Road

A road is a linear way for the conveyance of traffic that mostly has
an improved surface for use by vehicles (motorized and non-
motorized) and pedestrians. Unlike streets, the main function of
roads is transportation.

There are many types of roads, including parkways, avenues,

controlled-access highways (freeways, motorways, and A residential road in Paranapiacaba,
expressways), tollways, interstates, highways, thoroughfares, and Brazil
local roads.

The primary features of roads include lanes, sidewalks (pavement), roadways (carriageways), medians,
shoulders, verges, bike paths (cycle paths), and shared-use paths.

Definitions
Historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without
any formal construction or some maintenance.[1]

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

(OECD) defines a road as "a line of communication (travelled way)
using a stabilized base other than rails or air strips open to public
traffic, primarily for the use of road motor vehicles running on their
own wheels", which includes "bridges, tunnels, supporting
structures, junctions, crossings, interchanges, and toll roads, but not
cycle paths".[2] A bricked road in Bangladesh

The Eurostat, ITF and UNECE Glossary for Transport Statistics

Illustrated defines a road as a "Line of communication (traveled way) open to public traffic, primarily for
the use of road motor vehicles, using a stabilized base other than rails or air strips. [...] Included are paved
roads and other roads with a stabilized base, e.g. gravel roads. Roads also cover streets, bridges, tunnels,
supporting structures, junctions, crossings and interchanges. Toll roads are also included. Excluded are
dedicated cycle lanes."[3]

The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic defines a road as the entire surface of any way or street open
to public traffic.[4]

In urban areas roads may diverge through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function
as urban space easement and route.[5] Modern roads are normally smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared
to allow easy travel.[6]

Australia
Part 2, Division 1, clauses 11-13 of the National Transport Commission Regulations 2006 defines a road in
Australia as 'an area that is open to or used by the public and is developed for, or has as one of its main
uses, the driving or riding of motor vehicles.'[7]

Further, it defines a shoulder (typical an area of the road outside the edge line, or the curb) and a road-
related area which includes green areas separating roads, areas designated for cyclists and areas generally
accessible to the public for driving, riding or parking vehicles.

New Zealand

In New Zealand, the definition of a road is broad in common law[8] where the statutory definition includes
areas the public has access to, by right or not.[9] Beaches, publicly accessible car parks and yards (even if
privately owned), river beds, road shoulders (verges), wharves and bridges are included.[10] However, the
definition of a road for insurance purposes may be restricted to reduce risk.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom The Highway Code details rules for "road users", but there is some ambiguity
between the terms highway and road.[11] For the purposes of the English law, Highways Act 1980, which
covers England and Wales but not Scotland or Northern Ireland, road is "any length of highway or of any
other road to which the public has access, and includes bridges over which a road passes".[12] This
includes footpaths, bridleways and cycle tracks, and also road and driveways on private land and many car
parks.[13] Vehicle Excise Duty, a road use tax, is payable on some vehicles used on the public road.[13]

The definition of a road depends on the definition of a highway; there is no formal definition for a highway
in the relevant Act. A 1984 ruling said "the land over which a public right of way exists is known as a
highway; and although most highways have been made up into roads, and most easements of way exist
over footpaths, the presence or absence of a made road has nothing to do with the distinction.[14][15]
Another legal view is that while a highway historically included footpaths, bridleways, driftways, etc., it
can now be used to mean those ways that allow the movement of motor vehicles, and the term rights of
way can be used to cover the wider usage.[16]

United States

In the United States, laws distinguish between public roads, which are open to public use,[17] and private
roads, which are privately controlled.[18]

History
The assertion that the first pathways were the trails made by animals has not been universally accepted; in
many cases animals do not follow constant paths.[1] Some believe that some roads originated from
following animal trails.[19][20] The Icknield Way may exemplify this type of road origination, where human
and animal both selected the same natural line.[21] By about 10,000 BC human travelers used rough
roads/pathways.[1]

The world's oldest known paved road was constructed in Egypt some time between 2600
and 2200 BC.[22]
Stone-paved streets appear in the city of Ur in the Middle East dating back to 4000 BC.[1]
Corduroy roads (log roads) are found dating to 4000 BC
in Glastonbury, England.[1]
The Sweet Track, a timber track causeway in England, is
one of the oldest engineered roads discovered and the
oldest timber trackway discovered in Northern Europe.
Built in winter 3807 BC or spring 3806 BC, (tree-ring
dating – dendrochronology – enabled very precise
dating). It was claimed to be the oldest road in the
world[23][24] until the 2009 discovery of a 6,000-year-old The Porta Rosa, a Greek street
trackway in Plumstead, London.[25][26] dating from the 3rd to 4th century BC
Brick-paved streets appeared in India as early as 3000 in Velia, with a paved surface and
BC. [1] gutters
c. 1995 BC: an early subdividing of roadways evidenced
with sidewalks built in Anatolia.[27]
In 500 BC, Darius I the Great started an extensive road system
for the Achaemenid Empire (Persia), including the Royal Road,
which was one of the finest highways of its time,[28] connecting
Sardis (the westernmost major city of the empire) to Susa. The
road remained in use after Roman times. These road systems
reached as far east as Bactria and India.[29]
In ancient times, transport by river was far easier and faster than
transport by road,[24] especially considering the cost of road
construction and the difference in carrying capacity between
carts and river barges. A hybrid of road transport and ship
transport beginning in about 1740 is the horse-drawn boat in
which the horse follows a cleared path along the river
A paved Roman road in
bank.[30][31]
Pompeii
From about 312 BC, the Roman Empire built straight[32] strong
stone Roman roads throughout Europe and North Africa,
in support of its military campaigns. At its peak the
Roman Empire was connected by 29 major roads
moving out from Rome and covering 78,000 kilometers
or 52,964 Roman miles of paved roads.[24]
In the 8th century AD, many roads were built throughout
the Arab Empire. The most sophisticated roads were
those in Baghdad, which were paved with tar. Tar was Old tractor road over farmland,
derived from petroleum, accessed from oil fields in the Ystad, Sweden
region, through the chemical process of destructive
distillation.[33]
The Highways Act 1555 in Britain transferred responsibility for maintaining roads from
government to local parishes.[24] This resulted in a poor and variable state of roads. To
remedy this, the first of the turnpike trusts was established around 1706, to build good roads
and collect tolls from passing vehicles. Eventually there were approximately 1,100 trusts in
Britain and some 36,800 km (22,900 mi) of engineered roads.[24] The Rebecca Riots in
Carmarthenshire and Rhayader from 1839 to 1844 contributed to a Royal Commission that
led to the demise of the system in 1844,[34] which coincided with the development of the UK
railway system.
In the late-19th century roading engineers began to cater for cyclists by building separate
lanes alongside roadways.
From the beginning of the 20th century, roads were increasingly built for tourism and also to
create jobs. A typical example of the stimulation of tourism is the Great Dolomite Road, while
 the creation of the panoramic coastal road Strada
Costiera between Duino and Barcola in 1928 was very
much focused on creating jobs.[35][36]

Design
Road design is part of highway engineering. Structural road design
is designing a road for the environment in order to extend its
longevity and reduce maintenance. The Shell pavement design
method is used in many countries for the design of new asphalt
roadsides.

Terminology
Adverse camber
Where a road slopes towards the outside of a bend,
increasing the likelihood that vehicles travelling at
speed will skid or topple. Usually only a temporary Ancient Sassanid Era Pathway in
situation during road maintenance. Behbahan, Persia
Alignment
The route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal
tangents and curves.
All-weather road
Unpaved road that is constructed of a material that
does not create mud during rainfall.
Banked turn
Belisha Beacon
An orange globe, lit at night, used to highlight a
pedestrian crossing
Bicycle boulevard Ancient Cobblestoned Road in
A street that allows local vehicle traffic, but is Behbahan
prioritized for bicycles and other non-motorized travel
Bollard
Rigid posts that can be arranged in a line to close a road or
path to vehicles above a certain width
Byway
Highway over which the public have a right to travel for
vehicular and other kinds of traffic, but is used mainly as a
footpath or bridleway
Bypass
Road that avoids or "bypasses" a built-up area, town, or
village
Bottleneck
Section of a road with a carrying capacity substantially below
that of other sections of the same road
Botts' dots
Non-reflective raised pavement marker used on roads A beach road (Newcastle,
Camber (or crown) NSW, Australia)
The slope of the road surface downwards away from the
centre of the road, so that surface water can flow freely to the
edge of the carriageway, or on bends angling of the surface to lean traffic 'into the bend'
reducing the chance of a skid.
Cant
 Another name for cross slope or camber
Carriageway
Part of the road intended for the movement of road motor vehicles; the parts of the road
which form a shoulder for the lower or upper layers of the road surface are not part of the
roadway, nor are those parts of the road intended for the circulation of road vehicles which
are not self-propelled or for the parking of vehicles.[3]
Cat's eye
Reflective raised pavement marker used on roads
Chicane
Sequence of tight serpentine curves (usually an S-shape curve or a bus stop)
Chipseal
Road surface composed of a thin layer of crushed stone 'chips' and asphalt emulsion. It
seals the surface and protects it from weather, but provides no structural strength. It is
cheaper than asphalt concrete or concrete. In the United States, it is usually only used on
low volume rural roads
Corniche
Road on the side of a cliff or mountain, with the ground rising on one side and falling away
on the other
Cross slope
The slope of the pavement, expressed as units of rise per unit of run, or as a percentage
Curb (kerb)
A raised edge at the side of the roadway.
Curb extension
(also kerb extension, bulb-out, nib, elephant ear, curb bulge and blister) Traffic calming
measure, intended to slow the speed of traffic and increase driver awareness, particularly
in built-up and residential neighborhoods.
Cycle lane
Part of a carriageway designated for cycles and distinguished from the rest of the
carriageway by longitudinal road markings. Mopeds may also be allowed to use a cycle
lane.[3]
Cycle track
Independent road or part of a road designated for cycles and sign-posted as such. A cycle
track is separated from other roads or other parts of the same road by structural means.
Mopeds may also be allowed to use the cycle track.[3]
Cycling infrastructure
Cycling-friendly infrastructure integrated into the roadway or in its own right of way
Drainage gradient
Farm-to-market road
A state road or county road that connects rural or agricultural areas to market towns.
Fork
(literally "fork in the road") Type of intersection where a road splits
Grade
Longitudinal slope
Green lane
(UK) Unsurfaced road, may be so infrequently used that vegetation colonises freely, hence
'green'. Many green lanes are ancient routes that have existed for millennia.
Guide rail
Prevents vehicles from veering off the road into oncoming traffic, crashing against solid
objects or falling from a road. Also called a guard rail or traffic barrier.
Gutter
A drainage channel usually at the edge of the road or along a median.
Interstate Highway System (United States)
System of Interstate and Defense Highways
Lane
 One of the longitudinal strips into which a carriageway is divisible, whether or not defined
by longitudinal road markings, which is wide enough for one moving line of motor vehicles
other than motorcycles.[3]
Layby (Pullout, pull-off)
A paved area beside a main road where cars can stop temporarily to let another car pass.
Loose chippings
The hazard of stone chippings that have come loose
Median
On dual carriageway roads, including controlled-access highways, divided highways and
many limited-access roads, the central reservation (British English), median (North
American English), median strip (North American English and Australian English), neutral
ground [Louisiana English] or central nature strip (Australian English): Area that separates
opposing lanes of traffic
Motorway
(Europe) (Freeways in the US, Special road in the UK) Road, specially designed and built
for motor traffic, which does not serve properties bordering on it, with separate
carriageways for traffic in two directions, with no crossings at the same level (road, railway,
tramway track, or footpath) and sign-posted as a motorway and is reserved for specific
categories of road motor vehicles.[3]
Mountain pass
A relatively low-level route through a range of mountains
Milestone
One of a series of numbered markers placed along a road, often at regular intervals,
showing the distance to destinations.
National Highway
Road built and maintained by a national authority.
Pavement
The road regarded as a geoconstruction. In the UK the term is road surface and the
pavement is a pedestrian walkway alongside the road.
Pedestrian crossing
Designated point on a road where road marking or other means helps pedestrians cross
safely
Pelican crossing
(officially Pelicon crossing) (UK) A PEdestrian LIght CONtrolled crossing.
Private highway
Highway owned and operated for profit by private industry
Private road
Road owned and maintained by a private individual, organization, or company rather than
by a government
Profile
The vertical alignment of a road, expressed as a series of grades, connected by parabolic
curves.
Protected Intersections for Bicycles
A much safer design with a corner refuge island, a setback crossing of the pedestrians and
cyclists, generally between 1.5–7 metres of setback, a forward stop bar, which allows
cyclists to stop for a traffic light well ahead of motor traffic who must stop behind the
crosswalk. Separate signal staging or at least an advance green for cyclists and
pedestrians is used to give cyclists and pedestrians no conflicts or a head start over traffic.
The design makes a right turn on red, and sometimes left on red depending on the
geometry of the intersection in question, possible in many cases, often without
stopping.[37]
Protected Bicycle Path
Cyclists ideally have a protected bike lane on separated by a concrete median with splay
kerbs if possible, and have a protected bike lane width of at least 2 metres if possible (one
way).
Public space
Place where anyone has a right to come without being excluded because of economic or
social conditions
Ranch road
U.S. road that connects rural and agricultural areas to market towns
Road number
Often assigned to identify a stretch of public roads – often dependent on the type of road,
with numbers differentiating between interstates, motorways, arterial thoroughfares, etc.
Road-traffic safety
Process to reduce the harm (deaths, injuries, and property damage) that result from
vehicle crashes on public roads
Roadworks
Part or all of the road is occupied for work or maintenance
Roughness
Deviations from a true planar pavement surface, which affects vehicle suspension
deflection, dynamic loading, ride quality, surface drainage and winter operations.
Roughness have wavelengths ranging from 500 mm up to some 40 m. The upper limit
may be as high as 350 m when considering motion sickness aspects; motion sickness is
generated by motion with down to 0.1 Hz frequency; in an ambulance car driving 78 mph
(126 km/h), waves with up to 350 m will excite motion sickness.
Roundabout
A road junction where typically three or more roads are joined by a circular section of road.
Traffic 'on the roundabout' has priority over traffic on approach roads, unless indicated
otherwise. In countries where traffic drives on the left the roundabout is traveled in a
clockwise direction. Also known as an island in parts of the UK.
Segregated Bicycle Path
Cyclists ideally have a protected bike lane separated by a concrete median with splay
kerbs if possible, and have a protected bike lane width of at least 2 meters if possible (one
way).
Shoulder (also hard shoulder)
A clear, level area to the side of the roadway available for stopping if needed.
State highway
Road numbered by the state, falling below numbered national highways (like U.S. Routes)
in the hierarchy or a road maintained by the state, including nationally numbered
highways
Traffic
Pedestrians, ridden or herded animals, vehicles, bicycles, and other conveyances using
any road for purposes of travel.[38]
Texture (roads)
Deviations from a true planar pavement surface, which affects the interaction between
road and tire. Microtexture have wavelengths below 0.5 mm, Macrotexture below 50 mm
and Megatexture below 500 mm.
Traffic calming
Set of strategies used by urban planners and traffic engineers to slow down or reduce
motor vehicle traffic, thereby improving safety for pedestrians and bicyclists and improving
the environment for residents
Traffic island
(UK) A small raised area used to help define the traffic flow, which may also act as a refuge
for pedestrians crossing the carriageway or a location for signs, barriers or lights – a
synonym for roundabout in some parts of the UK
Traffic light
Also known as a traffic signal, stop light, stop-and-go lights – a signaling device at a road
intersection, pedestrian crossing, or other location that assigns right of way to different
approaches to an intersection
Zebra crossing (UK)
 A pedestrian crossing marked by black and white stripes on the carriageway

Construction
In transport engineering, subgrade is the native material
underneath a constructed road.

Road construction requires the creation of an engineered

continuous right-of-way or roadbed, overcoming geographic
obstacles and having grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot
travel,[41]: 1 5  and may be required to meet standards set by law[42]
or official guidelines.[43] The process is often begun with the
removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting, construction of Layers in the construction of a
embankments, bridges and tunnels, and removal of vegetation (this mortarless pavement: A) Subgrade
may involve deforestation) and followed by the laying of pavement B) Subbase C) Base course D)
material. A variety of road building equipment is employed in road Paver base E) Pavers F) Fine-
building.[44][45] grained sand

After design, approval, planning, legal, and environmental

considerations have been addressed alignment of the road is set out
by a surveyor.[32] The radii and gradient are designed and staked
out to best suit the natural ground levels and minimize the amount
of cut and fill.[43]: 3 4  Great care is taken to preserve reference
Benchmarks[43]: 5 9 
Overpass under construction over
Roads are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and
Interstate 5 in Burbank, California,
pedestrian traffic. Storm drainage and environmental considerations
United States[39][40]
are a major concern. Erosion and sediment controls are constructed
to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage lines are laid with sealed
joints in the road easement with runoff coefficients and
characteristics adequate for the land zoning and storm water
system. Drainage systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate
design flow from the upstream catchment with approval for the
outfall from the appropriate authority to a watercourse, creek, river
or the sea for drainage discharge.[43]: 3 8–40 

A borrow pit (source for obtaining fill, gravel, and rock) and a
water source should be located near or in reasonable distance to the
road construction site. Approval from local authorities may be Sub-base layer composed of
required to draw water or for working (crushing and screening) of cement-based material being applied
materials for construction needs. The topsoil and vegetation is during construction of the M8
removed from the borrow pit and stockpiled for subsequent motorway in Ireland
rehabilitation of the extraction area. Side slopes in the excavation
area not steeper than one vertical to two horizontal for safety
reasons.[43]: 5 3–56 

Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed before construction can begin. Trees in
the road construction area may be marked for retention. These protected trees should not have the topsoil
within the area of the tree's drip line removed and the area should be kept clear of construction material and
equipment. Compensation or replacement may be required if a protected tree is damaged. Much of the
vegetation may be mulched and put aside for use during reinstatement. The topsoil is usually stripped and
stockpiled nearby for rehabilitation of newly constructed
embankments along the road. Stumps and roots are removed and
holes filled as required before the earthwork begins. Final
rehabilitation after road construction is completed will include
seeding, planting, watering and other activities to reinstate the area
to be consistent with the untouched surrounding areas.[43]: 6 6–67 

Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material

to spoil, filling, compacting, construction and trimming. If rock or
Road construction in Myanmar
other unsuitable material is discovered it is removed, moisture
content is managed and replaced with standard fill compacted to
meet the design requirements (generally 90–95% relative
compaction). Blasting is not frequently used to excavate the roadbed as the intact rock structure forms an
ideal road base. When a depression must be filled to come up to the road grade the native bed is compacted
after the topsoil has been removed. The fill is made by the "compacted layer method" where a layer of fill is
spread then compacted to specifications, under saturated conditions. The process is repeated until the
desired grade is reached.[43]: 6 8–69 

General fill material should be free of organics, meet minimum California bearing ratio (CBR) results and
have a low plasticity index. The lower fill generally comprises sand or a sand-rich mixture with fine gravel,
which acts as an inhibitor to the growth of plants or other vegetable matter. The compacted fill also serves
as lower-stratum drainage. Select second fill (sieved) should be composed of gravel, decomposed rock or
broken rock below a specified particle size and be free of large lumps of clay. Sand clay fill may also be
used. The roadbed must be "proof rolled" after each layer of fill is compacted. If a roller passes over an area
without creating visible deformation or spring the section is deemed to comply.[43]: 7 0–72 

Geosynthetics such as geotextiles, geogrids, and geocells are frequently used in the various pavement layers
to improve road quality. These materials and methods are used in low-traffic private roadways as well as
public roads and highways.[46] Geosynthetics perform four main functions in roads: separation,
reinforcement, filtration, and drainage; which increase the pavement performance, reduce construction costs
and decrease maintenance.[47]

The completed roadway is finished by paving or left with a gravel or other natural surface. The type of road
surface is dependent on economic factors and expected usage. Safety improvements such as traffic signs,
crash barriers, raised pavement markers and other forms of road surface marking are installed.

According to a May 2009 report by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) and TRIP – a national transportation research organization – driving on rough roads
costs the average American motorist approximately $400 a year in extra vehicle operating costs. Drivers
living in urban areas with populations more than 250,000 are paying upwards of $750 more annually
because of accelerated vehicle deterioration, increased maintenance, additional fuel consumption, and tire
wear caused by poor road conditions.

When a single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway by building a second separate
carriageway alongside the first, it is usually referred to as duplication,[48] twinning or doubling. The
original carriageway is changed from two-way to become one-way, while the new carriageway is one-way
in the opposite direction. In the same way as converting railway lines from single track to double track, the
new carriageway is not always constructed directly alongside the existing carriageway.

Reallocation
Roads that are intended for use by a particular mode of transport can be reallocated for another mode of
transport,[49] i.e. by using traffic signs. For instance, in the ongoing road space reallocation effort, some
roads (particularly in city centers) which are intended for use by cars are increasingly being repurposed for
cycling and/or walking.[50][51][52]

Maintenance
Like all structures, roads deteriorate over time. Deterioration is primarily
due to environmental effects such as frost heaves, thermal cracking and
oxidation often contribute, however accumulated damage from vehicles
also contributes.[53] According to a series of experiments carried out in the
late 1950s, called the AASHO Road Test, it was empirically determined
that the effective damage done to the road is roughly proportional to the
fourth power of axle weight.[54] A typical tractor-trailer weighing 80,000
pounds (36.287 t) with 8,000 pounds (3.629 t) on the steer axle and 36,000
pounds (16.329 t) on both of the tandem axle groups is expected to do "Road works ahead" sign,
7,800 times more damage than a passenger vehicle with 2,000 pounds typically used in Europe
(0.907 t) on each axle. Potholes on roads are caused by rain damage and
vehicle braking or related construction work.

Pavements are designed for an expected service life or design life. In some
parts of the United Kingdom the standard design life is 40 years for new
bitumen and concrete pavement. Maintenance is considered in the whole
life cost of the road with service at 10, 20 and 30 year milestones.[55]
Roads can be and are designed for a variety of lives (8-, 15-, 30-, and 60-
year designs). When pavement lasts longer than its intended life, it may
have been overbuilt, and the original costs may have been too high. When
a pavement fails before its intended design life, the owner may have
excessive repair and rehabilitation costs. Some asphalt pavements are
designed as perpetual pavements with an expected structural life in excess
of 50 years.[56]

Many asphalt pavements built over 35 years ago, despite not being
specifically designed as a perpetual pavement, have remained in good
condition long past their design life.[57] Many concrete pavements built
since the 1950s have significantly outlived their intended design lives.[58]
Some roads like Chicago's Wacker Drive, a major two-level (and at one Line marking in rural India
point, three-level) roadway in the downtown area, are being rebuilt with a
designed service life of 100 years.[59]

Virtually all roads require some form of maintenance before they come to the end of their service life. Pro-
active agencies use pavement management techniques to continually monitor road conditions and schedule
preventive maintenance treatments as needed to prolong the lifespan of their roads. Technically advanced
agencies monitor the road network surface condition with sophisticated equipment such as laser/inertial
profilometers. These measurements include road curvature, cross slope, asperity, roughness, rutting and
texture. Software algorithms use this data to recommend maintenance or new construction.

Maintenance treatments for asphalt concrete generally include thin asphalt overlays, crack sealing, surface
rejuvenating, fog sealing, micro milling or diamond grinding and surface treatments. Thin surfacing
preserves, protects and improves the functional condition of the road while reducing the need for routing
maintenance, leading to extended service life without increasing structural capacity.[60]
Older concrete pavements that develop faults can be repaired with a dowel bar retrofit, in which slots are
cut in the pavement at each joint, and dowel bars are placed in the slots, which are then filled with concrete
patching material. This can extend the life of the concrete pavement for 15 years.[61]

Failure to maintain roads properly can create significant costs to society. A 2009 report released by the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials estimated that about 50% of the roads
in the US are in bad condition, with urban areas worse. The report estimates that urban drivers pay an
average of $746/year on vehicle repairs while the average US motorist pays about $335/year. In contrast,
the average motorist pays about $171/year in road maintenance taxes (based on 600 gallons/year and
$0.285/gallon tax).

Slab stabilization

Distress and serviceability loss on concrete roads can be caused by loss of support due to voids beneath the
concrete pavement slabs. The voids usually occur near cracks or joints due to surface water infiltration. The
most common causes of voids are pumping, consolidation, subgrade failure and bridge approach failure.
Slab stabilization is a non-destructive method of solving this problem and is usually employed with other
concrete pavement restoration methods including patching and diamond grinding. The technique restores
support to concrete slabs by filing small voids that develop underneath the concrete slab at joints, cracks or
the pavement edge.

The process consists of pumping a cementitious grout or polyurethane mixture through holes drilled
through the slab. The grout can fill small voids beneath the slab and/or sub-base. The grout also displaces
free water and helps keep water from saturating and weakening support under the joints and slab edge after
stabilization is complete. The three steps for this method after finding the voids are locating and drilling
holes, grout injection and post-testing the stabilized slabs.

Slab stabilization does not correct depressions, increase the design structural capacity, stop erosion or
eliminate faulting. It does, however, restore the slab support, therefore, decreasing deflections under the
load. Stabilization should only be performed at joints and cracks where the loss of support exists. Visual
inspection is the simplest manner to find voids. Signs that repair is needed are transverse joint faulting,
corner breaks and shoulder drop off and lines at or near joints and cracks. Deflection testing is another
common procedure used to locate voids. It is recommended to do this testing at night as during cooler
temperatures, joints open, aggregate interlock diminishes and load deflections are at their highest.

Testing

Ground penetrating radar pulses electromagnetic waves into the pavement and measures and graphically
displays the reflected signal. This can reveal voids and other defects.

The epoxy/core test, detects voids by visual and mechanical methods. It consists of drilling a 25 to 50
millimeter hole through the pavement into the sub-base with a dry-bit roto-hammer. Next, a two-part epoxy
is poured into the hole – dyed for visual clarity. Once the epoxy hardens, technicians drill through the hole.
If a void is present, the epoxy will stick to the core and provide physical evidence.

Common stabilization materials include pozzolan-cement grout and polyurethane. The requirements for
slab stabilization are strength and the ability to flow into or expand to fill small voids. Colloidal mixing
equipment is necessary to use the pozzolan-cement grouts. The contractor must place the grout using a
positive-displacement injection pump or a non-pulsing progressive cavity pump. A drill is also necessary
but it must produce a clean hole with no surface spalling or breakouts. The injection devices must include a
grout packer capable of sealing the hole. The injection device must also have a return hose or a fast-control
reverse switch, in case workers detect slab movement on the uplift gauge. The uplift beam helps to monitor
the slab deflection and has to have sensitive dial gauges.[62][63]

Joint sealing

Also called joint and crack repair, this method's purpose is to minimize infiltration of surface water and
incompressible material into the joint system. Joint sealants are also used to reduce dowel bar corrosion in
concrete pavement restoration techniques. Successful resealing consists of old sealant removal, shaping and
cleaning the reservoir, installing the backer rod and installing the sealant. Sawing, manual removal, plowing
and cutting are methods used to remove the old sealant. Saws are used to shape the reservoir. When
cleaning the reservoir, no dust, dirt or traces of old sealant should remain. Thus, it is recommended to water
wash, sand-blast and then air blow to remove any sand, dirt or dust. The backer rod installation requires a
double-wheeled, steel roller to insert the rod to the desired depth. After inserting the backer rod, the sealant
is placed into the joint. There are various materials to choose for this method including hot pour bituminous
liquid, silicone and preformed compression seals.[62][64][65][66]

Safety considerations
Careful design and construction of roads can increase road traffic
safety and reduce the harm (deaths, injuries, and property damage)
on the highway system from traffic collisions.

On neighborhood roads traffic calming, safety barriers, pedestrian

crossings and cycle lanes can help protect pedestrians, cyclists, and
drivers.

Lane markers in some countries and states are marked with Cat's
eyes or Botts dots. Botts dots are not used where it is icy in the Pedestrian crossing, line markings
winter, because frost and snowplows can break the glue that holds and street furniture
them to the road, although they can be embedded in short, shallow
trenches carved in the roadway, as is done in the mountainous
regions of California.

For major roads risk can be reduced by providing limited access from properties and local roads, grade
separated junctions and median dividers between opposite-direction traffic to reduce the likelihood of head-
on collisions.

The placement of energy attenuation devices (e.g. guardrails, wide grassy areas, sand barrels) is also
common. Some road fixtures such as road signs and fire hydrants are designed to collapse on impact. Light
poles are designed to break at the base rather than violently stop a car that hits them. Highway authorities
may also remove larger trees from the immediate vicinity of the road. During heavy rains, if the elevation of
the road surface isn't higher than the surrounding landscape, it may result in flooding.[67]
Speed limits can improve road traffic safety and reduce the number of road traffic casualties from traffic
collisions. In their World report on road traffic injury prevention report, the World Health Organization
(WHO) identify speed control as one of various interventions likely to contribute to a reduction in road
casualties.

Road conditions
Road conditions are the collection of factors describing the ease of
driving on a particular stretch of road, or on the roads of a particular
locality, including the quality of the pavement surface, potholes,
road markings, and weather. It has been reported that "[p]roblems
of transportation participants and road conditions are the main
factors that lead to road traffic accidents".[68] It has further been
specifically noted that "weather conditions and road conditions are
interlinked as weather conditions affect the road conditions".[69]
Snow causing bad road conditions
Specific aspects of road conditions can be of particular importance
for particular purposes. For example, for autonomous vehicles such
as self-driving cars, significant road conditions can include
"shadowing and lighting changes, road surface texture changes, and road markings consisting of circular
reflectors, dashed lines, and solid lines".[70]

Various government agencies and private entities, including local news services, track and report on road
conditions to the public so that drivers going through a particular area can be aware of hazards that may
exist in that area. News agencies, in turn, rely on tips from area residents with respect to certain aspects of
road conditions in their coverage area.[71]

Environmental performance
Careful design and construction of a road can reduce any negative
environmental impacts. Water management systems can be used to
reduce the effect of pollutants from roads.[72][73] Rainwater and
snowmelt running off of roads tends to pick up gasoline, motor oil,
heavy metals, trash and other pollutants and result in water
pollution. Road runoff is a major source of nickel, copper, zinc,
cadmium, lead and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
which are created as combustion byproducts of gasoline and other
fossil fuels.[74]
Air pollution along Pasadena
De-icing chemicals and sand can run off into roadsides, Highway in Los Angeles
contaminate groundwater and pollute surface waters;[75] and road
salts can be toxic to sensitive plants and animals.[76] Sand applied
to icy roads can be ground up by traffic into fine particulates and contribute to air pollution.

Roads are a chief source of noise pollution. In the early 1970s, it was recognized that design of roads can
be conducted to influence and minimize noise generation.[77] Noise barriers can reduce noise pollution near
built-up areas. Regulations can restrict the use of engine braking.

Motor vehicle emissions contribute air pollution. Concentrations of air pollutants and adverse respiratory
health effects are greater near the road than at some distance away from the road.[78] Road dust kicked up
by vehicles may trigger allergic reactions.[79] In addition, on-road transportation greenhouse gas emissions
are the largest single cause of climate change, scientists say.[80]

Regulation

Right- and left-hand traffic

Traffic flows on the right or on the left side of the road depending
on the country.[81] In countries where traffic flows on the right,
traffic signs are mostly on the right side of the road, roundabouts
and traffic circles go counter-clockwise/anti-clockwise, and
NH 73 going to Bangalore
pedestrians crossing a two-way road should watch out for traffic
from the left first.[82] In countries where traffic flows on the left, the
reverse is true.

About 33% of the world by population drive on the left, and 67% keep right. By road distances, about 28%
drive on the left, and 72% on the right,[83] even though originally most traffic drove on the left
worldwide.[84]

Economics
Transport economics is used to understand both the relationship between
the transport system and the wider economy and the complex network
effects when there are multiple paths and competing modes for both
personal and freight (road/rail/air/ferry) and where induced demand can
result in increased on decreased transport levels when road provision is
increased by building new roads or decreased (for example California State
Route 480). Roads are generally built and maintained by the public sector
using taxation although implementation may be through private
contractors).[85][86] or occasionally using road tolls.[87]

Public-private partnerships are a way for communities to address the rising A city street in Mumbai,
cost by injecting private funds into the infrastructure. There are four main India with left-hand traffic
ones:[88]

design/build
design/build/operate/maintain
design/build/finance/operate
build/own/operate

Society depends heavily on efficient roads. In the European Union (EU) 44% of all goods are moved by
trucks over roads and 85% of all people are transported by cars, buses or coaches on roads.[89] The term
was also commonly used to refer to roadsteads, waterways that lent themselves to use by shipping.

Construction costs

According to the New York State Thruway Authority,[90] some sample per-mile costs to construct multi-
lane roads in several US northeastern states were:
 Connecticut Turnpike – $3,449,000 per mile
New Jersey Turnpike – $2,200,000 per mile
Pennsylvania Turnpike (Delaware Extension) – $1,970,000 per mile
Northern Indiana Toll Road – $1,790,000 per mile
Garden State Parkway – $1,720,000 per mile
Massachusetts Turnpike – $1,600,000 per mile
Thruway, New York to Pennsylvania Line – $1,547,000 per mile
Ohio Turnpike – $1,352,000 per mile
Pennsylvania Turnpike (early construction) – $736,000 per mile

Statistics
The United States has the largest network of roads of any country with 4,050,717 miles (6,518,997 km) as
of 2009.[91] The Republic of India has the second-largest road system globally with 4,689,842 kilometres
(2,914,133 miles) of road (2013).[92] The People's Republic of China is third with 3,583,715 kilometres
(2,226,817 mi) of road (2007). The Federative Republic of Brazil has the fourth-largest road system in the
world with 1,751,868 kilometres (1,088,560 mi) (2002). See List of countries by road network size. When
looking only at expressways, the National Trunk Highway System (NTHS) in China has a total length of
45,000 kilometres (28,000 mi) at the end of 2006, and 60,300 km at the end of 2008, second only to the
United States with 90,000 kilometres (56,000 mi) in 2005. However, as of 2017, China has 130,000 km of
Expressways.[93][94]

Global connectivity
Eurasia, Africa, North America, South America, and Australia each have an extensive road network that
connects most cities. The North and South American road networks are separated by the Darién Gap, the
only interruption in the Pan-American Highway. Eurasia and Africa are connected by roads on the Sinai
Peninsula. The European Peninsula is connected to the Scandinavian Peninsula by the Øresund Bridge,
and both have many connections to the mainland of Eurasia, including the bridges over the Bosphorus.
Antarctica has very few roads and no continent-bridging network, though there are a few ice roads between
bases, such as the South Pole Traverse. Bahrain is the only island country to be connected to a continental
network by road (the King Fahd Causeway to Saudi Arabia).

Even well-connected road networks are controlled by many different legal jurisdictions, and laws such as
which side of the road to drive on vary accordingly.

Many populated domestic islands are connected to the mainland by bridges. A very long example is the
113  mi (182  km) Overseas Highway connecting many of the Florida Keys with the continental United
States.

Even on mainlands, some settlements have no roads connecting with the primary continental network, due
to natural obstacles like mountains or wetlands, or high cost compared to the population served. Unpaved
roads or lack of roads are more common in developing countries, and these can become impassible in wet
conditions. As of 2014, only 43% of rural Africans have access to an all-season road.[95] Due to steepness,
mud, snow, or fords, roads can sometimes be passable only to four-wheel drive vehicles, those with snow
chains or snow tires, or those capable of deep wading or amphibious operation.

Most disconnected settlements have local road networks connecting ports, buildings, and other points of
interest.
Where demand for travel by road vehicle to a disconnected island or mainland settlement is high, roll-
on/roll-off ferries are commonly available if the journey is relatively short. For long-distance trips,
passengers usually travel by air and rent a car upon arrival. If facilities are available, vehicles and cargo can
also be shipped to many disconnected settlements by boat, or air transport at much greater expense. The
island of Great Britain is connected to the European road network by Eurotunnel Shuttle – an example of a
car shuttle train which is a service used in other parts of Europe to travel under mountains and over
wetlands.

In polar areas, disconnected settlements are often more easily reached by snowmobile or dogsled in cold
weather, which can produce sea ice that blocks ports, and bad weather that prevents flying. For example,
resupply aircraft are only flown to Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station October to February, and many
residents of coastal Alaska have bulk cargo shipped in only during the warmer months. Permanent darkness
during the winter can also make long-distance travel more dangerous in polar areas. Continental road
networks do reach into these areas, such as the Dalton Highway to the North Slope of Alaska, the R21
highway to Murmansk in Russia, and many roads in Scandinavia (though due to fjords water transport is
sometimes faster). Large areas of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Siberia are sparsely connected. For
example, all 25 communities of Nunavut are disconnected from each other and the main North American
road network.[96]

Road transport of people and cargo by may also be obstructed by border controls and travel restrictions. For
example, travel from other parts of Asia to South Korea would require passage through the hostile country
of North Korea. Moving between most countries in Africa and Eurasia would require passing through
Egypt and Israel, which is a politically sensitive area.

Some places are intentionally car-free, and roads (if present) might be used by bicycles or pedestrians.

Roads are under construction to many remote places, such as the villages of the Annapurna Circuit, and a
road was completed in 2013 to Mêdog County. Additional intercontinental and transoceanic fixed links
have been proposed, including a Bering Strait crossing that would connect Eurasia-Africa and North
America, a Malacca Strait Bridge to the largest island of Indonesia from Asia, and a Strait of Gibraltar
crossing to connect Europe and Africa directly.

See also
Roads portal
 Embankment (transportation)
Gravel road
Highway engineering
Intersection (road)
Issue tracking systems for reporting road defects
List of countries by road network size
List of roads and highways
Pedestrian zone
Road expansion
Road slipperiness
Road transport
Track bed
Trade route

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