Status Quo Mapping of Hydrogen Production and Consumption in India

Status Quo Mapping of Hydrogen

Production and Consumption in
India
Imprint
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Status Quo mapping of hydrogen production and consumption in India i
Executive Summary
Anthropogenic activities, with emissions from fossil Domestic hydrogen consumption in India currently
fuels at the core, contribute to a variety of climate change amounts to approximately 6 Mt, primarily based on the
impacts (Barros et al., 2015; Harley et al., 2006; Pearson demand from Indian industry – chemical and refining.
& Dawson, 2003) . We, as a result, are living in a world Material production processes such as production of
that needs to prepare for the impact of at least 1.50 C. basic chemicals (ammonia for fertilizers, methanol,
warming of the planet while reducing emissions (IPCC etc.) account for almost two-third of all consumption.
2018). Petrochemicals sector, on the other hand account for
the bulk of the remainder consumption for production
We, unfortunately, are still heavily dependent on fossil of conventional fuels. Hydrogen being used in these
fuels. In 2018-19, the import of oil and natural gas processes, however, is ‘grey’ hydrogen with only about
accounted for almost 24% of the India’s overall imports 1.5% of demand (0.083 Mt) being met via electrolysis
(MoPNG 2020). To decarbonize our economy, we have (chloralkali) processes.
to substitute it with an environmentally benign solution
that is available, acceptable, accessible and affordable. In order to achieve our common future goals for climate,
Hydrocarbons, apart from being environmentally benign, especially as a part of India’s Nationally Determined
tick all the other boxes. They are also extremely versatile. Contributions (NDC), efforts are required to increasingly
They provide us a variety of solutions including energy substitute Hydrogen produced from renewable sources
in form of fuel or electricity, heat for residential and in the industries where hydrogen is already used as a
industrial processes and as a feedstock for production of feedstock. This, however, depends on its availability,
a variety of chemicals, polymers and inputs like cement affordability and accessibility. Subsequently, the
and steel. consumption of Hydrogen, based on ongoing research
and development, needs to be expanded to include other
Hydrogen, a viable substitute, is being recognized sectors which have a high emission intensity such as long
worldwide as an energy vector, fuel and feedstock. Its haul transport, steelmaking, cement production, energy
role is also being acknowledged in its ability to storage etc. This would not only allow thes e sectors to
decarbonize many sectors of the economy, especially decarbonise but would also help India in reducing energy
those sectors which are hard-to-abate or where imports, increase the penetration of renewable energy
electrification is an improper substitute. and in decreasing harmful emissions and pollution.
India’s engagement with hydrogen as a fuel and an

energy carrier has also been long. It published its first
National Hydrogen Energy Road Map (NHERM) in 2006,
which was reviewed in 2016. More recently, the Finance
Minister in the Union budget for 2021-22 formally
announced the National Hydrogen Mission which aims
at production and consumption of hydrogen from
renewable energy sources with a focus on industrial
decarbonization instead of transport which was at the
heart of the earlier NHERM.
In this context, this report aims to capture the status-

quo of hydrogen production and consumption in India
including stocktaking of various interventions by the
Government, its utilities and other players to leverage
on the work that has been done so far in India. The
report also captures the various pathways for hydrogen
production that can be deployed by various sectors in the
short-long term.
ii Status Quo mapping of hydrogen production and consumption in India
Table of contents
Executive Summary i
Introduction 1
Colours of Hydrogen 2
Hydrogen production in India 3

Hydrocarbon reforming 4
Gasification 5
Steam reforming 6
Partial oxidation 7
Autothermal reforming 7
Waste and coupled stream 7
Electrolytic process 8
Alkaline Electrolysis 8
PEM Electrolysis 9
High temperature electrolysis 10
Biological processes for production of Hydrogen 11
Direct bio-photolysis 11
Photo-fermentation 11
Dark Fermentation 12
Hydrogen as a coupled stream in the electrolytic production of chlorine 12
Cost associated with hydrogen production in India 12
Utilization of hydrogen in the industry 15

Oil Refining 15
Ammonia 16
Methanol 17
Other uses and applications of hydrogen in chemical industry 18
Stationary power 18
Telecom Sector 20
Hydrogen in Transport 20
Demand outlook in transport 21
Hydrogen in transport in India 21
Hydrogen in Energy Intensive industry 24
Iron and Steel 24
Hydrogen in steelmaking in India 26
Annexure 1: Methodology for calculation of hydrogen consumption in oil refineries 27
Annexure 2: Important stakeholders in India 28
Bibliography 36
Status Quo mapping of hydrogen production and consumption in India iii
Abbreviations
ATR Auto-Thermal Reforming

BF-BOF Blast-Furnace – Basic Oxygen Furnace
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage
CCUS Carbon Capture, Use and Storage
CF Complex Fertilizer
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CNR Catalytic Naphtha Reformer
CUF Capacity Utilization Factor
DAP Di-Ammonium Phosphate
DRI Direct Reduced Iron
EAF Electric Arc Furnace
EV Electric Vehicle
H2 Hydrogen
KM Kilometres
Ktpa Kilo tonnes per annum
LCOE Levelized Cost of Electricity
LNG Liquified Natural Gas
Mt Million tonnes
Mtpa Million tonnes per annum
NG Natural Gas
PEM Proton Exchange Membrane
RE Renewable Energy
SMR Steam Methane Reformation
SOE Solid Oxide Electrolysis
SR-BOF Smelting Reduction – Basic Oxygen Furnace
TCO Total Cost of Ownership
VRE Variable Renewable Energy
iv Status Quo mapping of hydrogen production and consumption in India
Status Quo mapping of hydrogen production and consumption in India 1
Introduction
India’s industry – chemical and refining, are the largest associated with hydrogen, as there is limited availability
producer and consumer of hydrogen in India. Hydrogen, of data from industrial units which produce or consume
either in its molecular form or in a form where it is the gas.
bound within a molecule, fulfills multiple roles along
the industrial value chain – both in case of organic and Table 1 Hydrogen consumption in India (in major
inorganic outputs (Ausfelder and Bazzanella 2016). For sectors) in 2018-19
example, hydrogen produced from feedstocks such as
Industry Consumption Production Typology
natural gas, naphtha and heavy oil forms the basis of
(in Thousand method
production of nitrogen-based fertilizers, which is an
Metric Tons)
integral part of the agricultural value chain in India and
Oil Refining 2600.00 Hydrocarbon Grey Hydrogen
possibly one of the most important process, within the
reforming
current setting, involving hydrogen. India produced
36 million tons of nitrogen-based fertilizers in 2018- Ammonia 2850.21 Hydrocarbon Grey Hydrogen
reforming
19 (Dept. of Chemicals and Petrochemicals 2020) and
imported an additional 9 million tons to fulfill the Ammonia 752.15 Hydrocarbon Grey Hydrogen
(imported as reforming
demand gap.
fertilizers)
Hydrogen is also a by-product in some industries. For Methanol 51.67 Hydrocarbon Grey Hydrogen
example, Chlor-alkali units in India produced 2.9 million (domestic) reforming
tons of caustic soda, along with which 83,000 tons of Methanol 361.00 Hydrocarbon Grey Hydrogen
hydrogen was produced as a by-product in 2018-19 (BEE (imported) reforming
2018) (Dept. of Chemicals and Petrochemicals 2020). Due Chlor-alkali 34.37 Electrolysis Green
to a lack of trading infrastructure, however, hydrogen hydrogen2*
currently produced in chlor-alkali units is utilized for Chemical 29.25 Electrolysis Green
captive requirements such as process heat, with a portion industry hydrogen*
of the gas also being flared. Other 9.51 Electrolysis Green
industries hydrogen*
Molecular hydrogen, apart from its role in production (glass,
of useful hydrocarbons, is also used as a reduction electronics
agent, both within the chemical industry and other etc.)
industrial sectors, such as metallurgy, to reduce the Total 6688.16
precursor molecule, alloy or ore into the desired consumption Thousand
product. This reducing function also serves to remove of hydrogen Metric Tons
undesired compounds from the mixtures, for example (TMT)
in the removal of sulfur containing compounds or in
Source: Compiled by author from (MoPNG 2020) (Dept. of Chemicals
the cleaning of semi-conductor surfaces. Within the and Petrochemicals 2020) (BEE 2018)
chemical industry, hydrogen is also widely used for
catalyst regeneration (Ausfelder and Bazzanella 2016).
Currently limited by appropriate regulations1 and a lack

of trading ecosystem, it is not uncommon to see the
entire value chain of hydrogen – from production to
consumption, in the same industrial unit. This makes
it difficult to estimate the overall production numbers
1 In order to create a conducive environment for the use of hydrogen at scale in India appropriate regulations and standards would have to be created,
and in some cases existing regulations would require amendment. For example, in case of mobility, central motor vehicle rules (1989) and gas cylinder
rules (2004) would require amendment for usage of the gas as an automotive fuel and for its storage and transportation respectively (DST 2020).
2 * Depending on the source of electricity.
2 Status Quo mapping of hydrogen production and consumption in India
Due to scarcity of hydrogen production data, the Grey Hydrogen: Grey hydrogen is based on the use of
data presented above (table 1) has been modelled on fossil hydrocarbons. Grey hydrogen is mainly produced
stoichiometric calculations based on the data released by via the steam reforming of natural gas. Depending on
Government of India and other related statistics. These the fossil feedstock, its production entails considerable
estimates, though based on the end uses of hydrogen, carbon emissions.
may vary slightly from the actual production values. The
data perused for India also does not show any significant Blue Hydrogen: Blue hydrogen is hydrogen which is
role of hydrogen in the energy sector. This, based on produced using a carbon capture and storage (CCS)
the upcoming policies of the government, is assumed system. This means that the CO2 produced in the process
to change given the role that hydrogen can play in of making hydrogen does not enter the atmosphere, and
decarbonization of the economy. so the hydrogen production can be regarded on balance
as carbon-neutral.
Colours of Hydrogen Green Hydrogen: Green hydrogen is produced via

the electrolysis of water; the electricity used for the
Hydrogen, though abundant in nature is not readily
electrolysis must derive from renewable sources.
available for consumption. It is an extremely reactive
Irrespective of the electrolysis technology used, the
atom and bonds with most other elements to form
production of the hydrogen is zero-carbon since all the
compounds such as water (H2O) or hydrocarbons such
electricity used derives from renewable sources and is
as methane (CH4), coal (C137H97O9NS) etc. To retrieve
thus zero-carbon.
hydrogen and make it useful, we have to derive it from
the aforementioned sources. The derivation of hydrogen
Turquoise Hydrogen: Turquoise hydrogen is hydrogen
from water is through electrolysis, while its derivation
produced via the thermal splitting of methane (methane
from hydrocarbons is through hydrocarbon reforming.
pyrolysis). This produces solid carbon rather than
Based on the production method deployed to isolate
CO2. The preconditions for the carbon neutrality of
hydrogen and level of associated emissions, the gas has
the process are that the heat for the high-temperature
been categorized by the industry in to different colours –
reactor is produced from renewable or carbon-neutral
grey, blue, green and turquoise.
energy sources, and the permanent binding of the
carbon.
Hydrogen production in India

Majority of hydrogen production in India, is currently synthesis gas based processes that in definition can be
based on fossil fuels. This is in accordance to long- applied to any carbon containing compound. Usage of
established industrial processes optimized for least green hydrogen, produced from electrolysis utilizing
cost of production notwithstanding associated renewable energy, still has to mount several barriers
environmental externalities. For example, oil refineries before it becomes ubiquitous. The biggest of these
in India cover main part of their hydrogen requirements barriers, apart from regulation and process design, is the
via internal refinery processes, especially catalytic cost of production.
reforming. Additional hydrogen requirements are met
by gasification of heavy residues. Likewise, hydrogen A choice for the technology (figure 1) utilized depends
rich off-gases are also produced as a result of the on the availability of the feedstock and the nature
coking process in the steel industry, but due to their low of downstream processes. In India, the feedstocks
purity levels are generally flared or utilized as fuel for available to the chemical industry are Naphtha from oil
process heat. refineries, natural gas or coal. Among these, only coal is
available domestically3, while both crude oil (required for
The chemical industry, on the other hand, requires production of naphtha, heavy oils etc.) and natural gas
significant amounts of on-purpose generated hydrogen, are largely imported and account for a significant share
largely for the production of ammonia and methanol. of India’s trade deficit. In 2018-19, the import of oil and
Hydrogen in the chemical industry is produced through natural gas accounted for almost 24% of the country’s
Figure 1 Hydrogen production methods

Steam
Reforming
Hydrocarbon Partial
Reforming Oxidation
Autothermal
Fossil Fuels
Reforming
Hydrocarbon
Pyroysis Photo Farmentation
Hydrogen Production Bological Dark Farmentation

Methods
Bio-photolysis
Biomass
process Glassiﬁcation
Renewable
sources Pyroysis
Thermochemical
Cambustion
Thermolysis Liquefaction
Water Spitting Pyrolysis

Akaline
Electolysis Solid oxide
PEM
Source: Adapted from (Kumar and Himabindu 2019)
3 India has significant coal resources (5th largest globally), to the tune of 360 billion metric tons, of which 150 billion metric tons are reserves, which are
economically extractable. Indian coal quality, however, is low grade with low heat content along with high ash and moisture content. (USISPF 2019)
overall imports4 (MoPNG 2020). process. For example, in the production of urea, the
design prefers generation of carbon dioxide (in place of
The following section, starting with the basics of carbon monoxide), while the production of methanol
synthesis gas production, details out the various requires a H2:CO ratio of 2:1.
technologies utilized, in general, for the production of
hydrogen in the industry today. Carbon dioxide, in most cases, is a by-product of this
process. In general parlance, if the described process
Hydrocarbon reforming is applied without carbon capture and utilization/
sequestration (CCUS) it produces grey hydrogen. If, on
The process design and implementation at industrial the other hand, the process is coupled with CCUS, the
scale is driven by [a] composition of the feedstock and, process generates turquoise/blue hydrogen. Natural gas,
[b] subsequent utilization of the generated synthesis gas if available, is the preferred feedstock for synthesis gas
– a combination of hydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide generation through steam reforming. Other feedstocks
(CO) with carbon dioxide (CO2) as a byproduct. As a first such as solid feedstocks, refinery off gases, LPG and
step, the feedstock is treated with heated steam (steam naphtha are also utilized by the industry.
reforming) and subsequently the ratio of generated
hydrogen and carbon monoxide is adjusted utilizing Depending on the specific requirements of the process
a water-gas shift reaction. The combination of the and the availability of feedstock multiple process
aforementioned processes yields synthesis gas. It is the variations have been developed by the industry. These
subsequent use of this gas, which is defined by required are [a] Gasification; [b] steam reforming; [c] Partial
H2:CO:CO2 ratio, that plays a dominant role in the design oxidation; and [d] steam thermal reforming. All of these
and implementation of any given synthesis gas-based processes have been discussed in subsequent sections.
Box 1 Reactions involved in hydrocarbon reforming
+  + + – (Synthesis Gas Reaction)
Depending on the feedstock’s H:C ratio, synthesis gas reaction converts the reactants into a certain H2:CO product
ratio, + + may
which ++ match
or may not + the requirements of the downstream process. This, however, may be adjusted by
incorporating a water-gas shift reaction.
+  + +
+ 2  ++ 2 – +(Water Gas Shift reaction)
Partial application
+ of water+gas shift reaction adjusts the overall H2:CO ratio by conversion of CO and steam (H2O) into
+ and
CO2 3 + additional
2 H2 2 + 2 +
++ 2  + + +2 + – (Generalized reaction for hydrocarbon reforming)


+ 3 +  2+ +
Both the aforementioned reactions, namely synthesis gas reaction and water gas shift reaction, can be combined to
2 + ( ) +
provide
+ 3+a generalized
 reaction
2 + for the entire process.
+  +
Synthesis gas generation may be followed by a variety of downstream processes such as production of Urea which
2 + ( ) +
 synthesis (Haber-Bosch Process) with CO2 generated from hydrocarbon reforming. Urea production,
combines
+ ammonia
2 + 2 +

+ 2 below,
represented due to its+ preference
2 + for CO2, as opposed to CO, is a unique case of downstream processing of
2 + ( ) +
synthesis gas.
+ 3 2
+ 3 2
– (Haber Bosch Process)
2 +  (( ) + – (Urea production)
2 +  ) +
Urea production, as described above, seems to (apparently) utilize/sequester carbon dioxide. It, however, may be noted
that once urea is applied at the agricultural field (its defined end use), carbon dioxide, approximately equivalent to the
amount fixed during the course of its industrial production process, is emitted to the atmosphere. The above described
process, therefore, does not permanently store or sequester carbon (Kim, et al. 2016).
4 The individual share of oil and natural gas in overall country’s import was 22% and 2% respectively (MoPNG 2020).
Gasification 2016). The process, as a result, needs to be approached

with caution.
Gasification can be applied to all liquid and solid carbon
containing feedstocks, including biomass and waste. The (Ramakumar 2020). The produced hydrogen can
dominant feedstock used by the industry for gasification subsequently be combined with other components to
is coal. This is especially the case in China and is to an produce a variety of products such as Synthetic Natural
extent being promoted by India as well (Saraswat and Gas, methanol, diesel/naphtha inter alia. India’s Coal
Bansal 2016). India Limited (CIL) is planning to set up a coal-based
methanol plant at Dankuni Coal Complex (DCC) of
Solid feedstocks such as coal have a higher Carbon South Eastern Coalfields Ltd (SECL), a subsidiary of CIL
to Hydrogen ratio, when compared to natural gas. In (Economic Times 2018). In 2014, a coal to polygeneration
case of biomass, the composition of the feedstock also project was also proposed by Adani Synenergy Limited
has significant amounts of oxygen and water. The (Adani Synenergy Ltd. 2014).
gasification of feedstock produces synthesis gas, which
can be adjusted to the required H2:CO ratio utilizing India has large coal reserves, and as a result, coal
a water gas shift reaction. Coal gasification, if not gasification as a source for production of syngas may
coupled with CCUS has a high emission intensity. For see substantial investment from both the public sector
example, well-to-wheel emissions for coal to methanol (as aforementioned) and private sector5. This can be
production is 0.68 tonnes of CO2eq/MWh, whereas the attributed to a
same number for gasoline production ranges between
0.34 – 0.36 tonnes of CO2eq/MWh (Saraswat and Bansal
→ + + h ( )
→ + + h ( )
Box 2 Reactions involved in gasification
The most common feedstock utilized for gasification is coal, the main products of which are carbon monoxide and
hydrogen. It is largely used for production of hydrogen, methanol, synthetic natural gas and power generation inter alia.
The generalized chemical reactions have been summarized below:
+ →→ + + h ( )
+ 1 →
+ 1 → +
→ + h ( ) – (thermal decomposition of feedstock)
+ 2 →
2
The aforementioned reaction represents the thermal decomposition of coal into volatile matter such as hydrogen,
→ + + h ( )
hydrocarbon gas and char – residual solid content consisting of fixed carbon and ash.
++ →→ 2
+ 1 →→ 2
+ 1 → →+
+ 2 → →+
+
+ 2 →
Thermal 1 decomposition of feedstock is followed by combustion and partial combustion. The reaction is endothermic and
+
requires →
2 heat and a steady supply of oxygen.
+++ 2
2
Combustion
→2
→of
→volatile
+ 2
+ matter
2 is followed by main gasification reactions as represented above. These reactions are also
+ + →→ →
endothermic,
2 + also+require heat (Miranda 2019).
and
+ → +
+ 2 →→ +
+ 2 →
+ →2
+ → +
The+ gasification
2 → reactions
+ 2 are followed by conversion reactions to produce hydrogen, carbon-di-oxide, methane etc. These
+ 2
+ can → → ++ 2
reactions be subsequently combined with other downstream processes to produce Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG),
+ →
+ 2 Diesel,
Methanol, → + inter alia. Some of these downstream processes, as represented below, are for the production
Naphtha
+ 2 → + 2
of methanol→(H3COH) and higher hydrocarbons [(H2C)x] via Fischer-Tropsch reactions.
+ → +
2 + 2+ →→ – (Methanol production from syn gas)
2 + →
2 + →( ) +
2 + →( ) –+(Fischer Tropsch reaction)
5
2US-based
+ industrial
→ gases major Air Products and Chemicals is planning to invest USD 5 – 10 billion over the next five years in coal gasification projects in
India (Business Today 2020)
2 ++
2 →→( ) +
2 + →( ) +
2 + →
Steam reforming These reactions are equilibrium driven and resulting

gas mixture depends on the operational conditions of
Steam reforming, an inherent part of synthesis gas the plant. The syn gas is subjected to separation process
production, is the dominant process employed by steps, depending on its subsequent use. Hydrogen, when
the industry for conversion of feedstock to useful required, is separated and purified from remaining gases
compounds. The incoming feedstock, either natural gas, by pressure swing adsorption (PSA), membrane process
naphtha or heavy oil, is conditioned, such as by removal and/or methanation of left over CO.
of sulfur, which is converted to Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)
and absorbed. Subsequently, steam reforming takes place In India, from an economic perspective, steam reforming
in heated tubes, where the gas mix of high temperature is the most optimized for costs. Assuming the usage of
steam and desulfurized feed is exposed to a catalyst natural gas available at ~ INR 4,000 per mmbtu, with
at high pressures. The amount of steam is adjusted to an efficiency of 75%, hydrogen as an end product can be
produced the required H2:CO ratio. The catalysts used produced within the range of INR 160 - 200 per Kg. If,
in the process are nickel based and typical process however, CCUS is being undertaken then an additional
temperature ranges are in 750 – 900°C with pressure cost of INR 20 - 30 per kg is assumed (Ramakumar 2020)
ranges between 3 – 25 bar, depending on the individual (Hall, Spencer and Dayal, et al. 2020).
process design. This, as mentioned earlier, is followed by
a water-gas shift reaction with additional steam to adjust
the H2:CO ratio.
Box 3 Reactions involved in Steam Reforming

Steam Reforming is undertaken for a variety of feedstocks. The reactions provided in the section consider natural gas
(methane) as a feedstock for simplicity. The process consists of four sub-processes – [a] desulfurization, for removal of
sulfur from the feed as it can poison the catalyst; [b] steam reforming; [c] water-gas shift reaction; and, [d] hydrogen
separation and purification. The first step – desulfurization utilizes either an activated carbon bed or a zinc oxide tank,
with the latter having distinct advantages such as removal of carbonyl sulfide (if present), no air emissions and retention of
higher molecular weight hydrocarbons. The subsequent processes involved in steam reforming are represented through
reactions below.
++ 
 ++ 3
3
+  +3 – (Steam Reforming)
The reforming reaction converts hydrocarbon (methane in the aforementioned reaction) and steam into a synthesis gas
consisting of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The reaction is endothermic and requires significant amounts of heat
supplied via high temperature steam as well as external burning of natural gas and off gases from the process post
hydrogen separation. Due to the requirements of external heat, efficient heat recovery in the overall process is critical for
economics of the process.
++  ++ – (Water-Gas Shift reaction)


+  +
The synthesis gas produced in the reforming reaction is subjected to a shift conversion reaction (water-gas shift) with
additional steam to adjust the H2:CO ratio
++  2 ++ 2 – (Dry reforming)
 2 2
+  2 + 2
The carbon-di-oxide produced as a result of shift conversion reaction also reacts with methane, in a manner similar to
steam, resulting in syn-gas with a H2:CO ratio of 1. This process is also termed as dry reforming.
Partial oxidation industrial setup. The process, apart from advantages of

compact design, low investment and flexible operation,
Partial oxidation is a process variation of the steam is utilized in producing varying H2:CO ratios as may
reforming process, where the feedstock reacts with be required for subsequent downstream operations.
an under-stoichiometric amount of oxygen, resulting For example, if carbon dioxide recycle is tweaked in
in the partial combustion of the feedstock. This autothermal reformer then H2:CO in ratio of 1:1 is
variation compacts the overall process as it reduces the produced, which is conducive for the production of
requirement of an external heat source. Partial oxidation methanol. If, however, the autothermal reformer largely
can be carried out non-catalytically via combustion utilizes steam in its input stream then H2:CO in ratio of
through a burner, or catalytically via a catalytic bed 2.5:1 can be achieved which is conducive for ammonia
without the requirement of a flame. synthesis.
Autothermal reforming Waste and coupled stream

This process is a combination of partial oxidation Industrial processes such as by coking process often
and classical steam reforming, thereby combining produce hydrogen rich off-gases. These gases are often
the benefits of both the technologies. In the process made up of complex mixtures and require additional
a combination of oxygen and steam (and sometimes processing for separation and purification. As a result,
carbon dioxide) is introduced to the feed. The overall in an industrial set-up which is optimized for maximum
reaction is exothermic and further compacts the cost effectiveness, these gases are used thermally
Box 4 Reactions involved in partial oxidation

3
+  +2
2
3
+  +2
2
The aforementioned reaction shows the partial combustion of the feedstock utilizing an under-stoichiometric amount of
oxygen. This process is exothermic and provides the process heat required for the subsequent reforming reaction.
2 + 2 +4
The
2 reaction
+ requires
 2 pure+ 4 oxygen, which may be provided from an air separation unit. The traditional reaction involving
partial oxidation is carried out at high temperatures beyond 1200°C, which may be lowered to 800 – 900°C through the
use of a catalyst, as represented in the aforementioned reaction which produces carbon free synthesis gas with a H2:CO
ratio of 2:1.
Box 5 Reactions involved in autothermal reforming

Autothermal reforming (ATR) utilizes a reactor which consists of three zones – [a] burner zone, where feed streams are
mixed in a turbulent diffusion flame; [b] combustion zone, where partial oxidation reactions produce a mixture of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen; and, [c] catalytic zone, where the gases exiting the combustion zone achieve thermodynamic
equilibrium. The reformer, depending on the requirement of downstream reaction, can be tuned based on whether
it utilizes a higher proportion of steam or carbon dioxide in its input stream. The output H2:CO ratios, based on input
streams, are 2.5:1 and 1:1 respectively.
The reaction in case carbon dioxide is used in the reforming process is provided below
2 + + 3 +3 + +h - (Autothermal reforming using CO2 input stream)

2 + + 3 +3 + +h
The reaction in case steam is used in the reforming process is provided below
4 + +2  10 +4
4 + +2  10 +4 - (Autothermal reforming using steam input stream)
to produce process heat. In some cases, such as in Costs of electricity generated from renewable sources
dehydrogenation reactions in refineries and chemical as well as electrolyzers have been falling. The former
plants, pure stream hydrogen rich off-gases can be has already achieved grid parity levels while the latter,
produced. This pure hydrogen can easily be traded, if a in western economies, has experienced a 40% - 50%
market exists. fall in costs in the last five years from 2014-19 to now
being available at USD 1200/kW and USD 1400/kW for
Electrolytic process alkaline and PEM electrolyzers respectively (BNEF 2020).
In china, on the other hand, driven by availability of
Electrolytic production of hydrogen, the mainstay of relatively cheaper raw materials and labour, and, higher
decarbonization of hard to abate industrial sectors, factory utilization rates (in turn correlated to robust
currently is responsible for a very small fraction of demand) the alkaline electrolyzers are available at
overall production of Hydrogen. The two mature rates of USD 200/kW, which are further 83% cheaper as
technologies available to industry are alkaline and Proton compared to the west (BNEF 2020).
Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzers, while, high
temperature electrolysis based on an inverted solid- Alkaline Electrolysis
oxide fuel cell (SOFC), currently in development stage,
shows great promise. A small fraction of the chemical industry in India
utilizes alkaline electrolysis to generate hydrogen. It is
The aforementioned methods of hydrogen production an established production method when relative high
currently contribute to processes where relatively purity is required. Hydrogen is cogenerated with oxygen
small amounts of pure hydrogen is required. The by the electrolysis of a concentrated (approximately
low production volumes are correlated to prevailing 30% by weight) potassium hydroxide in water solution
renewable electricity prices, related capex of at elevated temperatures of 60 – 90 C. the overall
electrolyzers and infrastructural costs related to storage efficiency of the process is 70-80%, and is carried out
and distribution (Hydrogen council 2017). Forecasts, in stacks which can be built up to reach the required
driven by growing need of decarbonization in a world capacity. In a variation to the process which normally
experiencing a rapidly changing climate, suggest that operates at atmospheric pressure conditions, high-
with the right policy levers and adoption levels the costs pressure electrolysis plants have been developed, which
of green hydrogen, which utilizes renewable energy to can further facilitate hydrogen usage in subsequent
drive the electrolytic process, may reduce substantially in downstream operations.
the next decade (Hydrogen Council 2020).
Box 6 Reactions involved in alkaline electrolysis

The overall reaction consists of two half-cell reactions at cathode and anode respectively.
At cathode: The reaction initiates at the cathode, where two molecules of alkaline solution are reduced to one molecule of
hydrogen and two hydroxyl ions (OH-). The preferred alkaline solution commonly constitutes either Potassium Hydroxide
(KOH) or Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH). The hydrogen is expelled from the cathode surface, while the hydroxyl ions travel
under the influence of an external electricity current through a porous diaphragm or an anion exchange membrane (AEM)
to the anode.
2
2 ++ 2
2 
 ++ 2
2
2 +2  +2 - (Reaction at Cathode)
At anode: The hydroxyl ion is discharged to formulate ½ molecule of oxygen and one molecule of water. The oxygen, which
is recombined at the surface escapes from the electrode as a gas.
2
2 
 ++ 1
1
2 ++ 2
2 - (Reaction at Anode)
2
2  + 1 2 +2
Overall cell: the process of alkaline water electrolysis, if using a porous diaphragm such as asbestos, is characterized by
limited current densities, low operating pressure and low energy efficiency. The overall reaction of the cell is represented
below.

 ++ 1
1
2 –– – (Overall Reaction)
2
 + 1 2 –
PEM Electrolysis which are available under multiple tradenames. PEM

based water electrolysis has the advantages of being
This method was developed to overcome the issues extremely compact, sustaining high current densities,
associated with alkaline electrolysis such as low purity high efficiency, providing a fast response, and producing
of gases and low dynamics. In this process, water is ultrapure hydrogen. Additionally, balancing a PEM
electrochemically split into hydrogen and oxygen at electrolysis plant is simple, thus making it attractive
cathode and anode respectively. Water is pumped into for industries. They, however, are more expensive
the anode, where it is split into oxygen gas (O2), proton than an alkaline electrolysis setup. A substantial part
(H+) and electrons (e-). The proton travels via the proton of the ongoing research is in improving the PEM water
conducting membrane to cathode, while the electrons electrolysis components such as electrolysis separator
exit via the external power circuit, which provides plates and current collectors which are responsible
the driving force (cell voltage) for the reaction. At the for almost 48% of the overall cell cost (Kumar and
cathode end, the protons and electrons recombine to Himabindu 2019).
produce hydrogen gas. The membranes most commonly
used are Perfluorosulfonic acid polymer membranes
Box 7 Reactions involved in PEM Electrolysis

At Anode: The water electrolysis is initiated at the anode where water is pumped, which in the presence of an electric
current splits water into oxygen (O2), protons (H+), and electrons (e-). The protons travel via the proton conducting
membrane to cathode, while the electrons travel through the external power circuit, which provides the requisite potential
difference to drive the reaction. Oxygen, a byproduct of the process which is in form of a gas is released from the anode.
2 + + 2 - (reaction at Anode)
At Cathode:
 2 The+ protons
+ split
2 at the anode, which travel through permeable polysulfonated membranes, recombine at
cathode to produce hydrogen gas. The gas, as opposed to the process in alkaline electrolysis, can be pressurized to be
2 + in
utilized 2 a variety
 of downstream processes.
2 +22 
+ –+(reaction
2 at Cathode)
Overall Cell: The overall reaction generates both hydrogen and oxygen at cathode and anode respectively. The feed
water, which is pumped in to initiate the process, decomposes once it reaches the electrode surface into oxygen gas,
2 +
protons 2and electrons.
+ Oxygen, as aforementioned, is collected from the electrode surface while the proton travel to
the cathode, where they recombine with electrons to produce hydrogen. The major components of a PEM cell are [a]
2 +
 Electrode
Membrane Assemblies (MEA) which in turn consist of the membrane, ionomer solution and anode & cathode
electrocatalysts; [b] current collectors (gas diffusion layers); and, [c] separator plates. The overall reaction in the cell is
represented below.
2  + – (Overall cell reaction)

High temperature electrolysis is relatively lower as compared to earlier process, as part

of the energy is being supplied as high temperature heat.
This process uses the principle of an inverted Solid The stacks can be operated at high pressure and can be
Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) to produce hydrogen, where it easily expanded to accommodate downstream methanol
supplies a portion of the energy required to formally or methanization reactions. As a result, this technology
break chemical bonds in form of heat. It usually operates offers advantages in reduced electricity requirement,
at high temperature and pressure utilizing water in high efficiencies and in the easy combination with
the form of steam. The membranes conventionally follow-up processes. It, however, requires an external
are O2 - conductors which are derived from nickel/ heat source which provides high temperatures. From
yttria stabilized zirconia. Solid oxide electrolysis of the point of view of chemical industry, which is biased
water is versatile and can be used to co-electrolyze towards the production of synthesis gas as opposed to
carbon dioxide to produce a synthesis gas of desired hydrogen alone, this technology looks promising.
composition. The electricity requirement in this process
Box 8 Reactions involved in a Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell (SOEC)

A SOEC consists of three components in solid state, namely [a] cathode, which is also called the hydrogen electrode;
[b] anode, which is also called the air electrode; and, [c] electrolyte (Pandiyan, et al. 2019). Steam (H2O) reduces at the
hydrogen electrode to form oxygen ion and hydrogen (in its gaseous form). The oxygen ion migrates through the solid
electrolyte to the anode (air electrode) where it oxidizes to form oxygen gas by releasing its electrons. The reactions
involved in an SOEC are summarized below:
At Cathode:
2 +4  2 +2 - (reaction at the hydrogen electrode)
22 ++ 44  22 ++ 22
At
2 Anode:
 +4
2 - (reaction at the air electrode)
2 
 ++ 44
2
Overall 2
reaction: +
22  22
 ++
2
SOEC, + 4otherelectrolysis
like 2 + 2 cells has piles of single cells, together called a stack, and has interconnects that carry electric
2
2 + 44 ensure
current+and  22 gas++collection.
 22 SOEC, though still not available commercially at scale, has several advantages – [a] it can
achieve
2 +an4 efficiency
 2 of up + 2to 100%; [b] doesn’t require noble metal catalysts, and as a result can be made inexpensive;
22 +it 4
+ 4  2 ++high
2
and,
2
2
[c] can
+++ 444   222 ++ 222 pressures, thus providing support to the downstream processes, which often require
operate
 2 at
2 
+4in a pressurized
hydrogen
2 +42 + 2format. Currently, this process is subject of mainstream R&D, where work is being undertaken
2  +4
22
to improve
  its +++ 4 4
mechanical stability and bulky system design (Voitic, et al. 2018).
22  + 44
2  +2 2 +2 +2
Co-electrolysis
+ 2 of+ steam
2 (H2O)
+ 2 and Carbon dioxide (CO2) in an SOEC, on the other hand, yields synthesis gas (Ebbesen and
2
22 
+22  2  2
+The +2 ++ 22
Mogensen
22  2009).
2 ++ half-cell reactions for this process are represented below:
2
At Cathode:
2 + 4 2 +2
2 + 4  22 +2
22 ++ 44  ++ 22
2
2 + 4 2 +2
2 + 4 2 +2
22 ++ 44  2 ++ 22
At Anode: 2
2  + 4
2  +4
22  ++ 44

2Overall +reaction:
2 2 +2 +2
2 +2  22 +2 +2
22 ++ 22  ++ 22 ++ 22
2
Synthetic Gas, an important constituent of multiple downstream processes is produced at the cathode, while oxygen, in its
gaseous form, is produced at the anode.
Biological processes for production of for catalysing nitrogen fixation, which is reduction of
Hydrogen nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) – a process vital to
sustaining life on earth.
An alternative approach for hydrogen production, though
not currently utilized at an industrial scale, is through The process utilizes energy from sunlight in anaerobic
the biological route. The approach deploys the use of conditions i.e., without the presence of oxygen. Both
renewable resources such as nutrient rich wastewater, cyanobacteria and green algae, in anaerobic conditions,
food and agricultural wastes inter alia under ambient produce hydrogen in the presence of light. Green algae,
conditions. however, in absence of illumination or sunlight uptakes
hydrogen through CO2-fixation process producing
In this process microorganisms convert water molecules carbon compounds that store energy. Nitrogen
and organic substrates into hydrogen by catalytic fixer cyanobacteria, which has both bi-directional
activity of two key enzymes, namely hydrogenase hydrogenase (Hox) and uptake hydrogenase (Hup) also
and nitrogenase. Bio-hydrogen, or hydrogen that is consumes the produced hydrogen through nitrogen
synthesized biologically, can be produced through fixation. The basic difference between the two organisms
different processes including bio-photolysis, photo- is that the process in case of green algae is extremely
fermentation and dark-fermentation amongst others. In oxygen sensitive (the production of hydrogen drops
bio-photolysis, microalgae and cyanobacteria have the significantly if there is a presence of oxygen in the
ability to capture solar energy and generate hydrogen bioreactor) while cyanobacteria can be more resistive
from water and CO2. Photo-fermentation hydrogen to oxygen. Also, it is possible to genetically modify a
production is carried out by purple non-sulfur (PNS) cyanobacteria to delete the process of hydrogen uptake.
bacteria from various carbon sources using light energy.
In dark-fermentation, anaerobic bacteria generate This method of hydrogen production is attractive as it
hydrogen from organic matter using food or agricultural only requires the use of water as primary feed along with
wastes and wastewater. Hydrogen is also produced sunlight which in turn acts as the motivating agent for
through CO gas-fermentation from water gas shift the biocatalyst. For even spread of sunlight, however,
reaction via bioconversion of carbon monoxide and water bioreactors with large surface areas are required which
molecule by means of photosynthetic bacteria under poses a limitation in case of large industrial set-up. Also,
anaerobic condition. simultaneous production of oxygen and hydrogen poses
a significant drawback for the process, as the presence of
Direct bio-photolysis oxygen in the bio-reactor significantly hampers the rate
of hydrogen production. This oxygen can be removed by
In the process of direct bio-photolysis, unicellular continuous sparging (by introducing a noble gas such as
organisms that produce their own energy utilizing argon), but it is not extremely cost-effective, especially
sunlight and CO2 through photosynthesis (also referred in a commercial set-up. Use of genetically engineered
to as photoautotrophic organisms) convert water strains is an advanced technique which can improve
molecules into hydrogen. Two group of organisms that oxygen tolerance. The process has a light conversion
facilitate the process of direct bio-photolysis hydrogen efficiency in the range of 6% - 42%. It has been
production are green algae and cyanobacteria6. They reported that utilizing direct bio-photolysis, hydrogen
undertake this process utilizing the catalytic activity can be produced at approximately USD 3.15 per Kg H2
of hydrogenase and nitrogenase enzymes. The former (Nikolaidis and Poullikkas 2017).
enzyme is produced by both cyanobacteria as well
as green algae, while the latter is only produced by Photo-fermentation
cyanobacteria which are nitrogen fixing.
Hydrogen production in photo-fermentation process is
The enzyme hydrogenase is categorised into either mediated by Purple Non-Sulfur (PNS) bacteria. These
[a] uptake hydrogenase (Hup), which consumes H2 bacteria possess versatile metabolism. Depending
by oxidising hydrogen molecule into electrons and on the operating conditions such as available carbon
protons; and, [b] reversible hydrogenase (Hox), which sources, light intensity, oxygen presence etc. the bacteria
has the ability to both produce and consume H2 through can grow either as photoautotrophs (organisms that
catalysing the reversible oxidation of a hydrogen create their own food), heterotrophs (organisms which
molecule based on the prevalent operating conditions. depends on other organisms/nutrients present in the
On the other hand, nitrogenase is an enzyme responsible environment) or as chemoheterotrophs7 (organisms that
6 Cyanobacteria, based on scientific enquiries, are responsible for the Great Oxidation Event – a time period when the Earth’s atmosphere and the shallow
ocean first experienced a rise in oxygen approximately 2.5 billion years ago.
7 Chemoheterotrophic bacteria is a sub-type called lithotrophic bacteria, also known as “rock eaters” or “stone eaters”. They are unable to make their own
food (like autotrophs do) so they get their energy from the oxidation of inorganic minerals in their environment. Also, these bacteria cannot make organic
obtain energy by the oxidation of electron donors in their processes as [a] it does not need a steady source of
environments). Amongst these, photoheterotrophs who light energy and as a result is relatively economical;
use light and organic compounds for sources of energy [b] generates a higher amount of H2, for example, it
and carbon are preferred for hydrogen production. has an efficiency of 60-80% as compared to 6-46% in
case of bio-photolysis; [c] it is technically simpler not
Photo-fermentation, like bio-photolysis, is also carried requiring bio-reactors with high surface areas for even
out by hydrogenase and nitrogenase through the citric illumination; and [d] uses lower value waste as organic
acid cycle (TCA cycle) and is strongly dependent on substrate or feedstock. Utilizing this process hydrogen
the nitrogenase activity. As a first step, the organic production can be achieved at approximately USD 2.85/
substrate is oxidised to CO2, protons and electrons kg H2 (Nikolaidis and Poullikkas 2017).
through the TCA cycle. The generated electrons are
transferred to nitrogenase. In parallel, Adenosine
Hydrogen as a coupled stream in the
triphosphate (ATP), which provides energy to drive the
electrolytic production of chlorine
biological processes, is synthesised in the photosynthetic
membrane apparatus of the bacteria and is supplied. Chlorine (Cl2), caustic soda (NaOH) and soda ash
This facilitates the reduction of protons to hydrogen. The (Na2CO3) are important chemicals produced by
overall reaction requires high amount of intracellular industrial units and are inputs to a variety of downstream
energy (ATP) and a nitrogen deficient condition for units such as textiles, pulp & paper, alumina, soaps &
high hydrogen production. The production is dependent detergents, pharma, etc. In 2018-19, chlor-alkali units
on the type of substrate (such as pre-treated waste in India produced almost 2 million tons of chlorine,
water from various industrial processes), nitrogen and approximately 3 million tons of each - caustic soda
source, amount of trace metals and minerals present and soda ash (Dept. of Chemicals and Petrochemicals
in the substrate and level of illumination. The major 2020). Chlorine and caustic soda are mass produced by
drawbacks of this process are low efficiency of solar electrolytic processes, utilizing saturated brine solution,
energy conversion because of the high energy demand that produces hydrogen of high purity as a by-product.
of the reactions, requirement for maintaining anaerobic
conditions and photobioreactors with large surface areas. Hydrogen, however, is frowned upon in the chlor-alkali
In the long run, photo-fermentation is not considered a units as a waste of energy as well as a safety hazard. The
viable method for hydrogen production (Abdalla, et al. industry utilizes variations of the electrolytic process in
2018). [a] Membrane cell process; [b] Mercury cell process, and
[c] Diaphragm cell process. Amongst these, the mercury
Dark Fermentation cell process is being phased out around the globe,
as it utilizes mercury as an input and also has a high
Dark fermentation is the most studied method for electricity demand. In India, the sector has also upgraded
hydrogen production through biological processes. The from mercury cell process to membrane cell process
method uses a wide range of waste materials such as and in the transition, has been able to save ~ 800 kWh/
food and agricultural waste, waste water inter alia in MT from an energy intensity of 3200 kWh/MT required
conjunction with anaerobic organisms. The reaction is in the former process to approximately 2400 – 2500
carried out via an acetate mediated pathway. Anaerobic kWh/Mt in the latter (BEE 2018). The primary product
bacteria as well as microalgae such as green algae under of the chlor alkali industry is caustic soda, with chlorine
anoxic and dark conditions within operating temperature and hydrogen generated as by products in the ratio of
range of 30 – 80°C are utilized for the process. 1.00:0.89:0.025 (BEE 2018).
This differs from the bio-photolysis process as it

Cost associated with hydrogen production
does not require light and produces a variety of gases
in India
including H2, CO2, CH4 or H2S, depending on the
reaction conditions and organic substrate used. The The various hydrogen production methods along
quantum of hydrogen production is affected by pH value with their advantages, disadvantages, efficiencies
of the substrate, time of hydraulic retention and gas inter alia are represented in table 2. Currently, as also
partial pressure. The best results have been obtained aforementioned, a lion share of the hydrogen production
by regulating the partial pressure of H2, maintaining a is from non-renewable fossil fuels, in particular,
pH value within the range of 5 – 6, and maintaining an steam reforming of natural gas, naphtha or heavy oils.
The usage of fossil fuel as a feedstock produces ‘grey
optimised hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 0.5 days.
hydrogen’ of low purity with a high concentration of
This process has several merits over the other biological
greenhouse gases. Growing energy needs of the country,
molecules from inorganic sources (they cannot “fix” carbon) so they eat other organisms to get the carbon they need. The common food and energy
sources for them are dead organic material and elemental sulfur and iron and gases having these elements such as hydrogen sulfide.
Box 9 Reactions involved in hydrogen production as a coupled stream

(chlor-alkali)
Hydrogen is produced as a by-product in a chlor-alkali setup which utilizes chlorine-alkaline electrolysis through three
processes, as mentioned above.
Membrane Cell process:

The process is based on a saturated brine solution (NaCl) that is oxidized at anode, such that the chloride ions from the
brine solution are converted into chlorine gas, which is subsequently captured.
2  +2 - (reaction at anode)
Sodium ions, left over at anode, pass through a non-permeable ion exchange membrane to the cathode which is
22 +in
enclosed + 2
2 a concentrated
+ caustic soda solution (30%). At cathode, water is broken down to directly produce hydrogen
and hydroxyl ions. The subsequent combination of sodium ions and hydroxyl ions further concentrates the caustic soda
2 + 2 to be refreshed periodically. The overall reaction produces chlorine at the anode, along with,
which needs
solution,
2
2 + 2 2
+ 2and concentrated
2 +
+ caustic soda solution at the cathode.
hydrogen
2 + 2 2 + – (reaction at cathode)
Mercury Cell process:

This process categorized by its mercury emissions, equivalent to 0.81g per ton of chlorine production, poses an
environmental hazard and as a result is gradually being phased out. It also has a relatively higher electricity demand. The
procedure consists of introducing a saturated solution of brine over the cathode, which under the influence of an external
electric+ current
+ reduces into
( sodium
) and chlorine ions. The sodium ion, at the cathode reacts with mercury to form an

amalgam, whereas the chlorine ions, at the anode, recombine to form chlorine gas.
+ +  ( ) - (reaction at cathode)
Leftover
2 ( mercury h are 
) + 2 and+amalgam transported
2 + 2 to a graphite
+ decomposer, where pure mercury is recovered and recycled
+ +  ( )
along with hydrogen and concentrated caustic soda solution, which are coproduced.
2 ( ) +2 + h 2 +2 + – (reaction at graphite decomposer)
Diaphragm
2 ( ) Cell+ 2 Process:
+ h 2 +2 +
This process is a variant of the membrane cell process. It utilizes a permeable diaphragm to separate the cathode and
anode of the cell. The diaphragm, while it separates the gases, allows the brine solution to pass from anode to cathode
part of the cell. The formal reactions, in this process, are identical to the membrane cell process. The resulting mixture of
brine and caustic soda at the cathode, however, require separation, which often requires significant amounts of steam.
coupled with the import burden of natural gas or crude oil, along with the imperative of lowering emission intensity of
various sectors, should urge policy-makers and industry alike to look at processes that decarbonize.
Table 2 Hydrogen production methods in India
CAPEX LCOH8
Technology OPEX Efficiency
(in INR/KW) (in INR/Kg)
Electrolysis 3% of CAPEX Equipment - 58%
81,400 400
PEM/Grid Electricity – INR 6290/MWh Electricity CUF – 95%
81,400 325
PEM9/Solar Electricity – INR 2146/MWh Electricity CUF – 19%
66,600 350
Alkaline/Grid Electricity – INR 6290/MWh Electricity CUF – 95%
8 The costs of hydrogen represented in the table are approximate and may vary by 10 – 15% on the higher side based on changes in cost of fuel
9 PEM – Proton Exchange Membrane based Electrolyser
CAPEX LCOH8
Technology OPEX Efficiency
(in INR/KW) (in INR/Kg)
66,600 300
Alkaline/Solar Electricity – INR 2146/MWh Electricity CUF – 19%
SMR10 5% of CAPEX Equipment – 74%
45,510 160
without CCS11 NG – INR 592 – 888/mmbtu Carbon capture rate – NA
SMR 7% of CAPEX Equipment – 74%
63,714 180
with CCS NG – INR 592 – 888/mmbtu Carbon capture rate – 70%
ATR12 2% of CAPEX Equipment – 81%
55,870 140
Without CCS NG – INR 592 – 888/mmbtu Carbon capture rate – NA
ATR 3.5% of CAPEX Equipment – 81%
78,218 170
With CCS NG – INR 592 – 888/mmbtu Carbon capture rate – 97%
Coal Gasification 10% of CAPEX Equipment – 55%
1,85,000 290
Without CCS Coal – INR 3700 – 6660/ton Carbon capture rate – NA
Coal Gasification 12.5% of CAPEX Equipment – 55%
1,94,250 400
With CCS Coal – INR 3700 – 6660/ton Carbon capture rate – NA
UCG13 10% of CAPEX Equipment – 55%
1,18,400 180
Without CCS Coal – INR 3700 – 6660/ton Carbon capture rate – NA
UCG 12.5% of CAPEX Equipment – 55%
1,24,320 230
With CCS Coal – INR 3700 – 6660/ton Carbon capture rate – NA
Source: (Ramakumar 2020) (Hall, Spencer and Dayal, et al. 2020)
Green hydrogen produced from electrolysis is a possible strategy, which India is undertaking and is likely
solution for decarbonization. The total cost of ownership to establish targets for hydrogen production and
of this environmentally benign method, however, is consumption (Economic Times 2020); [b] co-ordination
comparatively higher, currently. A just transition, on potential investment opportunities and competitive
which doesn’t overlook the environmental externalities, business models with industry stakeholders; [c]
requires policy alignment which would level the playing regulation to remove barriers to adoption of hydrogen
field and accelerate scale-up of hydrogen usage not only through an environmentally benign process; [d]
as an industry feedstock but also in other sectors which standardization; [e] creation of infrastructure for usage
require decarbonization. The indicative (but not limiting) of hydrogen; [f] incentives to promote acceleration of
policy requirements are [a] formulation of a national green hydrogen production.
10 UCG – Underground Coal Gasification

11 SMR – Steam Methane Reformation
12 CCS – Carbon Capture and Storage
13 CCS – Carbon Capture and Storage
Utilization of hydrogen in the industry
Hydrogen as an energy vector or a chemical agent can for oxygenates have led to lower severity in the catalytic
be utilized [a] for transportation; [b] as a feedstock; or, reformer and as a result hydrogen production in this
[c] for heat and power for building and industry. Current unit has decreased over time.
uses of hydrogen in India are primarily in the form of
industry feedstock and in some cases to provide process Hydrogen, therefore, constitutes a significant portion
heat. Most of these processes depend on fossil fuels of refinery processing and operational cost and is
as a feedstock and as a result produce accompanying usually regarded as a utility within the industry (Ratan
greenhouse gases. In 2018-19, India domestically 2014). The supply and use of hydrogen, as a result, is
produced and consumed ~ 5.6 million tons of hydrogen to the extent possible maintained internally, to avoid
in a wide range of industrial processes . Some details of constraints on the refinery operations. If the demand
consumption are provided in sections below: for hydrogen, however, exceeds the available supply
from within the internal refining processes15, then
the incremental demand is met by either increasing
Oil Refining
hydrogen plant production or through an external source.
The Indian refining sector has seen tremendous growth, Thus, in order to optimise costs, complex mathematical
from a single refinery with a capacity of 0.25 MMTPA models have been developed for hydrogen network
in 1901 to 23 refineries with a cumulative capacity of optimization (Linnhoff 1993) (Kumar, Gautami and
249.37 MMTPA as on April 2019 (MoPNG 2020). Given Khanam 2010) (Hallale and Liu 2001) (Alves and Towler
the evolution in demand for middle distillates , which 14 2002), which attempts at balancing the production and
are expected to peak by 2030 (CRISIL 2018), a focus in the consumption of the gas within the complex.
industry has also been to improve petrochemical yields,
As a result, the numbers associated with production and
making the operations within the refinery more complex.
consumption of hydrogen in refineries, though accessible
The production and recovery of hydrogen, in context to refinery operators are not easily available in the
of refining operations, is essential to processes that public domain, at least in the Indian context. The data,
convert crude oils to light, high quality products (Aitani however, can be modelled/estimated for a particular
1996). The product slate of a refinery, therefore, is refinery based on [a] quality of crude benchmarked as
closely correlated with the availability and consumption the specific gravity and proportion of sulfur content;
of hydrogen (Ozcelik and Karamandal 2019). Recent [b] the gas to distillate ratio of the refinery which can be
years have been seeing a higher demand for hydrogen derived from the distillate yield of the refinery; and, [c]
from the oil refineries (Matijasevic and Petric 2016). the throughput of LPG as an end product of the refining
This is a resultant of several factors such as decreasing operation (Elgowainy, et al. 2019) (A. Elgowainy 2020)
quality of crude which are now heavier (have a high (Pivovar 2018).
C:H ratio) and sourer (have a high sulfuric content) on
These data inputs have been modelled for approximately
one end, and, stricter emission norms which require
40 refineries in the US, which has resulted in the
that oil products used by end user have lower levels of
development of a regression model that can predict
impurities. Further, the use of heavier crude oils and
hydrogen usage within the refineries in the US
more bottom of-the-barrel processing has increased
(Elgowainy, et al. 2019). The resultant model, however,
the hydrogen demand in hydrocracking and heavy oil
cannot be directly adopted for Indian refineries as
hydrotreating units, while, new specifications for low-
there is a substantial difference in the product slates,
sulphur fuels signal increased hydrogen consumption
with US refineries producing refining products with
in hydrotreaters (Rabiei 2012). At the same time, limits
a much higher G/D ratio as compared to their Indian
on the aromatics content of gasoline and requirements
14 The distillate yield of Indian refineries has, as a result, increased from 74 to 80 from 2008-09 to 2018-19
15 The primary source of hydrogen within the refinery has been the catalytic naphtha reforming unit. If the hydrogen from catalytic reforming is insufficient,
Additional hydrogen requirements, may be supplied by building a hydrogen plant that produces the gas by steam reforming of natural gas, LPG or naph-
tha and partial oxidation.
counterparts. Based on the predictions for US refineries, on a carbon-neutral electrolysis process which operated
however, it may be estimated that the refining industry for almost three decades – from 1961 to 1990. The plant
in India consumed approximately 2600 thousand produced ammonia and calcium ammonium nitrate.
metric tons (TMT) of hydrogen in 2018-19 (Details of The electrolysis plant, however, was systematically
methodology employed to calculate consumption is decommissioned, since 1974, to eventually be replaced by
provided in Annexure). The crude characteristics, in the reforming process utilizing feedstocks such as naphtha
estimation, are represented by the Indian crude basket, and heavy oil, which, as mentioned above, coproduce
which is the weighted average of Oman & Dubai for sour CO2 (World Bank 1981), an important input for the
grades and Brent sweet grade (MoPNG 2020) (S&P Global production of Urea. The electrolysis setup for the plant,
Platts 2020). which successfully operated over a period of 30 years was
supplied by German firm Linde in 1962 (NTI n.d.).
Ammonia
Ammonia, in India, almost exclusively is produced by
Ammonia is amongst the largest consumer of hydrogen the Haber-Bosch process, a catalytic process where
in India, as it is the precursor compound of nitrogen- hydrogen and nitrogen are passed over an iron catalyst
based fertilizers. Apart from fertilizers, nitric acid is at elevated temperature and pressure. Air is directly or
also an important derivative generated by oxidation of indirectly used as the source of nitrogen. In the latter
ammonia with air over a platinum catalyst16 (Ausfelder case nitrogen is utilized in its pure form fed through
and Bazzanella 2016). In 2018-19, India produced 36.9 an associated air separation facility. Hydrogen, on the
million tons of nitrogen-based fertilizers including other hand is supplied as synthesis gas through a steam
urea, DAP and various NPK complex fertilizers (Dept. of reforming unit which forms an integral part of the
Fertilizers 2019). Almost all hydrogen production utilized ammonia plant.
in the fertilizer sector in India is from hydrocarbon
The ammonia production usually involves the following
processing, which utilizes naphtha, natural gas or coal
three processes – [a] The gasification/reforming of
as feedstock. The steam reforming process is in fact the
the feedstock to produce a stream of synthesis gas to
preferred option in case of urea, which subsequently
feed the ammonia synthesis plant. In 2018-19, India
utilizes the CO2 co-produced in the synthesis gas stream.
used 460.4 TMT of furnace oil, 351.6 TMT of Naphtha
The alternative to steam reforming is electrolysis,
and 14987 MMSCM of natural gas as feedstock for
which generates hydrogen thereby producing ‘green
fertilizers (MoPNG 2020); [b] The purification of gases
ammonia’. This method, however, is not the favored
and adjustment of hydrogen-nitrogen ratio prior to
choice of the industry, limited by cost constraints. In
ammonia production. The purification includes removal
India, Nangal fertilizer plant was the only plant based
of sulfur, carbon-di-oxide and traces of carbon oxides
Table 3 Hydrogen consumption in fertilizer sector in India (2018-19)
Particulars N P component K component Production in India H2 Consumption

component (P2O5) (K2O) (2018-19) (2018-19)
% age % age % age Lakh Metric Ton (LMT) Thousand Metric Ton (TMT)
Urea 46% 240.23 2375.40
DAP 18% 46.5 177.91
NPK1 Complex fertilizer 20% 20% 0% 34.67 149.05
NPK8 Complex fertilizer 28% 28% 5.58 33.58
Total H2 Consumption in the fertilizer sector in India in 2018-19 2850.21
Source: estimated from (Dept. of Fertilizers 2019)
16 Ostwald process
using a scrubber, absorber and methanator respectively; there are five major producers of methanol, of which
and, [c] the ammonia synthesis process which produces Gujarat Narmada Fertilizer Company (GNFC) has the
ammonia from the ammonia synthesis gases. largest installed capacity. India’s domestic production,
however, does not meet its demand for methanol, which
The process is an exothermic equilibrium reaction is substituted by import. In 2018-19, India imported
involving volume reduction and is favored by high 1.9 million MT of methanol (Dept. of Chemicals and
pressures and low temperatures. Further, only partial Petrochemicals 2020).
conversion is achieved in a single pass, hence, the
produced ammonia is condensed by refrigeration, leaving Methanol, though suggested to play a central role as
liquid ammonia and remaining gas mixture (hydrogen a replacement for transportation fuel17 in a proposed
and nitrogen in the gas phase) which is fed back into methanol economy (NITI Aayog 2018), currently, is
the reactor. The separated liquid ammonia is expanded utilized in the production of several high-volume
and stored or processed further, for example in a urea chemicals18 such as formaldehyde, acetic acid, methyl
plant (Pattabathula and Richardson 2016). For economic tert-butyl ether (MTBE), methyl methacrylate, dimethyl
reasons ammonia plants are usually large-scale plants terephthalate (DMT), inter alia. Formaldehyde, which
(BEE 2018). is utilized to produce paints laminates and plywood
generates almost 40% of India’s methanol demand (S&P
Table 4 estimates the consumption of hydrogen within Global 2020).
the fertilizer industry in India in 2018-19. The estimates
are based on stoichiometric calculation, primarily by Traditionally, methanol can be produced by either
estimating the N component of various fertilizers which using light feedstock such as natural gas or heavier
is usually in the form of ammonia, and subsequently by feedstock such as coal or biomass. In case of the former,
estimating the hydrogen requirement for production of the feedstock is desulfurized and reformed with steam
ammonia. One metric ton (MT) of ammonia production and oxygen at elevated temperature and pressures.
requires approximately 0.18 MT of hydrogen (Ausfelder The resulting syngas is compressed and transferred to
and Bazzanella 2016) which may be derived from methanol-synthesis unit. Additional hydrogen, required
various feedstocks. In essence, 1 MT of ammonia can be by the process in form of a stream into the synthesis unit,
produced from either [a] 32-38 mmBtu of natural gas; is largely supplied by recycling the gas after separation of
or, [b] 0.9 MT of Naphtha; or, [a] 1.05 MT of furnace methanol from remaining gases. For heavier feedstocks,
oil; or, [d] 1.9 MT of coal; or, [e] 8,000-12,000 kWh however, an external hydrogen supply is required as they
of electricity needed for electrolysis of water (Nutrien are unable to meet the stoichiometric ratio (of hydrogen
2019). to carbon) for optimum synthesis conditions.
The most economic process followed by the industry

Methanol
is a combination of steam reforming and autothermal
Methanol, a clear liquid chemical that is water soluble reforming. In this combined process, a fraction of
and is readily biodegradable, comprising of four parts desulfurized feed gas is steam reformed at high pressure
hydrogen, one part carbon and one part oxygen, is and temperatures in order to provide the necessary
another large consumer of hydrogen in the chemical hydrogen. This gas stream is then combined with the
industry. Globally, with a production of 98.9 million MT non-reformed feed gas – produced from gasification of
(Methanol Institute 2020), its hydrogen consumption solid feedstock, and together subjected to autothermal
is only second to ammonia. By comparison, its reforming. In both the above cases, the reactions of
production is relatively low in the case of India, which syngas to methanol are highly exothermic and the overall
produced 271.93 TMT in 2018-19 utilizing 57% of its economics of a methanol plant is critically dependent on
installed capacity of 474.30 TMT (Dept. of Chemicals efficient heat recovery and management.
and Petrochemicals 2020). Conventionally, methanol
The stoichiometric ratio favored by the process is two
is produced from synthesis gas generated by reforming
parts of hydrogen and carbon-di-oxide gas stream with
process or coal gasification. The production model in
one-part carbon monoxide and carbon-di-oxide gas
the conventional sense, therefore, is biased towards
stream. In gravimetric terms, approximately one ton of
large production facilities (Bergins, et al. 2015). In India
methanol requires 0.19 tons of hydrogen for synthesis
17 For comparison, [a] a 61 L compressed hydrogen at 700 bar, with a weight of 43 kgs, combined with a fuel cell with an overall efficiency of 62% provides
52.8 MJ; [b] 16 pieces of 840 Wh lead acid batteries, with a combined weight of 461 Kg, with a conversion efficiency of 90% produces 48 MJ; [c] a 7 L
methanol tank with a weight of 5.5 Kg, combined with a methanol reformer and fuel cell with an overall conversion efficiency of 40% provides 45 MJ; [d]
1628 pieces of 10 Wh 18650 Li-ion cells, with a combined weight of 73 kgs with an overall efficiency of 77% provides 45 MJ (DTI 2018).
18 Methanol, apart from the aforementioned chemicals is also used to produce Methanethiol (Methyl Mercaptan), Methylamines, Methyl Chloride (Chloro-
methane), alternative fuels such as in gasoline blending, biodiesel and DME. It is also utilized for energy generation in fuel cells and for its conversion into
olefins.
(Dolan 2019). In 2018-19, therefore, India consumed Other uses and applications of hydrogen in
51.67 TMT of hydrogen domestically for the production chemical industry
of methanol and imported 361 TMT of hydrogen in
the form of methanol for consumption by its various In India, currently, hydrogen is largely consumed in
chemical industries. oil refining, production of ammonia and nitrogen-
based fertilizers. Hydrogen is, however, used as feed
Apart from its use in the chemical industry, methanol in in many other smaller chemical processes (Ausfelder
India is receiving considerable attention (Saraswat and and Bazzanella 2016). Production of synthetic fuels
Bansal 2016)for the role it can play [a] as a substitute for from gasification of coal followed by Fischer-Tropsch
transportation fuel in automotive and marine sectors; [b] synthesis is another large-scale process, which may
its use in the derivative DME which is most commonly become a major consumer of hydrogen in the near future,
used as a replacement for propane in liquid petroleum considering the large availability of coal resources19 in
gas (LPG) and can also be used as a replacement for diesel India (Padmanabhan 2019) (IHS Markit 2019). Other
fuel in transportation; [c] as a key component in the processes which require hydrogen are hydrogenation
process of making biodiesel, where it is used to convert reactions that are commonly used and enter the chemical
the triglycerides in different types of oils into usable value chain at various positions, for example in the
biodiesel fuel; [d] as a key component in the development production of MDI and TDI (precursors for subsequent
of different types of fuel cells – which are quickly polyurethane production), saturation of animal/
expanding and are expected to play a larger role in our vegetable fats in the food processing industry etc.
energy economy. They range from large-scale fuel cells
to power vehicles or to provide back-up power to remote Stationary power
equipment, to portable fuel cells for electronics and
personal use (Sonde 2020) (RIL 2020); [e] as an attractive Hydrogen, at a very small scale is being used by industry
emerging fuel for electricity generation. In fact, to generate power in India, especially in the remote areas
conversion of power to methanol provides renewable which do not have access to 24/7 electricity from the grid.
energy operators flexibility where surplus power can Within this sector, the telecom industry has been, in the
be used to produce green methanol which can be stored past, regarded as a possible consumer.
and transported for its reconversion to electricity (Dolan
2019); [f] its use in industrial boilers to provide industrial
process heat and its use at the household scale where
methanol can be used in cookstoves to replace LPG and
solid biomass based fuels (Methanol Institute 2020).
Table 4 Sustainability initiatives in energy consumption by major tower companies in India.
Service Market
Description Initiatives
Provider Share
• Renewable energy sources consisting of solar
and biomass have been deployed at over 1100
Incorporated in 2007, Indus Towers is a joint
sites across India. The company plans to scale
venture towerco founded by Bharti Infratel,
up its deployment to cover 50% of all telecom
Vodafone India, Aditya Birla Telecom (Idea). In
sites by 2021
2018, the towerco announced plans to merge 130416
Indus Tower • Since 2011, the company has converted
with Bharti Infratel, which was approved by the towers
71,191 sites to green sites by removing diesel
latter’s board on 1st September 2020. The merger
generators and deploying battery banks in their
would create the largest towerco in India and one
stead
of the largest in the world.21
• The company does not mention any sites being
currently served by fuel cells
19 India is the world’s second largest consumer of coal and has significant coal resources of 360 billion metric tons, as of 2017.
Service Market
Description Initiatives
Provider Share
• The company has developed first fully
indigenous prototype of a High Temperature-
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (HT-PEM) fuel
cell system comprising fuel cell stack, methanol
reformer, balance of plant and control system
that has been built and is presently being
Reliance Jio Infratel utilized the base built by
tested on simulated Jio towers. In the long-
Reliance communications. It has one of the largest
term fuel cells will be supplied by renewable
market shares. Reliance has signed a binding
Reliance Jio 175,000 hydrogen and replace current methanol
agreement with Brookfield Infrastructure partners
Infratel towers reforming to produce in-situ hydrogen.
LP and its institutional partners for investment in
• Reliance Jio has considerably reduced the use
the units to be issued by the Tower Infrastructure
of diesel generators and has installed Lithium-
Investment Trust (InvIT).
Ion batteries on 80% of its sites. The operator
is also working on utilising either solar based
solutions (with batteries) or methanol fuel
cell systems for the remainder (20%) of its
sites with long power outages or which are
completely off-grid.
American Tower, headquartered in the US, is
• 23,000 sites of ATC are diesel free sites as per
to date the largest independent towerco in
industry standards
the world, operating a global portfolio of over
• The company is generating 13 GWh of energy
170,000 sites. It has a growing presence in India,
from solar resources, with 10 MW of installed
where through its M&A activity, began with the
capacity in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha and
acquisition of 1,730 towers from XCEL Telecom
American 75,113 West Bengal.
in 2009, continued with the acquisition of
Tower Towers • Through the use of battery banks, the company
4,450 towers from Essar Telecom in 2010, and
has converted approximately 2200 sites to
culminated in the acquisition of Viom Networks
green sites.
and their 42,200 towers, announced in October
• The company does not mention the use
2015. In 2018, American Tower added 20,100
of hydrogen based fuel cells for energy
towers to its growing portfolio from Vodafone and
generation.
Idea.
• The company has 45,752 tower sites as green
Bharti Infratel is one of the pioneers of shared sites using high-end VRLA batteries and Li-Ion
telecoms infrastructure, Bharti Infratel was batteries.
created in 2007 as an independent tower • The company has had successful trials of Piped
company to provide compelling capex saving Natural Gas (PNG) Generator in the Uttar
95,372
Bharti Infratel opportunities to telecom service providers, Pradesh West Circle where a gas pipeline was
Towers
while optimally utilising Bharti Airtel’s large tower available in contrast to the conventional diesel
base in India. As of September 2020, its merger based energy
with Indus Towers has been approved by the • The company has installed 4 fuel cell based
company’s board sites, as a pilot project, in the north-eastern
states of India
• As of March 31, 2020, the total number of
GTL Infrastructure, a publicly-listed tower
operational diesel free sites were 2,869.
company in India, was founded in 2004 and
• In 2015, UK Based Intelligent energy deployed
listed in 2006, the company began expanding
fuel cells in partnership that claimed to have
its portfolio in 2008 and acquired 17,500 towers
GTL 27,209 delivered 10 MWh of clean and efficient power
from Aircel. However, the cancellation of 122
Infrastructure Towers to the company’s telecom towers.
operator licenses by the government, slow uptake
• Post 2015, the company has deployed li-ion
of 3G and price wars between service providers
based battery banks to power the telecom
have left GTL Infrastructure with a heavy debt
towers, though it is still exploring avenues
burden.
utilizing fuel cells
Source: (Indus Towers 2020) (Tower Xchange 2019) (RIL 2020) (ATC India 2019) (Bharti Infratel Ltd. 2020) (GTL Infrastructure 2020)
(Intelligent Energy 2016)
Telecom Sector to utilizing battery banks for energy storage. This is

largely due to [a] comparatively higher upfront capital
The sector has experienced phenomenal growth in the expenditure required for a fuel cell solution; [b] low
past decades, growing from a subscriber base of 36.3 availability of fuel in the form of hydrogen/methanol;
million and a tele-density of 3.58% in 2001 to 1.18 billion and [c] complex distribution ecosystem of the fuel due to
with a tele density of 90.1% as of 2019 (Department lack of an established market. These barriers to adoption
of Telecommunications 2020). The growth has also of hydrogen as a clean energy vector are reflected in
seen a transition from a voice-centric to a data heavy the solution’s inability to scale-up within India even
consumption pattern, with a non-existent internet base after several promising starts such as Tata Teleservices
in early 2000’s to 636 million internet subscribers in efforts for installing and maintaining fuel cell systems as
2019. This large subscriber base is served by a network of back-up power supply for telecom towers along with US
5,96,000 telecom towers20 (COAI 2020). These towers, based M/s Plug power culminating in 200 sites in India
which have played a pivotal role in in the unhindered with HPCL as the fuel supplier (Plug Power 2009) (TTML
growth of India’s telecom sector, consume 3.2 billion 2020), ACME Telepower Group’s tie-up with Canada
litres of diesel per annum, emitting around 8.6 million based M/s Ballard Power systems and M/S Dantherm for
tons of CO2 (Energy Management, telefocus 2019). fuel cell installation in telecom sector which resulted in
30 installations across India in 2012 (US DoE 2014), UK
The financial cost of energy (notwithstanding the
based Intelligent Energy’s tie up with GTL Infrastructure
environmental costs), which includes the high
to install several PEMFC in telecom sector (Intelligent
consumption of diesel, constitutes 35% of the total
Energy 2016), and initiatives of Altergy (Altergy 2012)
revenue of the tower industry (Kapoor, et al. 2019). The
and ReliOn which were also targeting India for fuel cell
industry, thus, with a goal of improving economics
application in telecommunication towers (GoI 2016).
and reducing carbon emissions by 40% by 2022-23
(with 2011-12 as the base), has been working towards With a focus on decarbonization of the sector, further
implementing solutions (table 5) that are reliable, cost permeation of hydrogen-based energy systems would
effective and environmentally benign (GOI 2019). require policy levers such as [a] reduction of supply
uncertainty, especially of fuel which makes most
A review of documents available in the public domain
investors vary of funding new hydrogen projects. This
suggest that within the current settings, battery banks
can be overcome, on the other hand, in case of integrated
based on valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) and lithium-
companies such as Reliance (table 5) which can assure
ion (Li-ion) batteries are the preferred solution adopted
supply of fuel from its petrochemical units and thus drive
by tower companies (towerco) in India. These battery
investments in the domain; [b] creation of ecosystem
banks are coupled with either available grid electricity
which allows the deployment of complementary solutions
or with renewable based power generation. For example,
with positive spill-over effects. This can be undertaken
Ascend Telecom – a towerco with around 6355 telecom
for the telecom sector, which is already evaluating its
towers in India, optimises the use of electricity from
potential in adjacent business segments such as providing
the grid by storing it in VRLA batteries while using Li-
power as a service in underserved areas (Rockefeller
ion batteries only for auto-changeover between grid
Foundation 2012), create space for warehousing, cold
and genset/VRLA based battery bank (Tower Xchange
storages and collection points for goods, and, provide
2019). A combined use of the aforementioned solution
charging infrastructure for electric vehicles (Kapoor, et
allows the company to provide the lowest TCO to mobile
al. 2019); and, [c] incentivization of utilizing a hydrogen
network operators (MNO).
backed energy system that would scale applications in the
Fuel cells, based directly on hydrogen or on methanol, telecom sector to reach critical tipping points, post which
have advantages in terms of being lightweight and the cost of deployment and ownership would see a sharp
noise free. It is also proven as a complete low footprint decline, as has the case been with solar deployment in
solution which has no requirements of any ancillary India (Hydrogen Council 2020) (TERI 2020).
units such as a backup generator and thus can operate as
a stand-alone system. These advantages, however, are Hydrogen in Transport
outweighed by its higher costs, especially in an over-
competitive market such as the telecom sector in India. In 2015, transport accounted for 17% of the total energy
Fuel cells have a comparatively higher TCO as compared demand in India and emitted 251 Mt of CO2 equivalent
emissions (Mohan, et al. 2019) (DST 2020). Almost all23
20 As of December 2019, DoT reported 5,86,379 telecom towers (DoT 2020).

21 The data represented, here forth in the table, is for Indus Towers, as consolidated data is currently unavailable
22 Data as of Q2 of 2019
23 98.5% of the entire energy demand was met by either diesel or petrol. The sector consumed 99.6% of all petrol and 70% of all diesel refined in the coun-
try. The production of petrol and diesel are inexorably linked to crude imports.
energy demand for transportation in India is currently considered energy efficient and less emission intensive,
met by petroleum products. The sector, as a result, was with the potential of cutting pollution by 77.4% and
responsible for 39% and 30% of all NOX and PM 2.5 emissions by 43.8% (Kumar and Anbanandam 2020),
emissions, respectively, as well (DST 2020) (Guttikunda, when compared to a scenario which is road dominated.
Goel and Pant 2014). Government of India, with this in mind, launched its
draft national logistics policy in Feb 2019 which aims to
The demand for transportation services, either passenger align freight movement with international benchmarks
or freight, are intricately linked with the ongoing levels of 25-35% share of road, 50-55% share of railways and
of economic activity and changing demographics in any 20-25% share of waterways (WRI India 2020).
country (Gupta and Garg 2020). As growth is envisaged,
in the case of India, in both of these parameters, the
Hydrogen in transport in India
emission levels from the sector are also projected to
increase, almost three-folds by 2050 (Gupta and Garg India is heavily dependent on crude oil imports,
2020), if effective measures to decarbonize mobility are which forms the basis of all transport services today.
not put in place. In 2018-19, India had an outlay of USD 112 billion for
import of crude. The country, on the other hand faces
Meeting the growing demands and regulating emissions
large developmental challenges and spent USD 75
may not, however, be mutually exclusive. Multiple
billion, during the same period, on national social and
technological pathways exist within the contemporary
developmental programmes. Reducing dependence on
settings that should be explored and implemented. A
petroleum products, a majority (approximately 47%)
large repository of research suggests that a combination
of which is consumed by transportation and mobility,
of electrification and use of hydrogen as fuel for short
would therefore ease up capital which may then be
distances and long-distance travel, respectively can
apportioned to programmes/schemes which facilitate
facilitate this decarbonization (Hydrogen Council 2020)
development. Taking this into account, several forward-
(Hydrogen council 2017) (IEA 2019).
looking policies have been introduced, such as Faster
Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid) and Electric
Demand outlook in transport Vehicles (FAME), Corporate Average Fuel Economy
(CAFÉ) standards, inter alia in the past to improve energy
The movement of goods and people in India is dominated
efficiency, curb emissions and promote energy security.
by road transportation, where two/three wheelers, cars,
The aforementioned schemes and standards encourage
buses and trucks utilizing internal combustion engines
the adoption of efficient mobility solutions such as
accounted for 90% of the passenger movement (17,832
electric vehicles by way of offering incentives and also by
billion passenger km) and 59% of freight (2,260.2
way of establishing necessary infrastructure.
billion tons km) (MORTH 2019). Movement by road, as
a result, was responsible for 88.4% of all CO2 equivalent India, along with pushing for electric mobility, has
emissions in the sector, with other modes, namely also initiated steps which aim at adopting hydrogen
aviation, rail and navigation contributing 7.3%, 3.9% and as a fuel, but still has a long way to go to achieve
0.4% respectively (Mohan, et al. 2019). satiety in regulations, efficacious technology and cost
efficiencies (Cheema 2019). This is evident from the poor
India also has one of the largest rail networks, spread
performance against targets set towards Green Initiatives
over 68,400 route km, and ninth largest waterway
for Future Transport (GIFT) under National Hydrogen
globally with 14,500 km of navigable inland waterways
Energy Roadmap. The targets set for 2020 aimed at [a]
consisting of canals, rivers, backwaters and creeks
One million hydrogen powered vehicles on road, against
(Indian Railways 2019) (NITI Aayog and Rocy Mountain
which less than 100 are currently on road, most of which
Institute 2018). Though, as indicated by modal shares of
are still in demonstration phase; [b] 750,000 hydrogen
freight transport, only 35% of the freight demand is met
powered two/three wheelers on road, of which less
by rail, and of the remainder, 6% is met by waterways.
than 50 are currently operational; [c] 100,000 buses/
Similarly, in passenger movement rail and air together
vans that are powered by hydrogen of which less than 10
accounted for only one-tenth of the total demand.
exist (MNRE 2016). Most of the progress, summarized
The modal split, especially in case of freight movement, in the table below, has been a direct result of public
is contrary and unlike other countries which share finance with private initiatives being limited to industry
similar geographies and freight compositions, such as participation as knowledge partners. This may be
China and US, where the share of road in freight load is attributed to low levels of national ambition, absence of
much lower at 30 – 40% (NITI Aayog and Rocy Mountain requisite regulations and a lack of appropriate signaling
Institute 2018). Rail and waterway transport, both, are mechanisms that are necessary to catalyze demand.
Table 5 Initiatives in India that promote hydrogen as a fuel in Transport
SL. No. Institution(s) Remarks
Indian Oil Corporation The demonstration project, commissioned in 2008-09, has an electrolyser with 5 Nm3/hr
Limited hydrogen production capacity (about 11 kg/day). Hydrogen produced from the electrolyser is
1 being blended with CNG for use in demonstration and test vehicles. The project aims to acquire
Setting up of Hydrogen
experience and knowledge in handling hydrogen for use in vehicles and also provide field per-
dispensing station
formance feedback on hydrogen-CNG blends as a fuel in automobiles.
Society of Indian Automo- Three buses, two cars and two three wheelers were part of the project and were used for field
bile Manufacturers (SIAM), trials based on 18% hydrogen (by volume) blended with CNG. The project involved modifications
Tata Motors, Ashok Leyland, in engine and fuel injection system. Existing hydrogen-CNG dispensing station set up by India
Eicher Motors, Mahindra Oil Corporation at Faridabad is currently being used for filling hydrogen-CNG blends in the test
2
and Mahindra and Bajaj vehicles. The project helped in optimization of engine performance and blend ratio of hydro-
Auto gen with CNG. The criteria for optimization was high efficiency and lowest NOx emissions. The
Field trials of automobiles project demonstrated that hydrogen up to 20% (by volume) can be blended with compressed
with H-CNG natural gas (CNG) for use as an automotive fuel
IIT Delhi, Mahindra & Ma- Hydrogen powered three-wheeler ‘HyAlfa was developed by the consortium and launched in
hindra, Air Products 2012. The project was funded by United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).
Exhaustive lab tests were carried out on the vehicular engine in the Engines and Unconvention-
al Fuels Lab of Centre for Energy Studies under varying operating conditions. The test results
3 provided the technical guidelines and thus the existing designs of engines were converted to
Development of Hydrogen
run on hydrogen. Based on IIT Delhi recommendations, Mahindra had developed hydrogen
fuelled three wheeler
operated three wheelers for passenger and cargo version vehicles. Limited field trials demon-
strate that the hydrogen fuelled three wheelers provide a mileage of 85 km per kg of hydrogen
consumption
IIT BHU, Varanasi The project was funded by MNRE and DST. It demonstrated the successful operation of hydro-
gen powered motorcycle through combustion of hydrogen aimed at 100 – 175 CC, 4 stroke
vehicles. The project employed timed manifold hydrogen injection in the internal combustion
4 Development of Hydrogen
chamber. Hydrogen was stored in in-house fabricated AB5 type (Mn:Ni:Fe) hydride with ~ 2 wt%
fuelled two wheeler
storage capacity mounted in vehicle exhaust coupled heat exchanger tank. The range of the
vehicle was tested for 60-80 km.
IIT Guwahati Under the project, IITG designed, fabricated several pre-industrial scale prototypes of hydro-
gen storage reactors of about 1000 – 22000 L capacity for automobile and industrial applica-
tions, and their performances were tested at different operating conditions. Metal hydrides
were utilized for storage. They are compounds formed by the reversible chemical reaction of
hydrogen and metallic atom. The reaction can be summarised as when specific metallic atoms
5 Metal hydride-based hydro-
are exposed to hydrogen near ambient conditions, the metal atoms absorb enormous amount
gen storage system at STP
of hydrogen by releasing heat (Exothermic reaction) spontaneously, called absorption process.
When the heat is supplied to the metal hydride molecules, the hydrogen gets separated from
the metal hydride and becomes free hydrogen (Endothermic reaction), through a process called
desorption.
International Advanced ARCI’s Centre for Fuel Cell Technology, since 2007, with the objective of developing Polymer
Research Centre for Powder Electrolyte Membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) in its entireness and demonstrate its application in De-
Metallurgy and New Materi- centralised power generation systems and transportation applications, has developed process
6 als (ARCI) know-how for the various components used in the fuel cell stacks, built fuel cell stacks of capaci-
ty up to 10 kW, demonstrated fuel cell based power packs with the required Balance of systems
Development of PEMFC for
in Decentralised power generation and demonstrated fuel cells in electric vehicle for use as
automotive application
range extenders. The R&D activities are aimed at performance improvement and cost reduction
Mahindra & Mahindra Dual fuel system, retrofitted in existing vehicles, feeds the internal combustion engine with com-
(M&M) bination of two fuels, hydrogen and diesel in this case. It is aimed at reducing the consumption
of diesel. The innovations consisted of [a] developing an electronic control design system which
controls the compression ignition engine electronically thereby providing the needed flexibility
for an alternative fuel – hydrogen; [b] dual fuel control module which is an auxiliary electronic
7 Development and Demon- control unit which interfaces with the engine control module and controls the fuel injected into
stration of Diesel Hydrogen the engine. The demonstration vehicle utilizes hydrogen at 200 bar pressure and can operate
Dual Fuel SUV on either just diesel or on a combination of fuels with little input from the operator. The project
demonstrated that a substitution of 45% diesel with renewable hydrogen is possible with
benefits of reduction in CO2, CO, HC, PM by 25%, 68%, 68% and 30% respectively. The energy
efficiency is also enhanced in the process by 5-10%.
SL. No. Institution(s) Remarks
IIT Delhi, M&M Hydrogen as fuel performs well in Spark Ignition (SI) engine as it has multiple benefits includ-
ing a wide range of ignition limits, good mixing characteristics with other fuels, inter alia. The
project aims at developing a well optimised hydrogen ICE that would improve energy efficiency
Development and demon-
and control emissions. The project has been tested on a H2 mustang engine and required the
stration of hydrogen
8 development of several components including turbochargers, piston, injectors, regulators etc.
powered mini bus with
The demonstration vehicle is proposed to include six hydrogen cylinders of 70L water capacity
multicylinder Spark Ignition
which utilizes hydrogen compressed at 200 bar. The developed IC engine has been introduced
(SI) engine
into Mahindra’s tourist/model minibus. Two vehicles have already been built and calibrated
which are currently undergoing field trials of 100,000 km.
CSIR, KPIT, NMITLI, and The consortium has converted an Mahindra eVerito into an FCEV. The prototype runs on a
M&M hydrogen fuel cell stack developed in-house at CSIR’s National Chemical Laboratory in Pune,
Maharashtra. This hydrogen fuel cell stack is a 10 kWe Low-Temperature Proton Exchange
Membrane Fuel Cell (LT-PEMFC). The membrane electrode assembly of the PEM fuel cell tech-
nology was contributed by CSIR. KPIT brought its expertise in stack engineering, which included
9 Development of indigenous light-weight metal bipolar plate and gasket design, development of the balance of plant, system
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle integration, control software and electric powertrain. CSIR and KPIT retrofitted the 72-volt
(FCEV) battery-electric platform of the Mahindra eVerito with a hydrogen fuel cell stack. The Mahindra
eVerito hydrogen fuel cell prototype features a Type III commercial hydrogen tank that can store
around 1.75 kg of H2 at about 350 bar pressure. It has a range of approximately 250 km when
driven at 60-65 km/h speeds.
Source: (DST 2020) (MNRE 2016) (Electricvehicleweb 2020) (ARCI 2020) (IITG 2018)
As India develops and moves towards a low carbon sector (BNEF 2020). Electricity, with assumptions of
economy it would necessarily have to take into account grid being availabe and stable, may be relatively efficient
the critical role of transport sector in mitigating climate and cost effective in certain use cases such as urban
change and informing future Nationally Determined mobility, sub-urban rail, dedicated freight corridors
Contributions (NDC). This would, however, require [a] etc. Hydrogen, on the other hand, becomes feasible in
structural changes, such as introducing a modal shift use cases where electrification is either not possible
towards more efficient transportation modes such as or is limited due to weight restrictions imposed by an
railways or waterways for both freight and passenger electric solution. These use cases may include heavy road
movement; [b] generating public awareness towards transport, aviation and waterway navigation (Turner, et
promoting sustainable behavioral changes, originally al. 2020). Energy-economy models, based on Indian data
ushered in response to the COVID 19 pandemic, and realities, suggest a penetration of 10-18% by share
such as increasing share of work from home, use of of hydrogen-based vehicles, by 2050 which may in turn
teleconferencing wherever possible, and a deliberate represent modal shares of up to 4000 BPKM and 2400
shift to public transport; [c] creation of infrastructure BTKM (Gupta and Garg 2020), which are substantial
such as Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS), Dedicated compared to current use. Both electrification and use
Freight Corridors (DFC), sidings/freight terminals, of hydrogen for mobility would, however, assume a
charging stations, hydrogen refueling stations etc.; [d] considerable reduction in the carbon intensity of the grid.
encouraging trends which allow Mobility as a Service
(MaaS); [e] introducing regulatory and policy changes Based on the aforementioned results, if hydrogen is to
that promote an aggressive switch to green vehicles – be utilized at scale, India would have to move beyond
a combination of Battery Electric Vehicles, FCEV and demonstration and pilot projects. It would, apart
vehicles that operate on blended fuel, increase fuel and from the structural changes mentioned above, require
vehicle efficiency etc. (Gupta and Garg 2020) (Kumar improving the pace of technological improvements along
and Anbanandam 2020) (Hydrogen Council 2020) (NITI with providing political-administrative support by way
Aayog and Rocy Mountain Institute 2018). of public finance, investment and regulation (Singh, et al.
2015) (Gupta and Garg 2020). In addition, interventions
Evidence based on envisaged technological in form of issuing appropriate code and standards are
improvements, cost effectiveness and user acceptance required, such that the marketplace perceives a sense
reiterate a combination of electrons24 and protons25 to of consistency which in turn would encourage private
deliver deep decarbonization needs of the transport participation and deployment.
24 In the form of electricity

25 In the form of hydrogen utilized in fuel cells
Standards in addition to continuity of policy follow the development path adopted by most of the
would provide a pathway to Original Equipment industrialized nations, where determinants of steel
Manufacturers (OEM) and allow technologies which are demand are the rate of investment and industrialization
at laboratory demonstration level to progress towards in the economy, then it would need to raise its steel
commercialization. This would include certification consumption manifold (Hall, Spencer and Kumar 2020).
guidelines and regulations by Petroleum and Explosives Taking this into account, the Ministry of Steel has set a
Safety Organization (PESO), Bureau of Indian Standards target for steel production capacity of 300 Mt for 2030-
(BIS) and MORTH respectively, with regard to ensuring 31, which represents a steel consumption of 158 kg per
quality of hydrogen production and consumption, capita per annum (GOI 2019).
enabling large scale hydrogen storage for use in vehicles,
developing requisite infrastructural facilities such as Moving beyond 2030, India in 2050, is predicted to
refuelling systems and providing requisite licenses and be one of the few world regions where steel demand
certificates to operators (DST 2020). These further need still wouldn’t have peaked. Under Business as Usual
to be developed in line with technical and environmental (BAU) conditions, TERI estimates that the domestic
standards notified by International Organization of manufacturing capacity of steel, in order to meet
Standards and other countries and regions such as EU, demands for new buildings, roads, bridges, agricultural
Japan and Korea. implements, automobiles etc., would increase five folds
to 528 Mt/annum with an apparent steel consumption
of 295 kg per capita (Hall, Spencer and Kumar 2020).
Hydrogen in Energy Intensive industry
This, if fulfilled through technologies reliant on coal,
Hydrogen, though niche and nascent, both as a reducing would substantially increase emissions from the sector to
agent and as an energy carrier, also finds its utility in approximately 840 Mt CO2, assuming that the industry
a socially, economically and environmentally relevant curtails the specific CO2 emissions to 1.6 t/tcs from 2.26
industrial sector - iron and steel. The sector, however, t/tcs, currently prevalent in best-in-class manufacturing
is currently biased towards coal as a feedstock and set-up at TATA Steel, Jamshedpur (GOI 2020).
fuel. It represents a duality. On one hand, a posteriori
In order to avoid such a scenario, India, therefore,
evidence from industrialized countries suggests that
needs to ensure that steel plants built in the near future
economic growth is concomitant with increasing levels
anticipate and enable deep decarbonization needs of
of steel consumption. On the other hand, an increase
the sector and that the involved stakeholders do not
in consumption, if fulfilled domestically through
inadvertently commit themselves to a technology
incumbent technologies, signals a substantial increase
pathway which is inherently polluting. If, however,
in emission intensity. In addition, the sector is also
viewed from another perspective, India, from where it
dominated by large industrial set-ups, characterized by
stands now is presented with a unique opportunity. It
long lifetimes and high trade intensity. This introduces
can prepare the sector for a future where responsible
a sense of inertia when it comes to adopting new
sourcing and carbon border adjustments are already
technologies that aim at a long-term transition, as
being actively considered, by leading global production
against incremental improvements in energy efficiency,
of low carbon steel.
to decarbonize the sector.
This would require formulation of forward-looking

Iron and Steel policies that go beyond incremental measures to improve
energy, resource and carbon efficiency, which already
India, with approximately one-tenth production capacity
exist in India in the form of the Perform Achieve and
of China, is the second largest steel producing nation in
Trade (PAT) Scheme, the Steel Scrap Recycling Policy
the world. In 2018-19, the sector employed 2.5 million
and the Draft National Resource Efficient Policy. These,
people, had an energy demand of 72 million tons of
by virtue of being cost effective and recoverable over
oil equivalent (Mtoe) and emitted 242 million tons of
short payback periods are preferred by the industry
carbon-di-oxide. The resultant production of 111.2 Mt
incumbents. For example, 158 iron and steel units
of finished steel translated into apparent consumption
participated in the first cycle of PAT that achieved
of 74.3 kg per capita, which is approximately 32%
a saving of approximately 8.5% in terms of overall
of the world average (World Steel Association 2020)
energy demanded per annum by these units (Hall,
(Hall, Spencer and Kumar 2020). The low per capita
Spencer and Kumar 2020). It is further estimated that if
consumption of steel illustrates that current levels
energy and resource efficiency is aggressively pursued
of access to building and infrastructure, mechanical
through adoption of Best Available Technologies, the
equipment usage, automotive ownership, inter alia
sector would, at best, be able to lower its emissions by
in India is still low relative to that of high-income
a maximum of 35% as compared to BAU in 2050. Thus,
countries. Further, it also indicates that if India is to
these incremental measures are certainly necessary,
but not enough to ensure a trajectory consistent with In case of the Electric route, which utilizes sponge iron
limiting warming to less than 2°C. (SI) or Direct Reduced Iron (DRI), 85% of the Indian units
use coal directly in the furnace instead of natural gas
In a changing climate, therefore, and when India is as a source of syngas (MoS 2019). This is largely due to
considered to be one of the most at-risk countries due the unavailability of Natural Gas in India, as the country
to its perceived impacts, adoption of new low carbon has limited supplies and imports are prohibitively
technologies becomes important. This further takes expensive. Further, domestic gas is regulated by the
centre stage, given that the Indian iron and steel sector central government, being designated for use in certain
is relatively energy intensive compared to international priority industries, namely, fertilizers, transport and
benchmarks and is expected to expand substantially. The domestic cooking gas supply. Further, the high cost of
sector, currently, relies heavily on coal for both fuel and imported natural gas makes coal-based DR, not taking
feedstock and is responsible for 13% of India’s total coal into account the environmental externalities, far more
consumption, resulting in large quantities of greenhouse competitive economically, thus making it unique to
gas emissions (Hall, Spencer and Kumar 2020). India. The use of induction furnaces in conjunction with
coal-based DR, however, results in low quality steel29,
Coal is ubiquitously utilized in both of the two prevalent
restricted to use in non-critical or non-load bearing
routes for steel production in India, namely [a] the
applications. Improving quality of steel from this route
Oxygen route; and [b] the Electric route. Oxygen route is
requires either an additional refining step or use of
the conventional integrated route consisting of a Blast
higher shares of good quality scrap.
Furnace which processes iron ore along with coke and
limestone to hot metal26 followed by a Basic Oxygen As fuel, coal is either utilized directly in production
Furnace (BF-BOF) to produce liquid steel which can be process to provide process heat or is used to generate
further cast, rolled, finished into various steel products. electricity in captive power plants – the route preferred
The hot metal if not utilized within the integrated set-up by large production units. Coal, in captive power plants,
can also be casted as pig iron27, which is thereby utilized provided almost 40% of all electricity in the sector
by iron foundries or by smaller steelmaking set-ups. in 2015-16. The remainder portion of electricity was
Electric route, on the other hand utilizes Sponge Iron (SI)28 supplied by the grid that currently has an emission factor
which is produced in a Direct Reduction (DR) furnace in of approximately 700 gCO2/kWh which, however, is
combination with steel scrap. SI is subsequently processed envisaged to come down given climate policy has made
in either an Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) or Electric strides in improving penetration of renewables in the
Induction Furnace (EIF). A DR furnace uses syngas, grid. Captive power plants, still, are favoured as they
instead of coke, which is injected along with iron ore (in guarantee continuous access to electricity for production
form of iron ore pellets) at high temperatures. Hydrogen units. They, however, are an expensive and emission
and Carbon monoxide, present in syngas, act as reducing intensive option for power production. The integration
agents thereby stripping the oxygen out of the ore to of renewables in the grid not only signals availability of
produce solid Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) or SI (BNEF 2019). cheaper power but also promises a substantial reduction
in emission intensity30. In the long run, therefore,
In case of the former route, coal in its processed form of
power from thermal captive power plants may affect the
coke, is utilized both as a feedstock and fuel in the blast
viability of production units, especially those operating
furnace. India, however, has a limited supply of coking
through electro-intensive steel production routes such
coal and the industry resorts to imports, largely from
as EIF/EAF.
Australia. The Indian iron and steel sector currently use
60 Mt of coking coal per annum, of which only 20% is
supplied domestically. The import of coking coal, pegged
at 10.3 billion USD in 2018-19, puts a substantial burden
on the Indian economy, and is only slated to increase if
the sector expands based on incumbent technologies.
26 It is the hot, liquid, metallic iron product obtained upon reduction of iron ore, normally in Blast Furnace. It contains about 93-94% Iron (Fe) and other
elements/impurities like Carbon (4%), Silicon (~1%), Manganese (+1%) Sulphur, Phosphorus etc. Hot metal is the primary input for production of steel in
the Integrated Steel Plants.
27 Pig iron is a solid (lumpy) form obtained upon solidification of hot metal in pig casting machines.
28 Sponge iron is a solid metallic iron product obtained upon Direct Reduction of high-grade iron ore in solid state without being converted into liquid form
like that in a blast furnace. It is primarily used for production of steel in either an EAF or EIF.
29 Low quality steel is due to traces of residual phosphorous, which is not removed completely in the process.
30 In its NDC the India government has pledged to reduce its overall emissions intensity 33–35% below 2005 levels by 2030. A 35% in the country’s 2005
emissions intensity of 901.7 gCO2/kWh would be 586 gCo2/kWh.
Hydrogen in steelmaking in India of hydrogen in large quantities and the process’s cost
effectiveness relative to the conventional steelmaking
As the economy develops, it is envisaged that the process. It is, however, being explored by multiple
proportion of steel scrap as an input in overall companies under forward looking projects, namely
production cycles, also termed as secondary steel HYBRIT in Sweden, SALCOS and Hamburg project in
production, would increase, which in turn may reduce Germany, H2FUTURE in Austria, inter alia (BNEF 2019).
the emission/energy intensity as it reduces the In case of the BF-BOF route, the gas can partially replace
primary step of processing iron from iron ore. This, coke32 in the blast furnace to reduce emissions by 10-21%
however, requires multiple strategic interventions from the overall process. This has been explored under
and a certain level of steel consumption, which may COURSE50 project in Japan, POSCO CO2 breakthrough
not be possible in India in the short to medium term. project in South Korea and Duisburg project in Germany
Recycling of scrap would also not provide a substitute (Hall, Spencer and Kumar 2020). India, thus, can benefit
for high quality steel. Both these drivers/barriers substantially from international cooperation, especially
indicate that India, based on its national targets, would with Germany which has gained experience from
still require a considerable quantum of steel through introducing hydrogen in both routes.
primary steelmaking routes which are both energy and
emission intensive. The sector in India, thus, needs Research undertaken by TERI for the steel sector
to look beyond coke and coal and explore alternatives estimates that for a new H2 DR-EAF facility to be
with dual objectives of reducing emissions and import competitive with a greenfield BF-BOF plant, the
dependency. The latter objective substantially limits the delivered cost of hydrogen would need to be within the
role of natural gas. They, however, do not theoretically range of USD 2.5 – 3.5 per kg. The actual competitive cost
limit the use of hydrogen in the sector. Having said fluctuates within the range depending on the efficiency
that, the use of the gas may be constrained due to other of the BF-BOF unit and the delivered cost of coking and
factors such as hydrogen availability, costs, industry non-coking coal. If India were, however, to utilize H2
inertia and lack of enabling policies/targets/roadmaps. DR-EAF facilities for primary steel making, the potential
demand for hydrogen can range from approximately 1 Mt
In terms of production process, hydrogen with some of hydrogen per annum to 18 Mt of hydrogen per annum
modification to the original process flow, as a reducing in 205033. The lower range assumes that only final 5% of
agent and fuel, can partially or completely replace fossil the production capacity is shifted while the higher range
fuel use in the steel industry. It can be utilised in both is for theoretical maximum where all steel is produced
DR-EAF and BF-BOF processes. In the case of DR-EAF from H2 DR-EAF units (Hall, Spencer and Kumar 2020)
hydrogen can replace 90-100% use of natural gas31. (BNEF 2019).
The process, proposed to be utilized in hydrogen based
integrated steel plant (H2 DR-EAF), is technically ready
but not yet demonstrated at commercial scale. The major
barriers to commercial feasibility being unavailability
31 DR technologies have been modified by Midrex, Tenova HYL and Outotech to operate on 90-100% hydrogen which has the potential to reduce emissions
to 0.5t/tsteel. Eight plants in India with a cumulative capacity of approximately 10 Mt per annum already utilize Midrex shaft furnace direct reduction
modules which may benefit from a changeover to hydrogen (Midrex 2019)
32 Partial replacement of coke by hydrogen has been piloted in Japan under the COURSE50 program.
33 The calculation of hydrogen demand is based on the analysis carried out by BNEF and TERI which assumes global and Indian steel production of 2500 Mt
and ~530 Mt, respectively by 2050.
Annexure 1: Methodology for calculation

of hydrogen consumption in oil refineries
The level of hydrogen consumption in case of oil by estimating the quantum of hydrogen required for
refineries is dependent on several factors including [a] removal of sulphur from the crude oil based on the
specific density of crude oil; [b] sulphur ratio of the crude sulphur content of crude oil and the emission norms
oil; [c] the complexity of the refining operations and followed in India such as Bharat Standard VI (BSVI)
the quantum of bottom-of-the-barrel refining; [d] the standards, which limit the amount of sulphur. Assuming
product slate of the refinery; and, [e] the emission norms that for each tonne of sulphur, 870 kg of hydrogen is
applicable at the end-user level. required to remove it from the product, they estimated
current hydrogen demand at 2.6 Mt (Hall, Spencer and
To understand the relationship with each of the Dayal, et al. 2020). The approach followed by Hall et al. is
aforementioned factors and to model the hydrogen represented in the figure below. It may however be noted
consumption levels of refining operations in the US, that this approach may provide an underestimation
Elgowainy et al. developed a regression function of as hydrogen demand of oil refining units, apart from
hydrogen demand by refineries using EIA’s database. The sulphur removal is also required for [a] hydrocracking
regression function, which takes into account the specific – conversion of diesel from crude; and, [b] conversion
gravity of sourced crude oil, sulphur ratio of crude oil process required for diesel production from Ultra Low
and the product stake of the refining unit has been Sulphur Diesel hydrotreater.
reproduced for reference as below.
H2 (mmBtu/mmBtu Crude) = 0.059-0.00175 x

Figure 2 Approach followed to estimate hydrogen
(Crude API)+0.02218 x (Sulfur Ratio)-0.00139 x (G/D
consumption by Indian refining operations.
Ratio)-0.59416 x (LPG/Total)
01 Estimate sulphur content in product state
The above regression function is applicable for – [a]
Crude API within the range of 28.5 – 34.3; [b] sulphur
02 Estimate sulphur content in Crude
ratio within a range of 0.65 – 1.6; and, [c] G/D ratio
within the range of 0.5 – 5.8.
03 Establish the diﬀerence
The Indian refining industry meets the boundary
conditions for two out of three factors, namely crude API
04 Estimate amount of H2 required to remove sulphur
and sulphur ratio. This regression function, however,
is not applicable in case of India as the product slate of
Indian refneries is very different from the United States 05 For each tonne sulphur, 870kg H2 is required
with much lower G/D ratios. This implies that further
work needs to be undertaken in this domain such that Estimate by-product H2 from CNR
06
similar regression functions be established for the Indian
operating conditions.
07 Subtract by-product H2 from overall demand
Hall et.al., however, followed a different approach where
Source: Adapted from (Kumar and Himabindu 2019)
a proxy for hydrogen consumption was established
Annexure 2: Important stakeholders in

India
Typology of
S.No. Title Name Designation Department Affiliation Sector
work
1 Dr SSV Ramakumar Director R&D IOCL Industry
Advanced Materials & Reliance SATAT
2 Dr Ashish Lele Senior VP & Head Industry
Alternate Energy Industries Limited
Research, Technology
3 Dr RR Sonde EVP Thermax Industry
& Innovation
Fuel Cells,
4 Dr PC Maithani Advisor MNRE GoI Government
methanol
Solid State and Fuel Cells, storage
5 Prof A K Shukla Emertius Professor Structural Chemistry IISc Academia batteries and
Unit supercapacitors
Solid State and
Aninda J.
6 Prof Professor & Chair Structural Chemistry IISc Academia H2 generation
Bhattacharyya
Unit
Dr Raja
Narayana Das
Ramanna DRDO Fuel Cell
7 Dr Janadhanan Fuel Cell Technology DRDO Research
Distinguished Technology
Pillai
Fellow
Former Member
of the L&T Board
8 Mr MV Kotwal Industry
& President Heavy
Engineering
Department of Biohydrogen
9 Prof Debabrata Das Professor IIT Kharagpur Academia
Biotechnology, production
Suman Roy Naval Materials
10 Dr Scientist ‘G’ DRDO Industry
Chowdhary Research Laboratory
Department
Avinash Kumar
11 Prof Professor of Mechanical IIT Kanpur Academia Engines
Agarwal
Engineering
Interdisciplinary
S Srinivasa
12 Prof Visiting Professor Centre for Energy IISc Academia Hydrogen storage
Murthy
Research (ICER)
13 Mr William Hall Associate Fellow Energy Program TERI Research
Akshay Strategic
14 Mr Director FTI Consulting Research
Bhardwaj communication
Industrial Sustainablity
15 Mr Tirtha Biswas Programme lead CEEW Research
& Competitiveness
Karthik Industrial Sustainablity
16 Mr Research Fellow CEEW Research
Ganesan & Competitiveness
Ravindra
17 Mr Operation head Fuel Cell division Thermax Industry
Paygude
Typology of
work
CSIR-National
Hydrogen Generation
18 Dr CS Gopinath Scientist Chemical Research Hydrogen storage
and storage
Laboratory
CSIR-National
19 Dr. K Vijaymohan Scientist SWCNT for storage Chemical Research Hydrogen storage
Laboratory
Siddharth
20 Mr Executive Director Sales MVS Engineering Industry
Rastogi
Hydrogen
Fuel Cell
21 Mr R K Malhotra President Association of Industry
Technology
India
Atomic Energy
22 Dr Anil Kakodkar Former Chairman Commission of Industry
India
23 Mr K K Gandhi Consultant TVS Group Industry
Country Head & Toyota Kirloskar
24 Mr Vikram Gulati Industry
Vice President Motor Pvt Ltd
ES Indraprastha Gas
25 Mr Managing Director Industry
Ranganathan Limited
Sturle Harald Greenstat
26 Mr Chairman Industry
Pedersen Hydrogen Asia
Research & Haldor Topsoe
27 Mr Jasvant Singh General Manager Industry
Development India Pvt. Ltd.
28 Mr Sukhmeet Singh Founder & CEO A2P Energy Industry
Luxfer Uttam Hydrogen storage
29 Mr Sandeep Bhasin Plant manager Industry
(India) & processing
Hydrogen
30 Dr Swati Neogi Professor Chemical Engineering IIT Kharagpur Academia
production (SMR)
IndianOil-Adani
31 Mr Rajiv Sikka CEO Industry
Gas Pvt. Ltd.
Business
Ravi Air Products and Storage and
32 Mr Development Industry
Subramaniam Chemicals Inc. processing
Manager
Toyota Kirloskar
33 Mr Jitendra Goyal General Manager Industry
Motor Pvt. Ltd.
TATA Group Fuel Cell
34 Mr Mahesh Murthy Head TATA Motors Industry
Initiative
Development of
zero emission
KA Centre for Energy
35 Dr Professor & HOD IIT Delhi Academia engines / vehicles
Subramanian Studies
fuelled with
hydrogen
Siddharth R. Solid Oxide Fuel
36 Mr CEO & Founder H2e Power Industry
Mayur Cell
Automotive
Neelkanth V. Power Train Research
37 Mr Officiating Director Government
Marathe Engineering Association of
India
Joint Chief Petroleum &
Safety and
38 Mr P. Kumar Controller of Explosives Safety Research
regulation
Explosives Organization
Principal Architect,
39 Mr Sant Ranjan KPIT Technologies Industry
CTO
Typology of
work
ONGC Energy
40 Dr D Parvatalu Domain expert R&D Industry Hydrogen storage
Centre
Bhabha Atomic
Powder Metallurgy Solid Oxide Fuel
41 Dr P K Patro Scientific officer Research Centre Industry
Division Cell
(BARC)
COx free
Indian Institute hydrogen
Akula Senior Principal
42 Prof of Chemical Academia production
Venugopal Scientist
Technology (IICT) by CH4
decomposition
Physical Chemistry,
Electrochemistry,
University of
43 Prof N K Singh Assistant Professor Electrocatalysis, Academia
Lucknow
Fuel Cells, Hydrogen
Energy
Indian Oil
Senior Research Corporation
44 Mr Sachin Chugh Industry H-CNG
Officer Limited (R&D
Centre)
Vehicle Testing Indian Oil
Senior Research Alternative fuels
45 Mr A S Ramadhas Fuels & Emissions Corporation Industry
Manager for transportation
Department Limited
PEM Fuel Cells,
Electrolysers,
Stack
Department of Hydro
Development,
46 Mr Amit Bhosale Assistant Professor and Renewable IIT Roorkee Academia
Cylindrical PEM
Energy
Fuel Cells, contact
resistance
management
Associate Department of Hydrogen storage
47 Mr T J Dhilip Kumar IIT Ropar Academia
Professor Chemistry materials (MOF)
CSIR-Institute
of Minerals Proton
Muhammad
48 Dr Principal Scientist and Materials Research conducting-Solid
Shahid Anwar
Technology oxide fuel cell
Bhubaneswar
CSIR-Institute
of Minerals
Laxmidhar Solid Oxide Fuel
49 Mr Chief Scientist Materials Chemistry and Materials Academia
Besra Cells (SOFC)
Technology
Bhubaneswar
Center for Renewable
50 Mr M K Soni Assistant Professor Energy & Environment BITS Pilani Research
Development (CREED)
Indian Oil
51 Mr Sujeesh S Solar Energy Corporation Industry
Limited
Renewable Power
52 Mr Amit Soman Country BD Lead Shell Energy Industry
Business
General Manager Renewable Energy -
53 Mr SS Mishra NTPC Industry
(HOD) engineering
Subodhika Senior Technical
54 Mr CDP India industry Carbon pricing
Vohra Officer
Typology of
work
Venkata Programme
55 Dr World Bank Funding
Ramana Putti manager
Senior Energy
56 Ms Surbhi Goyal World Bank Funding
Specialist
Centre for Energy
57 Ms Kanika Chawla Director CEEW Research
Finance
58 Ms Tamiksha Singh Associate Fellow TERI Research
Energy, Environment
59 Mr K N Rao Director ACC Limited Industry
& Sustainability
Chief Sustainability
60 Mr Ashwani Pahuja Dalmia Cement Industry
Officer
PTC India
61 Mr Devesh Singh Chief Risk Officer Industry
Financial Services
Renewables within
Suvojoy Electric Power & McKinsey &
62 Mr Partner & Lead Industry
Sengupta Natural Gas Practice Company
– India
ACME Cleantech
Business
63 Mr Sunil K Krishna Vice President Solution Private Industry Green Ammonia
Development
Limited
Central
M. Sterlin Leo
64 Dr Professor Physics University, Tamil Academia
Hudson
Nadu
Centre for
Nasani Materials for Fuel cell and
65 Dr Scientist Research
Narendar Electronics batteries
Technology
Indian Oil
Technology
Corporation
66 Mr TSR Gopalarao CGM Promotion and Industry
Limited (R&D
forecasting
Centre)
Nonferrous
Materials
K.Bala
67 Dr Director Technology Research
Subramanian
Development
Center (NFTDC)
Centre for hydrogen
68 Prof O N Srivastava Professor Emeritus BHU Academia
energy
CSIR-Indian
Institute of
S. Venkata
69 Dr Scientist Chemical Research
Mohan
Technology (CSIR-
IICT)
Institute of
Centre for Science &
70 Dr V Himabindu Professor Academia
Environment Technology, JNTU,
Hyderabad
Aravind S. Mahindra Research Mahindra &
71 Dr CTO Industry
Bharadwaj Valley Mahindra
Typology of
work
International
Advanced
Research Centre
Senior Scientist & Centre for Fuel Cell
72 Dr N Rajalakshmi for Powder Research PEMFC
Team Lead Technology
Mettalurgy and
New Materials -
ACRI
Fluid and Thermal
National Institute
Anbarasu Assistant Professor Mechanical Engineering -
73 Dr of Technology Academia
Subramanian Grade-I Engineering Hydrogen storage
Rourkela
and applications
University of
Distinguished Petroleum and Green Fuel -
74 Dr R. P. Badoni Chemical Academia
Professor Energy Studies Hydrogen
(UPES), New Delhi
Hydrogen
Environmental
75 Dr Sadhana Rayalu Chief Scientist NEERI Research generation and
Material Division
CCS
Damandeep
76 Mr Director – India CDP India Research Carbon pricing
Singh
Hydrogen Energy
77 Mr Tarun Singh Scientist ‘D’ Hydrogen Energy MNRE Government
policy
Dipesh Fuel Cell
78 Mr Scientist ‘C’ Hydrogen Fuel Cell MNRE Government
Pherwani Technology
Centre for Fuel
Senior Scientist & PEM Fuel Cells,
79 Dr N. Rajalakshmi Cell Technology Research
Team Leader Hydrogen Storage
(CFCT-ARCI)
Centre for Fuel
80 Dr R Balaji Scientist Fuel Cell division Cell Technology Research PEMFC
(CFCT-ARCI)
Centre for Fuel
PEMFC, methanol
81 Dr S Ramakrishna Project Scientist ‘C’ Fuel Cell division Cell Technology Research
economy
(CFCT-ARCI)
Automotive
Bureau of Indian Industry
82 Mr R R Singh Scientist ‘E’ Transport Engineering Government
Standards Standards
Committee
Resource Efficient
83 Dr Vidya S Batra Senior Fellow TERI Research Adsorption media
Technologies
Department
84 Dr Amitesh Kumar Assistant Professor of Mechanical BHU Academia Averera
Engineering
85 Mr Milind Deore Birector BEE Government Regulation
86 Mr Girish Sethi Senior Director Energy TERI Research Green Steel
CII-Sohrabji
87 Ms Nisha Jayaram Senior Counsellor Godrej Green Research Green Steel
Business Centre
Indu Shekar
88 Mr Secretary MNRE Government RE - Hydrogen
Chaturvedi
Fertilizer
Deputy Director
89 Dr S Nand Association of Industry Green Ammonia
General
India
Typology of
work
Sponge Iron
Deependra
90 Mr Executive Director manufactures Industry Green Steel
Kashiva
association
Shakti
Sustainable Energy transition -
91 Dr Anshu Bhardwaj CEO Research
Energy hydrogen
Foundation
Deepak Hydrogen -
92 Mr CMD PTC India Ltd Government
Amitabh energy storage
McKinsey &
93 Mr Rajat Gupta Research
Company
94 Mr Mohit Bhargava Executive Director Renewable Energy NTPC Industry H2 generation
Anindya
95 Mr Country Manager Energy Transitions Shell Energy Industry H2 generation
Chowdhury
Energy
Energy transition -
96 Lord Adair Turner Chair Transistions Research
hydrogen
Commission
Indian Chamber
97 Mr Anil Razdan Ex Secy - Power Industry
of Commerce
98 Mr Manoj Mathur Director Solar SECI Industry H2 generation
99 Mr A K Sinha AGM Schemes SECI Industry H2 generation
National
Honorary Director Solar Energy Hydrogen
100 Mr Deepak Gupta Industry
General Federation of Economy - policy
India (NSEFI)
Revenue, Transport
Government of Hydrogen
101 Mr K R Jyoti Lal Principal Secretary and General Government
Kerala Economy - policy
Administration
Adani
102 Mr Jayant Parimal CEO Industry H2 generation
Renewables
National
Subrahmanyam Solar Energy Hydrogen
103 Mr CEO Industry
Pulipaka Federation of Economy - policy
India (NSEFI)
Department
Technology Mission Hydrogen
104 Dr Sanjay Bajpai Head of Science & Government
Division (EW) Economy - policy
Technology (DST)
Department
Ranjith Krishna Technology Mission Hydrogen
105 Dr Director of Science & Government
Pai Division (EW) Economy - policy
Technology (DST)
Prathiba Department of Energy Hydrogen
106 Prof Professor IIT B Academia
Sharma Science & Engineering Economy - policy
Department
Hydrogen
107 Prof P Muthukumar Professor of Mechanical IIT Guwahati Academia
stotrage
Engineering
Hydrogen
108 Prof S Dasappa IISc Academia
production
109 Prof D. Das IIT Kharagpur
110 Dr Abanti Sahoo NIT Rourkela
CH
111 Dr IIT Hyderabad
subrahmanyam
Typology of
work
CSIR-Institute
of Minerals
112 Dr Kulamani Parida and Materials
Technology,
Bhubaneswar
K.
113 Dr IICT Hyderabad
Venkateswarlu
University of
114 Prof Y. K. Vijay
Rajasthan
M. Lakshmi
115 Dr JNTU Hyderabad
Narasu
117 Dr P.S. Sai Prasad JNTU Hyderabad
SPIC Science
118 Dr G. Sasikumar Foundation,
Chennai
National Institute
119 Dr Pratima Gupta of Technology
Raipur
120 Dr K. N. Sheeba NIT Tiruchirapalli
121 Dr P. Selvam IIT Madras
122 Dr Sundararajan IIT Madras
123 Dr K. Mohanty IIT Guwahati
Nageswara Rao
124 Dr IIT Guwahati
Peela
Rajesh B.
125 Dr CSIR-NEERI
Biniwale
Thapar university,
126 Dr Amit Dhir
Patiala
Raj Ganesh S.
127 Dr IIT Kanpur
Pala
CSIR-CECRI
128 Dr S Ravichandran
Karaikudi
CSIR-CECRI
129 Dr N Sathaiyan
Karaikudi
Prakash D.
130 Dr ICT Mumbai
Vaidya
Sanjay Kumar
131 Dr IIT Indore
Singh
132 Dr P. K. Patro BARC
133 Dr Ashok K Ganguli IIT Delhi
Vibha Rani
134 Prof DEI, Agra
Satsangi
Sahab Dass
135 Prof DEI, Agra
Kaura
Ravi Kumar
136 Dr BHU
Asthana
Narendra University of
137 Dr
Kumar Singh Lucknow
138 Dr Sudip Maity CIMFR, Dhanbad
Damaraju
139 Dr ONGC
Parvatalu
Typology of
work
SN college
140 Dr Salman Sultan
Azamgarh
Atindra Mohan
141 Dr BARC
Banerjee
Mrinal Rajesh
142 Dr BARC
Pai
143 Mr Ankan Paul IACS, Kolkata
144 Mr Praveen Kumar IACS, Kolkata
Dr. Babasaheb
Ambedkar
Yogesh S.
145 Dr Univ. Lonere,
Mahajan
Maharashtra
(BATU)
146 Prof G.D.Yadav ICT mumbai
Ankush B. CSIR-IIP,
147 Dr
Bindwal Dehradun
CSIR-IIP,
148 Dr Subham Paul
Dehradun
Shailendra CSIR-IIP,
149 Dr
Tripathi Dehradun
Rohit Kumar
150 Dr IICT Hyderabad
Rana
151 Dr R. Balaji ARCI-CFCT
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Status Quo Mapping of Hydrogen

Version: June 2021

Design and Layout: Aspire Design

India’s engagement with hydrogen as a fuel and an

In this context, this report aims to capture the status-

Hydrogen production in India 3

Utilization of hydrogen in the industry 15

Annexure 1: Methodology for calculation of hydrogen consumption in oil refineries 27

Annexure 2: Important stakeholders in India 28

ATR Auto-Thermal Reforming

Currently limited by appropriate regulations1 and a lack

Colours of Hydrogen Green Hydrogen: Green hydrogen is produced via

Hydrogen production in India

Figure 1 Hydrogen production methods

Hydrogen Production Bological Dark Farmentation

Water Spitting Pyrolysis

Electolysis Solid oxide

Box 1 Reactions involved in hydrocarbon reforming

+  + + – (Synthesis Gas Reaction)

++ 2  + + +2 + – (Generalized reaction for hydrocarbon reforming)

Gasification 2016). The process, as a result, needs to be approached

Steam reforming These reactions are equilibrium driven and resulting

Box 3 Reactions involved in Steam Reforming

++  ++ – (Water-Gas Shift reaction)

Partial oxidation industrial setup. The process, apart from advantages of

Autothermal reforming Waste and coupled stream

Box 4 Reactions involved in partial oxidation

Box 5 Reactions involved in autothermal reforming

2 + + 3 +3 + +h - (Autothermal reforming using CO2 input stream)

Box 6 Reactions involved in alkaline electrolysis

PEM Electrolysis which are available under multiple tradenames. PEM

Box 7 Reactions involved in PEM Electrolysis

2  + – (Overall cell reaction)

High temperature electrolysis is relatively lower as compared to earlier process, as part

Box 8 Reactions involved in a Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell (SOEC)

This differs from the bio-photolysis process as it

Box 9 Reactions involved in hydrogen production as a coupled stream

Membrane Cell process:

Mercury Cell process:

2 ( ) +2 + h 2 +2 + – (reaction at graphite decomposer)

Table 2 Hydrogen production methods in India

Source: (Ramakumar 2020) (Hall, Spencer and Dayal, et al. 2020)

10 UCG – Underground Coal Gasification

Utilization of hydrogen in the industry

Table 3 Hydrogen consumption in fertilizer sector in India (2018-19)

Particulars N P component K component Production in India H2 Consumption

Source: estimated from (Dept. of Fertilizers 2019)

The most economic process followed by the industry

Table 4 Sustainability initiatives in energy consumption by major tower companies in India.

Telecom Sector to utilizing battery banks for energy storage. This is

20 As of December 2019, DoT reported 5,86,379 telecom towers (DoT 2020).

Table 5 Initiatives in India that promote hydrogen as a fuel in Transport

SL. No. Institution(s) Remarks

SL. No. Institution(s) Remarks

24 In the form of electricity

This would require formulation of forward-looking

Annexure 1: Methodology for calculation

H2 (mmBtu/mmBtu Crude) = 0.059-0.00175 x