies for getting better outcomes (Xiong et al. 2007)?

8.12.4 Stability of Nutrients

The food is secure for a region, a family, or a person provided:

• It is available with enough nutritious value all along with the life.
240 S. Kulkarni

• They should have access to food even in the event of a financial or climate-related
crisis or recurring events such as a threat to food security in specific seasons.
• The stability of nutrients embodies the accessibility, abundance, and use aspects
related to food security with adequacy in nutritional levels.

8.13 Conclusion

The climate change predicted at the global level shows that variations in precipita-
tion and temperature profile may enhance soil erosion risks. Consistently increasing
oceanic temperature, sea level, meltdown from glaciers and snow-covered hills,
flood recurrence, wind, and cyclonic storms, in tropical regions, and variations in
temperature and rain patterns are the fallouts of global climatic changes that affect
soil stability and various dynamics of erosion. Runoff velocities are expected to rise
by 31–41% at higher latitudes, and wind erosion is expected to rise in semiarid and
arid areas. The degree to which water and wind erosion increase is expected to be
area-centric and depends on the kind of ecosystem, topographical features, and
management practices employed. Impacts of climatic changes on soil erosion are
likely to be more severe in developing countries, having eroded soils and constrained
access to formidable means to combat soil erosion. Elevated temperature and
decreased precipitation velocities enhance wind erosion in semiarid and arid areas.
Presently, about 24% of cultivable lands are affected already drastically by wind
erosion. The further rise in soil erosion reduces biomass generation. Lowered
vegetation and biomass can, in turn, raise erosion and have a cascading effect in
furthering soil damage and desertification.
Field experiments and modeling are two strategies employed to get an under-
standing of the potential effects on soil erosion problem of projected global climate
change. Underground electric cables and overhead heaters are put into use to
artificially heat small plots of land for simulating global warming effects. The soil
responds based on its qualities, and crop yield to artificial heating is then monitored
over a given span of time. Models provide for the simulation of a host of patterns of
climatic changes such as alterations in both precipitation and temperature, the
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, soil erosion behavior, management, vege-
tation, tillage, and cropping patterns. Approaches used to combat global warming
cover the use of soil conservation approaches like zero tillage, rotation of crops, crop
cover, bioenergy crops, trees, and trees used as fuel, food, and buffers. A strategy
that restores surface vegetation cover permanently reduces variations in temperature
and contains the ill effects of precipitation on soil erosion. Conservation practices
perform differently to the changes in the projected climate. Therefore, the contem-
porary conservation practices have to be reengineered and redesigned, and new
strategies in tune with the requirements of the projected climate changes have to
be developed to check the damages due to soil erosion, and crop yield is
improved upon.
We should never lose sight of predicting the futuristic challenges in terms of
improving food productivity as well as maintaining the nutritional balance. Various
8 Climate Change, Soil Erosion Risks, and Nutritional Security 241

models help in providing invaluable insight by using our knowledge and

transforming it into possibilities of outcomes of our interest. In the twenty-first
century, if sustenance in agriculture, food, and nutrient security is to be maintained
in a consistently heating globe, all-out efforts have to be taken. The extent of climatic
stability observed at the advent of agriculture is a past while unpredictable changes
that describe the futuristic challenges will characterize it. This may not necessarily
have disastrous effects on the Earth as far as food and nutrient security is concerned.
Still, it is better not to underestimate the enormous challenges and ecological threats
at hand, which we may have to face in the future.

8.14 Policy Recommendations

The following are the state-of-the-art recommendations to maintain food security

against the backdrop of climate change and its implications on soil erosion:

• Bettering the information in qualitative terms i.e., sound and timely information
pertaining to uncertain situations and risks can certainly make difference in
influencing the ecosystem.
• It is reaching susceptible village farming communities with meaningful inputs
about climate change and its consequences on soil fertility.
• Constant monitoring of weather and better scientific knowledge about climate
change and its fallouts in terms of soil erosion, precipitation, rainfall distribution
patterns, and consequently cropping systems and food security.
• Adequately preparing for foreseeable natural disasters by using the predictions
made with the help of simulations and modeling.
• Upkeeping agro-meteorological data.
• Designing tools and techniques for evaluating drastic weather effects and there-
fore providing necessary guidance about adaptation to changing weather
conditions.
• Agro-ecological zoning for effect modeling and evaluation of vulnerability.
• Sound mapping of land vegetation cover.
• Sound assessments of crops and forest resources at a local, national, and global
level.
• Developing techniques for managing agricultural water more efficiently.
• Investing in resilient agricultural systems.
• Developing stress-tolerant varieties of crops.
• Incorporating insurance schemes for climate change-related risks.
• Use of integrated soil fertility management practice.
242 S. Kulkarni

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Minimizing Weather-Related Risks
in Agriculture Through Agromet Advisory 9
Services in India

Santanu Kumar Bal and M. A. Sarath Chandran

Abstract

The major factor influencing agriculture, the mainstay of majority of the Indian
population, is climate. Both long-term climate change and intra-seasonal climate
variability impact the decision-making of farmers. The provision of timely and
accurate agromet advisories assumes great importance in this context. This
chapter begins with weather-related agricultural risks and climate information
needed by farmers in decision-making before and during the crop season. It then
discusses the agromet advisory services (AAS)—history, development and pres-
ent status in India. The dissemination and outreach programmes in the form of
farmers’ awareness programmes are also included. It further explores the role of
AAS in effective operational decision-making, improvement in crop production
and economic impact assessment of AAS in India. The chapter ends with
constraints, future challenges and opportunities for AAS in India.

Keywords
Agromet advisory · Weather risks · Economic impact · Constraints · Opportunities

9.1 Introduction

Agricultural production is highly influenced by climate. The provision of reliable

weather information can be of great help for the decision-making of farmers before
and during the crop season for arranging the inputs and their optimum utilization. A

S. K. Bal (*) · M. A. Sarath Chandran

ICAR-Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad, Telangana,
India
e-mail: Santanu.bal@icar.gov.in

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 245
Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_9
246 S. K. Bal and M. A. Sarath Chandran

delay in onset or mid-season drought can hamper the agricultural production in the
country, which in turn has manyfold effects on the economy of the country. This
points to the necessity for a scientific weather forecasting system and development of
agromet advisories, which are crop- and region-specific. A well-timed agromet
advisory can save inputs (fertilizers, seeds, plant protection chemicals, etc.), labour
and the crop (especially at the harvest time after the crop reaches physiological
maturity).
Along with this, climate change has led to increased intensity and frequency of
extreme weather events such as heavy precipitation, cloud bursts, hailstorm events,
drought, etc. The twenty-first century has witnessed a giant leap in the advancement
of science and technology. Our improved understanding of weather forecasting,
coupled with the latest information technology tools, has ensured reliable and timely
information delivery to the target population, the farmers. Yet, there exists a wide
gap between the information provider and the farmer. Hence, the weather- and
climatic stress-related challenges to be covered under agromet advisory services
are increasing and becoming complex. This chapter includes information on the
needs for weather and climate information by farmers and the ways and means to
improve future communication to them to facilitate effective operational decision-
making. The chapter will also focus on the challenges and opportunities associated
with the agromet advisory services in India.

9.2 Weather-Related Agricultural Risks

It is a well-known fact that the variability in the weather elements (particularly

rainfall and temperature) is the main factor behind the inter-annual variability of crop
production. Sudden onset of weather extremes (dry spells, droughts, floods, heat
waves and hailstorm) adversely affects crop yield leading to a low level of produc-
tivity. Moreover, weather can affect agricultural production at various levels (vege-
tative stage, harvest, transportation, storage, etc.). Floods, droughts, heat waves, cold
spells, hailstorms and other natural disasters are great sources of risk for farmers (Bal
et al. 2014; Bal and Minhas 2017; Sarath Chandran et al. 2017). These disasters can
result in lesser yields, leaving uninsured farmers with little income for the season. To
cope with erratic weather, farmers often plant low-risk, low-return crops (such as
early maturing varieties, drought-resistant) instead of investing in more profitable
crops that are more sensitive to weather fluctuations and extremes. Furthermore,
farmers wary of bad weather may hesitate to make other investments in their farms,
such as increasing fertilizer use. As a result, extreme weather events can trap farmers
in a cycle of low productivity.
The climate of a region and seasonal weather affects many risks associated with
crop production, which finally decides the farm income (Rao and Bapuji Rao 2013)
(Fig. 9.1). This necessitates the vulnerability assessment of any place or region
(Singh et al. 2019b).
Risks in production; events such as cold/heat wave, dry spell, flood and hailstorm;
the outbreak of pest and diseases; financial risk and market risk; etc., are affected by
9 Minimizing Weather-Related Risks in Agriculture Through Agromet Advisory. . . 247

Fig. 9.1 Climate-related risks in agriculture (Rao and Bapuji Rao 2013)

climate/seasonal weather of a region. However, due to technological advancement in

agricultural science, adaptation and mitigation options are now available to cope
with the adverse impacts of the stresses caused due to these disasters (Bal et al. 2017;
Chattopadhyay et al. 2016; Vashisht and Jalota 2018). Ultimately, the decisions
taken regarding these risks are reflected in the farm income. It is a well-known fact
that Indian agriculture is dependent mainly on southwest monsoon. Any reduction in
the total rainfall during this season, monsoon break during the season, delayed onset
and early withdrawal can have a significant impact on the crop production of the
country. Hence, timely information on anticipated weather helps farmers for optimal
utilization of their resources, which will ultimately improve agricultural production,
qualitatively and quantitatively.

9.3 Weather-Related Indigenous Technology Knowledge

(ITKs) Followed in Agriculture

The accumulated knowledge of a community from a particular region, based on their

understanding, observation and experiences with the surrounding within their area,
is called traditional knowledge (De Boef et al. 1993). The decision-making of
farmers related to farm management is based on their accumulated experience over
generations and current information available to them. It provides problem-solving
ideas to the farmers in day-to-day life, and it is an underutilized resource.
248 S. K. Bal and M. A. Sarath Chandran

Some examples of weather-related ITKs followed by Indian farmers are as

follows:

• Farmers in the upper northwest Himalayas used a visible spectrum around the sun
and moon for weather prediction. An event of rainfall was predicted in a day or
two if the spectrum around the sun had more diameter than that around the moon
(FAO 2019).
• Sowing of maize and soybean in dry soil after soaking in seeds in the cow urine
for 10–12 h to protect seeds from insects/diseases in lower plains of districts of
Himachal Pradesh under the late onset of monsoon (Rana et al. 2018).
• A study on colour of the moon and the related weather conditions during post-
monsoon (first October to 31st December 2014) was documented by Palampur
centre of All India Coordinated Research Project on Agrometeorology
(AICRPAM). It was observed that the moon was seen in 92% of cases. In
43.1%, 6.9% and 1.4% of cases, the yellow-coloured moon was found to be
associated with cloudy, rainy and windy conditions, respectively. In 18.3% and
5.6% of cases, the white colour of the moon was found to be associated with
windy and cloudy conditions.

Farmers do understand that rainfall has different implications for different crop
species based on the quantity, intensity and duration. They have developed indigenous
ways of weather forecasting based on the experience of many generations, which are
passed on mainly verbally. So, proper documentation of such ITKs is necessary. Once
it is documented and validated, such useful information can be made part of agromet
advisory services, which will add value to the conventional AAS system.

9.4 Climate Information Needed by Farmers

The climate information can impact the following key decisions regarding crop
production by farmers (Madhavan and Rengalakshmi 2015) as described in
Table 9.1.

Table 9.1 Climate information that can impact key decisions of crop production
Key decisions Climate information that impacts the decision
Sowing period Onset of monsoon
Selection of crops/variety Total season rainfall forecast and its distribution within
Irrigation: Timing and quantity the season
Resource use allocation: Labour and
finance
Fertilizer application: Amount, type, Rainfall distribution forecast across the growth stages of
timing crop
Pesticide application: Timing Wind direction, speed, rainfall
Time of harvest Rainfall forecast during the crop maturity stage
Source: Madhavan and Rengalakshmi (2015)
9 Minimizing Weather-Related Risks in Agriculture Through Agromet Advisory. . . 249

The major types of climate information needed by farmers before and during the
crop production are as follows (FAO 2019):

• Before the commencement of cropping season, agrometeorological crop-risk

analysis is carried out to select the most suitable crop(s) based on crop water
requirement and forecasted seasonal rainfall.
• Determination of optimum date of planting for a specific region based on the
onset of rainfall.
• Seasonal climate outlooks which can be used to adapt farmers to various
situations that may arise during the season due to the uncertainty in the long-
term weather forecasts. Crop contingency plans can be prepared for multiple
possible scenarios.
• Three-day weather forecasts throughout the growing season, with emphasis on
probability for extreme weather events; 10-day agromet advisories regarding the
best crop management practices for the forecasted weather.

9.5 Introduction to Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) in India

AAS is defined as ‘all agrometeorological and agro-climatological information that

can be directly applied to improve and/or protect the livelihood of farmers’ (Stigter
2011). In India, India Meteorological Department started AAS in 1945 as farmers’
weather bulletin (FWB) through All India Radio. IMD started AAS from its state
meteorological centres in 1976, in collaboration with state agricultural departments.
From 1991 onwards, the National Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecast
(NCMRWF) started to prepare quantitative weather forecasts in the medium range
(3 days) for a total of 5 agrometeorological field units (AMFUs), at a spatial
resolution of 250 km. The spatial resolution was improved to 150 km in 1993 and
to 75 km in 1999. The temporal resolution of the forecast was increased from 3 to
5 days in 2006 at the agro-climatic zone (ACZ) level.
In 2007, these two systems (forecast system of IMD and NCMRWF) merged into
one single system, as the AMFU network expanded from 5 units in 1991 to 130 to
cover all ACZs. From first June 2008 onwards, IMD has started issuing a multi-
model ensemble weather forecast (50 km spatial resolution and 5-day temporal
resolution) at the district level. At present, AAS is a multi-institutional and multidis-
ciplinary project. Besides IMD, it involves the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), state agricultural universities, state agricultural departments,
nongovernmental agencies, media, etc. The flow diagram of AAS and inter-
institutional linkages are depicted in Fig. 9.2.
The process of development and dissemination of district-level medium-range
weather forecast is depicted as a flow chart in Fig. 9.3.
250 S. K. Bal and M. A. Sarath Chandran

Fig. 9.2 Flow diagram of integrated AAS and inter-institutional linkages (Rathore et al. 2011)

9.5.1 Components of Agromet Advisory

The formulation of crop- and region-specific AAS bulletin requires interdisciplinary

skills because of its dynamic nature. A thorough understanding of crop-weather
interactions is a critical input for the successful preparation of advisory bulletins.
Scientific background of crop-weather interaction includes the development of site-
9 Minimizing Weather-Related Risks in Agriculture Through Agromet Advisory. . . 251

Fig. 9.3 Development and dissemination of district-level medium-range weather forecast by IMD
(Rathore et al. 2011)

specific crop-weather models, thumb rule-based pest forewarning models, crop-

weather calendars, etc. The use of crop growth simulation models and satellite
imagery to monitor the crop health condition is becoming critical input in providing
proper advisories to farmers. Vulnerability to weather hazards of a location should
be identified and should be taken into consideration while preparing advisory
bulletins.
Essential components of agrometeorological advisory are:

• Weather forecast.
• Warning of extreme weather events.
• Information related to location-specific normal sowing practices of crops.
• Farm management information such as irrigation scheduling, spraying of
pesticides to control pests and diseases, nutrient (e.g. N, P, K) application, etc.
• Suggested measures for forecasted weather for appropriate action to be taken by
the farmers suiting to their condition.
• Special warning for the outbreak of pest and disease and its appropriate control
measures.
• Suggestions for livestock management and animal husbandry.
252 S. K. Bal and M. A. Sarath Chandran

9.5.2 Micro-Level Agromet Advisory Services by ICAR (MAAS)

Though the spatial resolution of medium-range weather forecast has been improved
to the district level, the practical applicability of these advisories is grossly inade-
quate to implement at farmers’ level. This is due to the large spatial variability of
types of crops, varieties and weather elements (particularly rainfall) that exists within
a district. To address these issues, AICRPAM of ICAR took up a pilot project during
2011 to develop and disseminate block-level AAS through its 25 cooperating centres
spread across the country. It makes use of a block-level weather forecast issued by
IMD. In this, the agrometeorologist of the AICRPAM centre develops the AAS
bulletins with the help of subject matter specialists at Krishi Vigyan Kendras—
KVKs (Vijaya Kumar et al. 2017). For this, field-level information (types of crops,
growth stage of crops, the incidence of pests/diseases, etc.) is collected by the Field
Information Facilitator (FIF), and he disseminates the AAS developed to the farmers.
FIF acts as an interface between farmers, KVK and AICRPAM centre. The method-
ology used for the development and dissemination of MAAS is depicted in Fig. 9.4.

9.5.3 Farmers’ Awareness and Outreach of AAS System

Awareness generation is an important aspect of technology adoption. Unless the

farmers are convinced about the benefits of using agromet advisory services, there
will not be any value for the information generated. It is also a mechanism for
sensitizing farmers about the scientific crop production coupled with the weather
forecast. These programmes also improve the linkages between farmers and
providers of AAS, viz. IMD, ICAR and SAUs. The main aim of these programmes
is to make farmers self-reliant by providing timely information about the anticipated
weather and suitable crop management advisory so that resource utilization is
optimized and losses are minimized. In India, such programmes are organized by
IMD, ICAR, SAUs, local NGOs and other stakeholders.
The methods to reach out to farmers include personal visits of technical experts,
farmers’ field schools, etc. In these meetings, the importance and advantages of
using AAS in crop production are explained to them. Farmers are provided with
leaflets containing general guidelines for weather-based farming, packages of
practices for specific crops, details of pests and diseases of crops and their control
measures, crop contingency plans for the district, etc. Rain gauges are provided to
progressive farmers’ groups by IMD during these programmes as a measure to
improve the linkage, which encourages the farmers in recording rainfall data and
sharing it with the technical experts. IMD has organized 243 farmers’ awareness
programmes at the district level by AMFUs (Chattopadhyay and Chandras 2018).
The feedback of farmers and their perception about impact of climate and climate
change on crop production is also documented.
9 Minimizing Weather-Related Risks in Agriculture Through Agromet Advisory. . . 253

Fig. 9.4 Development and dissemination of MAAS (Vijaya Kumar et al. 2017)

9.5.4 AAS and Effective Operational Decision-Making

The ability to make a correct decision depends on the accuracy of the information
provided and interpretation by farmers at the right time (Hansen 2002). But the
factors affecting the ‘correct decision-making’ are so intricate that it makes the
whole process difficult (Nesheim et al. 2017). The effectiveness of the AAS system
mainly depends on its specificity and reliability of the information
(Venkatasubramanian et al. 2014). The specificity of AAS refers to the location
specificity, and crop specificity and reliability refers to the confidence with which the
farmer accepts it based on previous success rate. A variety of factors influence the
decision-making of a farmer, including seasonal rainfall, timely availability of
inputs, agricultural subsidies, market demand, cultural traditions and adaptive capac-
ity (Stone and Meinke 2006). Nesheim et al. (2017) had conducted a study in
Maharashtra to understand the role of AAS in the decision-making of farmers, and
they reported that the relevance of agromet information differs depending on the
situation under which decision is made. Some farmers doubted the credibility of the
AAS provided, while others positively used the information provided. They mainly
valued the advisory provided to undertake precautionary measures. This emphasizes
the need to design location-specific weather-based agromet advisories
(Balasubramanian et al. 2014; Balasubramanian et al. 2016).
254 S. K. Bal and M. A. Sarath Chandran

9.5.5 Role of AAS in Improving Crop Production and Ensuring Food

Security

The sensitivity of crop yields to seasonal variations in climate is a major reason for
inter-year crop production. Drought, flood, unseasonal rain before the harvest,
hailstorm, etc., have caused a reduction in food grain production in India over the
years. The country has witnessed an increase in climate variability, both spatially and
temporally. The number of days with no rainfall (dry spells) and heavy rainfall is
increasing (Singh et al. 2014), and a well-distributed monsoon season is very rare in
the recent past. A recent study on the sensitivity of grain yield to historical climate
variability in India concluded that rice is more sensitive to climate variation,
compared to alternate grains, viz. maize, sorghum, finger millet and pearl millet
(Davis et al. 2019).
A timely agromet advisory can reduce crop loss to a greater extent. For example,
an advisory to harvest the crops which attained physiological maturity on account of
forecasted rainfall can save the entire produce. Similarly, farmers can make appro-
priate crop selection based on the overall monsoon forecast for a particular season.
This may avoid crop loss in the event of agricultural drought by opting for hardy
crops with low crop water requirements. Another aspect is the dissemination of
scientific cultivation practices in tune with forecasted weather to the farmers through
AAS. This will ensure that farmers will take up all agronomic, crop protection
activities on time, which will boost crop production. Correct AAS can also avoid
wastage of input materials (fertilizer, plant protection chemicals, planting material)
and save labour cost in the event of heavy rainfall.

9.5.6 Economic Impact Assessment of AAS

The eventual aim of AAS is to increase the profit of farmers by providing timely
information about anticipated in-season weather so that optimum utilization of
resources is ensured and wastage/losses are reduced. To assess the viability of any
project, impact assessment is the most important tool. The economic impact of the
medium-range weather forecast issued by NCMRWF was assessed in a pilot study in
15 out of 127 agromet field units (AMFUs) under which AAS was issued (Maini and
Rathore 2011). They had selected six cropping seasons (three kharif [southwest
monsoon] and three rabi [winter] seasons) that were chosen for the study during
2003–2007. The crops selected for the study included food grains, cash crops,
oilseeds, fruits and vegetables. The sample size of the study consisted of 80 farmers,
out of which 40 were AAS following and 40 were AAS non-following. The main
objective of the study was to quantify the change in yield and net return due to AAS.
The major finding from the study was farmers who followed AAS fetched 10–15%
higher yield and 2–5% reduction in the cost of cultivation compared to the AAS
non-followers.
9 Minimizing Weather-Related Risks in Agriculture Through Agromet Advisory. . . 255

Table 9.2 Benefit/cost ratio of micro-level AAS adopted and non-adopted farmers under
AICRPAM-NICRA project (Adopted from NICRA 2018)
B:C ratio
AAS Non-AAS
Region Village Crop farmer farmer
2016–2017
Akola, Maharashtra Yelgaon Soybean 2.17 1.76
Bangalore, Karnataka Patrenahalli and Grape 9.21 5.45
Nayanahalli
Palampur, Himachal Dhamrol Maize 2.74 0.73
Pradesh
Parbhani, Maharashtra Shekta Cotton 2.26 1.88
Udaipur, Rajasthan Nakli Maize 1.93 1.28
Anantapur, Andhra Yagantipalle Pigeon 3.1 2.48
Pradesh pea
Kovilpatti, Tamil Nadu Allikundam Okra 2.41 1.98
2017–2018
Ramanathapuram, Tamil Malangudi Chilli 1.99 1.46
Nadu
Kanpur Dehat, Uttar Baghpur Rice 1.71 1.50
Pradesh
Sirsa, Haryana Farwain Kalan Cotton 1.71 1.33

The economic impact assessment of MAAS by AICRPAM under NICRA

(National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture) project was also carried
out. The results are presented in Table 9.2 (NICRA 2018).
The higher benefit obtained by farmers who adopted MAAS can be mainly
attributed to the implementation of event-wise agromet advisories provided by the
AICRPAM-NICRA centres based on the accurate weather forecast. This has helped
them to save labour cost, input costs such as fertilizer, irrigation water, plant
protection chemicals, and timely harvest (which saved the entire produce from
heavy rainfall). Cases of losses were also reported due to erroneous weather
forecasts.
Another study is conducted by Vashisth et al. (2013) at villages near national
capital region of India (New Delhi) regarding impact of AAS among users and
nonusers. The results revealed that users could reduce input cost to the tune of 9.6%
in carrot, 7% in rice and 6% in wheat. This resulted in increase of net profit by 4%,
3% and 0.9% in rice, carrot and wheat, respectively, for those who followed AAS
when compared to the nonusers of AAS. The authors had attributed the increase in
profit of AAS users to the accurate weather forecast, thereby saving inputs like
irrigation water, plant protection chemicals, labour cost, etc.
A study conducted by the National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy
Research (NCAP) concluded that farmers received 10–25% economic benefit due to
the adoption of AAS. Another assessment by the National Council of Applied
Economic Research (NCAER) revealed that economic benefit of AAS as ` 50,000
256 S. K. Bal and M. A. Sarath Chandran

crores per year in 2009, when extrapolated, increases to ` 211,000 crores, if all the
farmers of the country are using AAS in their decision-making during crop season
(Chattopadhyay and Chandras 2018). NCAER had again conducted another study
and reported that only 24% of the total farmers of India had access to AAS from
SMS services, which accounted for an economic profit of ` 42,000 crores (NCAER
2015). They had also reported that if AAS is utilized by all farming households, it
has the potential to create economic benefit up to ` 3.3 lakh crores on the 22 principal
crops.

9.5.7 Constraints Involved with AAS

The main bottleneck involved in the dissemination of AAS is the linkage problems
between institutional actors due to shortcomings in quality weather data availability,
limited share of data, coordination and communication. Accuracy of the medium-
range forecast (lead time of 5 days) is the primary determinant for the success of
AAS as the accuracy of seasonal forecasts (lead time of 1 month) is currently
doubtful, meant for policymakers and not for direct use of farmers. Another reason
is the availability of dedicated human resource for preparation and dissemination of
advisories. This is the reason why advisories always usefully combine weather and
agriculture data (Gopalakrishnan and Subramanian 2020). Attempt to involve
farmers for improvement of the content in AAS is also lacking. This causes the
development of AAS without knowing the need and priorities of the farmers. Other
reasons are inappropriate research programmes and inadequate use of information
and communication technologies (ICTs), which ultimately results in a low rate of
adoption of AAS (Singh et al. 2019a). The contents of AAS should be very location-
specific, targeting the specific crops grown, livestock, market facility, etc. Remote
areas have a disadvantage in the case of access to timely information due to poor
communication infrastructure and services. The twenty-first century has witnessed a
giant leap in information and communication technologies (ICTs), and information
dissemination is becoming less costly day by day and providing AAS as text
messages have become the most effective way of dissemination to a large number
of farmers across the country. But a fact that remains is that there are many extremely
poor and marginalized farmers in India who cannot afford a mobile phone. So, the
AAS providers should devise strategies to include them also in this information
dissemination cycle.

9.6 Future Challenges

• The increase in extreme weather events such as heavy precipitation, cloud burst
and hailstorms is causing widespread crop damage across many locations of
India. Although IMD is issuing ‘nowcast bulletins’ and ‘special weather
bulletins’, the forecast accuracy needs to be improved.
9 Minimizing Weather-Related Risks in Agriculture Through Agromet Advisory. . . 257

• The advent of ICTs for the dissemination of AAS has enabled the service to
provide agencies to cover masses of farmers. But, still, there are many rural
farmers who don’t have mobile phones and access to the Internet.
• It has been observed that the same farmer is receiving contrasting AAS for the
same time period from different AAS providing agencies, which is creating
confusion for them.
• Although IMD is issuing block-level weather forecast, AAS based on the block-
level weather forecast is not upscaled to the national level.
• The ultimate aim of AAS will be customized advisories at the farmer level. That
will require weather forecast with farm-level spatial resolution, farmer-level crop
and soil information and huge computing skills for the automation of AAS.

9.7 Opportunities Ahead and Policy Implications

• Let’s hope that the spatial resolution, as well as the accuracy of weather forecasts,
will be improved with the advancement in computing skills over the years as
microscale advisories are the need of the hour.
• Creating a dedicated platform for quality weather- and climate-related data
sourced from both public and private institutions/agencies. The Ministry of
Earth Sciences and the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare Govern-
ment of India need to coordinate for the same.
• Implementation of AAS using block-level weather forecast for regions under
varied agro-ecologies will require automation for development and dissemination
processes with minimal human interference. Though IMD has already taken
initiative in this aspect, it needs to strengthen collaboration with other partners.
• Capacity enhancement in agrometeorology, an interdisciplinary subject, needs to
be expanded at all the agricultural universities. The subject, agricultural meteo-
rology, should be compulsorily included under postgraduate programme. There
also exists an excellent scope for the development of ‘extension
agrometeorology’ as a full-fledged way for awareness generation, advisory dis-
semination and feedback collection from farmers regarding AAS.
• The use of ICTs for the dissemination of AAS may further be explored for
increasing the number of farmers covered. Exploring the use of ICTs and
involvement of other stakeholders (public and private institutions, farmer
organizations, farmers) should be taken up for overall improvement of the AAS.
• Farmers’ traditional knowledge and practical experiences should be documented
and embedded in preparation of AAS.

9.8 Conclusion

The importance of agromet advisory services is increasing in this era of climate

change. The increasing trend of extreme weather events is posing a great threat to
sustainable crop production in the world. This chapter has discussed in detail about
258 S. K. Bal and M. A. Sarath Chandran

the weather-related risks in agriculture, what kind of information is needed by

farmers, the existing system of AAS development and dissemination in India, their
economic impact, constraints and future challenges. The twenty-first century has
witnessed a significant improvement in computing power and hence the dissemina-
tion of AAS using ICTs. Despite these advances, the dissemination of accurate AAS
at the right time to the farmers is lacking if we consider the country as a whole. There
has been considerable improvement in the spatial resolution of the weather forecast,
which is yet to be exploited in the form of block-level AAS. Climate variability and
climate change are adding more threats and challenges to the existing system of
development and dissemination of AAS. Automation of AAS, further exploration of
extension agrometeorology, etc., are suggested as opportunities to be explored in the
near future.

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Farmers-Led Adaptation Strategies
to Climate Change for Sustaining Coastal 10
Agriculture in Sundarbans Region of India

Suchandra Dutta, Sanchita Garai, Subhasis Mandal, and Sanjit Maiti

Abstract

Climate change-accelerated sea-level rise is the cause of devastating impact on

the Sundarbans, the World Heritage Site, which is a deltaic complex and is highly
prone to extreme climatic events-led disaster. The erratic rainfall pattern and
unpredictable cyclones had resulted in deterioration of soil and water quality due
to the inundation of saltwater or occurrence of brackish groundwater level at
shallow depth, lack of irrigation water during the dry season, and drainage
congestion during monsoon months. Majority of the local population is depen-
dent on agriculture and its allied activities. For the inhabitants of Sundarbans,
changing climate has become part of their everyday struggle for survival. They
adjusted to the expected climatic stimuli, which moderate the catastrophic effect
of changing climate. This chapter focuses on farmers-led adaptation strategies to
climate change in the Indian Sundarbans region. Therefore, this chapter discusses
the adaptation techniques that farmers follow in the fields of crop farming,
livestock rearing, and fisheries. Mixed farming comprised of the crop, livestock,
and fish component is the predominant farming system practiced by the farmers
of Indian Sundarbans, and about 11 adaptation strategies in mixed farming are
followed by them. It turned to be apparent that challenging issues, such as
changing climate and its associated uncertainties, need adaptation strategies and
an emphasis on resilience at the farm level. This chapter, therefore, concludes that

S. Dutta · S. Garai · S. Maiti (*)

ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, India
e-mail: Sanjit.Maiti@icar.gov.in
S. Mandal
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Regional Research Station, Canning, West
Bengal, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 261
Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_10
262 S. Dutta et al.

to combat changing climatic conditions, the farming community needs to adopt

the integrated farming system (IFS) in which by-product of one system is used as
an input for another system. Thus, the promotion of integrated farming system
(IFS) model should be encouraged to increase the adaptive capacity of the farmers
of the Indian Sundarbans region to cope up with the changing climatic scenario.

Keywords
Climate change · Farmers-led adaptation strategies · Indian Sundarbans ·
Agriculture

10.1 Introduction

Climate change, caused by rising temperatures, thermal expansion of ocean water,

and increased precipitation, is likely to trigger the rise in sea level by 50 cm by 2050.
This means increased coastal erosion and flooding and greater tidal heights amid
cyclonic storms (Hazra 2012). The Sundarbans, World Heritage Site as declared by
UNESCO in 1984 which falls under the complex-diverse-risk-prone (CDR)
agroecosystem, is a deltaic complex (Mahadevia and Vikas 2012). Indian
Sundarbans is renowned for its diversity in species of plants and animals, detritus
ecosystem, complicated shoreline, countless islands, crossover tributaries, and
residents of a quite conventional population and is highly prone to extreme climatic
events-led disaster (Singh et al. 2012). The world’s largest delta is facing subsidence
due to tectonic movements that results in a tiltation toward the east. Coastal regions
are vulnerable to seasonal ocean currents, tides, waves, winds, and cyclones. Heavy
monsoonal rain and river flow almost partially inundate this region most of the year.
The reduction in mangrove area has reduced sedimentation and accelerated erosion
along with removing the primary protection against floodwaters and high waves
(Roy 2010). Climate change causes inexorably rise of sea level that disappeared
many islands with buffeted cyclones and changing rainfall pattern which results in
deterioration of soil and water quality due to inundation of saltwater or occurrence of
brackish groundwater level at shallow depth, lack of irrigation water during the dry
season, and drainage congestion during monsoon months making the lives of
farmers more challenging and improvement of the area more extravagant (Mimura
2013). Furthermore, there have been significant disruptions in the hydrological
conditions and alterations in fishery practices that bring devastating results for
fisherfolk (Mahadevia and Vikas 2012).
Adaptation to climate change is characterized as modification in natural or
anthropogenic systems regarding the impacts of real or anticipated climatic stimuli
that mitigate possible harm or take full advantage of desirable possibilities (Forino
et al. 2014). Adaptation is commonly defined as the reaction of individuals, groups,
and governments to changing climate or other intervention that is used to alleviate
their susceptibility to detrimental effects (Bradshaw et al. 2004). It denotes any
change in procedures, methods, and mechanisms to respond to the real or assumed
dangers of climate change, as well as changes in social and institutional frameworks
10 Farmers-Led Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change for Sustaining Coastal. . . 263

and technical alternatives (Howden et al. 2007). Agrarian adaptation to changing

climate is a dynamic, multifaceted, and multiphase procedure that involves a variety
of forms. A vast range of agriculture sector adaptations to climate fluctuations and
transition are accessible (Bryant et al. 2000; Smit and Skinner 2002; Bryan et al.
2009). Adaptations that are usually applicable for addressing climate-linked hazards
are likely to be recognized; few make the argument that it is not so straightforward to
recognize adaptations that are appropriate for mitigating innumerable threats,
namely, recessions in commodity markets and adjustments in the policy and aid of
government (Dolan et al. 2001; Bradshaw et al. 2004). Farmers also made farm-
related improvements, such as the introduction of improved crop varieties,
expanding the use of fertilizers, investing in better land management practices, and
modifying the scheduling of farming activities (Wood et al. 2014). Climate change
has a negative impact on the productive and reproductive performance of livestock
and milk production lactation length. Occurrence of livestock diseases and the
parasitic infestation has been increased with the increased rate of mortality,
decreased trend of feed and fodder resources and fresh drinking water, and decreased
length and intensity of estrous period as well as conception rate. These lead to the
change in livestock and herd composition (large ruminants vs. small ruminants)
during adverse climatic conditions (Rötter and Geijn 1999). To reduce the threat of
saline water penetration, farmers are taking certain corrective action, such as
increasing the height of pond dykes, repairing and strengthening dykes, planting
on dykes, removal of saline water and addition of fresh or rainwater, incorporation of
chemicals or lime or dung in the pond, and inclusion of tree branches in ponds for
hideaways (Chand et al. 2012a).
Sundarbans has a population of humans that is financially, academically, and
socially marginalized and occupies a region which is largely unreachable owing to
inferior amenities and infrastructure. As per the Government of India’s 2011 census,
approximately 4.37 million people are residing in and around the Sundarbans delta.
The significant majority of the local population in Indian Sundarbans is dependent
on agriculture and its allied activities due to the absence of any industrial sector.
Consequently, due to inadequate irrigation facilities and fundamental framework,
agricultural activities are rudimentary and reliant on periodic rainfall, reducing crop
yield that led to an unpredictable means of livelihood. Both tenant farmers and
landowners enhance their earnings by harnessing mangrove forests, catching fish,
aggregating, and cultivating tiger prawn seeds in saltwater, causing extensive
destruction to coastal ecosystems. Hence, Sundarbans, a coastal and poorly devel-
oped area, is, therefore, one of the most vulnerable survivors of climate change in
India. Changing climate has become a part of people’s everyday struggle for
survival. While global climate change mitigation agreements have remained ambig-
uous, sea-level rise inevitably, cyclones have pummeled, and rainfall patterns have
continued to worsen, making life harder and developing the region more costly. The
most crucial understanding that is lacking is how the farmers cope up with the
vulnerable ecosystem that has an impact on their lives and livelihoods. The small and
marginal farmers of this region are changing themselves by adopting several
mechanisms to cope up with the changing climatic scenario. Hence, it is need of
the hour to find out these adaptation strategies followed by the farming community
264 S. Dutta et al.

of the Indian Sundarbans to combat with the detrimental effect of changing climate
for maintaining sustainable productivity of their farm.

10.2 The Indian Sundarbans: A World Heritage Site

In the map, the Sundarbans delta (Fig. 10.1) is spreading across West Bengal state of
India and the nearby country Bangladesh (between 21032’N–23031’N latitude and
880100 E–920150 E longitude). The unified Sundarbans is about 26,000 sq. km and
one-third of it falls in India. The origin of this unique ecosystem is a fascinating
subject of study which baffles scientists, historians, and naturalists. In 1893, a very
precise theory stated that the deltas situated between the river Hooghly on the west
and Meghna in the east, including the Sundarbans, have been formed by debris
deposits brought down by the mighty rivers, Ganges, Brahmaputra, and their
tributaries. Silt deposition remains ongoing and is very active as demonstrated by
the recent emergence of the new Moore Island. Despite the cause of the origin of this
deltaic alluvium, it has been estimated that the present-day Sundarbans has been
formed about 4000 years ago. The river system of Sundarbans is quite complex. The
origin of the major rivers that traverse through Sundarbans is Matla, Bidyadhari,
Saptamukhi, Thakuran, Gosaba, and Raimangal. Other mentionable rivers of
Sundarbans are Muri Ganga, Ichamati, Piyali, Kalindi, Hogol, Netidhopani,
Mridangabhanga, Gomor, Chulkati, Durgadoani, Duttargang, Baro Sahebkhali,
Raidighi, Pitchkhali, Maya, Hatania Doania, Chaltaboni, and Dhulibhasani. The
soil of Sundarbans can be classified into three types, such as fine silty clay in the
northernmost part, peaty deposits in the middle, and swampy areas close to the sea
face along with the sandy clay and dunes. Based on salinity, the soil can be divided
into (1) saline soil, where there is intrusion or flushing of brackish water, and
(2) saline-alkali soil, when the sodium salts flow over a fresh lowland enhanced
with alkali and nitrogen ions (Mandal et al. 2013a).
Located in a special bioclimatic zone within a traditional geographical position in
the Bay of Bengal coastal region, it is a symbol of the ancient history of mythological
and historical events. Offering spectacular scenic scenery and natural wealth, it is
known globally for its mangrove forests, species diversity of plant, and animal both
on land and in the oceans. The Sundarbans is of fundamental significance to
endangered species worldwide including the Royal Bengal Tiger, Ganges and
Irrawaddy dolphins, estuarine crocodiles, and the critically endangered native river
terrapin (Batagur baska). It is the world’s only mangrove habitat for the species
Panthera tigris tigris. The Sundarbans is the habitats of diversified marine, terres-
trial, and amphibian species.
In 1987, Sundarbans was designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. The
World Heritage property consists of three wildlife sanctuaries which constitute the
core breeding area of several endangered wildlife species. The property also contains
areas of exceptional natural beauty, ethnobotanical significance, special marine
wildlife significance, rivers, creeks, beaches, swamps, estuaries, mudflats, and tidal
flats. Property boundaries cover all the main forms of mangrove habitat, areas with
10 Farmers-Led Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change for Sustaining Coastal. . . 265

Fig. 10.1 Indian Sundarbans comprising 19 community development blocks (Chowdhury et al.
2016)

high floral and faunal resources, and important bird habitats. The property’s integrity
is further reinforced by adjacent terrestrial and marine buffer zones, which are not
part of the designated property.
266 S. Dutta et al.

Catastrophic events, such as cyclones, have also posed challenges to land value
due to infiltration and siltation of saltwater causing potential hazards. Cyclones and
tidal waves have done some harm to the forest along with the sea-land interface, and
certain species of fauna, such as the spotted deer, have also suffered significant
mortality. Overexploitation of both forest resources and fauna, poachers, and
trapping, as well as agricultural infringement, often pose significant threats to the
heritage values and virtue.
The Indian part of the Sundarbans is comprised of 102 islands, of which 54 islands
are inhabited by humans. The Indian region is marked off by the river Hooghly on
the west, the Bay of Bengal on the south, the Ichamati-Kalindi-Raimangal rivers on
the east, and the Dampier-Hodges line on the north. It consists of 19 community
development blocks, of which 6 are in the North and 13 are in the South 24-Parganas
districts of West Bengal with a total of 190 Gram Panchayats and 1064 villages.

10.3 Changing Climatic Scenario in Indian Sundarbans

Based on numerous studies from around the world, it is now broadly agreed among
the scientific community that the values of some of the fundamental climatic
parameters, namely, air temperature, air pressure, relative humidity, and precipita-
tion, are increasing at an exponential pace worldwide, particularly in the past several
decades (IPCC 2013). Studies on changing climate in the Sundarbans region have
shown variation in air temperature, surface water temperature, rainfall and monsoon
pattern, salinity regimen, cyclonic disturbances and depressions, rising sea levels,
and erosion and accretion (Raha et al. 2012). Studies revealed that the temporal
differences of air temperature in the Sundarbans region are varied from 11.96  C to
37.0  C (Pitchaikani et al. 2017; Mitra 2019). The temperature of surface water has
been increasing at a rate of 0.5  C per decade which is eight times the rate of global
warming which is at a rate of 0.06  C per decade (Mitra et al. 2009; Sundaresan et al.
2013). A rise in sea level at a rate of 2.5 mm annually along the Indian coastline has
been observed from the 1950s (Udayakumar 2014) which is closely related to the
rise in sea surface temperature that favors the formation of a cyclone. Experience of
tropical storm and cyclone is an annual feature of the Sundarbans region. Ericson
et al. (2006) have approximately calculated that the rise in sea level of Bay of Bengal
is the world’s highest at more than 10 mm annually. At the same time, UNESCO in
2006 has forecasted 45 cm sea-level rise by the end of the twenty-first century. In its
fourth assessment report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
reported clear observation-based testimony of climatic change in the coastal area and
provided evidence of elevated ocean temperature, precipitation changes, subsequent
upstream river drainage, and increasing sea level. This will usually cause higher
coastal flooding and higher salinity (Parry et al. 2007). According to some estimates,
the present-day sea-level rise in coastal areas of Sundarbans is 6–8 mm per year
(Khan et al. 2008).
The delta people endure a long, intense, and hot summer, while the winters are
getting shorter, warmer, and drier (Mandal et al. 2019). Disturbances such as
depressions and cyclonic storms emerged in the Bay of Bengal during 120 years
10 Farmers-Led Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change for Sustaining Coastal. . . 267

(1891–2010) at a rate of 10.79 annually. However, the overall number of

disturbances in the last 40 years (1971–2010) has decreased, but the frequency of
extreme storms and intensity increased noticeably (Chand et al. 2012b). The north-
ern part of Bay of Bengal has recorded four cyclones, namely, Sidr, Nargis, Bijli, and
Aila, during the last part of the last decade (2006–2009) (Roy 2010; Nautiyal et al.
2016). A study of cyclone frequencies on India’s east and west coasts between 1891
and 2000 revealed that almost 358 cyclones (of which 103 were severe) impacted the
East Coast. Over the same time, the West Coast was struck by 48 tropical cyclones,
of which 24 were extreme cyclonic disturbances. More than 58% of the cyclones that
form in the Bay of Bengal approach and cross the East Coast in October and
November (Burman et al. 2013). Along the East Coast, tidal action during both
the southwest and northeast monsoons seems to be noteworthy. Exaggerated wave
incidents during strong tropical cyclones are common during northeast monsoon in
the Bay of Bengal (Kumar et al. 2006). The entire coastal region of India is
climatically vulnerable and exposed to Nor’wester and cyclonic storms because of
its proximity to the sea. The East Coast is more prone to the cyclone and other
climatic disturbances compared to the West Coast (Patwardhan et al. 2003). It is
predicted that the intensity of tropical cyclones would increase by 15%, which would
drastically pose a serious threat to people residing in cyclone-prone coastal areas of
India, notably the Indian Sundarbans region (Rishi and Mudaliar 2014).
Adaptation includes modifications in the social-ecological structures in response
to climate change’s real and anticipated impacts. Adaptation plans and activities may
vary from short-term mitigation to longer-term, broader changes aimed at achieving
more than just climate change priorities, which may or may not be effective in
moderating damage or leveraging favorable opportunities (Moser and Ekstrom
2010; Leal et al. 2018). Mixed farming is the predominant farming system in the
Indian Sundarbans region, and major components of this farming system are crops,
livestock, and fisheries.

10.4 Present Agricultural Scenario of the Indian Sundarbans

Region

India’s coastal area is traditionally backward and marginalized by farmers with low
agricultural productive output and weak livelihood stability. The coastal region’s
ecosystem is highly precarious and susceptible to destruction by anthropogenic
practices. Small, marginal, and landless farmers dominate the farming community
in this region, the majority of whom belong to backward communities. The agricul-
tural production in coastal areas is outdated with a cluster of problems like degener-
ation of soil and water quality due to inundation of saltwater or the presence at a
shallow depth of a brackish groundwater table, lack of irrigation water during the dry
season, drainage congestion during monsoon months, weather adversities, etc. By
adopting various adaptation strategies, the agriculture of this region has experienced
certain transformations.
Agriculture in coastal regions was dependent on rains which mostly occur only in
monsoon months, and the cropping pattern was completely mono-cropped with
268 S. Dutta et al.

conventional rice varieties in Kharif that are of long duration and lower yield. After
Kharif, the land remains nearly fallow throughout the year, leading to high poverty
and unemployment among rural farmers. The coastal areas lagged far behind many
inland areas in terms of agricultural production and the farmers’ livelihood protec-
tion (Danda and Rahman 2019). The vast resource potentials of the coastal region are
extracted by the farming community by adopting various adaptation strategies like
land shaping, crop diversification, liming, etc., to enhance the agricultural produc-
tivity of coastal lands.
In Sundarbans, the essence of farming is different as fragments of farmland are
not intertwined, rendering equal water distribution a challenge. The region’s lack of
sweet water represents a significant irrigation problem. Thus, most land cultivation
remains mono-cropped because all farmers can rely solely on the monsoon season.
The farming community thus compels to grow more food by adopting various
adaptation strategies leading to advancement by fulfilling the needs of expanding
population.
Livestock and poultry rearing in Sundarbans were mainly tended by women.
Most of the cattle were indigenous nondescript. Black Bengal goat and Garole sheep
being the native of West Bengal were found in the region. Problems faced by the
farmers on livestock and poultry are reduced productivity of their livestock with an
increased rate of mortality, reduced growth rate, and highly susceptible to diseases
which are the impact on livestock due to changing climate. Thus, to mitigate this
condition, farmers started to adopt various adaptation strategies to combat this
situation against climate vagaries.
While fishing continues throughout the season, production begins to increase at
the beginning of the monsoon and reaches its peak in winter (November–January).
Aquaculture (aquafarming) and marine fishing are the two main types of fishing
activities in Sundarbans, which have considerable commercial value and require
capital investment. Commercial and subsistence fisheries are now under danger.
Overexploitation is one of the main factors behind declining fish populations. There
is also a continuing dispute between fishing and forest security as fishing is not
allowed in the protected Project Tiger zones in the Sundarbans’ eastern region.
Nevertheless, illicit fishing persists due to the constraints of livelihoods and poverty.
To combat this scenario, brackish water aquaculture is a rapidly expanding farming
activity. There are many areas in Indian Sundarbans particularly near the brackish
water river and seacoast which are highly saline year-round and not good for
growing crops. Considering the presence of clayey soil and tidal water in these
areas, the farming community has adopted and modified brackish water aquaculture
to enhance their livelihood. The adaptation strategies have paved the way for the
development of agriculture and raised the socioeconomic condition of the farmers.
Further, we will discuss the adaptation strategies followed by the farmers of the
Indian Sundarbans in their farming enterprises, namely, crop farming, livestock
rearing, and fisheries to cope up with the changing climate. All the farmers of this
region having high experienced toward climatic disaster follow integrated farming
system (IFS) in which the by-product of one system is used as an input for another
system, as the main adopting strategies to sustain their livelihood, and as a barrier
against changing climate.
10 Farmers-Led Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change for Sustaining Coastal. . . 269

10.4.1 Adaptation Strategies Followed in Crop Farming

10.4.1.1 Land Shaping

Most of the coastal land is low-lying with around flat topography, resulting in deep
waterlogging (about 50 cm) and drainage congestion following heavy rainfall during
monsoon months. Heavy waterlogging and drainage stagnation are the main
obstacles to crop cultivation in the coastal area. The increase in sea levels following
global warming has a significant effect on coastal agriculture, resulting in land loss
due to seawater intrusion into agricultural property. This leads to more land and
water salinity, increased freshwater shortage, and increased drainage congestion
issues in the coastal area. The current sea-level rise in coastal areas of Sundarbans
is expected to be 6–8 mm per year, according to some estimates (Khan et al. 2008). It
is also estimated that 10 cm rise in sea level (SLR) will inundate 15% of Sundarbans,
25 cm SLR will inundate 40%, 45 cm SLR will inundate 75%, 60 cm SLR will
inundate 100%, and 100 cm SLR will wipe out the entire Sundarbans (Oppenheimer
et al. 2019).
Land shaping (Fig. 10.2) is characterized as land surface modification primarily
for rainwater harvesting for irrigation, reducing the impact of brackish groundwater

Fig. 10.2 Land shaping

270 S. Dutta et al.

at shallow depth on salinity buildup, reducing drainage congestion, and growing

multiple and diversified crops all year round. In promoting the adaptation of
agriculture to climate change in coastal areas, land shaping technology is likely to
play an important role as it increases freshwater availability through rainwater
harvesting in the proper reservoir developed on the field, enhances land drainage,
and reduces soil salinity buildup. Land shaping increases carbon sequestration
through increased production of biomass on fallow land resulting in better seques-
tration of carbon for better environmental quality.
Land shaping techniques create different types of land situations like farm pond,
deep furrow and high ridge, and shallow furrow and medium ridge for fish cultiva-
tion and rainwater harvesting in the farm (Velmurugan et al. 2018). Reduced
waterlogging and salinity of soil in the highlands provides scope for the cultivation
of diverse multi-crops other than rice during Kharif and other seasons. This strategy
accommodates cash crops (vegetables), field crop (paddy), and pisciculture in the
same piece of land that was only fit for paddy-based mono-cropping earlier. So the
farmers are assured against climatic vagaries leading to sudden flooding and contin-
uous water stagnation. Farmers were growing traditional rice varieties like
‘Dudheswar’, ‘Matla’, ‘Nonabokra’, ‘Talmugur’, ‘Lalgetu’, ‘Sadagetu’,
‘Hamilton’, ‘Taalsaree’, and ‘Gobindobhog’ which are saline and flood tolerant.
With this method, farmers with limited land holdings will be able to maximize the
income from multipurpose land use. Bandyopadhyay et al. (2009) reported that by
following this technique, the soil salinity was much less as compared to the normal
land. This technique aided in better water management and lesser methane emission.
In Indian Sundarbans, land shaping strategies, especially farm pond, high ridge and
furrow, and paddy-cum fish models, constitute distinctive technology for resolving
primary constraints such as land degradation (salinity), drainage congestion, and
freshwater paucity for irrigation and, in effect, have the potential to boost produc-
tion, productivity, income, and employment (Mandal et al. 2013b).
A study by Burman et al. (2013) stated that major constraints for the adoption of
land shaping techniques are “marginal landholdings that too divided into several
parcels,” “high initial investment,” “presence of acid sulfate soil layer after certain
depth at places,” “distance from residential areas,” “scarcity of labor availability in
time,” and “low marketable surplus” and hence “high marketing cost” or “lack of
remunerative price,” “high input prices,” “poor input supply and output delivery,”
“difficult to reverse the land shaping to original land,” “availability of quality crop
and fish seed,” and “lack of supervision by family members.” They suggested that
“community-based rainwater harvesting” and “common pool wasteland” may be
motivated in this direction.
Although this adaptation strategy has been well implemented at the farm level,
there is a lack of knowledge on wider watersheds or hydrological impacts at basin
level, such as downstream rainwater availability, groundwater recharge, etc. Mea-
suring hydrological impact on a larger scale is complex. The different conceptual
models may help in quantifying the long-term implication of rainfall variability on
the hydrological impact of different land shaping techniques both locally and
watershed scale. There is indeed very few research on the continued management
10 Farmers-Led Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change for Sustaining Coastal. . . 271

of rainwater harvesting structures, the time frame for managing silt buildup, and the
reduction of harvesting potential over time. More comprehensive studies should be
conducted to tackle these issues to ensure that land formation for sustainable
agricultural production in the salt-affected coastal region is implemented on a
large scale.

10.4.1.2 Change from Mono-Cropping System to Multi-Cropping

System
All plants have similar properties in mono-cropping systems and use the same assets.
The only paddy was grown in the Kharif season in the coastal region of Sundarbans
due to waterlogged conditions. In addition to this, there was a shortage of freshwater
for irrigation in winter and summer, along with salinity of the soil, which restricted
the growth of vegetables. By the adoption of appropriate land shaping techniques,
the problem of salinity, waterlogging, and land degradation were mitigated and also
improved the productivity of coastal land. This led to enhanced multiple cropping
systems (Fig. 10.3).

Fig. 10.3 Change from mono-cropping system to multi-cropping system

272 S. Dutta et al.

In regions with more salinity to soil, sweet potato, cotton, groundnut, and
sunflower were grown which increased the cropping intensity and assured healthy
economic return. During Rabi season, tomato, cauliflower, French bean, bottle
gourd, bitter gourd, etc., were cultivated on the same land. The multiple and diverse
crop cultivation including agriculture-aquaculture-livestock production in the region
in place of mono-cropping has led to better nutritional security and food security to
poor farming communities as well as better soil health. Multiple cropping systems
employ plant interactions to improve the production of crop with lower water and
nutrient inputs. The temporal and spatial mix of species selected for an association
should, therefore, use separate resources or promote cooperative growth, and/or
sowing densities and spatial arrangements could reduce the competition and mini-
mize harmful environmental effects such as greenhouse gas emissions and nitrate
leaching.
In the broadest sense, multiple cropping systems can control pests by preventing
their growth, reproduction, or dispersal (Gaba et al. 2015). Multiple cropping
minimizes soil erosion and the subsequent loss of nutrients (Dabney 1998). The
vegetables grown all along the field increased biodiversity in a mono-cropped land.
Previous studies stress that crop diversification can boost resilience by improving the
potential to eradicate pest occurrences and lessen the transference of pathogen, as
well as mitigating crop production from the outcome of increased climate variability
and severe incidents (Lin 2011).

10.4.1.3 Ail Cultivation

It is described in terms of land embankment cultivation. Farmers developed and
extended their ail (bund/embankment) that was primarily employed to delimit
territory, soil and water protection, and effortless mobility to the field and started
growing vegetables. Along with the upper portion of the embankment, farmers used
both sides of it (Fig. 10.4). Amaranthus, ladies’ finger, chilli, hybrid tomato,
dolichos bean, and cucurbits (ridge gourd, snake gourd, bottle gourd, and pumpkin)

Fig. 10.4 Ail cultivation

10 Farmers-Led Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change for Sustaining Coastal. . . 273

are the main crops grown on the bunds. Many a time, two plants of different heights
are grown concurrently by the farmers to optimize the nutrients, light, and moisture.
Climate change adaptation to integrate the rising magnitude and frequency of
heatwaves, floods, and cyclone is a huge challenge. Since the inception of the
farming operation, farmers have adapted to their local climate. Studies display that
the embankment cultivation helps to mitigate crop loss during continuous water
stagnation in the main field during the flood (Basu et al. 2009). These activities are
undertaken because they help to implement individuals and improve their farm
business efficiency. Changes in crop timing and crop-mix shifts are major adaptation
strategies observed that lead to changes in crop yields. According to Aisabokhae
et al. (2011), simulations of crops show that changes to the planting date and crop
mix will decrease the effects of climate change and suggest that this is the most
important adaptation.

10.4.1.4 Management of Acid Sulfate Soil by Liming

Indian Sundarbans lies in the coastal and saline agro-climatic zone of West Bengal.
The low-lying area suffers heavy drainage congestion throughout the rainy season,
due to its topographical disadvantage, which leads to prolonged water stagnation.
Acid sulfate soils are formed under waterlogged conditions. When such soils are
washed, excavated, or exposed to the air by water infiltration, the sulfides react with
oxygen to form sulfuric acid. Releasing this sulfuric acid again from soil can, in turn,
introduce iron, aluminum, and other heavy metals (especially arsenic) into the soil.
When activated in this way, acid and metals can produce several adverse effects such
as vegetation destruction, contamination, and acidification of groundwater and
surface water sources, destroying fish and other aquatic species. The application of
lime and a higher dose of phosphatic fertilizers and green manures are extremely
effective for the treatment of acid sulfate soil (Bandyopadhyay and Maji 1995, 1999;
Bhowmick et al. 2020).

10.4.2 Adaptation Strategies Followed for Livestock Rearing

10.4.2.1 Shifting from Large Ruminants to Small Ruminants

The erratic rainfall pattern and unpredictable cyclones had resulted in a scarcity of
feed and fodder due to saline water inundation in the grazing field. It was found that
farmers preferred small ruminants over large ruminants. This is evident from their
increasing trend of rearing of native Garole sheep and Black Bengal goat. Farmers
were of the opinion that small ruminants can sustain more during fodder scarcity
situation than large ruminants and have robust survival capabilities and produce in
adverse circumstances. The mortality rate of small ruminants is low during climatic
disasters and is highly prolific. Small ruminants are usually effective converters of
forage feeds, whether they are farmed under temperate, arid, or semitropical
conditions. Their greatest advantage compared to large ruminants is perhaps their
low cost, small size, suitability for smallholdings, and, in many developing
countries, their triple use for meat, milk, and fiber (Timon and Hanrahan 1986).
274 S. Dutta et al.

Temperature humidity index (THI) is always high (above 80) during the summer
season due to high temperature and humidity. It was observed that the small
ruminants are highly disease resistant and can survive in harsh climatic conditions
with very little care. Kurukulasuriya and Rosenthal (2003) presented evidence that
livestock diversification has been successful in combating climate change-associated
diseases and pest outbreaks such as anthrax. Climate change directly affects the
growth of livestock, the occurrence of diseases and mortality, rates of animal
reproduction, and the quality of dairy products. Small ruminants were used as
working capital by the resource-poor farm families in Indian Sundarbans.
From a study in Africa (Seo et al. 2009), it was clear that farmers switched to both
livestock and crop diversification to combat the changing climate. Furthermore,
farmers were found to increase dependence on livestock amid dry and hot
conditions, shifting to sheep and goats as compared to cattle and chickens when
temperature increased, and when precipitation increased, they preferred more goats
and chickens than cattle and sheep. Henry et al. (2012) and Rowlinson (2008)
showed that changing in breeding strategies would increase the resistance of live-
stock to heat stress and diseases, thereby enhancing the reproduction of livestock.
Farmers perceived that after the destructive Aila (cyclone) that attacked West Bengal
on the 25th of May 2009, it was found that there was a decreased performance in
growth and lactation, a significant increase in mortality rate, and decreased prolifer-
ation of the large ruminants (Sejian et al. 2012). Maiti et al. (2014) also observed the
shifting trend from large ruminants to small ruminants in coastal West Bengal.
Hence, preferring small ruminants over large ruminants (Fig. 10.5) is a sustainable
adaptation strategy as it strengthens resilience by reducing vulnerability and risk to a
wider set of climatic catastrophe and is supported by diversified livelihoods in Indian
Sundarbans.

10.4.2.2 Preferring Garole Sheep

Garole sheep is an indigenous breed of Indian Sundarbans. Garole, a highly fecund
breed of sheep, can be characterized as resistant to foot rot disease which is very
common due to seasonal fluctuation. The goat has natural physiological adaptability
for sustaining in a saline environment. This variety can graze in knee-deep water and
can adapt to hot humid weather conditions. Farmers preferred Garole sheep due to
their quick multiplication rate, resilience to climate change, and easily convertible to
cash (selling them for meat and wool purpose as and when required by the farm
family) (Karim and Shinde 2007). Garole sheep are typically known for the standard
quality of felt produced from their fleece (Banerjee 2009). Felt is classified in the
nonwoven class as no thread enters the fabric composition. To manufacture felt or
nonwoven goods, the unique property of wool fibers to create an irreversible
structure by rubbing under certain conditions is used (Australian Felt Specialist
Pty Ltd. 1999). Thus, farmers preferred Garole sheep cultivation (Fig. 10.6) with
less management.
10 Farmers-Led Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change for Sustaining Coastal. . . 275

Fig. 10.5 Shifting from large ruminants to small ruminants

10.4.2.3 Providing Clean and Fresh Drinking Water Frequently

Unpredictable increases in temperature during the summer season resulted in
increased body temperature and heat stress of the livestock. To overcome this
stressed condition, farmers used to provide two to three times more water than
normal to their animals for drinking (Fig. 10.7), so that their body temperature
comes to a normal level and reduces their irritation. Many researchers are studying
the response of rising temperatures to livestock water demand like Upadhyay et al.
(2009) and Sirohi and Sirohi (2010) who concluded that a sufficient amount of clean,
fresh, and cool water is necessary for reducing livestock heat stress.
276 S. Dutta et al.

Fig. 10.6 Preferring Garole sheep (Banerjee 2009)

Fig. 10.7 Providing clean and fresh drinking water frequently

10.4.2.4 Housing with Cross Ventilation for Keeping Livestock

Farmers perceived the need for cross ventilation of animal housing to eliminate the
heat, odors, and moisture produced by livestock and to refill oxygen supply by
taking in drier, cleaner air from outside. Sufficient exchange of air often eliminates
gases such as ammonia (NH4), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and methane (CH4) that can
affect animal health. Ventilation also provides air circulation that facilitates ventila-
tion for confined animals and increases air quality.
For effective cross ventilation, many livestock rearers used electric fans in the
shed of their herds. They also covered the four walls of the shed with a net so that
insects’ entry in the shed can be prevented and provision of air movement is ensured.
10 Farmers-Led Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change for Sustaining Coastal. . . 277

Fig. 10.8 Cattle housing with cross ventilation

The rise in temperatures between 2 and 3  C across the region, along with the
increase in humidity due to changing climate, is expected to exacerbate the heat
stress in livestock emanating in decreased growth, reduced breeding rates, and milk
production (Das 2017). Cross ventilation in animal shelters is highly beneficial to
reduce the heat load.
Livestock is homoeothermic, which means that to remain healthy and efficient,
they must sustain their body temperature within a fairly narrow range. The tempera-
ture humidity index (THI) is widely used to show the stress level of dairy cattle. THI
less than or equal to 74 is normal, THI 75–78 is alert, THI 79–83 is danger, and THI
value 84 and above is an emergency condition (Eigenberg et al. 2007). Cross
ventilation helps to maintain proper THI of the animal in their shed. Cross ventila-
tion removes excess heat, reduces excess perspiration of the animal due to extreme
temperature rise, and removes microbes, dust, and gases with standard air circula-
tion. Skuce et al. (2013) found that the influence of changing climate on livestock
farming will be crucial, both directly via impact on animals generally and indirectly
by increasing exposure to pests and pathogens. Cross ventilation in livestock
housing (Fig. 10.8) plays an important role in keeping the animal environment
comfortable. During hot weather, high air exchange levels are required to help
extract heat from the cattle’s body.

10.4.3 Adaptation Strategies Followed in Fisheries

10.4.3.1 Practicing Brackish Aquaculture

Throughout the year, farmers’ lands near the brackish water river or seashore remain
extremely saline and are not ideal for crop cultivation. There is the presence of
clayey soil and a good supply of tidal water which is suitable for coastal aquaculture
producing finfish and shellfish. Several farmers perform brackish water fishing with
tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) along with brackish fishes like mullets, Liza tade
(local name: golbhangon/bhangon) and Mugil cephalus (local name: aansbhangon),
in an area of approximately 0.13–0.4 ha. Farmers shift from freshwater aquaculture
to brackish water aquaculture because of saline water inundation which results in
infringement of fish deposits and mass mortality, escape of existing fish stocks and
278 S. Dutta et al.

fish diseases, the introduction of unwanted species, disruption of growth, and

degradation of water quality resulting in harm to the ecosystem of the ponds
(Chand et al. 2012a). Changes in monsoonal rain patterns (Goswami et al. 2006)
and occurrences of extreme climatic events like flood and storminess, in general,
forced the farmers to adapt brackish aquaculture.

10.4.3.2 Cultivation of Stress-Tolerant Monosex Tilapia

The area is prone to regular cyclones and storms, making it susceptible to brackish
water entering from the nearby river through rupturing the embankment. It triggers
mass mortality of current freshwater fish, such as snakehead fish, catfish, carps, and
other native species of fish. However, the fish tilapia (Tilapia nilotica), with its vast
range of salinity tolerance, is found to be uninfluenced by the sudden change in their
environment. The fish (Fig. 10.9) is quite hardy and omnivorous in nature and
therefore can tolerate fluctuations in water temperature. Farmers have found that
tilapia has a good consumer preference as well as is popular with the local farming
community. However, owing to its high prolific breeding habit, it is quite easy for
the fish to overcrowd the pond, thereby reducing the growth of all the fish present
resulting in lowering the production of fish. Studies reported that the production of
tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) all-male populations is important in aquaculture to prevent
energy consumption in reproduction and for the production of sex with higher
growth potential (Macintosh and Little 1995; Green et al. 1997; Dan and Little
2000; Sayed et al. 2016).

10.4.3.3 Practicing Composite Fish Culture

Composite fish culture is a mixed culture of a group of compatible, mutually
complementary and supplementary freshwater species of fast-growing food fish,
collectively grown in ponds across a duration of time. Under this polyculture system,
almost all the available ecological niches in the pond ecosystem have been

Fig. 10.9 Cultivation of stress-tolerant monosex tilapia

10 Farmers-Led Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change for Sustaining Coastal. . . 279

Table 10.1 Different species with its feeding habit and zone
Species Feeding habit Feeding zone
Indian major carp
Catla Zoo plankton feeder Surface feeder
Rohu Omnivorous Column feeder
Mrigal Detritivorous Bottom feeder
Exotic carps
Silver carp Phytoplankton feeder Surface feeder
Grass carp Herbivorous Surface, column, and marginal areas
Common carp Detritivorous/omnivorous Bottom feeder

efficaciously exploited by cultivating compatible fish species of distinct feed habits.

The practice made use of Indian and exotic carps such as catla (Catla catla), rohu
(Labeo rohita), mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys
molitrix), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), and common carp (Cyprinus
carpio), which graze from distinct zones of the pond. Table 10.1 shows different
species with its feeding habit and zone.
These six species of Indian and exotic origin were cultivated under a management
system involving the preparation of ponds, elimination of unwanted stocks, fertili-
zation, manuring, feeding of these fish through supplementary feeding, and manipu-
lation of stock through periodic harvesting and stocking. Thus, fish species were not
competitors to each other for food and space. The foods of the different layers in
pond water are fully utilized by the carps in the composite fish culture or mixed
culture. Induced breeding can also be done in the exotic carps and they are fast-
growing, and the total production of fishes is very high and the cost of production is
less. According to FAO (2009), planktonophagous and herbivorous fish culture,
which feeds at a lower level of the food chain and others such as seaweed and
shellfish, could contribute to carbon sequestration and thus mitigate the impact of
climate change.

10.5 Conclusion

This chapter focuses on farmers-led adaptation strategies to climate change in the

Indian Sundarbans region. This chapter concluded that farmers of Indian Sundarbans
have experienced heavy rainfall within the short span of time; unpredictable tropical
cyclone and tropical storm create waterlogging condition during monsoon months;
and the destruction of soil and water quality is due to saltwater inundation or
presence of brackish groundwater level at shallow depth and shortage of irrigation
water throughout the dry season. Livestock of this region suffered from high-level
thermal humid combination due to increasing temperature as well as humidity. An
increase in sea surface temperature in the Sundarbans region affects fish stocks.
Hence, the farming community in Indian Sundarbans adopted different adaptation
strategies, viz. land shaping to harvest and retain rainwater for future use, shifting
280 S. Dutta et al.

from mono-cropping to multi-cropping system, cultivating crops on the land

embankment (ail), shifting from large ruminants to small ruminants, rearing stress-
tolerant animals like Garole sheep, housing with cross ventilation for keeping
livestock, providing clean and fresh drinking water regularly to diminish heat stress,
practicing brackish aquaculture and composite fish culture, and cultivating
stress-tolerant fish like tilapia, thereby practicing integrated farming system to
cope up with the negative impact of changing climate.
The scientific basis of all these adaptation strategies was spotted and assembled in
this chapter. The reinvention of these adaptation strategies was also observed
according to the local situation. In this chapter, it was found that farmers of the
Indian Sundarbans were highly experienced toward climatic disasters and followed
adaptation strategies to cope up with it. Mixed farming comprised of crop, livestock,
and fish component is the predominant farming system practiced by the farmers of
Indian Sundarbans.
To combat with changing climatic scenario, the small and marginal farmers of
Indian Sundarbans had adopted the integrated farming system in which by-product
of one system is used as an input for another system. It is a farming system with
synchronous activities including both crops and animals. The main aim of integrated
farming is that the farming components support one another, thereby reducing the
external inputs (Sharmin et al. 2018). This practice reduces stress due to biotic and
abiotic factors. Seo (2010) suggests that integrated farming practices are more
resilient against climate change. The farming community emphasizes the judicious
use of available resources with an appropriate combination of enterprises available
with farmers as the main adopting strategies to sustain their livelihood and as a
barrier against changing climate. This aimed at effective sustainable management of
resources for improved production in the crop system, livestock rearing, and fishing
distributed spatially and temporarily around the same unit of land for the best use of
available resources (Ravishankar et al. 2007). This is the only need of the hour to
cope with the catastrophic consequences of climate change and guarantee their
family’s sustained income throughout the year. Thus, the promotion of the IFS
model should be encouraged to increase the adaptive capacity of the farmers. To
mitigate with the climate change impact like a saltwater intrusion, etc., for longer
term, promotion of all the discussed adaptation strategies should be done, so that the
rate of adoption of all the adaptation strategies increased.
For agriculture, several policy-based choices for adaptation to climate change
have been established (Agrawal 2008). It is increasingly recognized that efforts to
improve the resilience of agricultural systems need to understand and draw on local
coping strategies (Eriksen et al. 2005). Studies have highlighted that the robust
adaptive capacity shown by farmers in relation to climate and other stresses is
their sophisticated strategies to cope with stress (Newsham and Thomas 2011).
The integrated farming system is useful as it has the potential to combat against
changing climate in a very cost-effective, participatory, and sustainable manner. All
the agricultural adaptation measures should be integrated so that it addresses
non-climatic stresses and risks and enhance a great chance of effectiveness. The
IFS model utilizes the by-products of one component of the farming system as an
10 Farmers-Led Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change for Sustaining Coastal. . . 281

input in other for ensuring supplementary and complementary enterprise relation-

ship, hence maximizing return from a unit area. Policymakers should recommend a
model of IFS that includes most of the abovementioned adaptation strategies. This
chapter, therefore, concludes that to combat changing climatic conditions, the
farming community needs to adopt an integrated farming system in which
by-product of one system is used as an input for another system. Thus, the promotion
of integrated farming system (IFS) model should be encouraged to increase the
adaptive capacity of the farmers of the Indian Sundarbans region to cope up with the
changing climatic scenario.

10.6 Policy Recommendations

• Through the adoption of an integrated farming system (IFS), the major issues of
climate change that induced constraints to farming (such as fluctuating water
supplies, deteriorating soil quality, vagaries in farm income, etc.) can be
addressed successfully. Thus, the promotion of the IFS model should be
encouraged to increase the adaptive capacity of the farmers.
• The farming community of the Indian Sundarbans is recognizing indigenous
livestock breed, viz. Garole sheep and Black Bengal Goat, than the cross-bred.
Indian Sundarbans is also the breeding track of these breeds. Therefore, livestock
development department may promote this tendency to popularize climate-
resilient livestock farming in the climate-sensitive Indian Sundarbans region.

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Using Beneficial Microorganisms
to Promote Sustainable Crop Production 11
and Resilience of Smallholder
Agroecosystems to Changing Climate

Ezekiel Mugendi Njeru and Gilbert Koskey

Abstract

Agriculture today faces a unique challenge of producing sufficient and nutritious

food for the rising human population under finite natural resources, shrinking
economies, and changing climate. Soil fertility is pertinent to sustainable agricul-
tural production and mitigating the consequences of climate change drivers to
crops. To promote healthy crop production practices, the search for alternative
soil amelioration and plant disease management strategies is on the rise. Among
the most feasible alternatives are beneficial soil microorganisms, which are
central to many agroecological cycles and improvement of crop nutrient and
water uptake and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Since the majority of
smallholder farmers in many parts of the world cannot afford inorganic fertilizers,
there is a pressing need to develop sustainable and affordable soil fertility
management strategies that focus on low-input cropping systems which is crucial
for attaining agricultural sustainability and global food security. Therefore, this
review explores the potential of beneficial microorganisms to promote sustainable
crop production and resilience of smallholder agroecosystems to global climate
change drivers.

Keywords

Beneficial microorganisms · Climate change · Food security · Microbial

inoculants · Smallholder farmers

E. M. Njeru (*)
Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology, Kenyatta University, Nairobi,
Kenya
e-mail: njeru.ezekiel@ku.ac.ke
G. Koskey
Institute of Life Sciences, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Piazza Martiri della Libertà, Pisa, PI, Italy

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 287
Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_11
288 E. M. Njeru and G. Koskey

11.1 Introduction

Meeting the increasing food demands of the rapidly growing population in the face
of limited resources and changing climate presents an enormous challenge to several
developing nations. Per capita agricultural production and food availability have
decreased over time (Funk and Brown 2009), and many people, especially within the
developing world, are in danger of widespread food insecurity. Smallholder farmers
predominate in an environment of dwindling natural resources, especially arable
land, rising population, changing climate, and environmental pollution (Aniah et al.
2019). Low soil fertility presents one among the main challenges to sustainable crop
production since most smallholders cannot afford to invest in high-cost chemical
fertilizers (Clair and Lynch 2010). Given that the majority of the populace in
developing nations depends on smallholder agriculture, there is a pressing need to
understand how soil fertility can be sustainably improved on a small scale and
contribute to achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
(UN SDG). This includes a strategic combination of the various alternative soil
organic amendments and beneficial microorganisms with specifically adapted crop
varieties under diverse agroclimatic conditions. Resource-saving strategies and land-
use intensification require the development of more viable plant nutrition strategies
in crop production as alternatives to the prevailing use of nonrenewable mineral
fertilizers.
Beneficial soil biota provides essential agroecosystem services, especially in
low-input agroecosystems, where the use of external inputs is usually limited.
These include improving the nutritional status of their host plants and protecting
them from deleterious effects of drought, high temperature, soilborne plant
pathogens, and heavy metals (Goswami and Deka 2020; Jacoby et al. 2017).
Beneficial microorganisms that support plant growth and development include
plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), symbiotic fungi such as arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), Trichoderma spp., and endophytic microorganisms.
These promote plant growth and impart plant resilience to global climate change
through a plethora of mechanisms including enhancing nutritional and water uptake,
rhizoremediation, production of phytohormones, siderophores, secondary growth
metabolites, and suppression of pathogenic microorganisms (Fig. 11.1).

11.2 Characteristics of Smallholder Agroecosystems,

Opportunities, and Challenges

Agricultural ecosystems in the sub-Saharan African region are inherently diverse,

indigenous, and resilient multifunctional complex systems that are sustainably
managed to meet the farmers’ subsistence needs (Mburu et al. 2016). They thrive
without relying much on chemical fertilizers, mechanization, or other sophisticated
modern technologies (Awazi and Tchamba 2019). The smallholder systems are the
key drivers of the rural economies. Agroecologists acknowledge that they can
provide resilient solutions to food security amidst several uncertainties challenging
 11
Using Beneficial Microorganisms to Promote Sustainable Crop Production and. . .

Fig. 11.1 Different ways of plant growth promotion by beneficial microorganisms under changing climate. BRM beneficial rhizospheric microorganisms;
289

PGPR plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria; PGPF plant growth-promoting fungi

290 E. M. Njeru and G. Koskey

human existence such as climate change and economic and energy crisis (Altieri
et al. 2012). Despite the characteristically highly fragmented small pieces of land,
farmers engage not only in producing food (crops, animals, and their derived
products) but also producing fiber-based products (cotton, sisal, and silk), fuel
(wood and related biomass), and biochemicals (natural medicinal products). The
dominantly practiced farming systems include crop rotation, intercropping, and
agroforestry, which are often associated with conferring beneficial effects on the
soil by stimulating soil microbiota such as AMF and PGPRs (Raimi et al. 2017).
Smallholder farming systems have a high degree of plant and animal species
diversity, which is a good strategy in promoting diet diversity and reducing
unpredicted risk losses while maximizing farm returns. Such traditional ecosystems
that are rich in wild populations of landraces well adapted to the local conditions
could harbor a wide variety of pollinators, insect predators, beneficial microbes, and
nutrient-enriching plants (Oruru et al. 2018).
Genetic diversity richness could be exploited by the breeders to heighten the
stability of the local cropping systems against biotic and abiotic stresses and to
promote genetic variations arising from the crossing of traditional landraces with the
high-yielding modern cultivars (Govindaraj et al. 2015). Farmers are the key
decision-makers supporting their agroecosystems through water and soil conserva-
tion, on-farm biodiversity, landscape aesthetic management, and engaging in
off-farm activities that bring social cohesion and cultural exchange among different
communities with diversified farming experiences. However, farmers’ management
decisions are highly limited and predetermined by a plethora of external factors such
as resource availability, market access, knowledge and exposure, social and cultural
needs, and environmental conditions (Mungai et al. 2016). The mismatch between
farm size and the availability, access or economies of scale of machines remains a
challenge that impedes the utilization of appropriate mechanization in smallholder
farms. Besides, farmers mostly own or co-own separate and dispersed agricultural
fields in areas that may not be easily accessible, and this leapfrogs any technocratic
attempts to revolutionize and modernize agriculture in such setups (Van Loon et al.
2020). Farmer’s knowledge capacity and educational needs still undermine the
scaling up of innovations and the introduction of any new technology to such a
constricted type of farming system which calls for farmers’ active participation and
approval (Muoni et al. 2019). It is, therefore, imperative to involve farmers in any
technological importation if substantial positive changes are to be achieved in
smallholder farming systems.

11.3 Microbial Inoculants in Delivery of Multiple

Agroecosystem Services

The application of microbial inoculants selected based on functional trait approach

and that are adapted to the highly intensified smallholder agroecosystems is highly
advocated in agroecology. Besides, the adoption of diversified farm management
practices that complement microbial inoculation could optimize the provision and
11 Using Beneficial Microorganisms to Promote Sustainable Crop Production and. . . 291

delivery of the essential agroecosystem services. For instance, the cultivation of

legumes as relay intercrops with cereals and the inclusion of rhizobia inoculation
enhance N acquisition through BNF and N transfer to non-legumes. Other microbial-
derived agroecosystem services important in smallholder farming systems include
P and K acquisition, secretion of stimulatory phytohormones, and siderophores that
help in phytopathogen control, biotic and abiotic stress management.

11.3.1 Biological Nitrogen Fixation

Nitrogen (N) is one of the essential nutritional components of plants that makes up a
large portion of plant proteins and nucleic acids regulating the primary productivity
of the soil ecosystem (Ahemad and Kibret 2014). Naturally, N exists in various
chemical forms and oxidation states, and microorganisms play a key role in
catalyzing the different N transformations into forms readily utilizable by plants
(Pajares and Bohannan 2016). Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is a
microbiologically driven process where microorganisms transform atmospheric
nitrogen into forms that can be assimilated by the plants. The mechanism of BNF
is a complex process that is majorly catalyzed by the nitrogenase enzyme complex
and regulated by the nif genes produced by diazotrophic N-fixing microorganisms
(Wang et al. 2013; Choudhary and Varma 2017).
Major groups of diazotrophs known for N-fixing abilities are the Cyanobacteria,
green sulfur bacteria, Azorhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Rhizobium, Azospirillum,
Thiobacillus, Herbaspirillum, Bradyrhizobium, Frankia sp., and Clostridium
pasteurianum (Yeager et al. 2005; Mus et al. 2018). Legumes are the biggest
beneficiaries of the BNF process as they are able to form a symbiotic association
with most of the diazotrophs to meet their N demands. However, the efficiency of the
symbiotic partnership in delivering the much-needed N to the plants varies highly
and depends on the host genotype, soil conditions, microbial strain, and climatic
conditions (Maingi et al. 2001; Mabrouk et al. 2018). In smallholder farming
systems, the legume cultivation substantially reduces the overall amount of external
N inputs required to sustain the present and subsequent crop production (Nyoki and
Ndakidemi 2018). This could be ameliorated further by inoculating legumes with
effective N-fixing microorganisms.
Inoculating legumes using a combination of rhizospheric nitrogen-fixing bacterial
strains improves soil health, quality, and fertility. It enhances plant-microbe
interactions through improved root exudation and signaling leading to better root
development, nodulation, phytopathogen suppression, and water and nutrient acqui-
sition (Ouma et al. 2016; Koskey et al. 2017; Mabrouk et al. 2018). Various
stakeholders have initiated research-based projects aimed at empowering farmers
with technologies that would contribute to improvement in their household income
through the introduction of N-fixing inoculants that are effective in soil fertility
restoration and crop productivity. N2Africa has actively researched on African
indigenous rhizobia strains associated with chickpea, soybean, faba bean, common
bean, and groundnut legumes since 2009 in more than ten sub-Saharan African
292 E. M. Njeru and G. Koskey

(SSA) countries (Giller et al. 2019). The Microbial Resources Centre Network
(MIRCEN), in collaboration with the University of Nairobi in Kenya and other
commercial private stakeholders, developed rhizobia inoculants known as Biofix®
that is more cost-effective compared to chemical N fertilizers available in the
Kenyan market (Odame 1997). In Nigeria, the International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture (IITA) introduced promiscuous soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill)
cultivars that nodulate with a wide diversity of the African Bradyrhizobium bacteria
(Santos et al. 2019). Other recent researches on N-fixing rhizobia have been carried
out across the SSA, and more effective indigenous rhizobia inoculants that could be
used by farmers as single or a consortium of different strains are available (Koskey
et al. 2018; Grönemeyer and Reinhold-Hurek 2018; Musyoka et al. 2020). However,
large-scale production, commercialization, continuous adoption, and accessibility
remain the most prominent challenges impeding the use of these elite inoculants by
the SSA smallholder farmers (Oruru and Njeru 2016).

11.3.2 Phosphate Solubilization

Phosphorus (P) in the soil exists largely in the form of insoluble compounded
deposits. It is one of the main essential macronutrients required by plants for growth
and development (Walpola and Yoon 2012). Despite the presence of substantial P
deposits in the soil layers, P content available for plant use in many smallholder
farms is critically limited. Essential plant physiological, molecular, and biochemical
processes such as metabolism, signal transduction, genetic, structural formations,
energy storage and transfer, cell and tissue formation require the presence of the P
element for optimal functioning (Dissanayaka et al. 2018). The uptake of P from the
soil by plants is mainly in the form of orthophosphate anions, which are formed
through a bacteria-mediated mechanism of acidic solubilization of inorganic
phosphates (Lobo et al. 2019). Alternatively, P mobilization occurs via organic
phosphate mineralization, a process carried out by soil bacteria capable of producing
phosphatase enzymes such as phosphoesterases, phytases, phosphodiesterases, and
phospholipases that catalyze the breakdown of phosphoric esters (Walpola and Yoon
2012; Novo et al. 2018).
Smallholder farmers often rely on phosphatic chemical fertilizers, which are
expensive and unavailable and prone to precipitation by metal-cation complexes
such as Ca2+, Al3+, and Fe3+ found in the soil leading to soil fertility depletion
(Dissanayaka et al. 2018). Thus, there is a need for low-priced sustainable techniques
that are environmentally friendly and efficient enough to supply adequate P to the
plants. Microorganisms such as phosphate-solubilizing microbes (PSMs) form an
integral part of the natural P cycle. Research on PGPR and plant growth-promoting
fungi (PGPF) with the capability to solubilize and mobilize the insoluble organic and
inorganic soil phosphates from the soil rocks to the plants has been done (Sharma
et al. 2013; Alori et al. 2017; Selvi et al. 2017; Giovannini et al. 2020). This has led
to the upsurge development of various commercial microbial inoculants containing
11 Using Beneficial Microorganisms to Promote Sustainable Crop Production and. . . 293

effective PGPRs and PGPFs for use by smallholder farmers to increase their crop
production (Tabassum et al. 2017).
The potential PSMs from the bacteria genera include Pseudomonas putida,
Pseudomonas calcis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas striata (Mohammadi
2012; Thakur et al. 2014), Pseudomonas canescens (Alam and Rashid 2002),
Rhizobium leguminosarum (Walpola and Yoon 2012; Hajjam and Cherkaoui
2017), Rhizobium meliloti, Thiobacillus ferrooxidans (Sharma et al. 2013),
Mesorhizobium mediterraneum (Peix et al. 2001), Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus
polymyxa, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus circulans, Bacillus fusiformis, Bacillus
coagulans, and Bacillus chitinolyticus (Chen et al. 2006; Thakur et al. 2014;
Satyaprakash et al. 2017). The members from the fungal genera include Aspergillus
niger, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergil-
lus candidus, Penicillium simplicissimum, Penicillium rubrum, nematophagous
fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora, Trichoderma viride, and Trichoderma spp.
(Reddy et al. 2002; Aseri and Jain 2009; Selvi et al. 2017). Other important
microorganisms include arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Giovannini et al. 2020) and
actinomycetes such as Streptomyces albus, Streptomyces cyaneus, and
Streptoverticillium album (Kumar et al. 2018). Mixed cultures of bio-inoculants
and multiple crop-stage inoculations are known to increase the potential effective-
ness of PSMs in enhancing plant growth, shoot development, and yield productivity
(Muthukumar and Udaiyan 2018).
AMF have a greater inter- and intraspecific biodiversity due to its ability to
colonize the roots of 80–90% of plants (Oruru and Njeru 2016). They thus can be
fully exploited as a resource in smallholder farming systems by selecting AMF
isolates, species, and strains with the highest colonization efficiency, P solubiliza-
tion, and siderophore production, among other indirect beneficial traits (Giovannini
et al. 2020). Many studies have reported significant contributions of AMF
bio-enhancers based on their use either as individual or a consortium of AMF
inoculants in improving the yield productivity and nutrient quality of cereals,
legumes, vegetables, fruits, and agroforestry trees (Njeru et al. 2017; Avio et al.
2018; Musyoka et al. 2020). Among the AMF communities, the most commonly
available commercial inoculants are derived from the species Funneliformis mosseae
and Rhizophagus irregularis. These AMF species coincidentally are broad
symbionts widely spread throughout the sub-Saharan African soils and other tropical
zones of the world predominated by smallholder farmers (Oruru and Njeru 2016;
Giovannini et al. 2020).

11.3.3 Potassium (K)-Solubilizing Microorganism (KSMs)

Potassium (K) is available in the soil in various forms such as exchangeable and
non-exchangeable K, mineral, and soluble K. However, depending on the soil type,
most of the K+ ions are bounded and are unavailable for direct uptake by the plants
(Etesami et al. 2017). Apart from growth and developmental roles, K promotes plant
resistance against pest and disease and takes part in the activation of over
294 E. M. Njeru and G. Koskey

80 physiological processes, including starch synthesis, energy metabolism, sugar

degradation, photosynthesis, and nitrate reduction (Gallegos-Cedillo et al. 2016;
Hussain et al. 2016). A group of microorganisms, K-solubilizing bacteria (KSBs),
have the potential to solubilize the fixed forms of K through various mechanisms
such as acidolysis, complexolysis, chelation, exchange reactions, and production of
low-molecular-weight organic and inorganic acids (Meena et al. 2014; Etesami et al.
2017). Inoculation of KSBs on to K-deficient soil has been shown to boost seed
germination, growth vigor, and yield effect of various crops (Bakhshandeh et al.
2017; Meena et al. 2014; Xiao et al. 2017). Some of the potential KSBs reported
solubilizing K include Enterobacter hormaechei, Burkholderia sp., Aminobacter
sp., Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, Pseudomonas sp., Bacillus circulans, Bacillus
mucilaginosus, and Paenibacillus glucanolyticus (Singh et al. 2010; Sangeeth et al.
2012; Liu et al. 2012).
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have also been reported to indirectly play a
key role in K solubilization by releasing H+ protons and organic acid anions that
increased K absorption and accumulation on the plant shoot and fruits (Dominguez-
Nuñez et al. 2016). In maize (Zea mays L.), Glomus mosseae and Rhizophagus
intraradices inoculation increased K uptake significantly compared to
non-inoculated plants (Wu et al. 2005). Other fungi with K solubilization traits
include Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, and Penicillium sp. (Sangeeth et al.
2012). In addition to K solubilization, they play a key role also in the secretion of
low-molecular-weight organic acids that dissolves other nutrients bounded to the soil
cations such as phosphates (Meena et al. 2014). The application of microbial K
solubilization in smallholder settings should, however, be taken keenly as the
process is profoundly affected by soil factors such as pH, clay percentage, oxygen
concentration, the type of K-bearing minerals, and the microbial strains used (Sheng
2005; Etesami et al. 2017). Optimal conditions for KSB should be determined before
inoculation for farmers to achieve good yields.

11.3.4 Siderophore Production

Siderophores are relatively low-molecular-weight complexes, iron-specific chelating

molecules whose presence is highly dependent on the amount of iron
(Fe) concentration in the soil (Mohammadi 2012). Siderophores are produced by
specific strategy II plants and soil microorganisms, which play a key role in
transporting iron molecules (Novo et al. 2018). Rhizospheric iron deficiency in
smallholder production systems presents a great challenge, especially in parts of
SSA with the calcareous type of soils. Its limitation causes leaf chlorosis, reduced
photosynthesis, and stunted plant growth leading to reduced crop yields (Lewis et al.
2019). In most of the cases, under aerobic soil conditions, iron is compounded in the
form of Fe3+ ions and oxy-hydroxides, making them unavailable for plants and
microbes that readily utilize the Fe2+ forms (Pahari and Mishra 2017). Iron starvation
in the soil triggers a specific group of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and algae to
synthesize and secrete ferric ion-specific chelating biomolecules. The secreted
11 Using Beneficial Microorganisms to Promote Sustainable Crop Production and. . . 295

biomolecules not only improve the colonization of the microbes on the plant
rhizosphere but also stimulate antagonistic reactions against phytopathogens and
the acquisition of iron nutrients by the plant (Novo et al. 2018). Siderophores such as
salicylate, hydroxamate, carboxylate, and catecholate are produced by bacteria,
including Salmonella sp., Vibrio anguillarum, Aerobacter aerogenes, Yersinia sp.,
Aeromonas sp., Enterobacter sp., and Escherichia coli. Fungal species with
siderophore-producing traits include Penicillium citrinum, Penicillium
chrysogenum, Ustilago sphaerogina, Ustilago maydis, Rhizopus sp., Rhodotorula
minuta, Mucor sp., Trametes versicolor, Aspergillus versicolor, Aspergillus
fumigatus, and Aspergillus nidulans, while actinomycetes include Streptomyces
griseus, Nocardia asteroides, and Actinomadura madurae (Ahmed and Holmström
2014; Kannahi and Senbagam 2014). Precaution has to be taken while selecting
siderophore-based microbial inoculants as some of the human pathogenic microbes
have this capacity, which may lead to hazardous effects.

11.3.5 Microbial Secretion of Stimulatory Phytohormones

Crops are constantly exposed to environmental stresses such as salinity, drought,

heavy metal contamination, floods, extreme temperature, and radiations that are
detrimental to their growth, development, and productivity (Goswami and Deka
2020). Biotic stress caused by pathogenic soil microorganisms, toxic root exudates
secreted by higher plants, and toxins released from animals will reduce plant
productivity (Gouda et al. 2018). Smallholder farming systems, often faced with a
wide range of challenges which include but not limited to financial constraints, are
highly exposed to the adverse effects brought by these abiotic and biotic stresses.
Thus, there is a need for self-sustaining exogenous biochemical techniques that not
only mitigate stress responses but also regulate plant hormonal and nutritional
balance and induce systemic tolerance (Egamberdieva et al. 2017). Soil harbors a
diverse pool of beneficial hormone-producing microorganisms that colonizes the
plant roots where signaling and exchange of nutrients occur. Microorganisms in the
nutrient-rich rhizosphere synthesize active biomolecules such as auxins,
gibberellins, cytokinin, abscisic acid, antifungal compounds, degrading enzymes,
and other beneficial solute metabolites that promotes plant growth, nutrition, stress
tolerance, and resistance (Ahemad and Kibret 2014).
Many free-living, endophytic, and symbiotic root-associated microorganisms
have been identified or engineered to produce phytohormones that alleviate plants
against specific stresses. For instance, Acinetobacter, Marinobacterium, Pseudomo-
nas, Bacillus, Sinorhizobium, Pantoea, and Rhizobium isolated from halophytic
weed Psoralea corylifolia L. were shown to produce IAA (indoleacetic acid) auxins
that enhanced wheat seed germination (Sorty et al. 2016). A review by Gouda et al.
(2018) noted that Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas putida,
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Mesorhizobium cicero, Azotobacter chroococcum,
Klebsiella oxytoca, Enterobacter asburiae, and Rhizobium leguminosarum secrete
gibberellin, kinetin, auxin, and ethylene phytohormones linked to plant root
296 E. M. Njeru and G. Koskey

invigoration. Likewise, phytohormones promoting shoot invigoration have been

associated with PGPRs, including Pantoea agglomerans, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudo-
monas fluorescens, Rhizobium leguminosarum, Paenibacillus polymyxa, and
Rhodospirillum rubrum (Prathap and Ranjitha 2015). Actinomycetes and fungi
such as Streptomyces, Nocardia, Spirillospora, Micromonospora, Microbispora,
Nocardiopsis, and Aspergillus have been isolated in mandarin and other medicinal
plants and produce IAA phytohormones (Ruanpanun et al. 2010; Shutsrirung et al.
2013; Lin and Xu 2013). The introduction of microbial inoculants with the capability
to regulate plant hormone production could be a critical step to revolutionize
smallholder crop production systems and improve crop qualities. However, caution
has to be taken when applying the phytohormone-inducing microbes as studies have
shown that the biosynthesis of phytohormones differs depending on the microbial
strain, environmental stress levels, and host genotype (Egamberdieva et al. 2017).

11.3.6 Use of Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPRs)

in Stress Management

The most common stressful conditions affecting crops include drought (water
stress), heat, salinity, floods, and metal toxicity (Egamberdieva et al. 2017). Under
stress conditions, plants increase the production of reactive oxygen (ROs) species
and OH radicals causing an oxidative stress condition that damages membrane
lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and photosynthetic pigments, leading to a progressive
plant physiological system shutdown (Foyer et al. 2016). Beneficial microorganisms
play an active role in stress management against biotic and abiotic agents to induce
stress tolerance or resistance (Table 11.1). Extreme temperature, drought, floods,
salinity, and wind can result in up to 70% yield losses and, therefore, could threaten
smallholder farmers’ food security status. Tolerance to these stresses could be
induced by exogenous application of PGPRs that stimulates the accumulation of
osmolytes critical in maintaining the plant cellular integrity such as proline, treha-
lose, glycine betaine, enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants, abscisic acid,
superoxide dismutase, glutathione, ascorbate peroxidase, and ascorbic acid (Agami
et al. 2016; Gouda et al. 2018).
Heavy metal pollution is a common phenomenon in agricultural fields located
close to the mining zones. In phytoremediation studies by Baharlouei et al. (2011) on
canola and barley plants and Dourado et al. (2013) on tomatoes, it was reported that
Cadmium (Cd) soil contamination can be alleviated by PGPRs such as Pseudomonas
fluorescens, Pseudomonas putida, and Burkholderia sp. SCMS54 due to their ability
to scavenge and translocate Cd2+ from the soil. Islam et al. (2016) similarly showed
that chromium (Cr) toxicity that could significantly affect maize production could be
stabilized using PGPR Proteus mirabilis isolates T2Cr and CrP450. There has also
been a strong link reported between the presence of PGPRs and drought tolerance
(Ngumbi and Kloepper 2016), PGPRs, and salinity stress (Cardinale et al. 2015;
Habib et al. 2016). Some of the actively used PGPRs against salinity stress in wheat,
maize, and barley include Ensifer garamanticus E110, Curtobacterium
11 Using Beneficial Microorganisms to Promote Sustainable Crop Production and. . . 297

Table 11.1 Overview of ways through which beneficial microorganisms promote plant growth of
various plants under stress conditions
Microorganisms Plant Stress type Plant changes Reference
Bacillus Spartina Heavy Reduced Mesa-
methylotrophicus maritima metal respiration of the Marín
SMT38, Bacillus pollution roots and oxidative et al.
aryabhattai SMT48, stress (2018)
Bacillus aryabhattai
SMT50, and Bacillus
licheniformis SMT51
Bacillus cereus and Wheat Heavy Decreased Hassan
Pseudomonas metal biological et al.
moraviensis pollution accumulation (2017)
coefficient and
translocation factor
Funneliformis mosseae Sunflower Heavy Reduced heavy Zhang
(Fm) and F. caledonium (Helianthus metal metal concentration et al.
annuus L.) pollution in the shoots (2018)
Mixed culture of AMF Maize (Zea High Regulation of Mathur
was used which mainly mays L.) temperature photosystem II and Jajoo
comprised of heterogeneity (2020)
Funneliformis species
Bacillus safensis and Wheat High Antioxidant Sarkar
Ochrobactrum (Triticum temperature signaling and et al.
pseudogrignonense aestivum L.) reducing (2018)
chloroplast and
membrane injury
Funneliformis mosseae Tomato Chilling Increasing the Caradonia
and Paraburkholderia (Solanum stress efficiency of et al.
graminis C4D1M lycopersicum photosystem II, (2019)
L.) reduced cell
membrane injuries
Funneliformis mosseae Tomato Water Enhanced water use Chitarra
and Rhizophagus (Solanum stress efficiency, net et al.
intraradices lycopersicum) photosynthetic rate (2016)
Bacillus megaterium and Okra Salinity Reactive oxygen Habib
Enterobacter sp. (Abelmoschus species scavenging et al.
esculentus L.) enzymes (2016)
Rhizophagus irregularis Durum wheat Salinity Greater stability of Fileccia
and Funneliformis (Triticum plasma membranes et al.
mosseae durum Desf.) (2017)
Pseudomonas Foxtail millet Drought Stimulated seed Niu et al.
fluorescens, (Setaria germination and (2018)
Enterobacter italica L.) seedling growth
hormaechei, and
pseudomonas migulae
Indigenous arbuscular Leymus Drought Altering Li et al.
mycorrhizal fungi chinensis and antioxidant enzyme (2019)
Hemarthria activities and
altissima photosynthesis
grasses
298 E. M. Njeru and G. Koskey

flaccumfaciens E108 (Cardinale et al. 2015), Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus

subtilis, Arthrobacter sp. (Upadhyay et al. 2012), Enterobacter sp. (Sorty et al.
2016), and Pseudomonas sp. (Mishra et al. 2017).

11.3.7 Biological Control

The use of microorganisms antagonistic to plant pathogens has revolutionized

modern agriculture and could be considered as a substitute for the
environment-insensitive chemical pesticides (Raimi et al. 2017). This remains one
of the innovative ways of the twenty-first century in which smallholder farmers can
sustainably control plant pathogens. For example, inoculation of crops with
formulations containing PGPRs that colonize the rhizosphere and act against
phytopathogens through competition for resources, niche exclusion, and induction
of plant systemic resistance has been demonstrated (Fukami et al. 2018). Among the
PGPRs, Bacillus sp. and Pseudomonas sp. are the most studied and mainly effective
biocontrol agents that have been commercially produced over the past decades. They
produce antagonistic secondary metabolites (antibiotics) that act against a wide
range of pathogens and, most importantly, the biomolecules which are biodegrad-
able, unlike the case of many agrochemicals (Wang et al. 2015).
Pseudomonas sp., for instance, produces antimycotics (pyrrolnitrin,
2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol, ecomycins B and C, oomycin A, visconamide, phena-
zine-1-carboxamide, phenazines, rhamnolipids, sulfonamides, pyocyanin, and
butyrolactones), antitumor agents such as cepafungins, and antiviral agents such as
Karalicine (Ramadan et al. 2016). Similarly, Bacillus sp. produces antimycotics and
active antibacterial molecules that are mainly derived from non-ribosomal and
ribosomal sources. These include subtilosin A, mycobacillin, difficidin, bacillaene,
chlorotetain, and rhizocticin, surfactin, bacillomycin, and iturin molecules (Wang
et al. 2015; Gouda et al. 2018). Trichoderma sp., a fungal biocontrol agent, has been
of great importance in the crop protection industry. Trichoderma viride and
Trichoderma harzianum species have been demonstrated to effectively control
Fusarium graminearum pathogen that causes Fusarium head blight in wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.) (Panwar et al. 2014). Spraying of non-aflatoxigenic Aspergil-
lus flavus on the reproductive structures of Zea mays L. cobs could reduce the levels
of aflatoxin contamination (Lyn et al. 2009). Entomopathogenic fungi, Beauveria
bassiana GHA, and Metarhizium brunneum strains have been effectively used to
control soybean aphids (Clifton et al. 2018). Despite the success, up to date, a broad-
spectrum biocontrol agent that is more efficient and persistent remains a challenge.
In addition, the efficacy of antifungal agents greatly varies and is determined mainly
by the moisture content, number of applications, and target stage of the pest.
Rhizobium etli, a nitrogen-fixing symbiotic bacteria, have been shown to have
antagonistic properties against soil nematodes by activating ethylene and jasmonic
acid biochemical pathways that induce resistance against root-knot nematode in
tomatoes (Martinuz et al. 2012). Enzyme-secreting bacteria that hydrolyze proteins,
cellulose, chitin, and hemicellulose of phytopathogens could be used as biocontrol
11 Using Beneficial Microorganisms to Promote Sustainable Crop Production and. . . 299

agents to suppress plant diseases. Bacteria bearing such important traits should be
able to colonize the target niche of the plant for an effective pathogen suppression to
be achieved. A lot of bacteria, including Lysobacter sp. and Myxobacteria sp.,
produce chitinases, glucanases, proteases, cellulases, and lytic enzymes that effec-
tively hydrolyze the fungal cell wall components. These bacteria can be utilized by
farmers to suppress the incidence of diseases caused by Rhizoctonia, Pythium, and
Sclerotium species (Saraf et al. 2014).

11.3.8 Microbial Inoculants, Yield Quality, and Human Health

In the developed world, microbes have been used extensively by farmers to boost
soil health, plant growth, and productivity and to strengthen the plant’s resilience
and adaptability to the constantly changing climatic conditions. Indeed, especially in
organic and low-input agricultural setups, microbial inoculants have positively
impacted on agriculture and well-being of the farmers (Alori and Babalola 2018).
The African continent is known for its biodiversity, and her soil harbors a wide range
of soil microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) that are beneficial. Proper utilization of
its rich biodiversity could revolutionize the deteriorating African agriculture, which
is mainly characterized by resource-constrained smallholder farming systems
(Grönemeyer and Reinhold-Hurek 2018).
Unlike in other regions with developing economies such as Asia, the issue of
adopting green energy sources to address low soil fertility, malnutrition, and food
insecurity remains underutilized in sub-Saharan Africa. Various initiatives, which
have been undertaken to address this challenge, including the establishment of
projects like N2Africa, AgBiome, and UNESCO-MIRCEN, among others, that
incorporate different groups of stakeholders. To ensure the success in adopting
technologies developed from soil microorganisms, participatory field-based
experiments for demonstrations should be conducted in strategic locations where
farmers can access as this will benefit and empower the local communities. In most
cases, experienced researchers, universities, funding agencies, private commercial
companies, and African farmers collectively steer the exploration, identification,
field testing, evaluation, and adoption of microbial inoculants and ensure their
sustainability for farmers’ use.
Previous studies have also shown that adaptation of the microbes to the local soil
and environmental conditions is a huge factor to consider when exploring beneficial
microbial inoculants because they are better adapted to the ecological conditions
(Ouma et al. 2016; Koskey et al. 2017). Grönemeyer and Reinhold-Hurek (2018)
reported a hidden high diversity of Bradyrhizobium species, with exceptionally heat-
tolerant traits, that form a symbiotic partnership with legume pulses such as soybean
(Glycine max L. Merrill), peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata
L.), and bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean L.) commonly grown by
smallholder farmers in SSA. These types of microbes can be utilized in most parts
of the SSA, where heat is the primary ecological stress for the crops. Modern
breeding methods have greatly affected scaling up food production in the SSA
300 E. M. Njeru and G. Koskey

Fig. 11.2 A smallholder farm in Embu County, Kenya, showing healthy and high-yielding
cowpea crop following inoculation with effective indigenous rhizobia isolates. Indigenous rhizobia
isolates are cheaper and more adapted to the local agroclimatic conditions and develop positive
microbial interactions with existing soil microflora compared to exotic commercial isolates

region. In Nigeria, the development and introduction of promiscuous soybeans, by

the IITA, that form symbiotic association with diverse Bradyrhizobium strains has
been an eye-opener to many smallholder farmers (Gabasawa 2020). In addition,
Oruru et al. (2018) have shown the benefits of using modern cowpea (Vigna
unguiculata L.) cultivars in Kenya in enhancing AMF root colonization, NPK
uptake, and growth compared to the wild-type cultivars (Fig. 11.2).
Other co-inoculation studies have also shown the importance of soil biodiversity
in managing the depleted soil nutrients. N’cho et al. (2013) demonstrated that
co-inoculation of Bradyrhizobium spp. (RACA6), Trichoderma harzianum
(Eco-T), and AMF (Rhizatech) with the commercial Agrolyser and Agroleaf foliar
fertilizers increased soybean nodulation, shoot P, and grain yields significantly.
Under intense water stress, Musyoka et al. (2020) demonstrated through a green-
house experiment that a consortium of AMF isolates Glomus etunicatum,
Rhizophagus irregularis, Glomus aggregatum, and Funneliformis mosseae could
increase green grams’ (Vigna radiata L. Wildzek) shoot and root biomass and P
uptake compared to the Bradyrhizobium inoculants and uninoculated controls.
However, some studies suggest that functional identity could be more important
under specific situations, mainly when using selective microbial inoculants that
colonize specific crop genotypes. For instance, a study by Njeru et al. (2017) clearly
demonstrated that functional identity of individual AMF isolates Funneliformis
mosseae IMA1 and Rhizoglomus intraradices IMA6 could play a more significant
11 Using Beneficial Microorganisms to Promote Sustainable Crop Production and. . . 301

role than their compounded diversity in enhancing AMF root colonization and fresh
weight of marketable tomato fruits in specific tomato genotypes.
It wasn’t until the mid-1990s that AMF was discovered to harbor
mycorrhizospheric helper (MH) endobacteria that synergistically interact with the
AMF and are reportedly known to associate with the spores, plant roots, and hyphae,
thus extending the hyphae-absorbing network (Bianciotto et al. 1996). The MH
bacteria are affiliated with Pseudomonales, Burkholderiales, Bacillales, Rhizobiales,
and Actinomycetales, which are known for their beneficial plant growth-promoting
traits. Further, these MH bacteria were discovered to take part in the establishment of
plant-AMF symbiosis and promote spore germination, hyphal growth, and root
colonization (Agnolucci et al. 2015; Giovannini et al. 2020). The multiple beneficial
traits of AMF and their associated endo-bacteria could be efficiently exploited in
smallholder food production through further research on the best effective
combinations that can work well in the context of ecological conditions of the
SSA. However, their cost of production has to be drastically reduced for the farmers
to access cheap, high-quality, and well-packaged microbial products for their
farm use.

11.4 Enhancing Healthy Plant-Microbe Interactions

in Smallholder Agroecosystems

To achieve a sustainable food production for the growing population, amid the rising
cases of climatic instability in SSA, more attention should be given to the
innovations that promote self-sustainability of the natural ecosystems and those
that advocate for agricultural biodiversity at genetic, species, and habitat manage-
ment levels (Costanzo and Bàrberi 2014). Soil fertility restoration through mycor-
rhiza, BNF, and PGPRs aided symbiosis processes that is a complex phenomenon
and does not always result in significant improvement in soil quality. This is true in
the context of SSA where the soils are exposed continuously to various mechanisms
that minimize the benefits that could be gained via the interactions (Raimi et al.
2017). Indigenous AMF, which are beneficial to plants and soil in increasing P
solubilization, nutrient availability, carbon sequestration, soil aggregation, and plant
stress resistance, do require appropriate agronomic management practices for their
maximum contribution to be realized (Giovannetti et al. 2004; Avio et al. 2006).
Some of the commonly used agricultural practices that support plant-soil-microbial
tripartite interactions include reduced physical soil disturbance (minimum or
no-tillage), continuous and rotational cropping, organic amendments, intercropping,
cover cropping, use of microbial inoculants, and balanced nutrient management
(Njeru 2013). The idea of promoting the presence of high microbial diversity in
agricultural soil is to ensure that critical soil functions are carried out by different
groups of soil microorganisms at a particular time when other redundant groups are
unable or unavailable due to the drastic change in climatic or physical conditions
(Mburu et al. 2016). In this way, a highly diverse microbial community offers the
much-needed insurance to the farmers that the soil processes that maintain and
302 E. M. Njeru and G. Koskey

support plant growth under changing environmental conditions are performed.

Long-term experiments on frequent tillage against minimum or no-tillage have
been carried out, and results indicated that reduced tillage leads to increased bacterial
and fungal biomass, which are the main drivers of natural ecosystems (Frey et al.
1999; Marzaioli et al. 2010). Intensive cultivation, which is often practiced by
smallholder farmers in the SSA region, has been shown to lead to soil organic matter
depletion progressively, higher CN ratio, reduced biodiversity, and microbial func-
tionality, which consequently lead to reduced crop performance (Ventorino et al.
2012).
Continuous cropping has been shown to add more organic carbon to the soil and
maintains obligate beneficial soil microorganisms such as AMF that would not
survive without a living host (Hontoria et al. 2019). Crop rotation, on the other
hand, has been studied, and results indicate that it plays a critical role in maintaining
higher biodiversity. However, it does not always hold that the higher the above-
ground plant diversity, the better the soil microbial diversity. It depends on other
factors like the plant genotype used during the rotation. The inclusion of legume
cover crops, cultivar mixtures, and other mycotrophic crops highly encourages the
colonization of symbiotic N-fixing bacteria and P-solubilizing AMF fungi (Njeru
et al. 2015; Lazzaro et al. 2018). Therefore, farmers should have some knowledge of
the crop types they choose to have a better structured and functional microbial
diversity that will aid crop production. The addition of organic amendments helps
to sustain high energy demanding soil processes like microbial degradation and
nutrient recycling, maintains nutrient and water retention, stabilizes soil structure,
and creates a favorable resource-rich microhabitat for plants and other microbial
dependents (García-Orenes et al. 2013; Nyamwange et al. 2018). None of the
opportunities, as mentioned above, would succeed without the farmers’ knowledge.
The local knowledge of the farmer is essential for the adoption of modern
innovations and agricultural practices. Therefore, unlocking the power of the
smallholder farmers’ understanding of modern agronomic management practices
that promote microbial functions, improves soil fertility and crop productivity and
could revolutionize the agricultural sector in many parts of the world.

11.5 Towards the Development of Effective Microbial Inocula

Microbial inoculants carrying beneficial microorganisms have been widely adopted

in organic and low-input agricultural systems because of their ability to deliver target
microorganisms into the root rhizosphere. For instance, after AMF inoculation,
AMF interacts with the plant host-symbiont and develops extra-radical mycelia
that colonizes the rhizosphere, solubilizes nutrients, and interacts with other
rhizospheric microorganisms and plants (Avio et al. 2006). Ideally, the generation
of microbial inoculants starts with the identification of microorganisms with the
target trait-effect, which are then grown as lab cultures, followed by lab or green-
house testing on target plants for their efficacy. The promising microbial candidates
11 Using Beneficial Microorganisms to Promote Sustainable Crop Production and. . . 303

are then tried under natural field conditions (Ouma et al. 2016). For effective
inoculation and plant growth to be achieved, several factors need to be considered,
including mode of delivery, colonization ability, and efficacy. Colonization ability
refers to the strength of the microorganism to rapidly and extensively colonize the
root and its surroundings. At the same time, efficacy is determined by the symbiotic
performance of the microbe on the plant host in enhancing plant growth, develop-
ment, and nutrition (Giovannini et al. 2020).
A right microbial culture for use in agricultural inoculation should depict a high
colonization ability and should compete with other existing native microbial
populations in the soil. There are external factors that could affect the colonization
ability of the inoculant, which include soil pH, salinity, and environmental
conditions such as water stress, heat, and radiations. Inoculants should, therefore,
be prepared from the native microbial strains that have adapted to the local climatic
and soil conditions over a long time. It is also vital for commercial companies to
prepare formulations with known shelf lives as this could critically determine the
number of viable microbial cells after inoculation. Some microbial products are
incompatible with other commonly used agricultural inputs, hence the need for
proper labeling and declaration by the manufacturers.
For maximum efficacy to be achieved, microorganisms must overcome the soil
barriers and competition from the resident microbiota and establish large, active, and
functional populations that would confer an observable effect on soil health and crop
productivity (Lewis et al. 2019). Thus, understanding the physiology and growth
requirements of a specific microbial inoculant strain is essential to enhance the
growth efficiency, functionality, and stability of the inoculant strain. Nowadays,
formulations are available either in liquid or solid form depending on the
manufacturer’s choice, market demands, and storage. Overcoming desiccation and
temperature stresses is mostly considered while choosing the type of microbial
formulations to be used in preparing inoculants targeting seed dressing.
Seed companies have introduced “custom inoculation” where seeds are
inoculated with specific microbial inoculant strains only on farmers’ demands after
sale and “pre-inoculation” where seeds are inoculated prior to sale (Deaker et al.
2012). These two approaches relieve the farmer from the hustle of inoculation of
seeds on-farm however; there is some extra cost that the farmer needs to incur.
Remarkably, the need to bioprospect for better and effective microbial inoculants has
led to the production of broad-spectrum combinations of elite strains unlike in the
past where first companies produced inoculants with only one or two specific
microbial strains (Santos et al. 2019). The idea is supported by targeting a combina-
tion of different strains that can carry out different microbial processes efficiently
and ultimately produce higher yields. Co-inoculation of seeds with BNF-associated
microbes (Rhizobium sp.), phytohormone producers (Pseudomonas sp.,
Azospirillum sp.), P solubilizers (Bacillus sp.), and biocontrol agents (Trichoderma
sp., Bacillus sp.) is commonly used by the SSA farmers (Trabelsi and Mhamdi
2013). With the increasing concerns about the changing climates evident by
prolonged droughts, frequent heat waves, flooding, and extreme temperatures, the
304 E. M. Njeru and G. Koskey

performance of the currently available microbial inoculants may not be guaranteed.

It is, therefore, mandatory to do further research on inoculants that are well adapted
to the current and incoming stressful conditions.

11.6 The Role of Microorganisms in Supporting the Resilience

of Smallholder Agriculture Systems

The agricultural productivity of the African smallholder systems is gradually declin-

ing owing to soil impoverishment instigated by the changing climatic conditions and
insufficient adoption of modern sustainable farming technologies (Ngetich et al.
2012). The decreasing soil fertility is further exacerbated by the high decomposition
rates of organic matter, rapid soil weathering conditions, high soil acidity, excessive
leaching, and intensive cultivation practices (Mukhongo et al. 2016). The appropri-
ate and consistent use of bio-inoculants could offer farmers various biological and
agronomic benefits, including nutrient solubilization and uptake, growth stimulation,
yield increase, cost reduction, soil health, and fertility restoration (Masso et al.
2015). Therefore, the role played by microbial inoculants is critical in
revolutionizing smallholder agricultural systems, maintaining the soil nutrient bal-
ance, and crop productivity.
Recently, the use and adoption of effective microbial bio-inoculants such as
AMF, rhizobial, and phosphatic inoculants in SSA have slightly increased among
smallholder farmers, although the increase is much lower compared to that of other
regions of the world (Raimi et al. 2017). Commercial companies such as Dudutech
Ltd. in Kenya and Mycoroot Pty Ltd. in South Africa have increased their AMF
production due to the increasing demand by the smallholder farmers in their respec-
tive regions (Mukhongo et al. 2016). It is estimated that the global market for
bio-inoculants could increase progressively at a rate of 12.5% per annum, and by
the year 2025, its global value would have reached the US $4092 million, up from
the US $1254 million in 2016 (Transparency Market Research 2017). The cost of
peat-based rhizobia fertilizers for white clover and faba beans ranges from US $0.25
to 6.5 ha 1, and this could fit the constrained budget of the smallholder farmers.
Comparably, these prices are far much below the cost of mineral N fertilizers that
could be needed to supply the same quantity of nutrients (Raimi et al. 2017).
The profitability benefits of using bio-inoculants are primarily based on the
amount of nutrient fixed/solubilized and/or yields. For instance, in Ghana, Masso
et al. (2016) used Legumefix, a rhizobia-based bio-inoculant, to grow soybean and
common beans and found that farmers could profit from the inoculation with a net
value-cost ratio of >3 when compared to uninoculated control. Nitrogen-fixing
rhizobia bio-inoculants increase legume yield, a factor considered by the majority
of smallholder farmers. According to a review by Ngetich et al. (2012), legumes
through the BNF process can naturally contribute about 48–300 kg of N/ha in a
season, and this amount could significantly increase if legumes are inoculated with
effective bio-inoculants. Soybean Bradyrhizobium inoculants increased soil organic
matter and yield and fixed about 80% of the total soybean N requirements in
11 Using Beneficial Microorganisms to Promote Sustainable Crop Production and. . . 305

smallholder farm settings in Southern Africa (Kasasa et al. 1999). In West Africa,
Osunde et al. (2003) demonstrated that about 54% (the equivalent of 78 kg N/ha) of
the total N requirement is fixed by inoculated soybean, and farmers could minimize
the supply of external inputs required for subsequent cereal cropping systems.
Similarly, in the rice experiment conducted by Rose et al. (2014) using a farmer
participatory approach, bio-inoculants were reported to ease the chemical N fertilizer
supply by about 52% without significant yield loss. As an alternative source of
inorganic N fertilizer, Gebre and Lelago (2017) showed that cyanobacteria
bio-fertilizer could be used to reclaim the nutrient-poor alkaline soils, improve soil
resilience, and increase yields of kales in Eastern Africa. Bio-inoculants with specific
strains of Bacillus and Pseudomonas, which produce hydrolytic phosphatase
enzymes that mineralize organic P, can save African smallholder farmers by adding
up to 30–50 kg/ha of P2O5 fertilizers (Richardson and Simpson 2011).
Most parts of the SSA are arid and semiarid areas, characterized by long drought
seasons that expose plants to frequent water and salinity stresses (Falkenmark and
Rockström 2008). Smallholder farmers would benefit from using bio-fertilizers that
contain microorganisms that would increase plant tolerance to salinity and water
stress. Inoculation of plants with auxin-, cytokinin-, and gibberellin-producing
microbes has been reported to improve plant tolerance to water stress and reduce
the risk of yield losses significantly (Goswami and Deka 2020). Gururani et al.
(2013) observed an increased tolerance to salt and water stress in potatoes inoculated
with Bacillus spp. That stimulates the production of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-car-
boxylate (ACC) deaminase. Likewise, plant-mycorrhizal symbiotic relationships can
be exploited to enhance root development, moisture, and P uptake, thus ensuring
agricultural resilience and productivity under water stress and low soil P conditions
(Oruru and Njeru 2016; Musyoka et al. 2020). According to Masso et al. (2016) and
Raimi et al. (2017), smallholder farmers in drought-prone areas of the SSA could get
more yield benefits by inoculating sweet potato, maize, and rice with effective AMF
strains. The extensive hyphal network of AMF reduces localized competition for
limited water and nutrients, thus supporting plant biodiversity and maintaining the
sustainability of the agricultural ecosystems (Mukhongo et al. 2016).
Bacterial and fungal diseases often cause substantial yield losses in African
smallholder production systems, and using low-cost bio-inoculants that produce
antimycotic and antibacterial substances could assist in suppressing the associated
crop losses (Strange and Scott 2005). In Kenya, Masso et al. (2016) demonstrated
that Trichoderma inoculants could control late blight disease in tomatoes much
better ( p < 0.05) than the commercial pesticide Ridomil that is commonly used
by the farmers. Similarly, other cost-effective inoculants containing Bacillus spp.,
Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Sinorhizobium spp. can be used in controlling
Fusarium wilt in pigeon pea, bacterial soft rot in potato, and Rhizoctonia solani
infections in pepper (Kumar et al. 2010). Co-inoculation of AMF and rhizobia not
only increases NPK availability and uptake (Tairo and Ndakidemi 2014) but also
enriches the soil with trace minerals such as calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), sulfur (S), zinc
(Zn), copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn) that are not often externally supplied by the
smallholder farmers (Bambara and Ndakidemi 2010). Furthermore, AMF are known
306 E. M. Njeru and G. Koskey

to suppress soilborne pathogens, and this offers crop protection services to the
farmers and reduces the overdependence of nonselective pesticides that are harmful
to other beneficial soil microbiota (Mukhongo et al. 2016).

11.7 Conclusion

Notwithstanding the plausible contribution of beneficial microbial communities in

smallholder agriculture, their adoption and conservation have remained significantly
low across many developing nations. Among the various reasons for this is inade-
quate training and research on beneficial microorganisms in smallholder farms.
Therefore, there is a need for the formulation of policies and subsidy programs on
bio-fertilizers and biopesticides, besides investment in research and development.
Furthermore, a more holistic approach including laboratory, greenhouse, and field
experiments established through participatory research and used for on-farm assess-
ment of low-cost microbial inocula is imperative, since some promising
microorganisms may not necessarily harbor favorable survival characteristics in
the field (Parnell et al. 2016). It is envisaged that the effective, low-cost inocula
would be widely adopted by farmers and used to promote sustainable food produc-
tion, cash generation, and resilience of smallholder agroecosystems to changing
climate.

Acknowledgments This work was supported by The Future Leaders – African Independent
Researchers (FLAIR) Fellowship Programme, which is a partnership between the African Academy
of Sciences and the Royal Society funded by the UK Government’s Global Challenges Research
Fund, Research (Grant number FLR\R1\190944).

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Sustainable Production of Edible
and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications 12
on Mushroom Consumption

Mahantesh Shirur, Anupam Barh, and Sudheer Kumar Annepu

Abstract

Mushrooms are one of the oldest human foods and sources of medicine. Both the
naturally grown and artificially cultivated mushrooms are used for human con-
sumption. Mushrooms are known to be a healthy source of food, having both
nutritive and medicinal significance. Mushrooms have a high amount of edible
and digestible protein. Though this is the most important criterion for mushrooms
to be considered for human diet, their therapeutic effect on several human
diseases and illness is equally worthwhile. Diverse edible mushroom production
systems are seen the world over. In several countries, different varieties of
mushrooms are attempted for commercial production with varying degrees of
success. In India, the mushroom varieties under commercial cultivation are very
few. Many of the mushroom production models and systems are unsustainable
either on economic or ecological criteria. This leads to a higher rate of attrition
among the adopters of mushroom cultivation. For the stable food production
system, mushroom units have to be ecologically less polluting and economically
valuable to the producer. In the immediate run, if the mushroom production is not
commercially viable, there is no question of mushroom production continuing
sustaining for a long time. This chapter attempts to explore the ways to balance
the profitability of commercial mushroom production without affecting the envi-
ronment and quality of human food system.

M. Shirur (*)
National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE), Hyderabad, India
A. Barh · S. K. Annepu
ICAR-Directorate of Mushroom Research, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 315
Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_12
316 M. Shirur et al.

Keywords

Mushroom · Spawn · Oyster · Agaricus · Sustainability · Profitability

12.1 Introduction

Vision 2030 document of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)

envisages that the demand for high-value commodities is increasing faster than
food grains (Vision-2030 2011). It also foresees a rise in the demand of vegetables
from 93 million tonnes in 2000 to 180 million tonnes in 2030. A constant supply of
cultivable land will certainly make the challenge tougher to meet growing vegetable
demand. Mushrooms being an indoor crop can offer solutions to the growing
demand of vegetables. Mushrooms are a class of macrofungi known as a health
food by virtue of their nutritional and medicinal properties.
The forest dwellers and aborigines have consumed mushrooms in several parts of
the world since ancient times. They collected the naturally occurring wild mushroom
species such as Agaricus sp., Morchella sp., Auricularia sp., Grifola sp., Pleurotus
spp., etc., from the forests. The indigenous knowledge was developed in many
nations about the edibility and nutritional and medicinal value of mushrooms.
Mushrooms were also valued for their flavour in the food preparation for several
years. Even today, many such mushrooms are collected excessively by the locals
leading to their overexploitation, causing loss of microflora and ecological
disturbances. Realising their significance, especially for food value, modern man
started attempting the artificial mushroom cultivation. Man must have surely tried
his luck based on his long observation of nature and resorted to spreading the
vegetative parts and mycelium of mushrooms simulating the natural conditions for
their vegetative and reproductive growth phases.

12.1.1 Mushroom Production: Global Scenario

Edible mushrooms are cultivated commercially in more than 100 countries on

different scales and by different systems. The production of mushrooms across the
world is increasing at an annual growth rate of 6–7% (Singh 2011). In some
developed countries of Europe and America, mushroom farming has assumed the
form of a high-tech industry with mechanisation and automation in all operations. At
present, China and the United States are the largest consumers of this protein-rich
delicacy (Bose 2016). Present world consumption of mushrooms is around 12.74
million tonnes and is growing at a compounded annual growth rate of 6.4% (Report
of Fortune Business Insights entitled “Mushroom market size, share & industry
analysis, By type (Button mushroom, Shiitake mushroom, oyster mushroom, &
others), form (Fresh mushroom, frozen mushroom, dried mushroom and canned
mushroom), and regional forecast, 2019-2026”). The same report predicts that by
2026, the world mushroom production will scale to 20.84 million tonnes.
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 317

12.1.2 Mushroom Production in India

In India, commercial mushroom production was started very late in the 1970s, but
growth rate, both in terms of productivity and production, has been noteworthy
(Shirur et al. 2014). In the 1970s and 1980s, button mushroom was grown as a
seasonal crop in the hills and in some part of plains during the winter. But with the
development of the technologies for environmental controls and increased under-
standing of the cropping systems, mushroom production shot up from mere 5000 ton
in 1990 to 100,000 ton in 2006 (Wakchaure 2011). Presently, the production of
mushroom is estimated to be close to 201088 ton (ICAR-DMR Annual report 2019)
al.). Haryana, Maharashtra, Odisha, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh are emerging as
the leading states in mushroom production in India (Fig. 12.1).
Though the total mushroom production in India has registered significant growth,
the per capita consumption of mushrooms in India is still <100 gm/annum which is
significantly low as compared to the requirement (Singh and Shirur 2016; Sharma
et al. 2017; Shirur et al. 2018). The low consumption of mushrooms in India is
mainly attributed to the nonavailability of mushrooms in all the seasons. Moreover,
the diversity of mushroom varieties is also underexploited in India (Shirur et al.
2014). India’s varied agro-climatic situation offers tremendous scope to cultivate

West Bengal Andhra Pradesh

2% 2%
Delhi
2% Goa
Bihar 3%
Uttarakhand 3%
7%
Uttar
Pradesh
Gujarat
6%
7%

Tamil Nadu
7%

Haryana
12%
Rajasthan
7%

Himachal Pradesh
8%
Punjab
10%

Jammu and Kashmir

Odisha Maharashtra Karnataka 1%
11% 11% 1%Jharkhand
1%

Fig. 12.1 State-wise (major) contribution to total mushroom production

318 M. Shirur et al.

different mushrooms depending on the location and season. Since mushroom culti-
vation is an indoor activity, it has potential to increase farm productivity without
much pressure on the land (Singh 2011). Part of India’s annual 800 million tonnes of
farm waste can be used as a substrate to cultivate the mushrooms, which is otherwise
being allowed to get waste. The labour-intensive mushroom cultivation generates
enough employment opportunities, especially to the women and youth. Also, it has
the potential to be taken up as an agribusiness activity with a capital investment
ranging between Rs 3-50 million.

12.2 Nutritional Attributes and Therapeutic Properties

of Mushrooms

Mushrooms are a significant form of new-generation food as it is rich in protein,

vitamin D and antioxidants and has been recorded for their therapeutic effects across
the globe. The vulnerability of population to the viral pandemics due to the vitamin
D deficiency is the much-discussed issue in recent times. Recent studies found a
correlation between vitamin D levels and hyperactive immune systems. Vitamin D
strengthens immunity and prevents overactive immune responses. Being the only
vegetarian dietary source for vitamin D, mushrooms will play a vital role in future
dietary supplements. The recent spurt in nutraceutical significance of mushrooms
and their usefulness in health care and the socio-economic status of mushrooms has
scaled significant heights the world over. Nutritional attributes of mushrooms vary
with species to species, and it is affected by several factors such as growing
conditions, substrate used, stage of development, etc. However, the availability of
essential nutrients in the desired proportion enhances their bioavailability in human
beings. This attribute makes the mushroom a healthy and complete food component.
The composition of some important edible mushrooms is given in Table 12.1.

12.2.1 Therapeutic Properties Mushrooms

Higher fungi, including both edible and inedible mushrooms, are some of the major
sources of bioactive substances that have latent effects on tumour cells. Although
much attention has been given to the antitumour properties, mushrooms also exhibit
immunomodulating, antioxidant, genoprotective, antitumour, hypocholesterinemic,
antidiabetic, hepatoprotective and other medicinal properties (Badalyan 2000;
Wasser 2010; Badalyan 2012). Besides medicinal properties, they are a rich source
of dietary fibre, several bioactive molecules and prized enzymes with more than
120 therapeutic effects (Wasser 2010; Badalyan 2012). Table 12.2 gives an account
of important bioactive compounds and therapeutic uses of different mushrooms.
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 319

Table 12.1 Nutritive values of some important edible mushrooms (dry weight basis g/100 g)
Mushroom Energy
variety Carbohydrate Fibre Protein Fat Ash (K cal) Reference
Agaricus 46.17 20.90 33.48 3.10 5.70 499 Stamets (2005)
bisporus
Pleurotus 63.40 48.60 19.23 2.70 6.32 412 Stamets (2005)
pulmonarius
Lentinula 47.60 28.80 32.93 3.73 5.20 387 Stamets (2005)
edodes
Pleurotus 37–48 24– 17–42 0.5– – 350a Khan (2010)
ostreatus 31 5.0
Volvariella 12–48 4.0– 20.2– 1–6 0.8– 300a Cheung
volvacea 11.9 34.1 13.0 (1997), Ul Haq
et al. (2011)
Calocybe 49.2 13.2 21.60 4.96 12.8 350a Pushpa and
indica Purushothoma
(2010)
Flammulina – 3.30 31.2 5.8 5.60 378 Sharma et al.
velutipes (2008)
a
Authors’ approximation

12.3 Major Cultivated Mushroom in India

Commercially grown species of mushrooms are Agaricus bisporus (white button

mushroom), Lentinula edodes (shiitake mushroom), Volvariella volvacea (paddy
straw mushroom), Pleurotus spp. (oyster mushrooms), enokitake (Flammulina
velutipes), etc., followed by other tropical mushrooms such as Calocybe indica
(milky mushroom), Auricularia, Ganoderma, etc. The concentrated areas of produc-
tion in India are the temperate regions for the button mushroom and tropical and
subtropical regions for oyster, milky, paddy straw and other tropical mushrooms.
Two to three crops of button mushroom are grown seasonally in temperate regions
with minor adjustments of temperature in the growing rooms, while one crop of
button mushroom is raised in northwestern plains of India seasonally. Oyster, paddy
straw and milky mushrooms are grown seasonally in the tropical/subtropical areas
from April to October. Figure 12.2 shows the important regions in India, which are
known to produce different edible mushrooms.
Tropical/subtropical mushrooms requiring a temperature of about 25–35
C like
oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sp.), paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella sp.) and
milky mushroom (Calocybe indica) can be cultivated in most parts of India. The
medium- and high-elevated regions are suitable to grow temperate mushrooms like
white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) and shiitake (Lentinula edodes) that
requires temperatures between 14
C and 20
C. Other than these edible mushrooms,
many medicinal mushrooms like red reishi (Ganoderma sp.) and Grifola/maitake
(Grifola frondosa) can also be cultivated in India (Shirur 2011). It is germane to
mention that being a subtropical country, India has the paradox of contributing more
320 M. Shirur et al.

Table 12.2 Bioactive compounds and associated therapeutic effects of different edible and
medicinal mushrooms
Bioactive
S. no Mushroom Common name compounds Therapeutic effects
1 Agaricus White button Agariciten Antitumour property
bisporus mushroom
2 Lentinula Shiitake Lentinan Antitumour and antiageing
edodes mushroom property
3 Pleurotus spp. Oyster Lovastatin Antiobesity property
mushroom
4 Hericium Monkey head Hericenone Found to induce synthesis of
erinaceus mushroom nerve growth factor, which
is associated with an
ameliorative effect in
Alzheimer’s dementias
5 Ganoderma Reishi β-Glucans, Hepatopathy, chronic
lucidum mushroom ganoderic acid, hepatitis, nephritis,
polysaccharides hypertension, arthritis,
and triterpenes neurasthenia, insomnia,
bronchitis, asthma and
gastric ulcers
6 Schizophyllum Schizophyllum Schizophyllan or Antitumour properties
commune mushroom sonifilan
7 Grifola Maitake β-Glucan Antioxidant, anti-
frondosa (β-1,6-glucan inflammatory, Free radical
branched with a scavenging activities and the
β-1,3-linkage) antiageing process
8 Trametes Turkey tail Proteoglycan Antitumour properties
versicolor mushroom fractions, PSP
and PSK
9 Cordyceps Cordyceps Cordycepin Biological response modifier
militaris mushroom
10 Auricularia Wood ear Polysaccharides Anti-inflammatory effect
polytricha mushroom
Source: Authors’ compilation

than 80% of temperate mushrooms among its total mushroom production (Shirur
et al. 2018a).

12.4 Constraints in Mushroom Production Activity

The mushroom production world over is rising. However, this rise does not neces-
sarily imply that the commercial mushroom production is devoid of any problems.
Mushroom as an industry faces impending challenges like a competitive market,
costly raw materials, technology and labour-intensive activity, etc. Mushroom as a
protein-rich food product has several substitute protein-rich products such as non-
vegetarian food and eggs in most of the countries. Mushroom cultivation in the
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 321

Fig. 12.2 Major areas producing different mushrooms in India

backyard livelihood activity or small-scale farm enterprise mainly suffers due to the
scale of economy and poor market opportunities. Due to their importance as an
edible food and their quality protein, mushroom production must sustain. For
sustainability, it must be done to ensure profitability to its producers, feasibility
and affordability to its consumers and not causing serious ecological and environ-
mental disturbances. Farmers and big entrepreneurs adopting mushroom cultivation
find it challenging to sustain this agribusiness activity on above accounts, and hence
the rate of attrition is very high in mushroom farming (Shirur et al. 2017).

12.5 Sustainable Mushroom Production Practices

In India, the mushroom production systems are mixed type, i.e. both seasonal
farming and high-tech industry. Though this system of mushroom production is
common for white button mushroom, other mushrooms are also cultivated in
seasonal and environment-controlled units. But the type of infrastructure to create
the environment-controlled units for different mushrooms differs depending on the
type of mushrooms and the ambient temperature of the growing region.
322 M. Shirur et al.

12.5.1 Selection of Suitable Species

Growing a temperate mushroom-like white button mushroom in tropical weather

conditions requires bigger infrastructure to maintain the temperature of 16–18
C
and relative humidity of 85–90%. However, growing a tropical mushroom in the
tropical weather is less energy demanding and hence obviates the requirement of the
high-end chilling plant to moderate the growing conditions. Selecting suitable
mushrooms to local weather conditions has huge implications on the profitability
of the mushroom enterprises and the mushroom industry. Discussing all the details
of different mushroom production systems practised in different regions in this
chapter will be an arduous task. However, the discussion shall focus on the
sustainability and profitability of mushroom production system to contribute to the
food production and consumption system.

12.5.2 Production Systems

The history and scale of collected mushrooms and their marketing is different from
the commercial mushroom farming activities. The commercial cultivation models of
all major edible mushrooms in the world have evolved as several models of
production. There are units with very high investment targeting huge mushroom
production intended for cosmopolitan markets and exports on one extreme and units
with very modest investment targeting small production to market in the nearby
consumption places at other extremes. In the former system of mushroom produc-
tion, lots of resources are spent to create artificial growing conditions to maintain a
particular temperature, relative humidity, light (both duration and quality) and air
composition (O2/CO2) in the cropping rooms and compost chambers as per the crop
and compost requirement. The resources are spent on thermodynamic and aerody-
namic equipment to create and maintain an exact set of cropping and compost
conditions. Though the cost of raw materials, labour wages and the market price
of mushroom decide the profitability, the role of scale of economy is also a very
important factor for mushroom production profitability.

12.5.2.1 Mushroom Production Units: Facilities and Infrastructure

The success in mushroom cultivation irrespective of the mushroom variety depends
on three main components: quality spawn, quality substrate or compost and suitable
growing conditions required by the mushroom variety. Therefore, the commercial
mushroom production facility will have a spawn production facility, substrate
preparation or compost production facility (e.g. phase 1 and or phase 2 bunkers
for white button mushroom production) and mushroom growing rooms with tem-
perature- and humidity-controlled facilities. The growing rooms (Fig. 12.3) these
days are constructed with very good insulating materials to cut the cost on electricity
by conserving the temperature in the growing rooms.
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 323

Fig. 12.3 Modern mushroom production under insulated growing rooms

Table 12.3 Raw materials and treatment of raw materials to grow different mushrooms
Treatment
of raw Mushroom
Raw material material Facilities required varieties are grown
Dry agriculture residue or Composting Compost yard, White button
substrate (wheat straw and paddy phase 1 and phase mushroom,
straw are most commonly used) 2 bunkers Macrocybe
Pasteurised Boilers, sieves, Milky mushroom,
gunny bags, etc. oyster mushroom
Sterilised Autoclave, Shiitake,
polypropylene bags. Flammulina,
Auricularia,
Ganoderma, etc.

12.5.2.2 Raw Materials and Substrate Combinations

Mushrooms are a saprophytic fungus and depend on a variety of decomposing
residue or substrate for their growth. In artificial cultivation, the fresh dry residue
which is free from dust and any other disease/infection is chosen. Depending on the
variety of mushroom to be grown, the substrate is either pasteurised, sterilised or
partially decomposed. Table 12.3 gives the idea about the raw materials used, the
treatment for raw material, facilities required and the mushroom varieties grown.
Mushroom growers give due attention to compost making as it plays major role in
mushroom production and productivity. With the help of raw materials and agricul-
ture residue, different mushrooms can be grown depending on the treatment of the
raw materials and using other raw materials. Under the Indian context, the raw
materials are mostly the wheat straw and the paddy straw or the combination of both
in different proportions. In recent years, these raw materials are mixed with sugar-
cane bagasse, cotton stalks, maize cobs, sunflower stalks, etc. Different outputs from
these raw materials are briefly described here.
324 M. Shirur et al.

Composting
In the composting, the dry residues and raw materials which are ideally rich in
cellulose and hemicellulose are decomposed by mixing with a different combination
of raw materials. Farmers follow different methods and use a different proportion of
raw materials to prepare compost for growing white button mushroom. The compost
so prepared is very selective for white button mushroom only by not supporting the
growth of other competitor fungi. The most commonly used combination of raw
materials is listed in Table 12.4.

Most farmers in North India prepare the compost by following a long method of
compost preparation (Vijay 2011). This method of composting takes 28–30 days
period over which the mixed materials are watered and frequently turned and made
into fresh piles seven to eight times at an interval of 3–4 days so that the compost
becomes uniformly pasteurised, homogeneous and free from ammonia.
Since the long method of compost making is time-consuming and causes air
pollution and short method is cost-intensive, an alternate method to reduce the time
required for compost in a climate-friendly way of zero energy polytunnel (ZEPT)
using high-density polyethylene (HDPE) is designed at ICAR-DMR, Solan (Shirur
and Sharma 2016). The technique of ZEPT uses the perforated polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) pipes to facilitate proper air circulation in the core of the compost pile and
moderate the temperature in a pile (Fig. 12.4). The adoption of this technology still
needs adoption among the majority of the mushroom growers. Further, the
commercialisation and spread of zero energy polytunnel by the industry should be
emphasised as this will boost mushroom production and, in turn, mushroom con-
sumption in the society. More of such innovations will make the compost production
less labour intensive and environment friendly.

Pasteurisation
Pasteurisation is the process of killing the microorganisms primarily through the
exposure to heat/high temperature. Through pasteurisation of a large number of
agro-wastes such as cereal straw, sugarcane bagasse, sawdust, jute and cotton waste,
dehulled corncobs, peanut shells, dried grasses, etc., two important varieties of
tropical mushrooms can be grown; they are oyster mushroom and milky mushroom.
Dry agricultural waste or residue is selected that can support the cultivation of oyster
mushroom and milky mushroom. While selecting the agriculture residue, ensure that
the straw is not too old and not exposed to rains or dust as it may be susceptible to
attract the contamination. It should also be completely dry and not have any green
leafy portion. Pasteurisation of such agricultural residue helps in achieving quick
colonisation of mushroom mycelium in the substrate by killing off harmful competi-
tor moulds and fungi. The pasteurisation process of the growing medium gives the
mushroom mycelium an advantage over other harmful fungi or competitor moulds
as the mushroom mycelium gets established in the pasteurised substrate while other
fungi gets eliminated. Pasteurisation occurs between temperatures of 58
C and
62
C. The substrate can also be pasteurised by hot water or steam at this temperature
for 4–5 h in a steam chamber or room. Though the chemical pasteurisation using the
 12

Table 12.4 Formulations to prepare compost to grow white button mushroom

DMR Solan DMR Solan IARI, New PAU, IIHR, Mushroom lab, Solan Farmers’ practice in
Raw materials 1 (long method) 2 (short method) Delhi Ludhiana Bangalore (short method) North India
Wheat straw 300 300 350 300 300 1000 1000
(kg)
Poultry manure 125 – 300 60 – 400 300
(kg)
Horse manure – – 1000 – –
(kg)
Cotton seed – 12 – – –
cake (kg)
Wheat bran (kg) 15 21 – 15 30 40
CAN (kg) – – – 6 9 15
Urea (kg) – 7 – 4 14.5 20
Gypsum (kg) 20 15 30 30 12 30 150
Superphosphate – – – 3 9 10
(kg)
Calcium – – – – 10
carbonate (kg)
BHC (g) 125 – 250 –
Brewers manure 72
(kg)
DMR: Directorate of Mushroom Research, Solan, India
IARI: Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . .

PAU: Punjab Agricultural University, Punjab, India

IIHR: Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru, India
325
326 M. Shirur et al.

Fig. 12.4 Composting by

ZEPT method with HDPE
pipes in the compost pile

carbendazim and formaldehyde is also in vogue, it is discouraged strongly as the

injudicious use may leave traces of chemical in the pasteurised straw and later
detected in the fresh mushrooms.

Sterilisation
Through the sterilisation of substrate, many specialty mushrooms such as shiitake,
Auricularia and Flammulina are grown. Usually, the substrate to grow these
mushrooms is sawdust of broad-leaved trees (tuni, mango, safeda, oak, maple and
poplar). The substrate preparation stage to produce the synthetic logs is made using
80% sawdust, 19% cereal bran like wheat bran or rice bran and 1% calcium
carbonate on weight basis. Ingredients are properly mixed in a mixer and moistened
to hold a moisture level of 60–65%. 1.5–2.0 kg of this substrate is filled in double
polypropylene bags and kept for sterilisation for 2 h at 121
C. After sterilisation,
they are removed from the autoclave and allowed to cool down at room temperature.
Subsequently, they are spawned and kept for incubation (Annepu et al. 2019).

Mushroom Growing Rooms/Structures

Mushrooms require maintenance of proper air, temperature and humidity levels as
per the stage of the crop. All varieties of mushrooms have specific temperature and
humidity requirement for their vegetative and reproductive phases (details in
Table 12.5). Hence, the mushroom growing structures, whether the temporary huts
or the permanent rooms, must be designed/planned to achieve these growing
ambiences. The task is easy for environmentally controlled growing rooms where
the temperature and humidity are controlled through chilling plant and humidifiers.
In the seasonal type of huts, the farmers depend on day and night temperatures to
maintain the temperature and humidity inside the huts by opening and closing the
doors during day or night to allow the movement of cool/hot and dry/humid air. In
addition, they resort to frequent spraying of water on the floor to moderate the
humidity and temperature to some extent.
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 327

Table 12.5 Temperature requirement of different cultivable mushrooms

Spawn-run Fruiting
Type of variety Name of variety temperature (
C) temperature (
C)
Tropical mushrooms Pleurotus sapidus 25–30 22–26
P. flabellatus 25–30 20–26
P. sajor-caju 25–30 18–26
P. membranaceus 25–30 22–30
P. djamor 26–32 28–30
Calocybe indica 30–35 30–32
Volvariella 30–35 30–32
volvacea
Ganoderma 23–25 30–32
lucidum
Auricularia 23–25 30–32
polytricha
Subtropical mushroom P. ostreatus 22–26 14–20
species P. ostreatus var. 22–28 14–22
florida
P. citrinopileatus 24–28 18–22
Cordyceps 18–22 18–22
militaris
Hericium 23–25 18–20
erinaceus
Temperate mushrooms Agaricus bisporus 23–25 16–18
Agaricus bitorquis 23–25 18–20
Lentinula edodes 23–25 18–20
P. eryngii 20–24 10–15
Flammulina 18–24 5–10
velutipes

This economic activity uses all the agriculture residues. It is in line with the
climate-friendly practices of agriculture. However, in environment-controlled units,
the growers must be judicious in saving the resources and adopt the seasonal
cultivation of mushrooms based on the prevailing temperature in the season. For
this, the consumers must also be educated to eat the mushrooms as per the season. In
India, the skewed demand for white button mushroom has caused less demand for
other tropical mushrooms, and also efforts on their popularisation are lacking.

Structure and design of mushroom huts in North India: In Haryana and Punjab,
temporary thatched houses are erected using mainly bamboo, paddy straw and
polythene sheets. Varying numbers of huts are juxtaposed (Fig. 12.5) in the space
available in their field. Only a single hut is delineated for better understanding the
structure of these temporary mushroom houses.
Usually, a single hut is laid out over an area of 22.50  600 (three racks
arrangement) or 28.50  600 (four racks arrangement). Each separate hut comprises
of three or four racks, and three to four vertical shelves are created in each of these
328 M. Shirur et al.

Fig. 12.5 Series of mushroom growing huts laid one after the other in the expansive field

Fig. 12.6 Steps in preparation of mushroom growing shed in North India

racks (Shirur et al. 2018a). Generally, 16–18 ton of prepared compost is spread in
one such shed. About 2–2.5 ton of fresh button mushroom is obtained in a month’s
time depending on the compost quality, spawn quality and management practices of
the farmers. Figures 12.6 and 12.7 depict the structures of mushroom huts and the
steps followed in their construction.
In Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, the growing houses vary from
temporary to semipermanent to permanent structures. Some farmers use concrete
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 329

Fig. 12.7 Arrangement of racks and shelves in a single mushroom shed

rooms with cemented floor and roof. Most commonly observed mushroom growing
rooms are simple unplastered brick walls raised to 12–160 height and covered with
either tin or asbestos sheets. They are covering such sheets with locally available
(Sarkhanda) grass as an insulating material to avoid excessive heating of the
growing rooms. This helps in moderating the temperature of growing rooms,
especially during the beginning of season when outside temperature is very high.
Some poor farmers erect small huts using locally available wooden poles and straw.
Even the very resource-poor farmers in the region were seen making the mushroom
sheds using the decrepit materials available with them.
In contrast, the oyster and milky mushrooms are grown in different and diverse
structures. The structures range from huts to mud houses to polysheds and concrete
buildings. The oyster mushroom bags with compost and spawn are either hanged
from the ceiling in three to five tiers (Fig. 12.8) or placed over the shelves. The room
temperature during the spawn run is maintained to suit the type of mushroom variety
selected. For most of the tropical oyster mushroom varieties, 25–30
C is maintained
for spawn run and fruiting. In case of milky mushrooms, the bags are kept in the
incubation room or cropping rooms, which are mostly dug 3–4 ft. below the ground
level (Fig. 12.9). The milky mushrooms can also be grown in environment-
controlled units with the facility of maintaining temperature and humidity through
humidifiers (Fig. 12.10).
330 M. Shirur et al.

Fig. 12.8 Substrate mixed with mushroom spawn in polythene bags kept for spawn run

Fig. 12.9 Commercial milky mushroom unit

12.5.2.3 Implications for Mushroom Consumption

Small and marginal mushroom growers in Himachal Pradesh do not prepare com-
post on their own but purchase from private commercial mushroom production units.
Farmers in North Indian states (Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir
and Punjab) have the opportunity to purchase compost from the state department of
horticulture in their states as these governments have set up facilities to prepare
compost and sell to encourage mushroom farming as livelihood activity even among
the small farmers. Besides, farmers getting benefitted, this measure will improve the
availability of mushroom in the remote places which are far off from large
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 331

Fig. 12.10 Individual milky

mushroom hut

mushroom production units. When there is not much transaction cost, the availabil-
ity of fresh mushrooms at affordable prices for majority population in hinterland will
have access to quality protein food and improve their protein intake.
Many spawn-producing firms are selling ready-to-fruit (RTF) bags by mixing the
spawn with the ready compost or pasteurised substrate. This is the easiest way for
new entrepreneurs to gain confidence in mushroom cultivation. Like the compost
sold by large compost production units, the sale of pasteurised substrate and mixing
with spawn has been successful in making the mushrooms available for rural areas
and small towns. This will increase the consumption of mushrooms among the
masses, thereby increasing their protein intake and achieving food security. This
kind of arrangement will give impetus to the mushroom entrepreneurship and
livelihood security of mushroom growers.

12.5.3 Spawn

Quality spawn is one of the critical inputs to realise the economic returns in
mushroompreneurship. But many small growers do not produce the spawn required
in their mushroom unit due to lack of technical knowledge involved in spawn
production. The nonavailability of quality spawn is a major constraint for both
new and established mushroom units and limits the expansion of mushroom cultiva-
tion in new areas.
Spawn is the mushroom seed which is prepared from the pure culture of
mushrooms. The culture is allowed to grow on starchy substrates like cereal grains.
This mycelium and grain mixture is used to seed the pasteurised substrate or compost
for growing the mushrooms. Though the whole description of spawn production
process is beyond the scope of this chapter, brief information given below will help
to understand its implications for mushroom consumption system.
Regardless of the mushroom variety, techniques for growing mushrooms follow
the same pattern, which directly reflects the life cycle of the mushrooms. The
mushroom life cycle under artificial conditions begins with the isolation of fungal
332 M. Shirur et al.

mass and implanting it in an environment that gives an advantage over the other
competitors. The mycelial mass collected from the healthiest fruit body is initially
grown on enriched culture media for expansion of inoculum. This mycelium is then
transferred on a cereal-based substrate to make the mother spawn. Once the mush-
room mycelium has completely colonised the grain, it can be used to inoculate the
grain substrate for large-scale multiplication in the form of commercial spawn.
A small-scale mushroom grower can produce a quantity of 10–12 kg spawn per
day by spending of Rs 2.5–3.0 lakh on purchase of mini autoclave, laminar flow
chamber, BOD incubator and other necessary consumables. For establishing the
medium- to large-scale spawn laboratory with a capacity of 20 ton per annum, an
expenditure of Rs 15–18 lakh is required for purchasing machinery and for creating
infrastructure facilities. By producing the good-quality spawn, this activity may
fetch the net profit of Rs 6–7 lakhs per annum to the spawn producers.
The quality of the spawn is usually ascertained by physical examination. The
following criteria should be ensured to be considered as quality spawn and avoid
economic losses in mushroom cultivation:

1. There should be a proper coating of mycelium around grains used as a substrate

for spawn production. No loose grain should be visible in bottles/bags.
2. The growth of the mycelium in the spawn bags should be silky/strandy type. It
should not be cottony or slimy type of growth.
3. The growth of fresh spawn is more or less white. As the spawn gets older, it turns
gradually into brown colour.
4. There should not be any greenish or blackish spot in the spawn bags. Such spots
indicate that the spawn is contaminated with moulds.
5. When the spawn bags are opened for spawning, it should emit a typical mush-
room smell.

12.5.4 Implications on Mushroom Consumption

Nonavailability of quality spawn is an important reason for non-adoption or discon-

tinuance of mushroom cultivation in our country. All the sources of spawn fail to
meet the demands of the growers during the winter months in North India. Another
bottleneck with respect to spawn is the sale of infected or spurious spawn. The
growers who put one-month effort to prepare their growing sheds and compost get
deceived when they realise that the spawn they bought was either contaminated or
immature. They will lose the season and also suffer financial losses because of the
expenditure they incurred for growing mushrooms. Proper regulation of spawn
standards and quality traits of spawn in India needs immediate attention by the
policymakers. Stringent measures must be ensured to regulate the quality of the
spawn through an institutional setup. Similar is the case of availability of quality
gypsum in sufficient quantity during the peak cultivation season in North India. The
sale of poor-quality gypsum lets the mushroom growers suffer loss. The quality of
the gypsum mainly determines the final compost quality with respect to its pH. By
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 333

the time the growers realise that there is improper spawn run due to poor-quality
gypsum, they will suffer losses because of investment and also the season advances,
giving limited time for seasonal growers to prepare fresh compost to cultivate button
mushroom.

12.6 Crop Management and Sustainability

Farmers practising seasonal button mushroom cultivation mostly depend on pur-

chased spawn as it is seasonal agriculture activity for them. Generally, 0.5% seed
rate (5 g of spawn/kg of compost) on a wet compost weight basis is adopted among
the growers. In Haryana and Punjab, prepared compost is mixed with mushroom
spawn and spread over the racks for about 4–600 height and allowed for the fungal
mycelia to spread (spawn run) for about 7–12 days. After the spawn run, a layer of
casing soil of about 100 is spread over compost uniformly. Mushroom pinheads start
appearing 8–12 days after spreading the casing soil. Such pinheads develop into full-
grown mushroom fruiting bodies after 3–4 days. In case of oyster mushroom, the
seed rate is around 2.5–3.0%, while for milky mushroom, it is 5.0% on a wet weight
basis. The spawn is mixed alternatively with the layers of straw and placed in a room
with suitable temperature and humidity for spawn run. After the incubation period,
the spawn run completes and the temperature and humidity are altered to facilitate
the fruiting.
Since mushroom cultivation is a very sensitive enterprise for several competitor
microorganisms, hygiene is most critical factor in all three facilities. Any chance of
infection and contamination either in spawn laboratory, production rooms or
composting facility is sure to affect the mushroom quality and production. Usually,
the spawn production facility is an integral part of the mushroom production units
with 250 ton per annum (TPA) of fresh mushrooms. For successful commercial
white button mushroom production, the minimum ideal production capacity is
250 ton per annum. Though many entrepreneurs are trying to set up 100 TPA
units with indigenous cooling systems, their B:C (benefit-cost) ratio may be low
due to higher operational expenses per unit mushroom production. It is always
advisable to consult the experts to decide about the size and scale of mushroom
units and accordingly design the type of growing rooms, compost yard and
composting bunkers if required.
The reason for failure of mushroom enterprises to achieve the profitability is to
start with uneconomical production and not following the cropping cycle to keep the
production constant. This is essential to be a credible supplier of fresh mushrooms in
the market and use the farm resources appropriately. Since the mushroom crop gives
no yield in the initial spawn running period and gives a higher quantity of mushroom
in the initial period of cropping, one- or two-room production facility and even four-
to five-room structure create problem to achieve uniform supply of mushrooms
continuously. Minimum of eight rooms can mitigate such a constraint, and having
more cropping rooms will help to offset the uneven distribution of mushroom
production in a single room. In the following model (Fig. 12.11), a 12-room
334 M. Shirur et al.

12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

Cook out, Emptying

Filling, Peak heating
Spawning, mucelium growth

Casing, growth of mycelium into the casing soil

Picking
Round the year cultivation in environment controlled unit

Fig. 12.11 Schematic diagram to fit the round the year cultivation in a 12-room model of white
button mushroom unit

mushroom unit for button mushroom is given to demonstrate how the uniformity in
production of mushrooms can be achieved over a period of 12 weeks. The cycle will
again continue with room number one after it is emptied after taking the crop. In this
model, it is essential that the timing is not disturbed because of failure of the compost
lot or failure to delay the spawn run and cropping in the cropping room due to
improper temperature and humidity or any pest/disease incidence. With the same
idea, the other mushrooms can be set to maintain the required quantity of mushrooms
to meet the demand in the market.
Unlike the white button mushrooms, the milky mushroom and oyster mushroom
can be grown in four to five separate rooms with one room exclusively meant for
spawn run to maintain the constant supply of mushrooms for the market. This
practice is very important as it helps to maintain the rooms with a defined set of
temperatures and humidity as per the crop stages. Since the spawn-run room does not
require exclusive aeration facility, spawn run may ideally take 12–15 days, and the
more number of bags can be put compared to the growing rooms. Hence, this kind of
arrangement will be able to give sufficient bags to be placed for three to five growing
rooms. However, this will require labour during the shifting of the spawn-run bags to
growing rooms for fruiting.
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 335

12.6.1 Round the Year Cultivation

Due to the varied agro-climatic conditions prevailing in the country, all mushrooms
can’t be grown in every region. For this purpose, the country has been broadly
classified into five major mushroom-climatic regions, and five different types of
mushrooms are proposed for each region as given in Table 12.6.

12.6.2 Novel Approaches in Cultivation of Speciality Mushrooms

Bottle Cultivation It is a modern method and well suited for mechanisation. The
technology includes the polypropylene bottle and requires less space and vertical
space. The bottles are sterilised. The bottles are filled with wet substrate with
sawdust+ wheat bran in ratio of 80:20 and are sterilised at 121
C at 22 psi pressure
for 1.30 h. The spawning is done in laminar airflow. The method is used for
Flammulina (Fig. 12.12) and Pleurotus eryngii.

Ready-to-fruit (RTF) Technology It is important for getting growing experience

of mushrooms. Many countries and institutes develop it. The bags come with handy
options of hanging and can be hanged in rooms and kitchen. The objective of the
RTF is to provide the growing experience to the beginner growers and to promote
the mushrooms in urban and periurban areas. The technology now empowers the
mushroom growers to grow mushroom in their moist backyard or kitchen and ready
healthy vegetable for the family. The RTF technology can be conveniently used to
grow milky mushrooms (Fig. 12.13) and oyster mushrooms.

Short-duration cultivation Technology of Shiitake Mushroom It is possible to

get the fruiting in shiitake within 45–60 days compared to the earlier synthetic log
technologies where it took 80–110 days. Sawdust is the main ingredient for the
preparation of synthetic logs supplemented with some starchy substance like cereal
bran as a source of nitrogen and calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate to balance
the pH. Ingredients are mixed in a mixer and moistened to hold a moisture level of
60–65%. The prepared substrate is filled in polypropylene bags (1.5 kg) and then
sterilised for 2 h at 121
C. Then the bags will be seeded with grain spawn at 3% on a
dry weight basis of the substrate under aseptic conditions. The bags after heat sealing
will be shaken to evenly distribute the spawn; sawdust spawn or cereal grain spawn
is used in this system. Spawn run at 25
C with 4 h of light per day takes 18–23 days
for optimum growth. Fully colonised blocks are taken out by slicing and peeling off
the poly cover and kept for 4 weeks in the environment conducive for browning of
the exterior surface, i.e. temperature of about 19–20
C and 2000–3000 ppm CO2,
and are watered once daily to maintain the humidity levels more than 85%. As the
browning process nears completion, pinheads start to form about 1–2 mm beneath
the surface. Primordia development is stimulated by soaking the blocks in ice-cold
water for 15–20 min. Mushrooms are ready for harvesting approximately after
7–9 days of soaking (Fig. 12.14).
336 M. Shirur et al.

Table 12.6 Region-wise possibilities of growing different mushroom varieties in India

No. of
Average Suitable Temperature crops to be
States temperatures mushroom requirement grown in a
Region covered of the regiona species for fruiting year
Northwestern Punjab, 15–25
C White 16–20
C One crop of
India Haryana, button button
Himachal mushroom, mushroom
Pradesh, oyster (Nov–Jan)
Uttarakhand, Three crops
J&K of oyster
mushroom
(Feb–April
and July–
Oct)
Northeast Assam, 16–26
C Shiitake, 18–20
C One crop of
India Manipur, oyster shiitake
Sikkim, (Sep–Feb)
Meghalaya, Two crops
Nagaland, of oyster
Tripura, (Feb–April
Mizoram and July–
Sep)
Central India Madhya 25–35
C Oyster, 32–35
C Two crops
Pradesh, milky of oyster
Maharashtra, (Sep–Feb)
Uttar Pradesh Two crops
of milky
(Mar–
August)
South India Kerala, Tamil 25–35
C Oyster, 32–35
C One crop of
Nadu, milky, oyster
Karnataka, paddy straw (Sep–Nov)
Andhra mushroom Two crops
Pradesh, of milky
Telangana (Jan–April)
One crop of
paddy
straw
mushroom
(July–
August)
East coastal Odisha, West 30–35
C Paddy 30–35
C Three crops
area Bengal, straw of paddy
Chhattisgarh mushroom, straw
milky, mushroom
oyster (March–
August)
One crop of
oyster
(Oct–Nov)
One crop of
(continued)
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 337

Table 12.6 (continued)

No. of
Average Suitable Temperature crops to be
States temperatures mushroom requirement grown in a
Region covered of the regiona species for fruiting year
milky
(Feb–
March)
a
Average temperatures are excluding the hottest summer months

Fig. 12.12 Bottle cultivation of Flammulina velutipes

Bag Cultivation of King Oyster Mushroom For cultivation of Pleurotus eryngii,

saw dust/wheat straw/paddy straw can be chosen as the basic ingredient. The
substrate should be supplemented with organic nitrogen materials such as wheat
bran or cereal bran. The substrate is prepared by wetting the straw or sawdust
thoroughly in water for 16–18 h. After wetting, the excess water should be drained
out, and 20% wheat bran is added to the substrate on a dry weight basis and mixed
thoroughly. 1.5–2.0 kg of wet substrate is filled in each heat-resistant polypropylene
bag. The bags are then plugged with nonabsorbent cotton by inserting polypropylene
ring at the opening of the bag. The filled bags are sterilised in an autoclave for
90–120 min at 22 pounds per square inch of pressure. After sterilisation, the bags are
cooled down to room temperature and then inoculated with grain spawn at 10–15%
on a wet weight basis and then transferred to the incubation room at 22–25
C.
Spawn run will be completed within 15–20 days. After the completion of spawn run,
bags are removed and the blocks shifted to the cropping room. The temperature and
relative humidity of the cropping should be maintained at 12–14
C and 80–85%,
respectively. Pinheads start developing after 5–7 days after removing the bags.
Matured fruit bodies (Fig. 12.15) are harvested 3–4 days after pinning. The yield
may range from 300 to 400 g of fresh mushrooms per kg of dry substrate.
338 M. Shirur et al.

Fig. 12.13 Ready-to-fruit (RTF) bags for milky mushroom cultivation

Fig. 12.14 Fruiting of shiitake under short-duration cultivation technology

12.7 Future Thrust

Mushrooms being a nontraditional vegetable, the practice of cultivating different

species of mushrooms in rotation is not yet popular among the growers. Farmers in
the plains of Punjab and Haryana take up white button mushroom cultivation only
during winter by erecting the temporary bamboo houses in the fields. The growers in
coastal Orissa utilise the paddy straw to cultivate the paddy straw mushroom only.
The tribals in the northeast harvest the shiitake by adopting the wood log cultivation
technology. In Himachal Pradesh also, the mushroom production is largely limited
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 339

Fig. 12.15 Growing

Pleurotus eryngii under
controlled environmental
conditions

to winter season to produce white button mushroom. Though all these farmers show
enough acumen in exploiting the prevailing climatic conditions to grow mushrooms
by low-cost technology, they fail to realise the possibility of growing different
mushrooms in different seasons. Hence, notwithstanding the high demand for
white button mushroom, there is an urgent need in the paradigm shift in the adoption
of different mushrooms to achieve the diversification in mushroom cultivation to suit
the local conditions and demand. This is an important step to ensure the economic
production of mushrooms in climate-friendly manner.
The majority of the seasonal growers in North India prepares the compost by
following a long method to cultivate white button mushroom. Long method of
composting was replaced by a short method in European countries long back due
to its low productivity, disease incidence, long duration and the pollution effect on
the environment. However, special structures like pasteurisation tunnel and bunkers
requiring heavy investment hinder many Indian farmers from switching to this
improved composting technology. Wheat straw, the main raw material used in the
preparation of selective compost, is costing Rs 7–8 or more, adding to the high cost
of mushroom production. The future research must focus to develop state-of-the-art
low-cost alternative structures and try other farm wastes and residues in the
composting technology. The idea of cooperatives and community pasteurisation
tunnels to prepare the compost is to be strongly encouraged. The United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP)- and District Rural Development Agency
(DRDA)-sponsored bulk-composting schemes to encourage small mushroom
growers need to be replicated in other potential areas of the country. Places are to
be identified, offering scope to cultivate button mushrooms under natural conditions
during a particular season.

Challenges to Mushroom Industry

Mushroom cultivation is a capital intensive and also increases with the increase in
farm size; the financial assistance through institutional agencies at a cheaper interest
340 M. Shirur et al.

rate would be the desirable entity. Farmers’ cooperative marketing societies must be
promoted to take care of surplus quantity of mushroom producer. Mushroom is a
highly perishable crop and prone to high temperature; marketing infrastructures such
as cold storage facilities are of immense importance (Ram Singh and Subhash
Chandra 2008).

Research and Policy Issues

The policy must aim to remove the anomalies in giving subsidy to mushroom
production activity. There is no uniform policy among different state governments
to give subsidy to seasonal growers by putting temporary growing structures. Also, it
is not clear about the subsidy on inputs like chicken manure, gypsum, etc., that are
excessively used in mushroom production activity. The electricity tariff for con-
trolled units of mushroom production is also a case of another anomaly. Many state
governments are considering mushroom houses as industrial units. However, since
mushroom is a vegetable, it must be considered as an agriculture activity for
electricity tariff.
The research has to focus on developing the cultivation technology of many wild
mushrooms, which are consumed in different parts of the country. Biochemical
studies on medicinal and pharmaceutical compounds present in such mushrooms
need to be encouraged. Since the morphological features of mushrooms cannot be
relied upon for their edibility, possibility of an efficient bioassay to differentiate the
poisonous and edible mushrooms if explored can be of great value. Such tools will
greatly help to educate the tribals and common people to avoid the tragic deaths
occurring due to consumption of poisonous mushrooms.
Mushrooms are promoted as an important agribusiness activity to address the
issue of environmental and ecological degradation. Mushroom cultivation though
uses the farm wastes and recycles them; the disposal of spent mushroom substrate
(substrate remaining after taking of crop) sometimes emanates foul smell causing
irritation among the inhabitants in the area. Proper disposal of SMS, their use in
vermicomposting, conversion into biofuel, etc., need further attention from
researchers. The use of polythene for filling the compost and spawn also contradicts
mushroom business as environment-friendly activity. The substitution of polythene
with biodegradable materials for the same purpose needs similar kinds of efforts.
Besides unavailability, low per capita consumption of mushrooms among Indians
is mainly attributed to unawareness about the mushroom cooking. Mushroom
cooking is not much different from other cooking many other vegetables. Deliberate
efforts must be made to popularise common mushroom recipes through print and
electronic media. Postharvest processing of mushrooms to prepare the value-added
products like pickle, biscuits, soup powder, papad, jam, murabba, candy, etc., can
augment the consumption of mushrooms along with generating enough employment
opportunities for women entrepreneurs and self-help groups in the rural areas.
Mushrooms, if served in the ICDS (Integrated Child Development Services) project,
would serve the objective of the scheme. ICDS offers supplementary nutrition to
nearly ten million beneficiaries through more than 10 lakhs Anganwadi Centers
(AWCs) in India. All the Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) across India must assume a
greater role in this endeavour.
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 341

Training and Education

Much needs to be done on extension and education on mushrooms. Children and
students can be best educated by including the mushrooms in their curriculum. The
state agriculture universities must include a comprehensive practical course on
mushroom cultivation technology. This would enable the students to foresee and
pursue an agribusiness activity involving the production, processing and marketing
of mushrooms.
The Directorate of Mushroom Research (DMR), Solan, its more than 30 centres
of AICMIPs (All India Coordinated Mushroom Improvement Projects) situated
across India, state departments of horticulture and many other NGOs provide
short-term training on mushroom cultivation technology. All these trainings do
help the people in getting exposed to different mushrooms and impart the knowledge
about their cultivation technology. However, it is felt that the long-duration training
aiming at imparting skills required for various aspects of mushroom cultivation like
the spawn production, substrate preparation, maintenance of growing conditions,
systematic and safe disposal of SMS, etc., is the need of the hour. The DMR is
offering a long-term (three-month) comprehensive training module on this line.
Mushroom cultivation training courses merit similar modules because of the need
to understand the scientific and technical aspects involved in its cropping cycle and
its activities.
Unlike many other crops and commodities, not much is done in developing a
reliable decision support system (DSS) or an expert system on mushroom cultivation
technology. In an era of information technology, such a system will help the farmers
in making intelligent decisions in selecting a particular mushroom variety to suit to
the local climatic conditions prevailing in their locality. The DSS must also address
the needs of the existing mushroom growers with respect to the incidence of pest and
disease and their control measures for enhanced economic returns to the farmers and
entrepreneurs. Similar content can be made available in CD-ROM at an affordable
price to cater to the information needs of many farmers. Recent experiences suggest
that such content gives better results when used in conjunction with other modes of
instruction. Since there is a reluctance to accept computer-assisted instruction (CAI)
as a sole teaching method (Herriot et al. 2004), combining the digital content with
traditional teaching methods will improve the learning effectiveness. Some of the
efforts of the Directorate of Mushroom Research, Solan, to popularise mushroom
farming and mushroom consumption are given in Table 12.7.
At a time when agriculture is in distress, farmers look up to activities, which can
improve their livelihood security. Mushroom cultivation is one such agribusiness
which can help farmers realise better returns compared to many other crops or
enterprises. If all the research, extension and policy issues concerning mushroom
growers are addressed with empathy, there will be certainly a sea change in the
growth prospects of mushroom cultivation in India. Mushrooms have the potential to
play a strategic role in maintaining ecological health, reducing rural poverty and
unemployment, and thus would make a world of difference to our agrarian
community.
342 M. Shirur et al.

Table 12.7 Innovative extension methods tried at ICAR-Directorate of Mushroom Research,

Solan (HP)
Process (how the method is
Title of the innovative developed and how it is being
extension method used in the field) Impact on stakeholders
Regional mushroom mela and Having seen the demand and The regional melas and kisan
interaction with farmers response of national goshthis were received with a
(Pradeshik khumb mela va mushroom mela which is held lot of expectations by the
kisan goshthi) annually at the ICAR-DMR, seasonal mushroom growers.
Solan, we started organising Prior to each such mela, the
the regional mushroom mela multidisciplinary team of
among the cluster of scientists undertook the
mushroom growers. Such survey to understand the
melas were held in Sonepat, situations in the area. Such
Panipat, Hoshiarpur, Bilaspur melas were instrumental in
(HP) and Jammu educating the farmers about
good mushroom cultivation
practices to overcome the
incidence of pest and diseases
These melas went beyond
giving advisory and extension
services. They were also used
as a tool to popularise
mushrooms as a health food
among the common public
Web-based decision support The platform gave the Farmers and entrepreneurs are
system/mushroom opportunities for the farmers logging in to get the
information system (Agri and entrepreneurs with net information on need basis. All
Daksh) accessibility to interact with the static information on
experts on the problems faced mushroom cultivation,
by them compost and substrate
preparation, value addition
and postharvest practices are
given in the system
Strategy for need-based Rather than having a uniform All training programmes are
training aspects of different or blanket training in huge demand with seats
duration programme on mushroom getting filled 3–4 months
cultivation aspects, we have ahead of scheduled date
formulated trainings of
different duration covering
different aspects which are
need based. A ten-day
training programme
highlighting large-scale
environment-controlled units,
seven-day training for
livelihood-based mushroom
farming and three-day
trainings on spawn
production and processing
have been formulated
(continued)
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 343

Table 12.7 (continued)

Process (how the method is
Title of the innovative developed and how it is being
extension method used in the field) Impact on stakeholders
Bulk SMS service for Using the bulk SMS facility, Aimed to reach the
publicity we disseminated information stakeholders in time with less
about the extension events resource wastage and larger
and crop advisory services outreach compared to
traditional means of
communication of writing
letters
Farmer-scientist-industry This initiative was taken to Well appreciated by the
interface bring the stakeholders in industrialists, entrepreneurs
mushroom cultivation on and mushroom growers. The
platform to discuss the road scientists were made aware
ahead to improve the scope about the farmers’ practical
and opportunities of problems and find solutions
mushroom cultivation in the on the problem faced by them
country
Digital content delivery of The increasing demand for The digital content
mushroom cultivation to new the training on mushroom documentaries on mushroom
mushroompreneurs cultivation was not met cultivation have been widely
adequately by the ICAR- received by the prospective
DMR and state department mushroom growers. The
personnel. Hence, this idea documentaries have been
was taken up to cater to the used to complement the
needs of the entrepreneurs to lectures and discussion in the
give them the necessary basic training programmes to show
information on mushroom the procedure from the
cultivation cropping beginning to the end
management practices on
different varieties of
mushrooms and spawn
production

By preferring mushroom production in place of Rabi crops on fertile fields,

farmers of Haryana and Punjab take a measured risk. However, our interaction
with farmers revealed that climatic conditions in North Indian plains during the
winter season support good mushroom production without costly environmental
manipulation required for their cultivation. Erection of temporary structures during
the winter season also ensures the availability of land for growing field crops during
the rest of the year. Materials used for structures such as bamboos are often reused.
Hence, ideally, the profit from the mushroom production is much higher in
subsequent years as the cost of the sheds is not incurred.
Farmers of Haryana and Punjab shift the site of mushroom production from the
previous years to reduce the incidence of soilborne diseases. This practice by many
farmers is praiseworthy as widespread occurrence of wet bubble, green mould,
brown plaster mould, etc., can be reduced else. It results in a heavy loss of income
to farmers (Sharma and Kumar 2000). Few of the farmers also used yellow sticky
344 M. Shirur et al.

traps to counter the menace of small mushroom flies in the growing rooms. This
cost-effective and efficient practice results in a significant reduction of flies in the
mushroom sheds (Kumar and Sharma 1999).
The compost, on which mushrooms are grown, is a selective medium for the
growth of white button mushroom mycelium (Sinden and Hauser 1950). Production
and quality of mushrooms is decided by compost quality. Compost is prepared by
two different methods, the short method and the long method. Short method
composting takes less time but is cost-intensive on account of machinery and
pasteurisation tunnels (Sinden and Hauser 1950; Vijay 2011). Hence, farmers
adopt a long method of composting to reduce the investment. By lab analysis, the
best compost for white button mushroom will have 68–72% moisture and pH of
7.2–7.8. Many progressive farmers use pH paper to analyse compost pH and few
even get the compost analysed in research laboratories of ICAR-DMR, Solan,
ICAR-IARI, New Delhi, and Haryana Agro-Industrial Corporation (HAIC),
Murthal, Haryana.
Seasonal mushroom cultivation during winter brings a copious supply of fresh
button mushrooms in vegetable markets of North India during winter season. Special
mushroom mandis are organised by farmer groups and vegetable vendors in several
cities. Farmers continue to get good prices for mushroom throughout the season.
However, on several occasions, sharp decline in mushroom prices is also seen. In
such cases, some farmers decide to sell the produce to nearby canning units or to
pickling units. This will at least save their cost of transportation to vegetable
markets.

12.8 Conclusion

Innovation and adoption of various technologies by seasonal mushroom growers of

four North Indian states have resulted in considerable economic profit to them. It
also provides job opportunities for a huge number of labourers. These labourers from
adjoining states usually migrate during mushroom growing season to Haryana and
Punjab to cater the need. In that way, the core labour group refreshes their skill of
mushroom growing year after year, thereby becoming more experienced, and the
employers get dependable persons to take care of whole activity. The labourers
usually work under a leader on contractual basis, and relationship between
employers and labourers becomes enduring. This ensures smooth running of
whole process. Economic returns claimed by farmers are huge; many growers with
60–80 huts or above claim to have crossed one crore turn over in a season. Hence, we
may opine that the seasonal mushroom growing activity by North Indian farmers has
reached a level akin to small-scale industry and efforts are needed to replicate this
success in other parts of the country with similar climatic conditions and resources.
Interpolation of many such indigenous practices has inherent potential to bring
desirable changes in the lives of rural folk. Detailed economic and social impact
analysis of such activity needs further investigation and interventions by scientists to
further refine the location-specific technologies.
12 Sustainable Production of Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Implications on. . . 345

The economic success in mushroom farming has huge implications on the

survival of mushroom cultivation as an agri-enterprise and for livelihood security
of small and marginal farmers. Therefore, the round the year cultivation and
targeting regular supply of fresh mushrooms must be ensured among the farmers.
This will also help to improve the consumption of mushrooms over a period of time.

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farmers income through horticulture. Daya Publishing House, New Delhi, pp 847–852
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Climate-Resilient Vegetable Farming:
Approaches for Sustainable Development 13
Sudheer Kumar Annepu, Sunil A. Nair, Shivender Thakur, and
Vinay Verma

Abstract

Climate change is an alarming phenomenon with potential impacts on agriculture

production systems across the globe. Uneven weather patterns as a result of
changing climate traces its origin both from natural and anthropogenic factors.
It has been forecasted by several global agencies that, until 2050, climate change-
related adversaries will lead to a 2% decline in total agricultural production in
every decade. The developing countries with high population density are more
vulnerable to this phenomenon. Besides recurring crop failures due to climate
change, the immediate consequences may be observed as altered soil fertility
status, a resurgence in insect-pest and pathogen levels, and abnormal behavioral
changes in the pollinators, which ultimately lead to a reduction in productivity of
crops including the vegetables. Vegetable crops are vital sources of nutrition by
supplementing the minerals, vitamins, crude fibers, and many other vital dietary
elements. In cultivation of vegetable crops, several improved agronomic practices
have been evolved over time for different regions. With prudent application, these
practices have potential to mitigate the effects of climate change.

Keywords
Climate change · Nutrition · Adaptation · Mitigation · Indigenous vegetable crops

S. K. Annepu (*) · S. A. Nair · S. Thakur · V. Verma

Department of Vegetable Science, Dr YSPUH&F, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 347
Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_13
348 S. K. Annepu et al.

13.1 Introduction

Horticulture, which includes cultivation of fruit crops; vegetable crops; flower crops;
medicinal, aromatic, and plantation crops; mushroom cultivation; etc., is an essential
sector of agriculture and contributes immensely to the Indian economy. These crops
impart the diversification in the agriculture sector and improve farmers’ livelihoods
by generating additional employment and enhanced farm income. India is bestowed
with a wide range of climatic conditions, and many of the horticultural crops can be
grown naturally in one or other parts of the country. In the last three decades, the
horticulture sector has recorded exceptional growth in India owing to the technolog-
ical innovations, improved varieties, and policy interventions. Vegetable crops due
to their short growing period, high productivity per unit area, and the presence of
high nutritional attributes assume special significance among the horticulture crops.
Fresh vegetables are considered an effective dietary source of nutrition, thus
occupying a prominent role in the regular diet of all categories of people, irrespective
of the social and economic status.

13.1.1 Vegetable Crops for Improved Nutrition

Vegetables, being rich in vitamins, minerals, dietary fibers, roughages, and other
essential amino acids, play an essential role in ensuring the nutritional security of the
burgeoning population. In several tropical and subtropical regions of the world, root
and tuber vegetable crops such as potato, sweet potato, cassava, yams, etc., consti-
tute an important source of carbohydrates. Leguminous vegetables, viz., peas, beans,
and vegetable soya bean, offer good-quality protein with high digestibility. They
also contribute trace minerals, vitamins, roughages, and dietary fibers. Many of the
minor and underexploited vegetable crops are rich sources of phytochemicals,
antioxidants, and several other secondary metabolites, which help in boosting the
human immunity (Table 13.1). Epidemiological studies show that a higher intake of
fruits and vegetables reduces the incidence of lifestyle-related diseases, including
cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases.
Living organisms cannot synthesize the minerals biochemically. They need to be
supplemented through drinking water and the external diet. Among the minerals,
calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium are the five major
minerals that humans need along with the other trace minerals with specific
biological activity. Leafy vegetables such as spinach, amaranth, drumstick, and
palak are particularly rich in these mineral elements (Natesh et al. 2017). Intake of
vegetables, 300 g/day, is almost sufficient to meet the recommended dietary allow-
ance of most of the nutrients (NIN 2011).
Though traditional cultivation of vegetables attained much progress in China,
India, and several other South Asian countries, the per capita consumption and
availability of vegetables in Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and some of the
Latin American countries is far below than the requirement to provide adequate
nutrition. Realizing the importance of vegetable crops in nutritional security, the
13 Climate-Resilient Vegetable Farming: Approaches for Sustainable Development 349

Table 13.1 Vegetable crops rich in bioactive compounds/phytochemicals

Nutraceuticals/
bioactive
compounds Vegetables Properties
Allylsulfides, Onion, garlic Antibacterial;
fructan antifungal
Anthocyanin Black carrot, beetroot, red amaranth, red lettuce, Anti-inflammatory;
red cabbage, brinjal antitumor
Butylphthalide Celery Anti-hypertension
Capsaicin Chilli Anti-inflammatory
Carotenoids Leafy vegetables, carrot, orange cauliflower, Antioxidant; antitumor
orange flesh sweet potato and cassava,
muskmelon, pumpkin
Ferulic acid Turnip Antioxidant; antiaging
Flavonoids Beans Reported to treat
(isoflavones) menopausal symptoms
Folate Chenopodiaceae (spinach, Swiss chard, beet Prevents DNA damage
greens)
Glucosinolates Cole crops (cabbage, cauliflower, sprouting Antibacterial;
broccoli, Brussels sprout) antifungal; antiviral;
antitumor
Hesperitin Green vegetables Anti-inflammatory
Luteoline Cauliflower, celery Reduces eye disorders
Polyphenols Potato, brinjal, okra, leafy vegetables, onion Antioxidant; fights
against cardiovascular
disease
Resveratrol Red onion Anti-inflammatory;
antitumor
Silymarin Compositae plants (artichoke) Hepatoprotective
Source: Rai et al. (2012), Singh et al. (2020)

majority of the countries fall under these regions, given utmost importance to boost
vegetable crop production. Past achievements are significant in many countries.
However, the challenges remain much greater than past achievements. For instance,
India is feeding 17% of the global population with a mere 2.3% of land area and
4.5% of hydrological resources. In the coming years, the challenges to agriculture,
particularly vegetable crops, will continue to increase due to the accumulating
problems such as higher population growth, increasing pressure on cultivable land,
and shrinking water reserves within the potentially hostile scenario of climate
change. The uncertain weather patterns created by the changing climate further
aggravate these problems.
350 S. K. Annepu et al.

13.2 Impact of Climate Change on Vegetable Cultivation

Climate change, a much-discussed phenomenon in recent time, is posing a major

challenge in the twenty-first century for ensuring food security and ecological
balance. Climate change is defining in many ways, but its consequences ultimately
lead to a significant rise in the mean average global temperature.
Being succulent in nature, vegetable crops are highly vulnerable to extreme
changes in the growing environment. The environmental factors, viz., temperature,
moisture stress, and CO2 levels, have been reported to affect crop yield adversely. In
addition to a reduction in yield levels, frequent crop failures, poor quality, higher
incidence of pest, and disease incidence are the common problems arising due to
these environmental stresses (Koundinya et al. 2017). Though some of the vegetable
crops exhibit positive responses to the elevated atmospheric CO2 levels, the end
results are reported to be undoubtedly negative (Bisbis et al. 2018). In certain crops,
higher level of atmospheric CO2 reported to led to inreased yields. This phenomenon
has been conceptualized as carbon fertilization. However, higher levels of warming
have been perceived to influence physiology and metabolism in the majority of
vegetable crops.
Further, prolonged exposure of plants to the high radiation levels results in
accumulation of more antioxidants in the plant parts. Similarly, when plants are
exposed to persistent moisture stress conditions, the plants will improve its effi-
ciency to utilize the available water resources. Further, extension in the cropping
periods has been observed due to the increased mean temperatures mainly in the
northern hemisphere. This phenomenon helps in ensuring the market supply for
longer durations.
Despite these beneficial effects, the impact of climate change is found to be
significantly detrimental in several areas. It has been widely reported in the literature
regarding the loss of nutrient contents and deterioration of morphological quality in
the majority of the vegetables due to high-temperature stress. Raise in temperature
leads to a higher respiration rate and hastens the postharvest spoilage of perishable
vegetables. Continuous rise in mean temperatures shifts the cropping period by
accelerating the phonology in many vegetable crops, whereas, in temperate vegeta-
ble crops, a higher temperature is a major limiting factor for fulfilling the vernaliza-
tion requirement and possesses a great challenge to its seed production process.
Erratic rainfalls are likely to reduce seed yields. New pests, diseases, and weeds
thrive well under the global warming conditions and therefore compete with the
main crop (Fig. 13.1).

13.3 Strategies for Climate-Resilient Vegetable Farming

UNFCCC has envisaged two main strategies to counteract climate change, viz.,
mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation relates to reducing the severity of climatic
change by minimizing the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions employing carbon sink
or by imbibing them through plant biomass. The adaptation measures minimize the
13 Climate-Resilient Vegetable Farming: Approaches for Sustainable Development 351

Effect of Climate Change on

Vegetable Crops
High atmospheric CO2 Erratic rain fall
High temperature Drought stress

Extended production period Recurring crop failures

Carbon fertilization Poor marketing quality

Better water use efficiency High respiration and spoilage

More antioxidants Incidence of new pest & diseases

Crop-weed competition
Insufficient vernalization

Loss of nutrients and minerals

Accelerated development

Fig. 13.1 Beneficial and adverse effects of climate change on vegetable crops (Source: Bisbis et al.
2018)

negative aspects of climatic changes or taking measures to reduce the negative

aspects and seeking alternatives through suitable agronomic measures. Though
both are complementary in nature, few points clearly differentiate adaptation from
mitigation. Unlike mitigation, adaptation doesn’t consider the causes of climate
change. Adaptation takes advantage of positive impacts, while the mitigation
reduces both negative impacts. The immediate vulnerability of vegetable crops to
the climate extremities can be minimized by the adaptation strategy with direct
visible benefits. A mitigation strategy provides a long-term benefit with wider
scale visibility. An adaptation measure alone doesn’t eliminate the negative impacts.
Hence, both mitigation and adaptation have to be followed holistically for optimal
results (IPCC 2007; Muller 2009). Breeding techniques and resource conservation
technologies are some of the examples of adaptation measures. Minimizing the
carbon footprint in agriculture by reducing the use of fossil fuel-based agrochemicals
and carbon sequestration are few of the mitigation strategies.
The following are some of the widely recommended strategies for climate-
resilient vegetable farming.

13.3.1 Genetic Improvement

Genetic improvement is an adaption strategy that prepares the crop plants to adapt to
the expected climatic extremities. The fundamental requisite for the genetic
improvement in this direction is the presence of genetic variability in the existing
plant population. The diversity can be explored with various selection procedures.
Screening techniques such as diffused porometry measure the leaf water
352 S. K. Annepu et al.

Table 13.2 Varieties with abiotic stress tolerance in different vegetable crops released for
cultivation in India
Abiotic stress factor Crop Variety
Temperature stress Tomato Pusa Sheetal; Pusa Hybrid 1; Pusa Sadabahar
Cucumber Pusa Barkha
Bottle gourd Pusa Santusthi
Carrot Pusa Kesar
Radish Pusa Himani
Potato Kufri Surya
Cauliflower Arka Vimal; Arka Spoorthi, Pusa Meghna
Drought stress Tomato Arka Vikas
Sweet potato Sree Nandini
Cassava Sree Sahya
Salinity stress Tomato Sabout Suphala
Brinjal Pragati and Pusa Bindu
Okra Pusa Sawani
Musk melon Jobner 96–2
Spinach beet Jobner Green
Onion Hissar-2
Source: Koundinya et al. (2017)

conductance; the mini-rhizotron technique can be used for measuring the root
penetration, distribution, and its density. Carbon isotope discrimination, drought
index measurement, infrared thermometry, and visual scoring are some other
techniques helpful to identify the stress-responsive genetic stock. The selection of
the resistant plants from the existing populations and subsequent development of
new varieties from their progeny is the next step in this process. Further, using this
genetic stock in hybridization process helps in the transfer of desirable genes into the
agronomically superior cultivars (Table 13.2).
The major result of climate change is a shift in the cropping season, which
reduces the duration of favorable environment needed for crop growth. Because of
this shift, breeding for short duration varieties is of prime importance to fit the crop
into the stress avoidance category. Wild relatives are the reservoirs of the desired
gene combinations that confer the resistance to many abiotic stresses. Such genes
can be identified and introgressed into the cultivated varieties either by conventional
breeding techniques or with the aid of modern biotechnological tools. India is
endowed with a large germplasm pool of 58,250 accessions being scientifically
conserved in different research organizations. Recent advances in the marker-
assisted selection provide an opportunity for effective screening of the germplasm.
Phenomics-based studies help in characterization of individual germplasm under
controlled growing conditions. High-throughput phenomics facilitates the
ultramicroscopic-level observations to improve the precision in selection.
13 Climate-Resilient Vegetable Farming: Approaches for Sustainable Development 353

13.3.2 Protected Cultivation

Growing vegetable crops under protected structures is gaining popularity from the
last decade intending to meet the off-season market demand. Protected cultivation,
either in fully controlled or partially controlled growing structures, is highly benefi-
cial to mitigate the unfavorable environmental conditions that hinder the cultivation
of vegetable crops. Besides allowing the crops to survive under varying growing
conditions, protected cultivation allows them to extend the harvest period. Better
control is possible for pest and disease management with minimal pesticide applica-
tion. Input use efficiency is relatively higher under protected growing conditions.
Hi-tech greenhouses enable to regulate the key growth parameters such as tempera-
ture, CO2 requirement, and humidity through automation. Aeroponics and hydro-
ponics systems are completely free from the soil-related stress factors and also
prevent the incidence of soilborne pathogens. At present, protected structures are
primarily confined to the production of high-value crops, and it needs to be upscaled
to ensure the year-round supply of vegetables.

13.3.3 Agronomic Practices

Agronomic practices such as mulching, zero tillage, crop rotation, and organic soil
cover help to mitigate the atmospheric GHGs by reducing the net emissions in the
cultivation process. Resource conservation practices minimize the disturbance in soil
ecosystem and hasten the process of carbon sequestration. Reduced or zero tillage
minimizes the oxidation of organic carbon and its subsequent escape in the form of
CO2 into the atmosphere. Do not till or little till is the present-day slogan to manage
the consumption of fossil fuels and climate change-associated problems. It has been
estimated that globally conservative agronomic practices can mitigate up to 0.39 t
CO2 equivalent/ha/year under a dry climate and 0.98t CO2 equivalent/ha/year under
a moist climate (Smith et al. 2007). It was also estimated that conservation tillage and
effective management of crop residues could reduce the emissions as much as 0.35t
CO2 equivalent/ha/year under warm, dry climate and 0.72 CO2 equivalent/ha/year
under warm, moist climate (Smith et al. 2007; Milder et al. 2011). Baker et al. (2007)
reported that 25 Gt of carbon could be sequestered by adapting the conservation
tillage in total croplands at the global level. Moreover, slower decomposition of
organic matter is associated with the conservation tillage (Drury et al. 2006), thus
reducing the CO2 emission than the conventional tillage.

13.3.4 Grafting

Grafting is a vegetative reproductive technique that joins the tissues of two different
plants and allows it to grow into a single plant. Grafting is widely practiced in fruit
crops and plantation crops. However, it is not popularized in vegetable cultivation.
However, recent studies indicated that its potential could be well exploited to make
354 S. K. Annepu et al.

the plants adapt to climate adversities. Grafting of a susceptible scion onto a

rootstock possessing the resistance to specific abiotic stress is the best way to utilize
the available diversity (Koundinya et al. 2014). In the recent times, several attempts
were made to achieve the high temperature tolerance in tomato and achieved
significant level of success. Solanum melongena EG 203 (Burleigh et al. 2005)
and S. habrochaites LA1777 (Venema et al. 2008) were used as rootstocks, to
achieve high- and low-temperature tolerance, respectively. Sakata et al. (2007)
reported that drought tolerance in watermelon could be achieved by grafting onto
ash gourd plants. Grafting onto Solanum melongena rootstock helped in bacterial
wilt and flooding tolerance in tomato (Palada and Wu 2007).

13.3.5 Integrated Cropping Systems

Integrated cropping systems such as mixed cropping, intercropping, strip cropping,

and relay cropping have showed the ability in carbon sequestration, thereby acting as
a potential mitigation choice (Wang et al. 2010). Crop failures, reduction in crop
yields, and higher pest and disease incidence are the major consequences of climate
change. Under such circumstances, integrated cropping systems play a more benefi-
cial role than mono-cropping. The loss due to climate change in one crop can be
compensated by another crop. An integrated cropping system mainly aims to
increase farm income by means of diversification. Among the vegetables, legumes
offer a better opportunity to use them in intercropping and mixed cropping systems.
Research work in rainfed areas has shown that intercropping with specific planting
geometry and selection of compatible crops is a cost-effective practice to increase the
input use efficiency (Goswami et al. 2002). Tree-based intercropping (TBI) systems
and agro-forestry are also supposed to be effective in mitigating GHGs.

13.3.6 Farming with Perennials

Perennial vegetable crops such as Moringa oleifera, Parkia roxburghii, Sesbania

grandiflora, and Piper mullesua maintain the ground cover for prolonged periods
and, in turn, improve the soil health and soil structure. With their deep root system,
these crops bind the soil particles together and support the microbial processes that
increase the water-stable aggregates and soil organic matter. Growing of perennial
crops also reduces soil erosion. Drumstick is well adaptable to dry and hot climates
of peninsular India and is considered as drought-resistant vegetable crop. Moreover,
farming with perennials acts as a mitigation strategy by means of aerial carbon
sequestration.
13 Climate-Resilient Vegetable Farming: Approaches for Sustainable Development 355

13.3.7 Organic Farming (OF)

Agricultural systems are not only affected by climate extremities but also contribute
to it. About 10–12% of the global greenhouse emissions are generating from the
food production systems. In addition, modern agricultural practices led to deforesta-
tion and soil degradation. Hence, OF acts both as a mitigation strategy that will
address the emissions problem and as an adaptation technique by reducing the
pressure on conventional practices (Table 13.3). Organic farming increases the
resilience within the agroecosystem. It mimics the natural ecological processes and
thus suffers less damage compared to conventional agriculture. It is widely perceived
that OF is an alternative way to overcome the problems of global warming and the
challenge of sustainability. It has its roots in various terms, biodynamic, regenerative
agriculture, nature farming, and permaculture movements which developed in dif-
ferent countries.
In OF, emissions can be reduced through lower inorganic nitrogen input. It results
in a reduction of N2O emission and also eliminates the energy requirement in
manufacturing the inorganic fertilizers. OF stores the carbon in soil, and by
maintaining the high vegetation and intact soil structure, the CO2 emission as a
result of erosion can be minimized. OF is also found to be beneficial by minimizing
the soil erosion than the conventionally managed soils. Thus, it helps in carbon
sequestration by taking out the atmospheric CO2 and stores as soil organic matter.
The soils under OF are also more resilient to the floods and droughts by virtue of
higher soil organic matter.

Table 13.3 Mitigation and adaptation strategies offered by organic farming

Mitigation Adaptation
Reducing emissions of GHGs Application of traditional skills and farmers’
• Self-sufficient in nitrogen knowledge
• Reduced emissions of nitrous • Breeding of indigenous crop varieties
oxide • On-farm production of manures and
• Nitrogen efficiency bio-fertilizers
• Preparation of natural organic plant protection
chemicals
Carbon sequestration Soil fertility-building techniques
• Arresting soil erosion • In situ nitrogen enrichment by introducing the
• Carbon gain by organic leguminous plants
management
• No-tillage and minimum-tillage
cropping
Other than cultivation aspects A high degree of diversity
• Changes in consumer behavior and • Diversification with a mix of farm enterprises
diet patterns reduces vulnerability
• Stopping deforestation
356 S. K. Annepu et al.

13.4 Diversification of Vegetable Farming with Indigenous

and Aquatic Vegetables

Indigenous and minor vegetables are the traditional crop species that are native to
that particular region (Fig. 13.2). They are important in view of nutrition, health, and
sustainability of the social systems in the region where they have been evolved over
a period of time. Traditional vegetables enhance the multiplicity in the regular diet
with a balanced source of micronutrients. Unlike annual and biennial vegetable
crops, which has a major share in Indian vegetable production, perennials such as
drumstick, ivy gourd, pointed gourd, spine gourd, sweet gourd, breadfruit, chow-
chow, chekurmanis, etc., are grown and consumed in relatively small scale. These
perennial vegetables have a handful of vital nutrients, trace minerals, antioxidants,
and medicinally important bioactive compounds. Lack of knowledge in consumers’
and farmers’ tendency to grow annual vegetables renders these vegetables of minor
importance in the human diet. Further, exotic perennial vegetables such as aspara-
gus, rhubarb, artichokes, etc., are not part of the average Indian human diet even
today. Indigenous vegetables show substantiate biodiversity and are adapted to
specific marginal growing conditions with minimal inputs.
The indigenous perennial vegetables in which leaves are used as a vegetable are
Bacopa monnieri (Indian brahmi), Basella spp. (Indian spinach), Clerodendrum

a. Basellarubra b. Sauropusandrogynus c. Murrayakoenigii

d. Moringaoleifera e. Trichosanthesdioica f. Sesbaniagrandiflora

Fig. 13.2 Perennial indigenous vegetables

13 Climate-Resilient Vegetable Farming: Approaches for Sustainable Development 357

Table 13.4 List of indigenous perennial vegetables and their ethnobotanical use (leafy vegetables)
Local
Scientific name name/s Ethnobotanical use
Bacopa monnieri Indian Acts as a blood purifier and useful in treating diarrhea,
brahmi epilepsy, ulcers, and other digestion-related disorders
Basella spp. Indian Tender leaves, shoots, and leaf stalks are used in the
spinach preparation of soups and also used as a stew. It is used to
cure digestive disorders
Clerodendrum East A decoction prepared by boiling the leaves is used to reduce
colebrookianum Indian hypertension and rheumatic pains. Roots, along with the
glory barks, are used in treating asthma and bronchitis
Diplazium Vegetable The leaves are rich in minerals such as Zn, Mn, and
esculentum fern Fe. Leaves are used in culinary preparations and making the
pickles
Gmelina arborea Malay Its consumption is found to improve the appetite. The root
bush and bark are useful for treating the stomach pains and also
beech act as antihelmintic
Nymphaea spp. Water lily The rhizomes are sweet in taste, and its consumption is
found to be useful for treating diarrhea and dysentery
Paederia foetida Stinkvine Found to be useful in treating rheumatism, urinary bladder
stones, and flatulence
Pandanus Indian The fresh leaves are used as flavoring agent in cooking the
amaryllifolius pandan sweet dishes and rice preparations
Pisonia grandis Lettuce Leaves are used as diuretic and antidiabetic
tree
Polygonum spp. Knotweed Leaves are consumed as a vegetable after mixing with the
crushed ginger
Crambe cordifolia Greater The tender leaves have a pleasant cabbage-like flavor and
Sea kale are useful as a cure to itching
Zanthoxylum Tejamoo Its consumption is found to improve the appetite. The
hamiltonianum tender stem is used to brush teeth when there is a toothache

colebrookianum (East Indian glory), Diplazium esculentum (vegetable fern),

Gmelina arborea (Malay bush beech), Nymphaea spp. (water lily), Paederia foetida
(stinkvine), Pandanus amaryllifolius (Indian pandan), Pisonia grandis (lettuce tree),
Polygonum spp. (knotweed), and Urtica spp. (nettles). The indigenous perennial
vegetables in which fruit is used as vegetable are Coccinia grandis (ivy gourd),
Moringa oleifera (drumstick), Parkia roxburghii (tree bean), Piper mullesua (hill
pepper), Sesbania grandiflora (agathi), Solanum indicum (bush tomato), S. spirale
(titakuchi), and Trichosanthes dioica (pointed gourd) (Tables 13.4 and 13.5).
Including these traditional vegetables diversifies the existing production systems
and enhances the resilience to climate change.
358 S. K. Annepu et al.

Table 13.5 List of indigenous perennial vegetables in which fruits and leaves are used as
vegetable
Scientific Local
name name/s Ethnobotanical use
Coccinia Ivy gourd The tender fruits are used as a vegetable. Apart from the culinary
grandis usage, the juice extracted from the roots and leaves is used as
antidiabetic tonic
Moringa Drumstick The pods are rich in vitamins A and C. drumstick leaves and
oleifera pods are considered as mineral-packed vegetable with high
amounts of Fe, P, and Ca
Parkia Tree bean Tender shoots and flowers are used in culinary preparations and
roxburghii as salads. Tender pods are rich in dietary fibers, protein, and also
minerals such as P and Fe
Piper Hill The dried plant parts are found to cure malaria. Roots and fruits
mullesua pepper are used in Ayurvedic medicines
Sesbania Agathi It is a folk remedy for many disorders such as a diuretic,
grandiflora dysentery, sore throat, cataract disorders, and night blindness
Solanum Bush Fruits are consumed to cure digestive disorders, gastritis,
indicum tomato dysentery, etc.
S. spirale Titakuchi Green fruits possess anti-malaria properties. The dried fruits are
useful to cure gastric problems
Trichosanthes Pointed Tender fruits are consumed to overcome the problems of
dioica gourd satiation and constipation. It also improves appetite and
digestion
Source: Chadha and Patel (2007), Chadha (2009)

13.5 Aquatic Vegetables: An Underexploited Source to Combat

the Malnutrition

Southeast Asian countries have access to large water bodies, viz., fresh, saline, and
brackish. As this region is characterized by a high population rate, cultivation of
vegetables under aquatic conditions may meet the challenges of undernourishment
and chronic energy deficiency. Aquatic vegetables thrive in a natural habitat that
compensates space and nutrient requirements for completing its life cycle. Edible
aquatic plants are commonly grown in Southeast Asia countries such as China,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Vietnam, India, etc.
The common aquatic vegetables are water chestnut (Eleocharis tuberosa), lotus
root (Nelumbo nucifera), cattail (Typha latifolia), common water plantain mad-dog
weed (Alisma plantago-aquatica), water bamboo (Zizania latifolia), arrowhead
(Sagittaria sagittifolia), water dropwort (Oenanthe stolonifera), water caltrop
(Trapa spinosa), duck-lettuce (Ottelia alismoides), watershield (Brasenia
schreberi), water cress (Nasturtium officinale), water taro (Colocasia esculenta),
water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica), cordon euryale (Euryale ferox), and fragrant
water lily (Nymphaea odorata). Aquatic vegetables, viz., Trapa bispinosa, Ipomoea
13 Climate-Resilient Vegetable Farming: Approaches for Sustainable Development 359

aquatic, and Nelumbo nucifera, occupy lion’s share in food palate with daily
consumption exceeding 50 g in many Asian countries.

13.5.1 Importance of Aquatic Vegetables

A poor person in Southeast Asia spends almost three-quarters of their earnings on

food alone. It indicates their vulnerability to fluctuations in supply and cost of
vegetables and other food materials. Hence, cultivation of aquatic vegetables may
play a major role by reducing the spending on vegetables. Moreover, aquatic
vegetables are eco-friendly and free from pesticide residues. Thus, consumption of
these vegetables by the low-income group of Southeast Asia could reduce protein
shortages among the local population. These vegetables have the potential to
substitute the traditional vegetables which are widely under cultivation in several
Asian countries. The innovations in food processing technologies could improve the
palatability of these aquatic vegetables suitable for the culinary needs of the local
communities.
In India, several areas receive rainfall more than 110 cm and contain unique
wetland habitats ranging from high-altitude Himalayan lakes to the flood plains,
brackish cultures, and coastal wetlands especially in the west coast. These unique
backwaters and estuaries, areas with below sea level paddy cultivation especially the
lower Kuttanad region of Kerala, mangrove swamps, and coral reefs, offer abundant
scope for cultivation and expansion of such vegetables. Wetlands are the lifeline of
resources encompassed by features such as wildlife habitat, control the runoff and
minimizes the soil erosion, nutrient recycling besides maintaining stream-flow and
provision of fish, fodder and fuel. Besides the wetlands, the arid region of India,
mainly Rajasthan comprising of desert areas, is also host to a diversity of aquatic
species with an estimated one-fifth of the 1500 plant species reported (Razvy et al.
2011).

13.5.2 Nutritional Properties of Aquatic Vegetables

These vegetables are basically alkaline in nature, are rich in fibers associated with a
lesser occurrence of cardiovascular diseases (Peter 2002), and have low calorific
value. Water hyacinth was found to be rich in amino acids such as cysteine,
phenylalanine, and lysine. The lotus root, Cordon euryale, contains several alkaloids
useful for treatment of cardiovascular diseases (Meng et al. 2003). Aquatic
vegetables with nutraceutical properties, viz., brahmi, are administered to children
for combating nutritional deficiencies. Young shoots of Hydrolea zeylanica are
reported to possess antiseptic properties. Vallisneria spiralis is a rich source of P,
Ca, and Fe and can be used as a stomachic and for leukorrhea treatment. Ottelia
alismoides as astringent have also been reported (Pareek and Kumar 2014).
360 S. K. Annepu et al.

13.6 Vegetable Seed Production Under Climate Change

Scenario

Vegetable seed production is highly subjected to fluctuations in the mean tempera-

ture, which controls the physiology and metabolism and, in turn, decides the quality
of the seed to be produced (Ayyogari et al. 2014). Erratic precipitation during critical
stages of vegetative and reproductive growth has been reported to cause losses in
vegetable seed yield (Afroza et al. 2010). The Indian seed industry is on a positive
growth phase with a growth rate of 12% compared to <5% growth at the global
market. The very own “farmers saved seed” contributes 75% of the total requirement
of total seed in the country: the rest a mere 25% from the organized seed sector.
There is a large scope for India as a key player in the world seed industry if its
domestic seed production by the organized sector is doubled to 50%. The targeted
crop production could be achieved without tilling any excess landmass but through
evolution and breeding of varieties with the ability to cope with climate change-
induced changes (Ceccarelli et al. 2010). The following are the approaches
recommended to mitigate the effect of climate change on seed production activity.

13.6.1 Shifting Areas for Seed Production

The measures include shifting areas for seed production as reported during cabbage
seed production during 1971–1977 by Arya et al. (1979) wherein seed production
was advocated to be implemented in areas with narrow temperature fluctuations.
Kumar et al. (2009) observed 40% of reduction in seed yield in cabbage var. Golden
Acre (during 1981 to 2004). Seed production in lower altitudes (1200–1450 MSL)
was suggested as adaptive measures to ensure better seed yield. Another measure to
adapt is by adjusting the sowing/planting dates as reported by Olesen et al. (2011).
Singh et al. (2013) suggested changes in the date of sowing/planting dates so as to
minimize the effect of elevated temperatures during flowering and seed set. Hu et al.
(2017) upheld a similar opinion in case of potato seed production in semiarid
growing conditions. Optimum sowing during 10–27th of May was suggested so as
to target anticipated precipitation for higher yield.

13.6.2 Plant Breeding

Plant breeding measures include developing hybrids/varieties resistant to various

abiotic stresses, viz., drought, salinity, waterlogging heat stress resistance, and biotic
stress resistance through waterlogging; identification of suitable landraces for secur-
ing food security; and the use of conventional and molecular technologies, viz.,
marker-assisted breeding, transgenic breeding, and genome-wide selection.
Employing stable alleles in self-incompatibility and male sterility mechanisms
with the potential to perform well under alleviated temperature offers opportunity
to breeders in ensuring seed production in both open-pollinated varieties and F1
13 Climate-Resilient Vegetable Farming: Approaches for Sustainable Development 361

hybrids. The use of specific resistance source of grafted plants, viz., solanaceous
vegetables and cucurbits have increased in recent years as an adaptive measure to
counter saline, drought tolerance conditions, etc. Farmer’s participatory breeding
program by identifying farmers as “citizen scientist” facilitates the development of
varieties for local needs (Kidane et al. 2017) by taking consideration of the data
generated by the farmers. This helps to minimize costs, maximize resources, and
engage diverging technical skills across various organizations.

13.6.3 Establishment of Community Seed Banks

Community seed banks with repositories of local genetic diversity serve as a

measure to adapt to prevailing abiotic and biotic stresses. “Seed for needs” is an
ambitious program by Bioversity International to combat climate change.
Harnessing existing crop diversity and making it available to farmers is one of the
solutions offered by the agency as mostly crop diversity ends up in hands of vested
interests for commercial gains. The Navdanya Seed Bank in Uttarakhand, India, with
more than 54 community seed banks and 5000 crop varieties; the Svalbard Global
Seed Vault in Norway; the National Centre for Genetic Resources (NGCR),
Colorado; and the Vavilov Research Institute (VRI), Russia, are some of the
promising seed banks operating across the globe as adaptive measure to tackle
climate change.

13.7 Challenges and Way Forward

The development of new cultivars with improved resistance to both biotic and
abiotic stress factors induced by climate change is the immediate research priority.
The germplasm should be evaluated systematically to develop the varieties that can
sustain climate extremities by suitably adjusting its physiology. OMICS-based
approaches (genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, transcriptomics) aid to target
the potential genes that confer resistance to various stress factors. Such genes can
be identified and introgressed into the cultivated varieties either by conventional
breeding techniques or with the aid of modern biotechnological tools. The major
change induced by global warming is the gradual shift in the cropping season.
Hence, rescheduling of crop calendars and the development of standard package
of practices in accordance with modified seasonal calendars is necessary to minimize
the negative effects of climate change. The emerging technologies such as LiDAR
(light detection and ranging) and GIS (geographic information system) can be
utilized effectively to monitor the insect-pest outbreaks to biographic and physio-
graphic changes of the landscape. Integrated nutrient and pest management
strategies should be adopted to reduce the dependence on inorganic agrochemicals.
The development of early forecasting and disease monitoring models should be
developed for major pathogens that have a direct bearing on the productivity of the
vegetable crops and in turn the food security.
362 S. K. Annepu et al.

The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) in India has been
announced in 2008 with the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
(NMSA) among the other schemes with an aim to develop the climate-proof
agriculture practices. The knowledge and resources generated from these programs
could be effectively integrated with the knowledge of farm sciences to combat
climate change. Foreseeing the vast potential for cultivation of aquatic vegetables
and underexploited and indigenous perennial vegetables, there is an urgent need of
holistic approach to popularization of these vegetables on a large scale to achieve the
sustainability in vegetable farming.

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Integrating Local Knowledge in the Climate
Services for Resilience: A Case of “Haiyan” 14
Fishers

Ladylyn Lim Mangada

Abstract

Local knowledge has been recognized by scholars to have valuable contributions

to the larger issues of resilience, particularly in the provision of climate services.
Data for this study was drawn from 24 key informants and three focus group
discussions in six fishing communities in the Haiyan-affected provinces of Leyte
and Samar. Due to the lack of climate services, fishers still use the weather
patterns transmitted to them by their grandparents by observing the clouds and
behavior of plants or animals. By rethinking local knowledge beyond its per-
ceived weaknesses, integrating it in climate services and other government
programs and the inclusion of the voices of the fishing communities may result
in healthier, safe, and enhanced adaptive capacities even in places where margin-
ality abounds.

Keywords
Local knowledge · Resilience · Climate services · Haiyan fishers

14.1 Introduction

According to the World Risk Report (2017), after Vanuatu and Tonga, the
Philippines is the third country with the highest disaster risk worldwide due to its
comparatively high exposure to a number of hazards, such as typhoons, floods,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and sea-level rise. For these reasons, the Center for
Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters has “identified the Philippines as one of

L. L. Mangada (*)
UP Visayas Tacloban College, Tacloban, Philippines
e-mail: llmangada1@up.edu.ph

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 365
Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_14
366 L. L. Mangada

the most disaster-prone countries in the world” (Bankoff 2003). In fact, the “cumu-
lative hazard experience has led the people in the Philippines to develop a “culture of
disaster” in which risks and hazards become “normalized” as a part of everyday life”
(Bankoff 2003).
Before super typhoon (ST) Haiyan, fishing communities in the Leyte Gulf would
rely on fishers’ indigenous/local knowledge for preparedness and resilience to
climate change. However, after ST Haiyan, typhoons became more frequent and
severe, affecting the fishing community’s livelihoods. Fishers noticed sea-level rise,
the unpredictable onset of the dry and wet season, and the change in the distribution
and movement of fish species.
Some of the fishers admitted that indigenous knowledge on predicting weather
conditions has failed them in the past but remains helpful due to lack of timely,
relevant, and accessible climate services. Hence, here are few questions which need
to be answered: What are available climate services for the fishers? Do fishers make
use of these services? What are the advantages and weaknesses of the climate
services and indigenous/local knowledge in preparing for and responding to climate
change? What are the barriers to the lack of indigenous knowledge integration in
climate services?
This paper argues on government programs for adapting to the consequences of
climate change that do not give enough consideration to what really matters to fishers
and communities. Adaptation will be more readily and rationally adopted with the
incorporation of indigenous/local knowledge in the climate services. This is because
indigenous/local knowledge better represents local needs and desires. Fishers use
their perceptions to make decisions on coping and adapting to climate change.
Through indigenous/local knowledge, policymakers can understand how fishers
perceive and adapt to subtle climate changes before they design climate services for
the fishermen to use on climate change preparation and resilience.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released the most
scientifically valid report to date on climate change, which states that the impacts
of climate change will be “severe, pervasive and irreversible” (UNEP 2014). The
IPCC (2014) warns that time is running out swiftly to act against climate change if
the world wants to avoid catastrophic impacts.
Other leading scientific bodies, for example, the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), have reported that some of the (e.g., warming of oceans
and rising sea levels) adverse effects of climate change are already observable
throughout the world. Former US President Barack Obama has termed the problem
as urgent, growing, and immediate. A “once distant problem has come into the
present” (Obama 2014).
Mary Robinson, the UN special envoy on climate change, emphasized the
urgency in tackling the severity of climate as our generation comes to understand
the impacts of climate change (Lynch 2015). Scholars and scientists alike have
posited that the Pacific Islands will experience seasonal variations causing physical
changes in the environment such as temperature, sea level, precipitation, and winds
which will affect plants and animals, including fisheries (Kelman 2019).
14 Integrating Local Knowledge in the Climate Services for Resilience: A Case of. . . 367

The effect would last several months and would deviate from the expected
behavior of the seasons (Kelman 2019; Power 2010; Sterrett 2011; Tripathi et al.
2016). In fact, the World Risk Report (2017) mentioned that the Philippines is
currently the third country with the highest risk worldwide after Vanuatu and
Tonga, due to its comparatively high exposure to a number of hazards such as
typhoons, floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and sea-level rise. For these
reasons, the Philippines has been assessed by the Center for Research on the
Epidemiology of Disasters as a highly disaster-prone country so much so that
disasters have become a fact of life that Filipinos have had to learn to live with
(Bankoff 2003).
In the coastal areas of the Leyte Gulf, which is part of the Pacific Ocean, and
where fishing is the primary source of livelihood, unpredictable weather conditions
have posed severe threats to the livelihood sustenance of households. Natural and
human-induced climate changes are currently being blamed as the most significant
driver of the ongoing trend.
After ST Haiyan devastated the area, several efforts were launched to assist
coastal communities and households in mitigating threats and coping with the
multiple effects of unpredictable climatic conditions and other hazards. These efforts
have also begun catching the attention of some donors and those in public office.
However, a major drawback of the present approach to climate change adaptation in
the context of the studied area has been the lack of climate services for marginal
fishers. Moreover, the centuries-old knowledge/local practices in climate adaptation
are barely integrated into the said approach.
Due to the focus on “physical, engineering and technical aspects of the adaptation
planning process,” there is a lack of substantive studies on the climate adaptation
methods of fishers. As such, the perceptions and attitudes of fishers on climate
adaptation actions are understudied, partly due to that bias in adaptation planning.

14.2 Methodology

Leyte Gulf, located in the central-eastern part of the Philippines, covers the islands of
Leyte and Samar, including San Pedro Bay, which has a shelf area of 13,147 km2.
The average depth of the Gulf is 38 fathoms at the center and 8 fathoms in the bay. It
is considered as one of the richest fishing grounds in the Visayas.
There is an indication of corral growth on the 15-fathom contour of the Gulf along
the Northwest Coast, while the bottom is generally muddy. In terms of management,
the difficulty is encountered because of its multi-gear, multispecies fishery
characteristics. The Leyte Gulf is made up of 13 municipalities.
Six local government units can be found in the Leyte side, and eight
municipalities are located in the island of Samar. The fishers residing in the small-
scale fishing communities in the Leyte Gulf tend to be poor and uneducated. Most of
them rely on local ecosystems for their livelihoods. Rain-fed agriculture augments
368 L. L. Mangada

Fig. 14.1 Study sites

fishing during the lean season. The fishers are more likely to face further economic
hardship brought about by climate change.
In this study, the municipalities of Giporlos, Balangiga, Lawaan, Palo, Tanauan,
and the city of Tacloban were selected principally for the scale of Haiyan devastation
(Fig. 14.1). These areas were greatly impacted by ST Haiyan. Methods: For 4 weeks
in December 2019, 24 key informant interviews were conducted in the six fishing
communities to look into the available climate services for the fishers. Key
informants were identified through the author’s combination of personal and profes-
sional networks.
Three focus group discussions (FGDs) were held for a broader corroboration of
information obtained from key informants. Discussions revolved around local
knowledge, practices, and climate services and their perceptions of climate change.
Most of the participants of the FGDs were referred by the key informants.
They were orally requested to give their consent in the conduct of the FGDs and
interviews to give their understanding of the research and their permission to
14 Integrating Local Knowledge in the Climate Services for Resilience: A Case of. . . 369

participate and be quoted. There were seven to ten participants per FGD. The
average length of time of fishing for the fishers was 25 years. These fishers do not
carry mobile phones and, instead, rely on traditional knowledge.

14.2.1 Local Knowledge: What we Know

According to the WIPO (2017), “Traditional knowledge” refers to “knowledge,

skills, and practices that are developed, sustained, and passed on from generation
to generation within a community, often forming part of its cultural or spiritual
identity.”
Traditional knowledge “been conceptualized as a cumulative body of knowledge,
practice, and belief, evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through
generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings (includ-
ing humans) with one another and with their environment.” Local knowledge, on the
other hand, refers to knowledge that people in each community have developed and
continue to develop over time.
It is based on experience, often tested over centuries, adapted to the local culture
and environment, and embedded in community practices, institutions, relationships,
and rituals (UNEP 2014). Local knowledge is commonly understood as the long-
standing traditions and practices of certain regional, indigenous, or local
communities encompassing the wisdom, knowledge, and teachings of these
communities (Wan Talaat et al. 2012). Traditional and local knowledge are ways
of understanding culture and, in so doing, in understanding the world. Transmitting a
body of knowledge, beliefs, and practices through the use of locally available
resources to improve human health and well-being is an important function of
culture in traditional societies (Gomez-Baggethun et al. 2012).
For instance, in the absence of basic navigation tools such as maps and compass,
the head fisher had to rely on his traditional/local knowledge for navigation and
location of fishing points. His tools are his senses and mental images; hence, the
entire boat depends on his skills. Hasan (2015) described it as if the head fisher has
the map of the sea instead of a physical compass, and his concept is guided by the
rising and setting of the key star and constellations, as well as wind direction.
Several studies have been published in recent decades emphasizing on the
substantial contribution of traditional knowledge to matters as important as resource
management, socio-ecological resilience, and biodiversity conservation (Saylor et al.
2017; Gomez-Baggethun et al. 2012; Berkes et al. 1995, 2000). In terms of disaster
risk reduction strategies, Mercer et al. (2012) highlighted the importance of
incorporating culture on adaptation and disaster risk reduction strategies and
strongly proposed that disaster risk reduction policies should be culturally respon-
sive (Berkes 1993).
Despite not being a focus or institutionally acknowledged by the policymakers in
Bangladesh, Anik and Khan (2012) stressed the importance of local knowledge for
climate change adaptation. In addition, marginalization of the at-risk population,
370 L. L. Mangada

which are communities lacking in political representation and with poor socioeco-
nomic status, leaves them vulnerable to disaster (Phillips and Morrow 2007).
They were also less likely to receive, analyze, and act appropriately to hazard
forecasts and warnings. Indigenous/local knowledge can enrich scientific data as
information on change of climate over time is critical for verifying climate models
and climate change scenarios. A solid understanding and respect for age-old knowl-
edge system can provide an important foundation for resilience.

14.3 Results and Discussion

14.3.1 Fishers’ Local Knowledge and Practices for Climate-Related

Events Prior to ST Haiyan

The fishers in the Leyte Gulf would read signs or take a cue from nature—the wind,
animal behavior, and the appearance of indicator plants’ leaves and flowers—to
predict weather conditions. According to respondents, “The color of the sky would
alert us of good or bad weather. If it turns red, it means tomorrow, and the
succeeding days would have bad weather. If the clouds turn dark, it means stormy
and strong winds are approaching.”
Based on the weather conditions (waves and sea currents), if it’s dangerous to
continue fishing, then we secure our boats to higher and safer ground and go home.
There are months that we observe and follow where the catch is very good. For
example, the northeastern wind (Amihan) signals plenty of fish, while the north-
western wind (Habagat) tells difficult fish catch.
When we experienced low fish catch for several weeks, we resort to
“pagdididwata” to give us good luck. We thoroughly clean our boats and perfume
it with herbal plants, and we would look for an object with very unique/strange
features resembling a fish, which we would place/hide carefully in our net not to be
seen by others. It works. My friend practiced orasyon. He would also offer food in
the night or during a full moon.
Others augment it with a tambalan to say a prayer to ward off bad luck. Fishers
voluntarily disclosed: Some of our friends practice orasyon and offer food during a
full moon. Others would get the services of a faith healer. Five days before ST
Yolanda, birds flew in batches/groups; in relation to this, scholars have long
recognized the important contribution of local knowledge in understanding and
managing climate change.
The different winds have distinct and unique characteristics and weather. For
instance, Kanaway is the wind that brings forth stormy weather.
When it clashes against Kabunghan, the turbulent weather intensifies and can
cause severe flooding, landslides, or destruction of property. On the other hand,
Salatan is seen as the good and pleasant wind that brings with it sunny weather with
fairly blowing wind. This is typically experienced from March to April. Many of the
fishers claimed that the aforementioned weather patterns showed in Table 14.1 are
increasingly becoming challenging to identify accurately.
14 Integrating Local Knowledge in the Climate Services for Resilience: A Case of. . . 371

Table 14.1 Common indigenous/local knowledge possessed by the respondents

Type of local/
indigenous knowledge Practiced? Purposes/signifies
Pagdidiwata/pagbulong Yes 1. Good luck to the fishing vessel
2. Good catch
Kanlaon (south wind) Sometimes The calm sea during January to April
Amihan (NE wind) Sometimes An abundant supply of fish during October to
December/good catch
Habagat (NW wind) Sometimes The decrease in the supply of fish during June to
august/dire season for fishing
Salatan (SE wind) Sometimes A decrease in the supply/catch of fish during June to
October
Kanaway (north wind) Sometimes Abundant pelagic fish
Formation of clouds Sometimes Tells good or bad weather
Position of stars Yes Provides approximate time at sea
Strong current Yes A small supply of fish

Informants disclosed that traditional indicators to forecast weather and seasons

were no longer reliable due to changes in climate condition. They pointed to climate
change as the main culprit. As such, people depending most on natural resources for
economic survival actively try coping and adapting to changing conditions instead
(Salick and Byg 2007; Macchi et al. 2008), especially if these changes critically
affect the dwindling resources they rely on (Reedy et al. 2014).
Most fishers also believe that animals are powerful and smart beings that give
them signs whenever natural hazards are about to come. As observed by the fishers
in the Leyte Gulf, when certain species of birds such as (a) kalaw or rufous hornbill/
Philippine hornbill (Aceros waldeni), (b) talusi or Palawan hornbill (Anthracoceros
marchei), and (c) limukon/kuro-kuro or white-eared brown dove (Phapitreron
leucotis) suddenly stop making a sound during the day, a typhoon or heaven rainfall
is about to take place (Cuaton and Su 2020).
Meanwhile, when insects like kuliglig (Tagalog)/gangis (Waray-Waray) or
crickets (Gryllidae) intermittently stop making noises for 2–3 min during the
night, an earthquake is believed to come. Furthermore, when wild pigs pile up
leaves and twigs to create some sort of shelter, a typhoon or heavy rainfall is
expected, which may lead to occurrences of flooding and landslide.
Some of the endemic Philippine wild pig (baboy damu) species are the Visayan
warty pig (Sus cebifrons), Philippine warty pig (Sus philippensis), Oliver’s warty pig
(Sus oliveri), Palawan bearded pig (Sus ahoenobarbus), and bearded pig (Sus
barbatus) (Cuaton and Su 2020). Some fishers acknowledged the following signs
as their guide (Table 14.2).
The fishers of the study communities still use the traditional and local knowledge
and practices orally transmitted to them over generations to forecast possible cli-
matic occurrences and minimize its impact.
The color, direction, and speed of the clouds and the speed and direction of the
wind, as well as the behavior of the sea, provide the fishers signals for good or bad
372 L. L. Mangada

Table 14.2 Natural guides for fishers

Sign Meaning/interpretation
Full moon Fewer to difficult fish catch
Dap-dap flower in full bloom Fat crabs will be caught
Bees in the boat Bountiful fish catch
Cockroaches crawling at night Plentiful fish catch
Seagulls moving inland Rough seas/turbulence
First to fourth quarter of the moon Safe to dive for bow fishers
Moths encircling the lamps Abundant fish in the ocean
Seagull and other seabirds frequenting a Guides the fishers the location of the points to the
particular location in the sea abundant presence of fish in that particular location
Moving seawater similar to boiling water Indicates the presence of fish in the area
during daytime under calm seas
The sudden appearance of too many Earthquake is coming
millipedes

weather. Despite this, fishers notice the shift of the onset of the dry and wet season.
All of the informants, including those who participated in the FGDs, indicated that
they had in some way experienced the negative impact of climate change as
evidenced in their low fish catch and more extended periods in the sea as well as
its cost. However, most of them refer to or associate climate change with ST Haiyan.
Climate change is super typhoon Haiyan. It was strangely different from all
typhoons we had. It’s warmer now. I am confused with the summer season. There
are summers when it is very dry and hot, and then the next summer it’s suddenly wet.
Typhoons have become frequent, almost monthly, and are very destructive.
Before Haiyan, our boats were safe when we tie them to a tree and higher ground.
With Haiyan, that practice failed us, and our boats and nets were not spared. The
months for the northwest wind have become longer.
It makes fishing more difficult. The shoreline used to be 15 m; these days it’s
10 m. Seawater has risen. At present, the fish are fewer and located very far. In the
past, around 50 km, we could get fish, but today we reach as far as 200 km, and one
is not assured of a good catch.
It is more expensive and more time in the sea. There are fishes that we do not
catch anymore; they disappeared. Also, there are fewer sea grasses now. 2–3 months
after Haiyan, few fishers went to the sea because boats were destroyed. When we
went on fishing, I enjoyed a plentiful catch. In the past 10 years, the dry season was
observed from March until the middle of May, while the wet season started during
July to early February of the following year. However, 3 years ago, there was a
sudden shift in the duration of the dry and wet season.
The frequent occurrence of low-pressure areas prolonged either the dry season or
the wet months. Among climate extremes, typhoons, unpredictable stormy weather,
high winds, and heavy rainfall were the most dreaded in the four study sites. In fact,
fishers are experiencing low yield in fishing not just because of overfishing but
mainly due to typhoons and stormy weather occurring at least ten times in a year.
14 Integrating Local Knowledge in the Climate Services for Resilience: A Case of. . . 373

What is clear to the fisher is that ST Haiyan and the succeeding storms led to
eroding household incomes and food security challenges. However, fishers indicated
that they had not undertaken various adaptation measures to cope with climatic
variability. For example, most of the fishers’ schedule to go to the sea has remained
unaltered. They leave at around three in the morning and return around noon.
They have not adjusted their schedule in spite of their recognition of warmer
temperature occurring. Another factor is the place to hide and secure their boats
during bad seasons. The fishers have not demanded government assistance regarding
the site or place to keep their boats.
Fishers take the appropriate steps to protect their properties, regardless of the
level of resistance or resilience. In addition, some of the fishers are not registered.
They have not learned their lesson from ST Haiyan that the provision of assistance is
usually based on the official list of registered fishers. This indicates the presence of
important constraints to fishers’ ability to implement more “climate-smart” fishing
practices.
Some potential limitations faced by fishers may include a lack of sufficient
climate information and insufficient resources or a lack of relevant skills and
affordability. Di Falco et al. (2011) previously found that the lack of information
is likely the major barrier to understanding and acceptance of climate change
adaptation strategies in very remote areas.

14.3.2 Local Knowledge Integration in Climate Services: Challenges

and Barriers

As the severe effects of climate change are strongly felt around the globe through
changes in weather patterns and the intensification of weather-related disasters, the
focus of climate services should be to provide accessible information at the time of
need and for the appropriate people or sector. For instance, identifying the climate
services of relevant government agencies prepares and assists the fishers in coping
with and recovering from climate and socioeconomic challenges of insecurity.
It requires a whole-systems perspective to develop innovative solutions and
predict catastrophes. Local fishers revealed that aside from the weather bulletin
from the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Admin-
istration (PAGASA), which is regularly disseminated in TV and radio, no forms of
science-based measures exist for the fishers in order to predict the weather (changes
in seasonality/unpredictable onset of dry and wet season), sea-level rise, acidification
of the sea, alteration in sea temperature, species distribution, and movement of the
fish. Consequently, they relied on local knowledge and applied.
Since it has proven to work, it has been difficult for any organization (public or
private) to alter or replace fishers’ thinking and practices. Local knowledge and
experience matter in building resilience. How come public decision-makers contin-
uously ignore fishers’ generations-old thinking and practices? The paper presumes
that this is because local knowledge and practices are inferior to scientific
knowledge.
374 L. L. Mangada

After ST Haiyan, there is a growing awareness from the ranks of fishers of the
limitations of local knowledge, but a strong belief in their potential continues to
persist. For government personnel, this is what they have to say: “Local knowledge
and practices need validation and should consider the changes happening.”
The world has changed significantly. Making use only of local knowledge or
practices is problematic. In one area, fishers believe this object to represent some-
thing, and then in another place that’s not even distant, the said object is replaced by
another.
On the other hand, the fishers disclosed: “We have not been asked regarding our
local knowledge and practices. But they would introduce something new.” Indeed,
there is no quick fix to build a sound interface between local knowledge and science
and technology unless integrated research is carried out.
In spite of the lack of scientific validation to local knowledge, local knowledge
offers valuable insights on hazard evaluation or elements at risks, which are crucial
in the reduction of losses: centralized government program menu and mono-
disciplinary perspective. Key informant interviews at the regional office of the
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) disclosed that the office has
only recently started to develop a warning system for the onset of the red tide.
What is practiced is a weekly collection of water samples, and the results are
transmitted to the village officials for public dissemination. There is no way of
checking if fishers received these results. A middle supervisor of BFAR claimed that
undertaking research on climate services for fishers had not been one of their
mandates, hence their inability to respond to local needs.
They pointed out that the identification and prioritization of fishery agenda are
lodged in the central office, which is based in Quezon City, the former capital of the
Philippines. Another BFAR personnel stressed that after Haiyan, they were directed
to increase fish production through aqua-based livelihood. As such, after Haiyan,
government and development interventions discouraged these municipal fishers
from returning to capture fisheries.
Small fishers were strongly advised to avail of aqua-based income-generating
opportunities. One significant change after the post-Haiyan intervention is teaching
fishers not to use bamboo but a plastic material known as HDPE in constructing their
fish cages. HDPE is not locally available and is costly.
The office believes that the use of HDPE, though not locally available compared
to the bamboo, is advantageous and cost-efficient in the long run. It is because the
HDPE fish cages can be submerged during bad weather and, therefore, not prone to
destruction. So after a typhoon or strong winds, fishers can continue to fish and earn
their livelihood.
These are some of the views expressed by government personnel: “Fishery
programs come from the top; people with strong science education determine
these. We only implement our role is to follow. Otherwise, it would mean unsatis-
factory performance. We submit our accomplishment reports, and we try to indicate
the sentiments of the fishers regarding our programs. For every problem presented, it
is up to them to provide the corresponding solution. They will laugh at us if we
invoke local knowledge.”
14 Integrating Local Knowledge in the Climate Services for Resilience: A Case of. . . 375

On the other hand, local fishers commented: “Why can’t government officials see
fishery needs and interest from the lens of marginal fishers? Even before ST
Yolanda, the government’s main activity is either instructing us to use their technol-
ogy or asking questions, but our answers are not considered. There is one-way
information flow from the government to the local fishers.” Other fishers maintained:
“The government does not see value in local knowledge and practices. If one
invokes local knowledge, government personnel will turn their back, and others
would secretly laugh.”
To incorporate local knowledge in the climate, services for resilience require an
inclusive approach. This means embracing bottom-up community participation and
proactive as well as engaging multiple stakeholders with different needs and abilities
to take action. Appropriating and implementing fishery solutions that are suited and
adapted to the local context is essential.
Lack of locally translated technical materials, poor sharing of information and
appropriate personnel warrant serious attention. Key informants pointed out that
communicating with the public is one of the biggest problems they face. The BFAR
employees, as well as their local government counterpart, added that they lack
technical and other information, education, and communication (IEC) materials.
They even volunteered that some of the IEC materials are difficult to be translated
in the dialect due to their technical nature. These activities require a social science
person, which the office has difficulty in employing. An employee commented: “We
do not have social science people, we hired more criminology graduate. The office
sees law enforcement as the main problem in fisheries.”
A few local fishers asked: “We understood sea-level rise, but what is the ocean
acidification that some officials are talking about? What are the signs of ocean
acidification? Who will teach or warn us?”
Planning and decision-making without appropriately drawing upon the knowl-
edge and preferences of fishers can lead to measures that fail to support resilience or
have unintended negative consequences on development. A lack of fishers’ involve-
ment in livelihood decisions can lead to policies inimical to the growth of their
income. And in some point, this can leave the fishing community to choose between
using the traditional practices and struggling with the new, expensive fishing
technology introduced by the government.

14.3.3 The Lapu-Lapu Fish Kill: A Different Story

On December 16, 2018, less than 2 weeks before Christmas, a lapu-lapu fish kill
occurred in Tacloban City. Marginal fishers were extremely frustrated as they hoped
to sell the lapu-lapu at an excellent price. The lapu-lapu fish would usually fetch at
PHP300.00 during ordinary days, but it costs PHP600.00 during the holiday season.
Fishers narrated that it was the first time that fish kill happened in Tacloban City. The
night before, the color of sea water turned blue, and the following day, our lapu-lapu
fish were dead.
376 L. L. Mangada

BFAR personnel came, and they got a live lapu-lapu as a sample to test. The
result of the test revealed that the sea water lacks oxygen, the sea water was polluted
due to the several rivers and drainages nearby, and we did not follow the distance
required for fish cages. We do not agree because it is the first time that we
encountered our fish dying.
Instead, we believe that it was caused by a supernatural event, known as buyag.
Some of the fishers narrated this experience: The night before, the color of the
seawater turned blue, and the following day, our lapu-lapu fish were dead. BFAR
personnel came, and they got a live lapu-lapu to test. The result of the test revealed
that the seawater lacks oxygen, the seawater was polluted due to several rivers and
drainages nearby, and we did not follow the distance required for fish cages. We do
not agree because it is the first time that we encountered our fish dying. Instead, we
believe that it is caused by a supernatural event, known as buyag. The seawater does
not change. It’s still the same from the beginning. We just continue the practices we
were used to in fishing.
The BFAR personnel who attended to resolve this problem shared that the size of
the lapu-lapu made them ready for harvest. But the fishers wanted them to grow
more to command a good price. Big-sized lapu-lapu needs more oxygen, and the
seawater in the area could not provide that due to pollution and close distances of fish
cages. They claimed to have “overstocking.”
Indeed, the fishers of the study community do not have scientific resources to
predict seawater changes and understand environmental phenomena. They need to
be coached on the biophysical-chemical composition of seawater, so they do not end
up relying on traditional and local knowledge system to interpret climate-related
conditions. The local knowledge that they have cannot show or explain complex
climate and environmental processes.
Due to the challenges in obtaining scientific methods and tools for reliable climate
forecasts and predictions, fishing communities continually depended on these
knowledge systems and practices. In climate services, integration of local and
traditional climate change adaptation efforts into the scientific system should be
mandatory in order to decrease the vulnerability of nonurban fishing communities to
disasters. This will avoid future risks to mitigate future harm.

14.3.4 The Future of Science-Based Information/Technology Usage

by the Fishers

Since fishers predominantly use local knowledge, experience, and perception in

interpreting climate-related events and decision-making, it is essential to be familiar
with fishers’ beliefs, customs, and insights on climate change. While gaps and
disparities between fishers and government implementers exist in understanding
climate change and its impact on their livelihood, fishers are open to listening to
experts’ views or knowledge. They also welcome advice in a manner that they can
comprehend.
14 Integrating Local Knowledge in the Climate Services for Resilience: A Case of. . . 377

According to some fishers, “We believe in the old way of predicting and
mitigating bad weather, but you cannot completely depend on it. That is why a TV
or radio set is important. However, the idea and practices passed on to us should not
be discarded because it is true, and it happens.” “BFAR personnel come here when
there is a problem. Some of them keep on interviewing us. We do not know if what
we give them or our answers to their questions have value because when they return,
it’s different.” The people from BFAR pointed out: “We teach and help the fishers to
improve their livelihood income, but in the end, when we leave the area, they go
back to their old ways of fishing.”
From this remark, it is clear that government efforts to deliver sustainable post-
disaster livelihood packages to fishers often fall short because they fail to account for
the complex interactions between sociocultural, economic, and environment. Key
informants commented that their voices tend to be neglected or ignored by the
government and other providers.
They feel that public institutions and the policymakers have either overlooked or
neglected them and that they have received minimal support and services from the
government. Could this mean that their fishing practices are viewed as being
backward or irrelevant in the modern world compared to external (usually
technology-based) knowledge, which is seen as modern and representing the future?
Most of them are hungry for experts’ views on climate change, particularly on
securing climate-resilient income-generating activities. Meeting this need might
facilitate better local adaptation results.
The government provides the least attention to small fishers. They prefer big-time
fishers such as those we hear about the “tuna highway,” fishes for export, which can
bring in revenue. Presently, the BFAR, through its FishCorral project, is
disseminating the adoption of aquaculture to solve the problem of scarce fish supply
in the region.
While it is presenting the socioeconomic benefits of aqua-based livelihood,
fishers are not aware of the detrimental effects of these livelihood interventions,
especially the feeds, to the health of the seawater and the eventual sustainable
adaptation to climate events. Effective adaptation strategies should be aimed at
securing communities’ well-being in the face of climatic changes (Somah 2013).

14.4 Conclusion

It is important not to under-acknowledge the role of traditional and local knowledge

in enhancing sustainable adaptation to climate change. Selected lessons can be
derived from the traditional and local practices that have been applied by
communities over the centuries to predict the changing climate events. However,
in order to integrate these knowledge systems into climate services, they must be
understood with adequate and continuous community education and evaluation to
minimize maladaptation practices.
Typhoons, irregular stormy weather/damaging strong winds, intense rainfall, and
big waves were the climate events with the most significant adverse effects on
378 L. L. Mangada

fishers. However, as experienced by the local fishers, traditional and local knowl-
edge poorly predict the onset, length, and intensity of the dry and wet season,
seawater acidification, and sea-level rise. Even though they do not provide reliable
forecasts at all times, these traditional and local knowledge systems for climate-
related events are rooted in the Leyte Gulf.
Luckily, the fishers of the study communities are open to affordable science-
based information and technology to help them achieve climate change-resilient
fishing livelihoods. The major challenge is to equip the fishers and their communities
to adapt and raise their incomes without losing the sound social and cultural values
and practices that underpin their traditional way of life.
Disasters of various types and intensities have become more frequent. By focus-
ing on fishing communities and climate services, this paper may have succeeded in
highlighting the challenges of marginal and vulnerable people. They believe in and
practice local knowledge in responding to natural hazards. This study also
highlighted public institutions, from national to local, and lack of openness to the
use/application of local knowledge in climate service delivery. In short, findings of
this study are applicable to all archipelagic countries that frequently experience
disasters where community fishers are most susceptible and suffer the most.

14.5 Policy Implications

There is an emerging common ground from which scientific and local knowledge
can dialogue and complement to better assist fishers in regaining their ability to live
in harmony with nature lowering risks and decreasing losses and damages through
local and scientific knowledge-based actions by way of community vulnerability
assessments.
An initial step would be for government offices and development organizations to
appreciate the potential value of local knowledge in achieving sustainable climate
adaptation. Including the views of the fishers in the adaptation, plans will be a good
appreciation. Secondly, the integration of local practices with modern scientific
knowledge on climate change may become easier when there is a list or inventory
of local practices to provide as a baseline.
Also, inclusionary policies and practices are crucial for post-disaster adaptation.
These ensure the participation of fishers’ groups and networks, development actors,
and government offices is instituted and installed to promote sustainable livelihood
practices. Inclusion is more than a representation of the marginal fishers in the
planning and decision-making structures.
Instead, it means that local knowledge and capacities of the fishers should be
respected and factored in. Local knowledge and practices should be part of develop-
ment work. Operationally, this means understanding the local contextual factors
(e.g., environmental, social, and cultural), proper community identification and
assessment of local risks to their livelihood, prioritizing adaptation policies
according to local needs, and regular community information regarding policies
for adaptation.
14 Integrating Local Knowledge in the Climate Services for Resilience: A Case of. . . 379

Overall, this means that livelihood initiatives should not occur without the active
collaboration of the people concerned. Donors and various government offices
should avoid imposing the nature of development and how it should take place.
There is so much to learn from the fishers. Understanding the local worldview of the
fishers, that is, seeing things from their eyes and hearing from their ears, will
significantly help to moderate and mitigate climate change impacts.

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Climate-Resilient Livestock Farming
to Ensure Food and Nutritional Security 15
Shahaji Phand and Prabhat Kumar Pankaj

Abstract

Like agriculture, livestock is affected by global phenomena of climate change. It

also, in turn, contributes to climate change. The global greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions contributed by the livestock sector are major challenges. The sources of
GHGs such as feed production, enteric fermentation, and manure management
are further influenced by several other factors. The adverse effects of climate
change can be effectively mitigated through livestock management, breeding
program, animal nutrition and health management, developing farmers’
capabilities, manure management, carbon sequestration, fertilizer management,
changing the human diet pattern, etc. These issues are discussed in the chapter
along with relevant facts and countering strategies to address global climate
change.

Keywords
Livestock feed · Methane emission · Greenhouse gas · Livestock management

15.1 Introduction

Global warming and climate change have posed several challenges in the form of
erratic rainfall pattern, frequent droughts, long and extreme heat waves, long dry
spells, flood, weather extremes, hailstorms, etc., which has been adversely affecting

S. Phand (*)
Centre for Agri-Allied Extension, National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management
(MANAGE), Hyderabad, Telangana, India
P. K. Pankaj
ICAR-Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 381
Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_15
382 S. Phand and P. K. Pankaj

livestock productivity and production directly or indirectly. Due to declining natural

resources such as water scarcity, fodder availability, and pastureland degradation,
livestock food production system has been severely impacted, and in addition to it,
emerging livestock diseases have raised serious concern over human food and
nutritional security worldwide. The global human population is estimated to reach
8.5 billion by 2030 from the present level of 7.7 billion. The livestock products are
critical for human food and nutritional security since they supply 17% of energy and
33% of protein for human diet (Rosegrant et al. 2009). It is forecasted that the
demand for livestock products will further increase by 80–100% in 2030, wherein
nearly 60% increase in demand will be attributed to change in consumption pattern
and frequency of intake and remaining 40% due to change in population (Robinson
and Pozzi 2011). This chapter aims to describe the contribution of livestock toward
climate change and the effect of climate change on livestock population and mitiga-
tion and adaptation strategies to ensure food and nutritional security.

15.2 Contribution of Livestock Sector in Climate Change

The livestock sector is not only affected by climate change but also contributes to
climate change effects. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are observed throughout
the livestock production activities. The contribution of livestock sector in climate
change is mainly contributed by:

1. Livestock feed production.

2. Enteric fermentation.
3. Manure and animal waste management practices.

A large portion of natural resources is utilized in livestock production system

which is contributing to 14.5% of total anthropogenic GHG emissions (Fig. 15.1).
Among these, methane and nitrous oxide are the major culprits. Methane is produced
by enteric fermentation in ruminants as well as manure storage and is reported to
have grown 28 times higher global warming potential (GWP) in a reference of
100 years. Nitrous oxide is reported to have a GWP of 265–268 times higher than
carbon dioxide in the reference 100 years and is mostly produced due to excreta/by-
product storage and fertilizer usage in feed/fodder production.
Globally, feed production and its processing are contributing around 45% of
GHG emissions out of the total GHG emissions from livestock sector. It is closely
matched by the enteric fermentation (39%) to the GHGs. Among the other
contributors, the manure storage accounts for about 10%, and the remaining 6% of
GHGs is attributed to processing and transportation of animal products (Gerber et al.
2013).
15 Climate-Resilient Livestock Farming to Ensure Food and Nutritional Security 383

Processing &
transportation of
Manure storage , animal products , 6%
10%

Livestock feed
production &
processing ,
45%

Enteric
fermentation ,
39%

Fig. 15.1 Sources of GHG in livestock production

15.2.1 Feed Production

The GHG emission emanating from livestock feed production is mainly attributed
to:

(a) Change in land-use pattern.

(b) Fertilizer and pesticide usage.
(c) Storage of manure and its application to crop fields.
(d) Agricultural operations.
(e) Feed production and processing.
(f) Transportation of feed.

Global livestock production system utilizes nearly 60% of the biomass harvested
as feed (Krausmann et al. 2008), accounting approximately 30% of the water used
for agriculture (Peden et al. 2007). The manure and animal waste application to crop
fields generates enormous nitrous oxide, which represents almost half of these
emissions (Gerber et al. 2013). As reported by Sonesson et al. (2009), about
60–80% of GHG emissions come from feed production required for poultry egg,
chicken, and pork production alone and the rest 35–45% from milk and beef
subsectors.

15.2.2 Enteric Fermentation

In the enteric fermentation, the microbes (bacteria, protozoa, and fungi) present in
rumen of ruminants will facilitate the digestion of the feed and fodder, and during
this digestive process, the volatile fatty acids (VFA), CO2, and methane are
384 S. Phand and P. K. Pankaj

produced. This process is known as enteric fermentation. After ruminal digestion,

broken feed converted into VFA, which go into the liver through the circulatory
system bypassing the rumen wall to meet the energy needs of the animal.
Carbon dioxide and methane are released by enteric fermentation and removed
from the rumen by eructation process. Emission of methane in the reticulo-rumen is
an evolutionary adaptation among the ruminant animals enabling the rumen ecosys-
tem to dispose of hydrogen, which, if accumulated, may inhibit the carbohydrate
fermentation and fiber degradation (McAllister and Newbold 2008). The enteric
methane emission rate primarily depends on feed intake, its composition, and
digestibility of the feed.

15.2.3 Manure Management

Animal waste, mainly manure, is a source for methane and nitrous oxide whose
emission rate mainly depends on the environmental conditions, composition, and
management of manure. The warm and wet conditions of environment increase the
emissions from manure. The methane emission is linked to the organic matter
content of manure, whereas the nitrogen content is linked to the nitrous oxide
emission. The manure management such as long storage in tank can accelerate
anaerobic decomposition leading to an increase in methane and carbon dioxide
production. In contrary, when manure is applied as solid (dung) to the fields, the
nitrous oxide emission increases, while the methane emission is not there, or even if
it is there, it is in negligible quantity. Nitrous oxide is also generated through
nitrification and denitrification processes of the nitrogen present in manure, which
is mainly in the organic form (e.g., proteins) and in inorganic form as ammonium
and ammonia.

15.3 Impact of Climate Change on Livestock

The impact of climate change on livestock can be direct or indirect which is

summarized as follows:

• Effect on feed intake.

• Effect on livestock production.
• Effect on livestock reproduction.
• Effect on disease occurrence in livestock.
• Effect on biodiversity.
• Effect on feed resources.
15 Climate-Resilient Livestock Farming to Ensure Food and Nutritional Security 385

15.3.1 Effect on Feed Intake

Extreme warming employs adverse impacts on livestock pasture grazing comforts.

Increased atmospheric temperatures as a consequence of climate change lead to heat
stress (HS) which causes reduced feed intake resulting in poor growth rate and
production performance in bovines. The researchers have shown that heat stress in
high-yielding lactating cows especially crossbreeds results in a dramatic reduction in
feed intake and rumination (Collier et al. 1982). The reduced appetite due to heat
stress is a result of increased body temperature aggravated by the specific dynamic
action of feed and may be caused by gut fill. Reduced roughage consumption causes
decreased VFA production which alters the ratio of acetate and propionate in the
animal body. Further, the pH of rumen turns into acidic during heat stress (Collier
et al. 1982) that further hinders gut and ruminal motility. Heat stress in the animal
may induce sodium and potassium deficiencies resulting in metabolic alkalosis
(Chase and Cherney 2012). The effect of HS on biomolecular expressions in a
lactating animal is shown in Fig. 15.2.

15.3.2 Effect on Livestock Production

The anticipated rise in temperature between 2.3 and 4.8  C together with increased
precipitation resulting from climate change is likely to aggravate the heat stress in
livestock, adversely affecting their productive and reproductive performance and

Fig. 15.2 Effect of heat stress on biomolecular expressions in lactating animal

386 S. Phand and P. K. Pankaj

hence reducing the total area, where high-yielding dairy cattle could be economically
reared. The heat stress causes a chain reaction of physiological, behavioral, and
anatomical changes leading to a reduction in growth and productive and reproduc-
tive functions (Pankaj et al. 2013). In addition, there is a decrease in activity, increase
in respiration and body temperature, increased peripheral blood flow, and alterations
in endocrine functions. Heat stress has an undesired impact on animal welfare, body
conditions, body growth and development, animal body resistance, and milk yield.
Sudden changes in environmental temperature may cause a decline in milk yield as
well as a change in its composition. It is reported that due to climate change,
presently, India is losing 1.8 MT (2%) of milk in terms of production decline
annually. Further, it is forecasted that global losses in milk production due to climate
change by 2050 will be to the tune of 15 million tons. McDowell et al. (1976)
observed reduced milk production up to 15% along with 35% decrease in the
efficiency of energy utilization in lactation Holstein cows when they are transferred
from 18  C to 30  C ambient temperature. Response to high ambient temperature is
also affected by the stage of lactation in dairy cows, where lactating cows in
mid-stage (100–200 days) are the most heat-sensitive as compared to other stages
of lactation.

15.3.3 Effect on Livestock Reproduction

Reproductive efficiency of both male and female livestock is vulnerable to climate

change; however, the impacts are observed in terms of delay in puberty by a few
weeks more in crossbreds and buffaloes. These effects are observed more promi-
nently in buffaloes compared to cattle which may be due to the high thermal
sensitivity of buffaloes. During heat stress, manifestations of estrus symptoms are
compromised (Nobel et al. 1997), and anestrus incidence and frequent silent ovula-
tion are noticed (Gwazdauskas et al. 1981).

(a) Climate change effects on male reproduction.

• Sperm concentration is inversely correlated with environmental temperature.

• Reduction in survivability of sperm due to decreased total protein and albumin
concentration.
• Increased abnormality of sperm.
• Decreased sperm motility.
• Increased dead sperms.
• Reduced level of testosterone leading to decreased libido.

(b) Climate change effects on female reproduction.

• Alteration in gonadal activity, reproductive rhythm, and maturity.

• Increased cortisol level blocking estradiol secretion resulting into reduction in
sexual behavior especially silent heat.
15 Climate-Resilient Livestock Farming to Ensure Food and Nutritional Security 387

• Increased requirement of number of artificial inseminations per conception.

• Reduced diameter and volume of developing follicles.
• Increased early embryonic losses.
• Decreased fetal growth and calf birth weight.
• Decreased intensity and duration of estrous affecting conception rate.

(Madan and Prakash 2007)

15.3.4 Effect on Disease Occurrence in Livestock

Temperature and humidity change are the key factors affecting the incidence of
animal diseases. The frequency and incidence of mastitis and foot and mouth disease
(FMD) has been increased in crossbred cows. Climate change can have direct and/or
indirect effects on animal health (Nardone et al. 2010). The morbidity and death are
the potential direct impact, while the indirect effect is the proliferation of vector-
borne diseases, foodborne diseases, and change in host resistance (Tubiello et al.
2008; Thornton et al. 2009; Nardone et al. 2010).

(a) Effects on Pathogens.

Climate change effects may increase the growth rate of development of certain
pathogens or parasites that have some part of life cycle stage outside their host. Apart
from this, there may be emergence of new diseases due to impact of climate change
on genetic mutations of pathogens.

(b) Effects on Vectors.

Vectors causing diseases are impacted more by climate change, especially these
conditions are more aggravated during hot–humid weather conditions.

(c) Effects on Hosts.

Climate change may bring a new set of livestock to be exposed to outbreaks of

some diseases due to substantial shifts in disease distribution.

15.3.5 Effect on Biodiversity

The animal genetic resources are at risk of being lost even as the impacts of climate
change are through weather extremes and emergence of diseases directly, whereas
the indirect impacts are through changing the adaptation capability of animals to
388 S. Phand and P. K. Pankaj

extreme climatic conditions (Banik et al. 2015). Climate change is estimated to have
extinction potential of 15% to 37% for all species in the world (Thomas et al. 2004).
The higher temperature has an obvious impact on reproduction, mobility, mortality,
and distribution of different species (Steinfeld et al. 2006).

15.3.6 Effect on Feed Resources

India, with only 2.29% of land area of the world, is maintaining nearly 17% of world
human population and 10.70% of livestock (more than 535.82 million heads)
exerting huge pressure on land, water, and other resources. The country is having
just about 5% of its cultivable land under fodder production which is already being
impacted by rapid urbanization and industrialization. Among different feed
resources, crop residues are major which are meeting more than 50% of the livestock
sector feed demand in the country. At prevailing livestock productivity and produc-
tion levels, livestock sector is facing severe feed and fodder shortage. In a report
released by the ICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute (IGFRI),
India has suggested that there is a deficit of 23.40% in the availability of dry fodder,
11.24% in green fodder, and 28.90% for concentrates required by livestock in India
(Roy et al. 2019). Greater incidences of drought (once in 2 or 3 years) will further
widen this gap of feed and fodder availability. Apart from this, the quality of fodder
will also be affected by the variation in concentrations of water-soluble
carbohydrates and nitrogen. Changes in meteorological variables will impact on
differential growth rate of pastures altering the pasture composition and grazing
preferences (Thornton et al. 2009). Plant competition dynamics is also influenced by
seasonal shifts in water availability (Polley et al. 2013).

15.4 Climate Change Adaptation Measures

Adaptation activities should be designed to preserve ecosystems and the biological

diversity on which we rely. They can be:

• Livestock management systems.

• Breeding strategies.
• Animal nutrition.
• Building farmers’ capabilities.

15.4.1 Livestock Management Systems

(a) Diversification.

Area-specific suitable diversification farming system can increase drought tolerance

through better resource use efficiency and might enhance livestock production when
15 Climate-Resilient Livestock Farming to Ensure Food and Nutritional Security 389

animals are exposed to extreme weather stress (Kurukulasuriya and Rosenthal 2003;
Batima et al. 2005).

(b) Integration.

Suitable integration of systems (agriculture, horticulture, forestry, animal hus-

bandry) as a land-use management approach can aid in achieving the sustainability
and neutralize emissions from this subsector. This approach has the potential to
improve ecosystem through better cycling of nutrients (Jose 2009; Smith et al.
2013).

(c) Modifications of Farm Operations.

Environmentally sustainable and economic viable modification in livestock and

crop production location could bring dynamism in the farm operations and reduce
the soil erosion and improve soil moisture content and nutrient retention capacity
(Kurukulasuriya and Rosenthal 2003). Apart from this, adjustments in crop rotation
and timing of operations could be adapted to match with growing seasons and
environmental variables (Batima et al. 2005; Kurukulasuriya and Rosenthal 2003).

(d) Mixed Livestock Farming Systems.

Suitable change in mixed crop–livestock systems as per farming situations can

enable the farmer to produce more outputs per unit of land using superior nutrient
use efficiency imparted by the farming system.

15.4.2 Breeding Strategies

Identification of native breeds, which are suitable for adoption to local climatic
conditions and their gradual upgradation to improve production performance, is
necessary to sustain animal production. Selection of heat-tolerant animals within
the breed for future breeding program would be highly useful. Changing breeding
time and use of modern technologies such as sex selection, frozen storage of oocytes
and embryos, in vitro fertilization, and transfer of gene are some of the molecular
breeding strategies which can help the animals in terms of better heat tolerance and
sustained production performance under changing climate.

15.4.3 Animal Nutrition

The availability of feed and fodder to sustain livestock production is one of the
critical issues in view of climate change. There are many crops whose potential
needs to be explored as such as alternative fodder production systems. Some of well-
proven methods are as follows:
390 S. Phand and P. K. Pankaj

(a) Intensive Forage Production Systems.

Intensive forage production systems aim at efficient utilization of land and other
inputs for maximum fodder production per unit area per unit time. In this production
system, three to four fodder crops are cultivated on same piece of land in a calendar
year for a continuous supply of fodder to livestock throughout the year.
(b) Hydroponics and Azolla Production.

Hydroponics is a soilless method of growing crops using mineral nutrient

solutions in a water solvent with high water productivity. The fodder grown through
hydroponics techniques is having 20–25% more protein, 10–15% higher mineral
content, and 7–10% more essential fatty acids and can save 25–40% cattle feed. It is
also observed that milk production can be increased by 10–15% with added effect of
enhanced body resistance to animal diseases. Similarly, Azolla is highly productive
aquatic ferns. It doubles its biomass in 1.9 days or more depending on conditions and
can be utilized as animal feed efficiently.

(c) Efficient Use of Crop Residue.

According to the report of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE),
India generates almost 500 million tons of crop residue from different crops per year.
Majority of these crop residues are used as fodder and fuel for other domestic and
industrial purposes. However, there is still a surplus of 140 million tons, out of which
92 million tons is burned each year, which can be potentially used for animal feed
after processing and fortifying (Bhuvaneshwari et al. 2019). Through the National
Innovations on Climate-Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) project, there are ample of
proven high-yielding varieties of fodder and technologies such as silage making,
hay-making, and urea-molasses treatment available for crop residue. However, the
adoption of such climate-resilient technologies needs to be promoted all over the
country.

(d) Fodder Production: Tank Beds, Farm Ponds, Horti-pasture, Silvi-pasture.

Alternate land-use system utilizing wasteland and fallow land such as horti-
pasture, silvi-pasture, and agro-horti-silvi-pasture should be promoted, adopted,
and upscaled in different agroclimatic zones. Opportunities in joint forest manage-
ment (JFM), watershed, and rural development programs in a participatory mode
need to be harnessed. Degraded forestland and cultivable wasteland should be
restored to sustain fodder production.

(e) Perennial Nonconventional Fodder Production Systems.

Development of improved varieties of locally suited perennial grasses, legumes,

and fodder trees as per the water availability for grasslands and silvi-pasture is need
15 Climate-Resilient Livestock Farming to Ensure Food and Nutritional Security 391

Fig. 15.3 Nonconventional fodder production through thornless cactus cultivation

of the hour; however, presently, the seed availability of forage crops is just 15–20%
of national requirement which is quite worrisome (Fig. 15.3).

15.4.4 Farmers’ Perception and Adaptive Capacity

Most of the farmers are realizing that climate change is a bitter fact and their own
capability to recognize it and adopt suitable climate change strategies will help them
in the long run. The appropriate adaptation and mitigation measures are the biggest
challenge they are facing (Jones et al. 2013). It is more relevant to collate informa-
tion about farmers’ perceptions to make the research more qualitative and reliable.
After understanding such perceptions and including them in rural development
policy framing, there will be a greater chance of accomplishing food and nutritional
security with environmental conservation for sustainability (Barnes 2013; Oliver
et al. 2012). Farmers’ decision-making ability and means of redressal can be
improved through increased risk perception.

15.5 Climate Change Mitigation Measures

Mitigation measures involve reducing the release of greenhouse gas emissions by

harnessing mitigation options and integrating climate resilience measures through:

• Increasing carbon sequestration.

• Enteric fermentation.
• Manure management.
• Fertilizer management.
• Reduction in livestock population.
392 S. Phand and P. K. Pankaj

• Lowering livestock product consumption.

By implementing the abovementioned technologies and practices, there is huge

potential to reduce GHG emissions from livestock sector. Some of the technical
options are as follows:

15.5.1 Carbon Sequestration

The process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in the
suitable reservoirs is known as carbon sequestration. The following options may
be utilized for carbon sequestration:

(a) Forests as a sink: Afforestation/reforestation/plantation/agroforestry are some

of the activities helpful for carbon sequestration as the plant and trees are natural
sequesters of carbon which is utilized either for photosynthesis process or stored
as biomass or wood.
(b) Wetland restoration: Wetlands are the natural carbon pool or sink which has
potential to absorb 14.5% of the soil carbon found in the world. Thus, restora-
tion of such wetlands is needed to be promoted as one of the mitigation
measures.
(c) Oceans as a sink: Oceans absorb CO2 from the atmosphere because the concen-
tration of CO2 in the atmosphere is greater than that in the oceans which can be
sequestered in the oceanic biomass.
(d) Geological sequestration: The concentration of carbon dioxide can be reduced
in the atmosphere by storing them in oil and gas reservoirs and other geological
materials.
(e) Improving land and water management efficiency can facilitate sequestration.
(f) Carbon sequestration potential of the land could be improved by scientific
pasture management or management of common property resources (CPR).

15.5.2 Enteric Fermentation

Emission per unit of animal product (milk/meat) varies greatly by adopting different
practices and technologies which impose the scope of significant reduction in
emission using them. Increasing the productivity of animal can be a very ideal and
effective strategy for reducing GHG emissions per every unit of livestock product
produced. The researchers have shown that:

(a) Increase in quality green fodder into the diet decreased methane production by
5.7% (Singhal and Madhu 2002).
(b) Enhancing the forage digestibility and higher intake of digestible forage will
generally reduce GHG emissions from rumen fermentation (and stored manure),
per unit of animal product.
15 Climate-Resilient Livestock Farming to Ensure Food and Nutritional Security 393

(c) Legume silages do have an advantage over grass silage due to their lower fiber
content and the additional benefit of replacing inorganic nitrogen fertilizer.
Effective silage preservation will improve forage quality on the farm and reduce
the intensity of GHG emission.
(d) Providing higher quality forage increases digestibility resulting in lower meth-
ane production.
(e) Inclusion of concentrate feeds in the ration of ruminants will decrease enteric
methane emissions per unit of animal product, particularly when there is above
40% of dry matter intake.
(f) Increasing 1% dietary fat content can decrease emission of methane up to 5%.
(g) Increasing the concentrate in the diet can reduce methane emission by 15–32%
(Singh and Madhu 1999).
(h) Feed supplements, feed antibiotics, growth hormones, probiotics, etc., which
tend to improve digestibility, production, and weight gain.
(i) Methane inhibitors, such as bromo-chloromethane (BCM), 2-bromo-
ethenesulfonate (BES), chloroform, etc., have the potential to reduce CH4
production up to 50% in ruminants (Knight et al. 2011).
(j) Feeding with a nitrate supplement can reduce enteric methane production up
to 50%.
(k) Proper grazing management practices can improve the quality of pastures,
thereby improving the digestibility of fodder resulting in reduction in methane
production.

15.5.3 Manure Management

The bulk of the methane emitted from manure and animal wastes are resulting from
its storage and anaerobic treatment. Generally, animal manure is stored in open space
in the field conditions which accounts for more than 25 million tons of methane
emission globally every year. It can also cause nitrous oxide emissions. The GHG
emission from manure is dependent on the ambient temperature, timing of applica-
tion, and duration of the storage. Therefore, most mitigation practices involve
reducing the duration of the storage, application of additives, suitable timing and
application of manure, use of anaerobic digesters, covering of storage of manures,
use of solid separator, proper change in the animal diets, etc. (ICF International
2013). Diet can have a significant impact on chemical composition of manure (feces
and urine) and therefore on the subsequent GHG emissions during storage and
following land application. Promotion of community biogas plant as biodigester
can achieve 50–75% reduction in methane emissions from manure. GHG emissions
can also be reduced by proper blend of dietary proteins and feed supplements. If
protein intake is reduced, the nitrogen excreted by animals is also reduced.
Supplements such as tannins have the potential to reduce emissions (Hess et al.
2006; Dickie et al. 2014).
394 S. Phand and P. K. Pankaj

15.5.4 Fertilizer Management

Soil health analysis-based suitable dose of fertilizer application on feed and fodder
crops can decrease the quantity of nitrous oxide emissions and hence can act as an
effective mitigation strategy. Nitrogen use efficiency can be enhanced through:

(a) Plant breeding techniques and genetic modifications with better nutrient uptake
and utilization efficiency.
(b) Proper use of fertilizers in terms of dose and application timings.
(c) Proper management of soil health and use of soil health cards.
(d) Use of quality organic fertilizers.
(e) Combining legumes with grasses in pasture for reducing the requirement of
supplementary nitrogen.
(f) Regular soil testing by scientific method of sampling and analysis (at least once
in 3 years).
(g) Using technologically advanced fertilizers like bio-fertilizers with a suitable
consortium of microbes, which regulate the release of nutrients from the fertil-
izer as per the demand of the crop.

15.5.5 Reduction in Livestock Population

There is greater debate on the issue of reducing animal numbers in most parts of the
world. The discussion is also around the fact that animal rearing and livestock
management is the single most influential climate change mitigation strategy,
which can significantly reduce the GHG emissions. The reduction of livestock
population without compromising energy and protein needs of human nutrition,
increase in animal productivity through improving animal genetics, supply of
balance and adequate nutrition, efficient reproduction, health, and overall manage-
ment of the animal operations can be the best strategy to implement it. In the
Netherlands, milk production increased from 6270 kg/cow to 8350 kg/cow in a
span of 18 years which resulted into decrease in methane production from 17.6 to
15.4 g/kg milk (Bannink et al. 2011). Thus, increasing milk yield from 3.6 l/day/
cattle up to 9.0 l/day/cattle can potentially reduce the methane production from 2.29
to 1.38 Tg/year. under temperate climatic conditions (Blummel et al. 2009). Though
this will help, the absolute quantity of methane produced due to livestock production
needs to be managed on a scientific basis.

15.5.6 Lowering Livestock Product Consumption

Most often, the discussion regarding the reduction of livestock product consumption
is on moral values. The choice of consumption of food is individualistic. However,
the ecological balance and sustainability of animal population and their production
need special attention. Lowering the consumption of meat, milk, and milk products
15 Climate-Resilient Livestock Farming to Ensure Food and Nutritional Security 395

in areas having a high standard of living (people relying more on non-vegan diets)
will be an effective short-term response to the GHG mitigation and nutrition security
of the people who have less purchasing power. Europe, North America, and Soviet
Union countries produced 46.3% of ruminant meat and milk energy and only 25.5%
of the enteric CH4 emissions in 2005 (O’Mara 2011). In contrast, Asia, Africa, and
Latin America produced a similar amount (47.1%) of ruminant meat and milk energy
but a large proportion (almost 69%) of enteric CH4 emissions. Though there are
multiple and complex issues behind these emissions, further research will help to
find out lowering livestock product consumption to reduce GHG emissions. An
improvement in productivity level and farming as per the carrying capacity of land
may certainly help to optimize the mitigation strategy.

15.6 Conclusion and Implications

As the growing human population will create a demand for meat and dairy products,
the livestock sector has to grow to meet such rising demand. This will certainly lead
to endangering several natural resources to produce the livestock and the feed for
them. Such a scenario will have an impact on the vulnerable climate. The wise thing
is to balance the production without overexploiting the resources and ensuring
sustainability. Broadly, the following research and policy interventions should be
pursued religiously if the livestock sector has to be sustainable and at the same if it
has to contribute to the well-being of the world through effective climate adaptation
and mitigation strategies.
The adverse effects of climate change can be effectively mitigated through
modern scientific livestock management that should be the first line of action to
mitigate global climate change.
The animal breeding program must be driven by the needs of the people and the
existing natural resources and stress for the animal from biotic and abiotic factors.
Developing farmers’ capabilities must be holistic and should not be driven by
short-term goals. The educated farmers can play a pivotal role in good practices in
manure management, crop production, understanding the market dynamics, human
diet pattern, etc.
The recent advances such as information and communication technology for
weather forecasting, crop pest and pathogen surveillance, animal disease
diagnostics, market intelligence, data management, etc., should be emphasized
sufficiently. All the ICT tools and applications must help for effective decision-
making by the farmers so that climate resilience is a new norm in livestock
management.
396 S. Phand and P. K. Pankaj

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Climate Change and Food Security: Two
Parallel Concerns 16
Philip Kuriachen, S. Aiswarya, and K. S. Aditya

Abstract

Agriculture and climate change effects exhibit two-way causation. Agriculture

contributes to climate change and is also affected by climate change. Agricultural
production systems need to be continuously adjusted, so as to mitigate the climate
change as well as to adapt to it to minimise the negative effects of climate change
on agricultural production and food and nutritional security. In this chapter, we
review the potential impact of climate change on the three dimensions of food
security, namely, food availability, food accessibility and food utilisation. We
also examine some adaptation measures in ameliorating the negative impacts of
climate change on food security.

Keywords

Climate change · Food security · Food availability · Food accessibility · Food

utilisation

16.1 Introduction

Climate change is one of the major concerns of the twenty-first century. Global mean
surface temperatures are predicted to increase by 1.8  C to 4.4  C (IPCC 2007), and
India’s surface temperature is predicted to be 4.4  C warmer by 2100 (Krishnan et al.
2020). Correspondingly, sea levels are also predicted to increase by 0.26–0.77 mm
by 2100. The frequency of extreme weather events like droughts, floods and
heatwaves is expected to increase due to changes in the hydrological cycle induced

P. Kuriachen (*) · S. Aiswarya · K. S. Aditya

Division of Agricultural Economics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi,
India

# The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte 399
Ltd. 2021
V. K. Hebsale Mallappa, M. Shirur (eds.), Climate Change and Resilient Food
Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4538-6_16
400 P. Kuriachen et al.

by global warming (Childers 2015). The onset of seasons and the duration will also
change, because of which the suitability of the regions for agriculture and crop
suitability for the region will also change. In India, the surface temperatures are
predicted to increase by 2.0  C over the next 50 years under high emission scenarios.
In the absence of suitable adaptation strategies, the changes in climate can cause a
loss in income and increase the variability in incomes and thus exacerbate poverty.
Hence, battling climate change is recognised as one of the major goals by United
Nations Development Programme under Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs1).
Eradication of hunger and ensuring food security is a major target under Sustain-
able Development Goals. Although India has witnessed substantial growth in its
economy in the post-liberalisation era, undernutrition and hunger still remain key
priorities. India couldn’t achieve the target of zero hunger proposed by the Millen-
nium Development Goals (MDGs2), and also India’s 12 states come under the
‘alarming category’ in the global food security report (Chakrabarty 2016). For
achieving SDGs, India’s performance is crucial in terms of not only food security
and zero hunger but in all the 15 SDGs. Further, the demand for food grains is
predicted to increase substantially in the immediate future driven by rising popula-
tion, rapid urbanisation and changing food habits (Mittal 2008). Meeting the
increased demand for food grains through domestic production alone is challenging
due to low growth in yield of major crops (Kumar et al. 2009). The challenge
increases manifold when we account for the possible adverse effects of climate
change on agriculture.
Agriculture sector performance is crucial not only in ensuring food security but
also in poverty alleviation as agriculture is the source of livelihood for the majority
of the rural population. Climate change has been recognised as a principal factor
contributing to the vulnerability of food systems in general and agriculture in
particular. It could serve as an impediment in eradicating hunger and ensuring
food security (Gregory et al. 2005). Food security is a complex phenomenon
which comprises four major components food availability, food accessibility, food
affordability and food stability, all of which are intrinsically related to agriculture
and are affected by climate change. In this paper, we explore the implications of
climate change on the different dimensions of food security with a special focus on
the Indian context. We also discuss some adaptation strategies that need to be
implemented to reduce the risks to food security due to climate change.

1
Refer Annexure I
2
Refer Annexure II
16 Climate Change and Food Security: Two Parallel Concerns 401

16.2 Climate Change and Implications for Food Security

16.2.1 Climate Change Impact on Food Availability

Food availability is defined as the total quantity of food available in a region

comprising of domestic production, food imports and food stocks after accounting
for food exports. This section explores the impact of climate change on various
aspects of food availability, which includes food production, processing, storage and
distribution.

16.2.1.1 Climate Change Impact on Food Production

Climate change is expected to influence food production and agricultural activities
through several pathways. It is well established that climate change will affect crop
yields which will have ramifications for food chains both at regional and macro
levels. Herein, we review the scientific evidence on the impact of climate change on
crop yields. Further, we also explore the effects of climate change on food supplies
and agricultural supply chains. The yield and, consequently, food production are
affected by climate change, mainly through an increase in CO2 concentration, ozone
pollution and a rise in surface temperatures (Yadav et al. 2018). Few studies have
documented the positive effect of the increase in CO2 concentration on crop yields.
An increase in CO2 fertilisation due to increase in CO2 is expected to have a positive
correlation with both plant growth and yield (Food and Agricultural Organization of
the United Nations 2008a). Experimental evidence reveals that under optimal
growth, increase in CO2 concentration to 550 ppm raises the yield of C3 plants
like rice and wheat by 10–30%, while yields of C4 plants like maize and sorghum
increase by 0–10% (IPCC 2007). Global crop yields are projected to increase by
1.8% every decade, with an increase in CO2 (IPCC 2001).
However, recent studies have argued that potential benefits of CO2 fertilisation on
food crops are roughly half of that of previous studies (Long et al. 2005) and elevated
CO2 concentrations are unlikely to affect world food supply (Schmidhuber and
Tubiello 2007). Moreover, the beneficial effects of CO2 increase will be offset by
the detrimental impact of an increase in O3 concentration and a rise in temperature
and other changes in climate. Increase in O3 concentration is likely to affect crop
yields detrimentally. It is predicted that by 2050, ozone pollution would negate yield
gains through CO2 fertilisation in C3 plants and reduce the yield of C4 plants by 5%
(Nelson et al. 2009). Global mean surface temperatures are also predicted to increase
by 1.8–4.4  C by 2100 (IPCC 2007). The increase in temperature is likely to have a
beneficial impact on agriculture in temperate regions. The rise in temperature would
increase the growing period in temperate regions and therefore increase biomass
accumulation leading to higher yields (Fischer et al. 2005). On the other hand, in
lower latitudes, crop yields are likely to decrease due to shortened grain filling period
and increased thermal stress during flowering and seed setting stages. Subsequently,
in temperate regions, area under cultivation is predicted to expand, while in the
tropics and subtropics, increase in evapotranspiration and a decrease in soil moisture
402 P. Kuriachen et al.

Table 16.1 Impact of climate change on major food crops in India

Study Crop Findings
Kumar et al. Wheat Wheat yields will reduce by 6–23% by 2050 and by 15–25% by
(2014a) 2080. Wheat growing regions in Central India will be affected
more adversely by warming. Regions with mean maximum and
minimum temperatures over 27  C and 13  C are likely to
experience yield decline
Soora et al. Rice Yields of irrigated rice could decrease by 7% in the 2050s and by
(2013) 10% in the 2080s; for rainfed rice, projected yield reduction is
marginal amounting to 2.5%
Byjesh et al. Maize Yields in mid-indo-Gangetic plains are predicted to decrease by
(2010) 5%, 7% and 13% in 2020, 2050 and 2080, respectively, for
monsoon crop. Yields in upper indo-Gangetic plains during Rabi
season are predicted to increase by 5% till 2050. However, by
2080, yields are projected to decrease by 25%
Srivastava Sorghum Climate change is projected to reduce sorghum yields by 7% in
et al. (2010) 2020 and 11% in 2050, in Rabi season. The southwest zone is
predicted to be affected adversely by climate change in
comparison with central and southern zones

levels would render currently cultivated regions unsuitable for cropping activities
(IPCC 2007).
Further, we review the potential impact of climate change on major food crops in
India. The findings have been enlisted in Table 16.1. A projected increase in surface
temperature is the main contributor for crop yield reductions in India, compensating
the potential yield increase due to CO2 fertilisation. The review revealed that yields
of rice and wheat, the two major food crops of India, are likely to decline by 2.5–7%
and 6–23% by 2050. As noted earlier, in both the cases, the increase in mean
temperatures is likely to offset the beneficial effects of CO2 fertilisation in the
medium- and long-term under moderate emission scenarios (Kumar et al. 2014a;
Soora et al. 2013).
The impact of climate change on crop yields directly affects food availability.
Herein we review evidence of the impact of climate change on regional and global
food production. Rosenzweig and Parry (1994) found that climate change could lead
to a reduction in global cereal production by 11–20% without farm-level
adaptations. The study also revealed a regional disparity in response to climate
change. Cereal production was predicted to decline by 7% in developing countries,
while in developed countries, cereal production was expected to increase by 10%.
Haile et al. (2017) predict that global production of wheat, maize and rice would
decrease by 9% in the 2030s and by 23% in the 2050s. Climate change will also
increase annual fluctuations in crop yield by 1–3%. Lee (2009) assessed the potential
impact of climate change on food supplies in Asia and predicted a marginal
reduction in the production of rice. The study predicted that the production of
wheat would increase by 1.3%, while the production of other cereals would decline
by 1.3%. Import demand for rice in Asia would increase by 5%, while that of wheat
would decline by 7%. Bandara and Cai (2014) found that production of wheat, rice
16 Climate Change and Food Security: Two Parallel Concerns 403

and cereal grains in South Asia is predicted to decline by 7%, 4% and 11%. In India,
the production of wheat, rice and cereal grains is predicted to decline by 4%, 5% and
2%, respectively, by 2030. Overall, most studies indicate that climate change will
have dangerous consequences for food production in the absence of farm-level
adaptations, and the effects are not homogenous across regions.

16.2.1.2 Climate Change Impact on Food Processing, Storage,

Transport, and Distribution
Several studies have highlighted various pathways in which the climate change
affects various postproduction activities like primary processing, storage and trans-
portation of agricultural commodities leading to possible disruption of supply chains
(Vermeulen et al. 2012). In the projected scenarios, the mean precipitation is
expected to increase, particularly in tropics and subtropics, which in turn can lead
to higher humidity and consequently hastens the chemical and biological deteriora-
tion of food commodities, thus resulting in higher postharvest losses (Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations 2008b; Stathers et al. 2013). Studies
indicate that climate change could lead to postharvest losses of up to 80% in rice and
55% in vegetables (Parfitt et al. 2010). An increase in temperature and moist
conditions increases the risk of mycotoxin contamination and bacterial infection
making food hazardous for consumption. Rising mean temperatures may also lead to
shrivelling of grains due to overdrying Stathers et al. 2013. Temperate regions, on
the other hand, are likely to benefit from an increase in humidity, making harvested
grains ideal for storage (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
2008c). However, due to change in seasonal temperatures, there is an increased risk
of pest infestations, as the insect’s life cycle is shortened leading to faster rates of
reproduction (Moses et al. 2015). Thus, climate change would exacerbate the
infestation of storage pests both in tropical and temperate regions. This would
subsequently lead to an increase in storage cost and postharvest losses.
An increase in the frequency of floods is likely to disrupt food distribution
systems in rural areas in South Asia (Ingram 2011). High frequency and intensity
of precipitation in regions with inadequate transport infrastructure will curtail the
efficacy of food distribution systems (Hendrix and Salehyan 2012). Highly
advanced, low-inventory food chains operating a just-in-time delivery mode are
particularly susceptible to weather disruptions. Temperate countries are likely to
experience a reduction in transportation costs due to the reduction in winter mainte-
nance costs and the opening of river and sea routes for a longer duration (Waters
2011). Therefore, in the face of climate change, developing countries will have to
focus on improving transport logistics and the storage so that the losses can be
minimised (Godfray et al. 2010).

16.2.2 Climate Change Implications on Food Accessibility

Accessibility to food pertains to an individual’s capacity to safeguard his

entitlements to food. Cultivation of required quantities of food is not sufficient to
404 P. Kuriachen et al.

ensure food accessibility. Food accessibility is dependent on the rights and capacity
of individuals that determine food allocations, food preferences and food
affordability (Ericksen 2008). These rights are, in turn, influenced by geographical
and socio-economic factors and the proper functioning of food markets. In this
section, we discuss the implications of climate change on three dimensions of food
accessibility, namely, food affordability, food allocation and food preferences.
Food affordability refers to the capacity of individuals to access healthy and
nutritious food at affordable prices. Hence, the impact of climate change on food
affordability is closely related to its impact on livelihoods, farm incomes and prices.
The impact of climate change on farm incomes and food prices has been extensively
studied. Herein we summarise the finding of these studies. Global food prices are
expected to increase moderately till 2050, and climate change will be a major
contributor to it. The effect of price change due to the direct effects of global
warming is likely to be lesser than the price changes due to socio-economic
pathways in the medium term (Schmidhuber and Tubiello 2007). Recent studies
have found that climate change could lead to an increase in wheat, rice and maize
prices by 32%, 55% and 94%, respectively (Nelson et al. 2009). Few studies have
also assessed the impact of climate change on food prices specific to South Asia; in
India, the prices of wheat, rice and cereal grains are predicted to increase by 2%, 8%
and 5%, respectively (Bandara and Cai 2014). Among South Asian countries, Nepal
is likely to experience the highest increase in food prices due to climate change.
Kumar et al. (2014b) analysed the potential impact of droughts on food prices in
India and found that a 10% deficit in rainfall would increase the price of rice by 23%.
Further, a 10% deficit in rainfall would increase the price of maize, sorghum and
pearl millet by 15%, 14% and 13%, respectively. Climate change is also expected to
affect farm incomes. Burgess et al. (2014) found that one standard deviation increase
in high-temperature days reduced real wages by 9.3%. Kumar and Parikh (2001)
assessed the impact of global warming on-farm revenues in India and found that
global warming could reduce farm revenues by 8%. Studies also indicate a hetero-
geneous impact on farm incomes, with income reduction by 15% in irrigated regions
and by 25% in unirrigated areas (Economic survey 2017). Thus, higher food prices
and a fall in farm incomes are expected to increase the threat of hunger and food
insecurity in India in the future.
Implications of climate change to food allocations and food preferences have not
been extensively documented. From the available sparse studies, we can infer that
extreme weather events lead to erosion of farm assets leading to suboptimal food
allocation adversely and potentially lead to chronic food insecurity. When climate
change-induced shocks affect farm incomes, one of the common coping mechanisms
is to reduce the quantum and diversity of food consumption. Farmers in Kenya opine
that reduced food intake is a coping mechanism to deal with extreme weather events.
Reduction in frequency and variety of meals consumed is frequently adopted coping
mechanisms (Thorlakson and Neufeldt 2012). Similarly, in Madagascar, farmers
cope with droughts by reducing food intake, changing food composition and substi-
tution with wild foods (Harvey et al. 2014).
16 Climate Change and Food Security: Two Parallel Concerns 405

On the other hand, the higher vulnerability of the traditional food systems to
climate change limits the capacity of indigenous communities to overcome the food
crisis induced by extreme weather events (Jernigan et al. 2012). Reduction in food
availability also reduces the purchasing power of low-income holders leading to
changes in food preferences and a shift to low calorific value food/low diversity
products (Ziervogel and Ericksen 2010).

16.2.3 Food Utilisation and Climate Change

Food utilisation is one of the most significant dimensions of the food security that is
affected by the climate change, yet the least explored component by researchers
(Wheeler and von Braun 2013; Zewdie 2014; Cvitanovic et al. 2016; Schmidhuber
and Tubiello 2007). The fourth dimension of food security, i.e. food utilisation, is
conceptualised in a number of ways. A few definitions of food use/utilisation include
household food treatment and biological processes related to food utilisation, while
other researchers restrict the concept of the biological capacity of the person to utilise
the food for a prosperous life (Swindale and Paula 2006). Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations (2008c) defined food utilisation as ‘the nutrient
value of the meals, which depends on the ingredients and preparation methods; the
value systems of foods which determine what types of foods should be consumed
and consumed at different periods of the year and on various occasions; and the
standard and safety of the food supply, that may cause loss of nutrients in foods and
the transmission of foodborne diseases if not of appropriate standards’. The World
Food Programme (WFP 2009) takes a much broader view of use, i.e. ‘households’
utilisation of the food as well as individual’s capability to absorb and metabolise the
nutrients’.
Climate change leads to a decline in soil fertility and crop yields and change in the
type of crops cultivated (due to changes in suitability) and lowers the nutrient content
of the crops (Taub 2010; Clair and Lynch 2010; Lobell and Burke 2010). For
instance, Taub (2010) reveals that elevated CO2 leads to a reduction in protein
concentration of rice, wheat, barley and potato tubers by 5–14%. In addition, the
percentage of nutritionally essential minerals such as calcium, magnesium and
phosphorous may also reduce under-elevated CO2. Although the degree of decrease
is low, combined with decreased yields, the impacts may be significant (Lobell and
Burke 2010). Several studies also suggested that new pests and predators that
emerged due to changing climatic conditions also affect the quality and availability
of food (Rosenzweig et al. 2001; Anderson et al. 2004; Nelson et al. 2009).
The most vulnerable group to climate change impacts are small farmers, tribal
communities and those who belong to lower social strata; the ones least capable of
coping efficiently are at the highest risk of food and nutritional insecurity (Easterling
et al. 2007; Tirado and Meerman 2012). The decline in crop productivity may force
vulnerable households to reduce consumption and substitute nutrient-rich foods like
fruits and vegetables with cheaper starchy substitutes leading to a decline in dietary
diversity and nutritional intake (Thompson and Cohen 2012). Reduced nutritional
406 P. Kuriachen et al.

intake will lower the productive capacity of current as well as future generations
leading to a potentially vicious cycle of vulnerability and food insecurity (Hoddinott
et al. 2008; Schaible and Kaufmann 2007). This is a vicious cycle of income shocks
leading to poor nutrition and poor health, causing further loss in incomes. Recent
studies have found that the linkages between food utilisation and economic access to
food are much stronger than those between physical access to food and food
utilisation (Abbade 2017).
The link between climate change and health is evident from the increased number
of patient visits to clinics following excessive heat, rain and cold. The risk of vector-
borne and waterborne diseases is enhanced due to climate change (Singh and
Dhiman 2012; Kundzewicz et al. 2007; Boko et al. 2007). Increase in exposure to
diarrhoeal diseases due to an increase in precipitation and a rise in sea levels,
specifically in coastal regions, may reduce the capacity to utilise food efficiently
(Aberman and Tirado 2014).
Change in climate will also facilitate an increase in transmission of novel
zoonosis, i.e. animal diseases, which can be spread to humans and also shifts the
temporal and spatial spread of malaria-like vector-borne diseases. The spread of
these diseases will increase due to the alteration in the natural ecosystems, migration
pathways and pathogen survival (Mills et al. 2010). The case of Covid-19 pandemic
is a case in point.
Climate change is projected to impact food safety as it alters the temperature, pH
and salinity, leading to an increased speed of multiplication of microorganisms
(Tirado and Meerman 2012). The rise in temperature is also likely to increase the
spread of foodborne diseases like salmonellosis by as much as 12% for each unit
increase in temperature above ambient levels (Kovats et al. 2004). Increasing
temperatures have also increased natural biotoxins seen in several crops that can
contaminate the food consumed by humans, leading to foodborne diseases, which
further aggravate malnutrition and food insecurity (Tirado and Meerman 2012).
In developing countries, rural women whose livelihood is reliant on subsistence
farming are highly vulnerable (Lambrou and Piana 2006). Their capacity to respond
to impacts of climate change is constrained by limited access to productive assets. In
developing countries, especially in Asia and Africa, women have to travel a long
distance to fetch water due to the decline in the water table. As a result, more energy
and time is expended to fetch water or compelled to use contaminated water,
increasing the possibility of diarrhoeal diseases. This can also lead to a reduction
in lesser attention mothers can provide to the children in terms of both time and more
and nutrition, which affects the health of the next generation (Levinson et al. 2002;
Tirado and Meerman 2012).
Food utilisation also symbolises the religious, sociocultural, moral and nutritional
values that society can achieve (Cvitanovic et al. 2016; O’Brien and Wolf 2010).
The unavailability of food threatens the consistency and stability of indigenous
cultures, as various cultural practices tend to be forgotten (Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations 2008c). Cultural elements play a critical role in
socialisation and also in formulating adaptation and mitigation strategies of climate
change (O’Brien and Wolf 2010).
16 Climate Change and Food Security: Two Parallel Concerns 407

16.2.4 Climate Change and Stability of Food Systems

Food system stability refers to the capacity of food systems to make adequate
quantities of nutritious food available at affordable prices over time. Studies have
predicted an increase in the occurrence of floods and droughts in the immediate
future (Kundzewicz et al. 2007). An increase in the frequency of these events can
increase the price volatility, thereby threatening the stability of food systems.
Individuals with low-income levels and lower resource base are more vulnerable
to chronic food insecurity due to the uncertainties posed due to climate change
(Parker et al. 2019). Further changes in land suitability for cultivation and grazing
can threaten livelihoods and reduce household income heightening risks to food
security (Jibrillah et al. 2018). The demand and supply shocks triggered by El Nino
event in 2008 highlight the threat posed by climatic variability to global food system
stability (Gilbert and Morgan 2010). The more frequent occurrence of droughts may
lead to frequent food emergency (Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations 2008c). This will necessitate the maintenance of larger grain reserves
leading to an increase in costs of storage and preservation. Developing countries,
in particular, are ill-equipped to deal with these shocks. Higher volatility in prices,
coupled with the increase in the frequency of food emergencies, will destabilise food
systems in these regions. This may lead to a loss of trust in food systems and
heightened social conflict and ultimately trigger food riots (Timmer 2017). Several
studies have found that a rise in temperature is strongly correlated to an increase in
social conflicts (Hsiang and Burke 2014). Another consequence of destabilised food
systems is mass migration triggered by food shortages. Several instances of migra-
tion triggered by food shortages have been recorded in drought-prone regions of the
Sahel and the arid region of India (Sedova and Khalkhul 2020). Similarly, floods and
subsequent loss of farm assets have induced migration in parts of Bangladesh, West
Bengal and Indonesia.

16.3 Adapting Food Systems to Climate Change and Ensuring

Food Security

16.3.1 Adaptation Strategies to Enhance Food Security in Indian

Context

Reduction of risk due to climate change is one among India’s key challenges, and
adaptation strategies to reduce the risk should be given utmost priority. Conversely,
India’s food insecurity is a complex issue with many dimensions, and developing
adaptation strategies to climate change will be challenging. Low-income populations
in India are at a higher risk of food insecurity, as they lack resources, which in turn
can be traced due to the high population density and small size of holdings (Kumar
2003). Low-income households in a rural area are often trapped in a vicious cycle of
poverty characterised by low food intake; infirmity reduced labour productivity and
yields. Hence, in addition to food availability, food affordability is a major concern
408 P. Kuriachen et al.

Table 16.2 Adaptation strategies to enhance food security

Sl.
No. Study Adaptation strategies
1 Mishra et al. (a) Improving the resilience of agriculture in India for changing
(2012) climatic conditions.
(b) Research should focus on developing suitable adaptation and
mitigation strategies.
(c) Checking for the suitability and field demonstrations of climate-
smart technologies for upscaling adoption.
(d) Capacity building of farmers, scientists and other stakeholders
in climate-smart agriculture (CSA).
(e) Formulating policies for out- and upscaling climate-smart
technologies
2 ICAR (2018) (a) Choosing crop varieties and livestock breeds which can
withstand climatic variations.
(b) Identifying and diffusion of the best practices for CSA in
vulnerable areas.
(c) Improving the infrastructural facilities at the main institutes to
take up research in climate change.
(d) Competency building of scientists for climatic change research.
(e) Preparing farmers to combat climate change
3 Srinivasa et al. (a) Propagation of silviculture to enhance productivity.
(2016) (b) Improving the standard of living in rural areas.
(c) Safeguarding and stabilising ecosystems.
(d) Encouraging CSA to reduce the risks
4 GoI (2018) (a) Focusing on climate-resilient agricultural practises in dryland
areas.
(b) Climatic risk management.
(c) Knowledge diffusion and translation of various climate-smart
technologies.
(d) More focus on climate-smart research in biotechnology
5 FAO (2015), Adapting climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices such as:
Shelat (2014) (a) Conservation agriculture.
(b) Natural resource management.
(c) Climate-smart crops.
(d) Farmer prioritisation of CSA technologies.
(e) Special focus on conflict management, reducing the risk by
ensuring the crop insurance, handling the postharvest losses and
food wastages and resolving issues in a public distribution system

for vulnerable populations in the face of climate change-induced income shocks.

Thus, the challenge is whether the leap in food production will sustainably cater to
the demands of the increasing population. Therefore, a long-term strategy should be
devised to reduce the vulnerability of disadvantaged sections and increase agricul-
tural productivity sustainably by conserving natural resources by including all
stakeholders (Bryan and Behrman 2013). In the following section, we will discuss
adaptation strategies to enhance food security in India. It is important to note that
multiple stakeholders have already established several adaptation strategies
(Table 16.2).
16 Climate Change and Food Security: Two Parallel Concerns 409

16.3.2 Promoting Climate-Resilient Agricultural Practices

India should promote government spending in the production and diffusion of crops
that can withstand variations in temperature and precipitation and which are also
efficient in nutrient and water uptake. It can also be thought of diffusing technologies
such as hydroponics and aeroponics in areas with low soil quality and increased soil
erosion. Selection of crops and practices that require less water, such as system of
rice intensification (SRI) method, aerobic rice, zero-tilled wheat, etc., enables cli-
mate resilience and increases yield by minimum use of the scarce natural resource.

16.3.3 Focus on Public Health

The threat of aggravation of human diseases due to climate change could be a serious
concern in India. Climate change is likely to aggravate the incidence of diseases
like malaria, yellow fever, dengue, chikungunya and cholera, especially among
millions of people who are already experiencing pollution, poor hygiene, impover-
ishment and potable water shortages. Despite the growing threats of climate change,
policymakers in the country have often paid scant attention to its direct and indirect
causal links to health hazards and disease. Necessary actions should be taken by the
government to minimise climate change induced health risks considering the com-
plex interrelationship with the changing climate, zoonotic disease transmission and
food absorption. It will be beneficial to educate the local community about essential
family health and wellness activities through participatory and planned communica-
tion methodologies. Covid-19 pandemic has exposed the lack of preparedness of
countries to handle the health emergencies of this scale, and this should be treated as
a wake-up call for governments to spend more on primary health care.

16.3.4 Ensuring Rural and Urban Livelihood Security

Ensuring food security in the light of climate change means improving the livelihood
opportunities of the deprived and food insecure not just in order to help them avoid
poverty but also in order to sustain, survive and respond to the variations in the
climate. Providing gainful employment in rural areas can help in achieving this
objective. For instance, MGNREGA 2005 has made a remarkable contribution in
poverty alleviation and enhancing livelihood security. Apart from the benefits,
several gaps are also observed in the implementation of the scheme. Efforts should
be made to guarantee employment in the urban areas on the lines of MGNREGA,
considering the level of unemployment, poverty and undernourishment.
410 P. Kuriachen et al.

16.3.5 Ensuring Nutritional Security

Policies in agriculture must be in line with nutrition priorities. They should use
device incentive structure for promoting the cultivation of crops rich in nutrients
such as millets, oilseeds and pulses and also the production of traditional/local crops
for household consumption. Agricultural policies must also foster enhanced produc-
tivity, a balanced diet and a sustainable environment, which in turn enhances the
food and nutritional security of households.
Some of the strategies that can be employed to enhance nutritional security
include aligning the agricultural policy with national nutritional objectives, reaching
out to women through extension service to realise nutritional security, boosting
private sector engagement in nutrition interventions and organising mass awareness
and education campaigns about good nutrition practices (e.g. breastfeeding, hygiene
and sanitation).

16.4 Conclusion and Policy Implications

India has made considerable progress in enhancing food production, and it has
become not only self-sufficient but also a net exporter of food grains. But climate
change has been identified as a significant challenge to Indian agriculture’s prosper-
ity. Climate change is considered a major threat to ensuring food security, particu-
larly for the vulnerable sections of society. In this chapter, we have discussed the
possible effects of climate change on different dimensions of food security (food
availability, food accessibility and food utilisation). Both climate change and its
effect on agriculture and food security are location specific and hence difficult to
generalise, highlighting the need for more disaggregated level studies. In this
chapter, we have also highlighted some of the adaptation strategies to reduce the
vulnerability of agriculture to climate change. However, it should be noted that there
is no panacea and an integrated approach based on scientific evidence which
accommodates the priorities of various stakeholders and concerned institutions are
essential in framing policies to ensure food security.
Efforts should be taken to mainstream the climate change adaptation strategies
within the processes of national policymaking. For evidence-based policymaking,
scientific research needs to be transcribed and communicated transparently. A mixed
approach has to be designed to foster the adoption of climate-smart farming
technologies and enhance the farming communities’ capacity to implement them
successfully. The technology for storage pest control and mitigation of storage loss
through farm innovations must be identified and validated for their further dissemi-
nation. The combination of planned adaptation and the promotion of autonomous
approaches by integrating scientific and local knowledge is essential in mitigating
risks on food security due to climate change. Institutional aid will also be required to
out-scale climate-smart livelihoods.
16 Climate Change and Food Security: Two Parallel Concerns 411

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