LESSON 1 | CELL MEMBRANE

The cell membrane is also called the plasma membrane which is made up of a phospholipid bilayer.

The phospholipid bilayer is made up of a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tails. The head is made up
of an alcohol and glucose/glycerol group while the tails are chains of fatty acid/lipids.

The phospholipid can move freely and allow water & other polar molecules to pass in and out of the cell
which is simply known as DIFFUSION—does not require the use of ATP or energy.

Another type of lipid in the cell membrane is cholesterol that makes the cell membrane more fluid. The
phospholipid is embedded with proteins that help in diffusion and cell recognition. Transport proteins
go all the way the bilayer. Large molecules like proteins and carbohydrates use proteins to help move
across the membrane. Proteins have carbohydrate chain attached which aids cells to recognise each
other and other certain molecules.

The cell membrane has major four functions are cell signalling, selective transport, excretion of waste
and structural support.

Hydrophilic heads and tails make up the bilayer. Cholesterol helps maintain flexibility of the cell
membrane. Global are proteins and glycolipid are involved in cell-to-cell recognition. Integral proteins
help transport certain materials across the cell membrane.

LESSON 2 | CELLULAR TRANSPORT

Passive transport is the process of moving molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration.
It does not require the use of energy or ATP.

There are three main kinds of passive transport namely diffusion or osmosis is an facilitated diffusion.

Diffusion is the process of moving from areas of high amounts to areas of low amounts until the
concentration is at the state of equilibrium.

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules or H2O from hide a low concentration.

Facilitated diffusion is a spontaneous process of passive transport by the use of specific membrane or
integral proteins.

Active transport is the process of moving molecules from low to high concentration it requires the use
of cellular energy or ATP.

The three main types of active transport are endocytosis, exocytosis, and receptor mediated
endocytosis.

Endocytosis is the movement of large molecules or particles into the cells via vesicle formation. This
requires the use of ATP.

Pinocytosis also known as cell drinking is the uptake of small fluid particles. Phagocytosis or cell
drinking is the update of large particles by the use of phagosomes.

Exocytosis is the movement of large particles out of the cell.

Receptor mediated endocytosis is a process by which the cell absorbs molecules by the inward budding
of the plasma membrane. It uses special receptor proteins to help carry large particles.

3 osmotic conditions
Isotonic - the concentration of particles are the same inside an outside of the cell. There is no change
within the cell size. The solvent and the solute are equal.

Hypertonic - this concentration of particles are higher outside the cell than inside the cell—water will
leave the cell in an attempt to dilute the outside concentration. The cell will shrink. Hyper means
over/above or excessive. The outside of the cell has higher solute than the inside water will leave the
cell causing the cell to shrink or collapse.

Hypotonic - the concentration of particles are lower outside the cell than inside the cell—water will
enter the cell in an attempt dilute the inside concentration. The cell will swell. Hypo means under or
beneath. The inside of the cell has higher solute than outside of the cell. There will be a free movement
of water into the cell. The cell will swell or burst.

Passive transport moves down the concentration gradient while active transport moves against the
concentration gradient.

One type of active transport is the sodium potassium pump which helps muscle cells contract. This
pump uses proteins to move ions against the concentration gradient. The protein that is used to pump
the ion is called a transmembrane or integral protein and it changes its shape to move ions across the
sun membrane.

LESSON 3 | MACROMOLECULES

Organic molecules have four common characteristics. First they're all carbon based—they all contain
carbon. They are formed from few elements to form small molecules to form even larger molecules.
Third they all have building blocks meaning that they all contain monomers. And lastly their form
determines their function.

Carbohydrates are the most common organic molecule because they make up most plant matter. They
are made from carbon hydrogen and oxygen. Their building block is a single sugar called a
monosaccharide. The carbohydrates building block are classified according to the number of sugars.
Monosaccharides contains 1 sugar, disaccharide contains 2, Oligosaccharide contain sugars ranging
from 2 to 10, and polysaccharide contains 10 sugar and above.

There are three classes of carbohydrate polysaccharides. The first is starch. Starch is a carbohydrate
used in food storage in plants potatoes pasta and rice I rich in starch. Starters are very valuable because
they provide a quick form of energy for the body. The second is glycogen. Glycogen is used for food
storage in animals. The third is cellulose. Cellulose is used for structural support in plants for example
stems and leaves.

The word monosaccharide came from the Greek word mono which means one and saccharide which
means sweet, they are the simplest form of sugar, usually colourless, water soluble, and crystalline
solids.
The formula for monosaccharide is C6H12O6 following the ratio 1:2:1

The common types of carbohydrates or sugar fructose galactose pentose, and xylose.

Glucose are the most common monosaccharides which is also known as dextrose or blood sugar. It is
the most important fuel sugar for the cells of plants and animals.

Fructose is also known as levulose or fruit sugar. It is the sweetest sugar end an isomer of glucose—
meaning that they have the same chemical formula but different structure. Glucose plus fructose equals
sucrose.

Galactose is less sweet than glucose. It is considered as a nutritive sweetener. The word galactose was
derived from the Greek word galaktos which means milk.
Ribose is a single stranded. It is A5 carbon sugar or pentose found in RNA.

Deoxyribose on the other hand is a double stranded found DNA.

Xylose also called wood sugar with the chemical formula C5H10O5 is found in the embryos of most
edible plants.

Disaccharides are double sugars formed from 2 monosaccharides with the chemical formula of
C12H22O11—Happens due to the removal of water or H2O.

Dehydration also called the condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis. The loss of water leads to
the formation of glycosidic bonds.

Sucrose is the most common table sugar used to sweeten food or drinks. It can also be found in honey.
At the soluble in water but too big to live in a living cell so in order to be utilised with this first broken
down to monosaccharides.

Maltose is made as two glucoses combine. It is also called a small sugar which is the raw material used
to make beer. It is the product breakdown of starch.

Lactose is made as glucose and galactose combined—the milk of mammals lactose makes up around 2 to
8% of milk.

Lactose intolerance is the inability to metabolise lactose because the required enzyme lactase is absent
in the intestinal system or its ability is lowered.

Lipids are a class of organic molecules which includes fats and oils and has the function of long term
storage energy in the body. The building block of lipid's is the fatty acids which is a chain of carbons
with hydrogen attached to each side.

Saturated fats have two carbons attached to each other except the one at the end. Saturated fats are
unhealthy fats like butter. While unsaturated fats are missing at least one hydrogen and are kinked in
shape. The unsaturated fats are healthy and include oils.

Lipid's are soluble in oil but are insoluble in water when mixed with water the lipid will float on top to
form a separate layer.

Lipids are Substances that are soluble in nonpolar organic solvents such as chloroform and ether. They
are usually insoluble in water that with proteins and carbohydrates. They constitute the principal
structural component of living cells.

Ester are any class of open fragrant organic compounds that can be represented by RCOOR end it by
the reaction between acid and an alcohol with the elimination of water.

Lipid's with fatty acid components consist glycerides, phospholipid and waxes.

Glycerides or more correctly known as ACYLGLYCERIDES, are esters formed from glycerol and FATTY
ACIDS.