Unit 2-2k
Unit 2-2k
Unit 2-2k
LABOUR MARKET
“Labour was the first price, the original purchase – money that was paid for all things.
It was not by gold or by silver, but by labour,
that all wealth of the world was originally purchased.”
Adam Smith (Scottish philosopher and economist, 1723-1790)
LEAD-IN
1. What is Labour Force?
2. Can you give the definition of the skilled labour?
3. Who represents the supply and demand of labour?
4. What do you think the Employment Contract is?
5. What personal and professional skills do you need for a successful business career
(specialist training, knowledge of foreign languages, outgoing personality)?
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
Ex.1. Read the words in the following groups. Pay attention to the word stress.
1. Words with the stress on the first syllable: market, good, service, buyer, seller, worker,
wages, benefit, output, workforce, specify, aspect, effort, leisure, surplus, reasonable, union,
government, pressure, attribute, adequate, charitable, (to) highlight, obvious, license, recent,
loyalty, argue;
2. Words with the stress on the second syllable: demander, supplier, condition,
employment, employer, (to) employ, retiree, retirement, uniqueness, component, decision,
(to) exceed, excess, amount, attract, reduction, internal, external, acquire, recruitment,
performance, degree, (to) abandon, (to) secure, amount, (to) exist;
3. Polysyllabic words with the main and secondary stress: negotiations, productivity,
employee, opportunity, individual, population, allocation, activity, applicability, theoretical,
eliminate, commodity, underbid, irrespective, particular, legislation, impediment, unfettered,
relatively, relationship, transaction, comparison, implication, responsive, unemployment,
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distinguishing, diversity, environment, association, occupation, satisfactory, flexibility,
boundary, similarity, experience, satisfactory, publications, significant, requirement,
disparity.
TEXT A: HOW THE LABOR MARKET WORKS
Active Vocabulary
Key terms: labour market; labour services; demand for labour; labour supply; employment,
wages; cost of labour; productivity; workforce; price; output; job opportunity, working age,
staff; level of production; internal labour market; external labour market; work experience;
educational background; national labour market; local labour market.
Other words and expressions: market; good; commodity; service; buyer; seller; demander;
supplier; worker; employer; benefit; condition; retirement; legislation; economic downturn;
hiring; re-hiring; training; turnover; skill; ability; work attitude; motivation; complexity of
work; working environment; promotional opportunities; employment relations; job
requirement.
Linking words and phrases: whenever; including; as well as; as long as; such as; while;
thus; furthermore; in turn; however; similarly; i.e.; e.g.; for example; as a result; otherwise;
to a certain extent; to some extent; so far; on the other hand; first; and second.
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training decisions; fertility rates; the state of the economy; and individuals’ decisions
concerning the allocation of time between work activities and leisure.
Uniqueness of Labour Markets
While the labour market is often described in terms of demand and supply
components, there are many unique features of the labour market that constrain or limit the
applicability of this theoretical framework. For example, basic economic supply and demand
theory predicts that if the amount of something supplied exceeds the amount of something
demanded, then its price should fall. Furthermore, its price is predicted to fall until the
surplus (i.e., excess supply) is eliminated.
In a market for a commodity such as wheat, it seems reasonable that an excess supply
results in a drop in its price as sellers underbid each other in order to attract buyers. Buyers,
in turn, would probably choose to deal with the lowest-priced seller as long as there are no
meaningful quality differences across sellers. In the labour market, however, excess supply
does not typically result in price reduction (i.e., drop in the wage rate). Similarly, excess
demand does not necessarily lead to a rise in price. Some of the major reasons for these
deviations from straightforward supply and demand economics are outlined below.
Institutional Forces
Institutional forces are the effects that organizations such as corporations,
governments, and unions have on the labour market. These forces can be codified as formal
rules (e.g., legislation) or exist as informal practices (e.g., behaviours). Irrespective of the
particular form, institutional forces can have important impacts on labour market outcomes.
Labour market legislation is an obvious impediment to the unfettered operation of
supply and demand forces.
Institutions introduce rules and regulations that impact the workings of the labour
market. For example, hiring practices within the firm may determine who can compete for
particular jobs. As a result, an important distinction may exist between the internal labour
market (i.e., workers within the firm) and the external labour market (i.e., workers outside of
the firm). Workers inside internal labour markets are, to a certain extent, buffered from the
supply and demand pressures of the external labour market.
Long-Term Nature of the Employment Contract
Another significant feature of the labour market is the relatively long-term nature of
the employment relationship. That is, other economic transactions are of a short-term nature
in comparison to the relationship that develops between a worker and a firm. One important
implication of the long-term relationship between workers and firms is that wages and
employment levels are less-responsive to supply and demand forces than they otherwise
would be. For example, firms may choose to retain workers during an economic downturn in
order to avoid the costs or re-hiring or training when the economy picks up. Similarly, firms
may choose not to reduce their workers’ wages during a period of relatively high
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unemployment due to concerns that wage reductions may have long-term negative impacts
on the morale, productivity, and turnover of their staff.
Unique Workers and Unique Jobs
Another distinguishing feature of the labour market is the diversity in the
characteristics of the service being traded. Workers differ along numerous dimensions,
including skills, abilities, work experience, educational background, work attitudes and
motivations. Similarly, employers and the jobs they offer differ according to such attributes
as the nature and complexity of work, fringe benefits, working environment, promotional
opportunities, and quality of employment relations. Clearly, it is challenging to describe
something as a “market” when, to some extent, each worker and job is unique.
The uniqueness of workers and jobs has two main implications. First, labour market
exchanges are dependent on numerous factors in addition to price. For example, workers
may rationally “trade-off” a high wage for job security or for a pleasant working
environment. Second, it is important for both labour demanders and suppliers to acquire an
adequate amount of information about the other party before transacting in the labour
market.
Multiplicity of Markets
So far, the term “labour market” has been used as if there were only one such market.
In reality, however, the labour market is comprised of numerous individual sub-markets. The
two most important ways in which the labour market can be subdivided are according to
geographic location and occupation.
If firms and workers are searching for each other throughout a country, the market is
described as the national labour market. The search for highly skilled technical and
professional occupations is often carried out on a national basis. The research director of a
major pharmaceutical firm and the chief executive officer of a major charitable association
are likely examples of positions in the national labour market. For some occupations, such as
professional athlete or university professor, the labour market may even be international in
scope. On the other hand, if the area of search is within the local community, the market is
described as the local labour market. Real estate agents and taxi drivers are examples of
occupations where job search and recruitment typically occur within a local labour market.
When analyzing wage and employment opportunities, another important dimension is
the occupation under examination. For example, supply and demand conditions likely differ
across the following occupations: teaching, truck driving, and computer programming.
Mobility between occupations is limited by some fairly obvious factors. First, occupational
licenses limit one’s ability to work in a given occupation (e.g., teachers need B. Ed. degrees
to teach at public schools in Ontario). And second, different skill sets and work experience
are required for satisfactory job performance across occupations. While the flexibility of
workers to change employers is often highlighted in recent publications, workers still tend to
have significant loyalty to their chosen occupations. In fact, some argue that “while workers
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were much more likely to change employers in the 1980s and 1990s, they were more likely
to keep their occupation.”
The boundaries between individual labour markets are, at times, fairly porous. This
means that workers may flow from one labour market to another. Continuing with the
examples from above, it could be that a truck driver returns to school in order to become a
teacher and thus forms part of the labour supply in the teaching profession. Or, a real estate
agent abandons a local labour market search and instead moves across the country in order to
secure employment. The amount of mobility existing across labour markets depends upon
such factors as: the degree of similarities between occupations (in terms of job requirements
and requisite skills); the costs of job search; the geographic disparities between regions; and
demographic characteristics that may affect one’s decision to move a significant distance
(e.g., the presence of children, a working spouse, etc.).
Language notes:
employment - праця; робота; служба; робота (за наймом); зайнятість; наймання;
працевлаштування; виконання обов'язків, справи тощо; службове й соціальне
становище особи, яка має місце роботи; прийняття кого-небудь на роботу за визначену
оплату (remuneration);
labour supply - наявність працівників відповідних спеціальностей; наявність
працівників відповідної кваліфікації; пропозиція праці; пропозиція на ринку праці;
наявність робочої сили; наявність спеціалістів;
output - випуск; продукція; обсяг виробництва; товари і послуги, виготовлені за
допомогою ресурсів у формі капіталу, праці (labour), сировини тощо, або товари і
послуги, які використовуються для виготовлення інших товарів і послуг;
specified wages - індивідуально визначена заробітна плата;
staffing level - рівень заповнення штатного розпису; укомплектованість штатів;
укомплектованість кадрами;
working age — працездатний вік.
VOCABULARY FOCUS
Ex.2. Give the Ukrainian equivalents of the following words and phrases.
The placement of workers in jobs; benefits, and conditions of employment; need to employ
workers; the cost of labour; job opportunities; to expand the operations; supply of labour; the
number of people currently working or actively seeking employment; the working-age
population; the hours that staff work; the effort put forth by employees; the skills possessed
by the workforce; the age distribution of the population; unique features of the labour
market; to constrain or limit the applicability of the theoretical framework; basic economic
supply and demand theory; the amount of something supplied; the amount of something
demanded; eliminated surplus; to underbid each other; to attract buyers; to deal with the
lowest-priced seller; meaningful quality differences; price reduction; institutional forces;
formal rules; informal practices; important impacts on labour market outcomes; labour
market legislation; obvious impediment; unfettered operation of supply and demand forces;
external labour market; supply and demand pressures; short-term nature of the employment
relationship; in order to avoid the costs or re-hiring or training; wage reductions; long-term
negative impacts; turnover of the staff; diversity in the characteristics of the service being
traded; complexity of work; working environment; promotional opportunities; highly skilled
technical and professional occupations; wage and employment opportunities; mobility
between occupations; occupational licenses; to limit one’s ability to work in a given
occupation; skill sets and work experience; satisfactory job performance; flexibility of
workers to change employers; to have significant loyalty to the chosen occupations;
individual labour markets; to flow from one labour market to another; degree of similarities
between occupations; job requirements; requisite skills.
Ex.4. Match the words on the left with the definitions on the right.
1 labour market a availability of suitable human resources in a particular labour
market
2 labour cost b the amount of goods and services, or waste products, that
are produced by a particular economy, industry, company,
or worker
3 labour supply c the system by which a company looks inside its
own organization to find a suitable person for a senior job, instead
of giving the job to someone from outside the company
4 demand for d the cost of wages paid to workers during an accounting
labour period on daily, weekly, monthly, or job basis, plus payroll and
related taxes and benefits (if any)
5 employment e a measure of the efficiency of a person, machine, factory, system,
etc., in converting inputs into useful outputs
6 productivity f the need for employees and workers in a particular job market
7 workforce g cost of using labour as opposed to cost of using capital or land
8 staff h work that you are paid to do for a particular company or
organization
9 output i the nominal market in which workers find paying work,
employers find willing workers, and wage rates are determined
10 wages j total number of a country's population employed in the
armed forces and civilian jobs, plus those unemployed people who
are actually seeking paying work
11 external k all the people who work for a particular company or organization, or
labour market in a particular place
12 internal l the system by which a company looks outside its
labour market own organization to find a suitable person for a senior job, instead
of giving the job to someone who is already working for
the company at a lower level
13 work m a person, company, or organization that employs people
experience
14 employer n the fact of leaving your job and stopping working, usually because
you have reached a particular age
15 retirement o the jobs that someone has had, or the type of work they have done,
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in the past
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7. Irrespective of the particular form, institutional … can have important impacts on labour
market outcomes.
8. Another significant feature of the labour market is the relatively long-term nature of the
employment … .
9. Other economic transactions are of a … in comparison to the relationship that develops
between a worker and a firm.
10. Another distinguishing feature of the labour market is the … in the characteristics of the
service being traded.
11. Each worker and job is … .
12. The market is described as the … labour market if firms and workers are searching for
each other throughout a country.
13. For some occupations, such as professional athlete or university professor, the labour
market may even be … in scope.
14. If the area of search is within the local community, the market is described as the …
labour market.
15. When analyzing wage and employment opportunities, another important dimension is
the … .
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11. It is important … both labour demanders and suppliers to acquire an adequate amount …
information … the other party … transacting … the labour market.
12. If firms and workers are searching … each other … a country, the market is described …
the national labour market.
13. The search … highly skilled technical and professional occupations is often carried … …
a national basis.
14. … the other hand, if the area … search is … the local community, the market is
described … the local labour market.
15. Mobility … occupations is limited … some fairly obvious factors.
13 The higher the wage is, the more important the m like, as well as on the level of
income effect will be, until competition in the labour market.
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14 If a well-paid individual has her wage increased n finally it will start to dominate
even over the substitution effect.
15 The firm’s demand for labour depends on what o further, she may choose to work
the market for the firm’s output looks less than she used to.
Ex.9. Look through the text again and replace the words/phrases in italics with similar
ones.
1. The demand for labour comes from employers and is derived from their need to hire
workers to produce goods and services.
2. In the most basic terms, the supply of labour refers to the number of people currently
working or actively seeking work.
3. Other aspects of labour supply include the hours that workers work, the effort put forth by
employees, and the skills possessed by the workforce.
4. Basic economic supply and demand theory predicts that if the amount of something
supplied is larger than the amount of something demanded, then its price should fall.
5. In a market for a good such as wheat, it seems reasonable that an excess supply results in a
drop in its price as sellers underbid each other in order to attract buyers.
6. In the labour market, however, excess supply does not typically result in reduction of the
wage rate.
7. Irrespective of the particular form, institutional forces can have important influence on
labour market outcomes.
8. Workers inside domestic labour markets are, to a certain extent, buffered from the supply
and demand pressures of the external labour market.
9. Firms may choose to fire workers during an economic downturn in order to avoid the
costs or re-hiring or training when the economy picks up.
10. Employers and the jobs they offer differ according to such features as the nature and
complexity of work, fringe benefits, working environment, promotional opportunities, and
quality of employment relations.
11. It is important for both labour demanders and suppliers to get an adequate amount of
information about the other party before transacting in the labour market.
12. The search for highly skilled technical and professional positions is often carried out on a
national basis.
13. When analysing wage and employment possibilities, another important dimension is the
occupation under examination.
14. Occupational licenses restrict one’s ability to work in a given occupation.
15. Different skill sets and work experience are necessary for satisfactory job performance
across occupations.
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Ex.10. Translate into English.
1. На ринку праці надлишкова пропозиція не обов’язково спричиняє падіння ціни.
2. В той час, коли гнучкість працівників щодо зміни роботодавця широко
висвітлюється в публікаціях, працівники все ще схиляються до лояльності обраній
професії.
3. Працівники відрізняються навичками, здібностями, досвідом роботи, рівнем освіти,
ставленням до роботи і мотивацією.
3. Працівники внутрішнього ринку праці певною мірою ізольовані від тиску попиту і
пропозиції зовнішнього ринку праці.
4. Можливості працевлаштування з’являються, коли фірми розширюють власну
діяльність або замінюють працівників, які покидають посади, таких як пенсіонери.
5. Традиційна теорія попиту і пропозиції передбачає, що, якщо величина пропозиції
перевищує величину попиту на щось, то ціна має знизитись.
6. Два найважливіших критерії, за якими ринок праці може бути поділений, це –
географічне положення та сфера діяльності.
7. Попит на робочу силу походить від роботодавців, з їхньої потреби найняти
працівників для виробництва товарів і послуг.
8. Трудове законодавство – це очевидна перешкода для вільних процесів попиту і
пропозиції.
9. Пошук висококваліфікованих технічних і професійних працівників часто
проводиться на національній основі.
10. Ще однією особливістю ринку праці є відносно довготривала природа стосунків
зайнятості.
LANGUAGE SKILLS
Ex.11. Ask questions to which the following sentences or word combinations may be
answers.
1. Whenever there is a good or service for which there are both buyers and sellers.
2. Negotiations occurring between buyers and sellers.
3. From employers and their need to employ workers to produce goods and services.
4. According to a number of factors, including: the cost of labour; the productivity of the
workforce; the current and anticipated level of production; and the price that the firm can
command for its output.
5. When firms expand their operations and when firms replace employees who are leaving
their jobs, such as retirees.
6. The number of people currently working or actively seeking employment.
7. The number of individuals of working age as well as the proportion of the working-age
population that wishes to work.
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8. The hours that staff work, the effort put forth by employees, and the skills possessed by
the workforce.
9. Numerous factors including: the age distribution of the population; retirement behaviour;
migration patterns; education and training decisions; fertility rates; the state of the economy;
and individuals’ decisions concerning the allocation of time between work activities and
leisure.
10. A rise in price.
11. The effects that organizations such as corporations, governments, and unions have on the
labour market.
12. An obvious impediment to the unfettered operation of supply and demand forces.
13. Rules and regulations that impact the workings of the labour market.
14. The relatively long-term nature of the employment relationship.
15. Wages and employment levels are less-responsive to supply and demand forces than they
otherwise would be.
WRITING
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Ex.14. Write a plan for a summary of Text A.
Ex.15. Write a brief summary (25-30 sentences) of Text A.
Ex.16. Write an essay (100 – 150 words) about:
- interaction of buyers and sellers of labour in labour markets;
- nature of the employment contract.
-
DISCUSSION POINTS
Ex.18. Scan the text below and give headlines to each paragraph.
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TEXT B: HIGHLY-, SEMI- AND UNSKILLED LABOUR
(1) The market has changed drastically for skilled and unskilled labourers. There is a
growing demand for skills, particularly specialized skills. As a result, 1) … Unskilled
labour, when measured by educational attainment, refers to jobs that require a high school
diploma only, or could even be filled by a high school dropout. Skilled labour requires
additional skills or education. While the demand for unskilled labour has decreased, the
labour pool has also significantly decreased. Unskilled labourers are dropping out of the job
market or increasing their skill level.
(2) Skilled labour refers to labour that requires workers who have specialized training or a
learned skill-set to perform the work. These workers can be either blue-collar or white-collar
workers, with varied levels of training or education. 2) … Examples of skilled labour
occupations are: electricians, law enforcement officers, computer operators, financial
technicians, and administrative assistants. Some skilled labour jobs have become so
specialized that there are worker shortages.
(3) Unskilled labour does not require workers to have special training or skills. The jobs that
require unskilled labour are continually shrinking due to technological and societal advances.
Jobs that previously required little or no training now require training. 3) … Examples of
remaining unskilled labour occupations generally include farm labourers, grocery clerks,
hotel maids, and general cleaners and sweepers.
(4) Manual labour (manual labour in American English) or manual work is physical work done
by people, most especially in contrast to that done by machines, and also to that done
by working animals. 4) … For most of human prehistory and history, manual labour and its
close cousin, animal labour, have been the primary ways that physical work has been
accomplished. Mechanisation and automation, which reduce the need for human and animal
labour in production, have existed for centuries, but it was only starting in the 19 th century
that they began to significantly expand and to change human culture. To be implemented,
they require that sufficient technology exist and that its capital costs be justified by the amount
of future wages that they will obviate.
(5) Although nearly any work can potentially have skill and intelligence applied to it,
many jobs that mostly comprise manual labour — 5) … — often may be done successfully (if
not masterfully) by unskilled or semiskilled workers. Thus there is a partial but significant
correlation between manual labour and unskilled or semiskilled workers. Based on economic
and social conflict of interest, people may often distort that partial correlation into an
exaggeration that equates manual labour with lack of skill; with lack of any potential to
apply skill (to a task) or to develop skill (in a worker); and with low social class. Throughout
human existence the latter has involved a spectrum of variants, from slavery (with
stigmatisation of the slaves as "subhuman"), to caste or caste-like systems, to subtler forms
of inequality.
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Economic competition often results in businesses trying to buy labour at the lowest possible cost (for
example, through offshoring or by employing foreign workers) or to obviate it entirely (through
mechanisation and automation).
(6) Mechanisation and automation strive to reduce the amount of manual labour required for
production. The motives for this reduction of effort may be to remove drudgery from
people's lives; to lower the unit cost of production; or, as mechanisation evolves into
automation, to bring greater flexibility (easier redesign, lower lead time) to production. 6) …,
such as providing motive force or tractive force (locomotives; traction engines; marine steam engines;
early cars, trucks, and tractors); digging, loading, and unloading bulk materials (steam shovels,
early loaders); or weaving uncomplicated cloth (early looms). For example, Henry
Ford described his efforts to mechanise agricultural tasks such as tillage as relieving drudgery
by transferring physical burdens from human and animal bodies to iron and steel
machinery. Automation helps to bring mechanisation to more complicated tasks that require
finer dexterity, decision making based on visual input, and a wider variety of intelligent
movements. Thus even tasks that once could not be successfully mechanised, such as shelf
stocking or many kinds of fruit and vegetable picking, tend to undergo process redesign
(either formal or informal) leading to ever smaller amounts of manual labour.
(7) Historically, unskilled workers had plentiful employment opportunities in America. From
farming to factory jobs, 7) …, even if this meant transitioning from a farming community to
factories in the cities. Unskilled labourers earned less money than skilled labourers, but
during the 1980s and 1990s the wage gap between skilled and non-skilled labourers began to
grow. Today the job market demands increasing skill levels. Many jobs that were once
considered unskilled labour now demand semi- or mid-skill labour.
(8) Semi- or mid-skill labour addresses the increase in demand for skills, even for less
complex jobs. 8) … However, they do not require highly specialized skills. In a 2010 study
released by the Indiana Institute for Working Families, more than half of the jobs in that state
were mid-skill. Examples of mid-skill jobs include truck drivers, typists and customer
service representatives. These jobs generally require more than a high-school diploma, but
less than a college degree.
(9) Education can be received in a variety of manners, and is acknowledged through various
means. 9) … (According to Greenspan, math skill more than anything else is required to
achieve skilled-job status and is the one skill too many high school grads lack).
On-the-job training - (Examples: cashier, fashion model, farmhand, office clerk).
Apprenticeship - (Examples: carpenter, electrician, mason, mechanic, plumber, welder).
Vocational certification - (Examples: chef, cosmetologist, dental assistant, paralegal).
Associate Degree - (Examples: commercial artist, draftsman, licensed practical nurse).
Undergraduate Degree - (Examples: accountant, teacher, registered nurse, software
developer).
Professional Degree - (Examples: architect, dentist, engineer, lawyer, medical doctor).
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Graduate Degree - (Examples: astronaut, mathematician, nurse practitioner, scientist,
university professor).
(10) In modern industry, there has been a change in the concentration of skilled workers
from the areas of past economic might e. g. steel, automobile, textile and chemicals to the
more recent (21st century) industry developments e.
g. computers, telecommunications and information technology which is commonly stated to
represent a plus rather than a minus for the standard of living.
(11) Due to globalization, regional shortages of skilled workers, migration, outsourcing, and
other factors, the methods of procuring skilled workers has changed in recent years.
(12) All countries are in a process of change and transition which makes possible the
migration of skilled workers from places of lower to higher opportunities in training and
better working conditions. 10) …, it is the lack of security, opportunity and suitable rewards
in the homeland that fundamentally makes this massive movement of people possible, going
from places of lesser development to affluent societies. Some developing countries see the
migration of domestically trained professionals abroad not as a drain but as a gain, a "brain
bank" from which to draw at a price; for these professionals, on their return with their
accumulated skills, would contribute to the growth of the homeland; cultural factors favour
the return of these professionals for a short or a long while.
Ex.19. Read the text. Choose the best sentence A-J to fill each of the gaps 1-10. Do not
use any of them more than once.
A It is most literally work done with the hands (the word "manual" comes from the Latin word
for hand), and, by figurative extension, it is work done with any of the muscles and bones of
the body.
B Mechanisation occurred first in tasks that required either little dexterity or at least a narrow
repertoire of dextrous movements
C Very highly skilled workers may fall under the category of professionals, rather than
skilled labour, such as doctors and lawyers.
D Although materialistic rewards play a role in skilled workers migration
E Below is a sampling of educational conventions.
F For example, labour that was once done manually now may be assisted by computers or
other technology, requiring the worker to have technological skills.
G These jobs require some skill because they are more complex than those that can be
performed by a non-skilled labourer.
H such as fruit and vegetable picking, manual materials handling (for example, shelf
stocking), manual digging, or manual assembly of parts
I unskilled labourers were able to find work
J the world has seen a greater demand for education.
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Ex.20. Read the text and decide whether the following statements are true or false.
Correct the false statements.
1. The market has not changed for skilled and unskilled labourers.
2. There is a growing demand for skills, particularly specialized skills.
3. Skilled labour, when measured by educational attainment, refers to jobs that require a high
school diploma only, or could even be filled by a high school dropout.
4. Unskilled labour requires additional skills or education.
5. Unskilled labourers drop out of the job market or increase their skill level.
6. Skilled workers can be either blue-collar or white-collar workers, with varied levels of
training or education.
7. Unskilled labour requires workers to have special training or skills.
8. Manual labour is intellectual work done by people, most especially in contrast to that done
by machines, and also to that done by working animals.
9. There is a partial but significant correlation between manual labour and unskilled or
semiskilled workers.
10. Mechanisation and automation strive to increase the amount of manual labour required
for production.
(1) In many countries (like the United States, Australia or Canada), a white-collar worker is
a person who performs professional, managerial, or administrative work. Typically, white-
collar work is performed in an office or cubicle. Other types of work are those of a blue-
collar worker, whose job requires manual labour and a pink-collar worker, whose labour is
related to customer interaction, entertainment, sales, or other service oriented work. Many
occupations blend blue, white and/or pink (service) industry categorizations.
(2) The term refers to the white dress shirts of male office workers common through most of
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in Western countries, as opposed to the blue overalls
worn by many manual.
(3) The term "white collar" is credited to Upton Sinclair, an American writer, in relation to
contemporary clerical, administrative and management workers during the 1930s, though
references to "easy work and a white collar" appear as early as 1911.
(4) Formerly a minority in the agrarian and early industrial societies, white-collar workers
have become a majority in industrialized countries due to modernization and outsourcing of
manufacturing jobs.
(5) The blue-collar and white-collar descriptors as it pertains to work dress may no longer be
an accurate descriptor as office attire has broadened beyond a white shirt and tie. Employees
in office environments may wear a variety of colours, may dress business casual or wear
casual clothes altogether. In addition work tasks have blurred. "White-collar" employees
may perform "blue-collar" tasks (or vice versa). An example would be a restaurant
manager who may wear more formal clothing yet still assist with cooking food or taking
customers' orders or a construction worker who also performs desk work.
(6) In the US, a blue-collar worker is a working class person who performs manual labour.
Blue-collar work may involve skilled or unskilled manufacturing, mining, sanitation,
custodian work, oil field, construction, mechanical, maintenance, technical installation and
many other types of physical work. Often something is physically being built or maintained.
(7) In contrast, the white-collar worker typically performs work in an office environment and
may involve sitting at a computer or desk. A third type of work is a service worker (pink
collar) whose labour is related to customer interaction, entertainment, sales or other service
oriented work. Many occupations blend blue, white and/or pink (service) industry
categorizations.
(8) Blue-collar work is often paid hourly wage-labour, although some professionals may be
paid by the project or salaried. There is a wide range of pay scales for such work depending
upon field of specialty and experience.
(9) Industrial and manual workers often wear durable canvas or cotton clothing that may be
soiled during the course of their work. Navy and light blue colours conceal potential dirt or
grease on the worker's clothing, helping him or her to appear cleaner. For the same reason,
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blue is a popular colour for boiler suits which protect a worker's clothing. Some blue collar
workers have uniforms with the name of the business and/or the individual's name
embroidered or printed on it.
Historically the popularity of the colour blue among manual labourers contrasts with the
popularity of white dress shirts worn by people in office environments. The blue collar/white
collar colour scheme has socio-economic class connotations. However, this distinction has
become blurred with the increasing importance of skilled labour, and the relative increase in
low-paying white-collar jobs.
(10) The term blue collar was first used in reference to trade jobs in 1924, in an Alden,
Iowa newspaper. It was second used for people wearing shirts that had a blue collar on a
non-blue shirt; the mystery still exists.
A higher level academic education is often not required for many blue-collar jobs. However,
certain fields may require specialized training, licensing or certification as well as a high
school diploma or GED.
(11) With the information revolution Western nations have moved towards a service and
white collar economy. Many manufacturing jobs have been offshored to developing nations
which pay their workers lower wages. This offshoring has pushed formerly agrarian nations
to industrialized economies and concurrently decreased the number of blue-collar jobs in
developed countries.
(12) At the time when blue collar was coined, most blue-collar workers weren’t required to
wear any particular uniform or shirt colour to work. While office workers could wear white-
collared shirts without much fear of soiling them, and could also afford to launder their shirts
regularly, manual labourers preferred darker colours. The German immigrant and frontier
salesman Levi Strauss began to make denim in the 1870s, and the fabric quickly became
popular with coal miners and other rugged Westerners. (Blue jeans wouldn’t become a
middle-class institution until The Wild One, Rebel without a Cause, and the student
protesters of the 1960s.) Chambray shirts, coveralls, boiler suits, and clothes made
of dungaree also tend to come in blue, and these have been popular with manual labourers
since the early 20th century. Office workers, for their part, moved away from wearing white
in the 1960s. By 1970 about 80 per cent of the shirts sold by Arrow, the country’s largest
shirt manufacturer, were coloured.
(13) While the terms white-collar and blue-collar seem to derive from the actual colour of
workers’ clothes, there are some more recent spin-off phrases that lack any non-figurative
meaning. In the late 1970s, the writer and social critic Louise Kappe Howe popularized pink
collar workers as a term for those women consigned to work as nurses, secretaries and
elementary school teachers. Meanwhile the environmental movement gave rise to “green-
collar workers” (who work in conservation and sustainability), and the 1980s yielded a class
of “gold-collar workers” (who work in specialized fields like law, engineering, and finance,
or, according to a different definition, in the service industry). As the population ages, we
20
may see more “grey-collar workers” (who work into their 60s). And the latest entrants are
the “no-collar workers”— tech-industry professionals who eschew collars altogether.
(14) Pink-collar occupations include: maid / domestic worker / governess; waitress/hostess;
massage therapist / midwife; hotel housekeeper / chambermaid; retail workers; food
preparation workers / counter attendants; vehicle cleaners; meter maid / parking lot
attendant; florist; hairdresser / barber; receptionist / secretary / administrative assistant /
information clerk; dental assistant / medical assistant / physician assistant; babysitter / day
care worker / nanny / child-care provider / caregiver; cosmetologist / beauty salon employee
/ make-up artist / nail technician / perfumer; flight attendant / stewardess; nurse / wet nurse;
nutritionist / dietician; preschool teacher; social worker; rehabilitation
specialist/consultant/counsellor; camp counsellor / non-profit volunteer coordinator; dental
hygienist; personal stylist / fashion stylist; buyer; personal shopper; casino host; car
attendant / washroom attendant; valet; museum docents / tour guide; dressmaker; library
assistant; librarian.
Historically, women were responsible for the running of a household. Their financial security
was often dependent upon a male patriarch. Widowed or divorced women struggled to
support themselves and their children.
Women began to develop more opportunities when they moved into the paid workplace,
formerly of the male domain. In the 20th century women aimed to be treated like the equals
of their male counterparts. In 1920 American women won the right to vote, marking a turning
point in their roles in life.
Many single women travelled to cities like New York where they found work in factories
and sweatshops, working for low pay operating sewing machines, sorting feathers, rolling
tobacco and so on.
(15) These factories were dirty, noisy, dark and dangerous. Workers frequently breathed
dangerous fumes and worked with flammable materials. Women lost fingers and hands in
accidents because in order to save money they were required to clean and adjust the
machines while they were running. Unfortunately, most women who worked in the factories
did not earn enough money to live on and lived in poverty.
(16) Throughout the 20th century certain women helped change women's roles in
America. Emily Balch, Jane Addams, and Lillian Wald are among the most notable. They created
settlement houses and launched missions in crowded, unsanitary neighbourhoods where
immigrants lived. Balch, Addams, and Wald offered social services to the women and
children often inviting them into their homes and classrooms.
(17) Women took on leadership roles starting in the church. Women became involved with
the church activities, a few went on to become president of the societies. The women who
joined these societies worked with their members some of whom were full-time teachers,
nurses, missionaries, and social workers to accomplish their leadership tasks and make a
21
difference. The Association for the Sociology of Religion was the first to elect a woman
president in 1938.
(18) Knowledge workers are workers whose main capital is knowledge. Typical examples
may include software engineers, doctors, architects, engineers, scientists, public accountants,
lawyers, and teachers, because they "think for a living".
(19) Knowledge workers are employees who have a deep background in education and
experience and are considered people who "think for a living." They include software
developers,doctors, lawyers, inventors, teachers, nurses, financial analysts and architects. As
businesses increase their dependence on information technology, the number of fields in
which knowledge workers must operate has expanded dramatically.
(20) Even though they sometimes are called "gold collars", because of their high salaries, as
well as because of their relative independence in controlling the process of their own
work, current research shows that they are also more prone to burnout, and very
close normative control from organizations they work for, unlike regular workers.
(21) Reinhardt et al.'s (2011) review of current literature shows that the roles of knowledge
workers across the workforce are incredibly diverse. In two empirical studies they have
"proposed a new way of classifying the roles of knowledge workers and the knowledge
actions they perform during their daily work." The typology of knowledge worker roles
suggested by them are "controller, helper, learner, linker, networker, organizer, retriever,
sharer, solver, and tracker."
Task 1. Discuss how white-collar worker, blue-collar worker and pink-collar workers differ.
(para.1)
Task 2. Explain what manual labour is. (para.1)
Task 3. Do gold-collar workers (para.13) work in:
a) conservation and sustainability;
b) specialized fields like law, engineering, and finance, or, according to a different
definition, in the service industry;
c) tech-industry?
Task 4. Who are grey-collar workers? (para.13)
Task 5. What does the author tell about “knowledge workers”? (para.18-19)
BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE
INTRODUCTION
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The next step is to polish up your letter, so there is plenty of space between paragraphs and
the top and bottom of the page. You will also want to select a readable, professional style
and size of font. What you say will depend on the reason you're writing, so be sure to tailor
your letter to fit your personal and professional situation.
Proofread and Spell Check
Finally, before you print or upload your letter or send your email message, spell check,
grammar check, and proofread it. A tip for making sure there aren't any errors is to read it
out loud. You may notice mistakes you didn't catch reviewing it by looking it for.
The following business letter format includes the information you need to include in a
general business letter.
Business Letter Format
Contact Information (Your contact information)
Your Name
Your Address
Your City, State, Zip Code
Your Phone Number
Your Email Address
Date
Contact Information (The person or company you are writing to)
Name
Title
Company
Address
City, State, Zip Code
Salutation
Dear Mr./Ms. Last Name: (Use a formal salutation not a first name)
Body of Business Letter
When writing a business letter, keep your letter simple and targeted, so the purpose of your
letter is clear. Single space your letter and leave a space between each paragraph. Left justify
your letter.
The first paragraph of your business letter should provide an introduction to why you are
writing.
Then, in the following paragraphs provide more information and specific details about your
request. Explain why you are writing so it's easy for the reader to understand what you are
asking.
The last paragraph of your letter should reiterate the reason you are writing and thank the
reader for reviewing your request.
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Leave a blank line after the salutation, between each paragraph, and before the
complimentary close.
Complimentary Close:
Respectfully yours,
Signature:
Handwritten Signature (for a mailed letter)
Typed Signature
Letter of Introduction
A letter of introduction does exactly what it implies – it introduces one party to another
party. These parties can be businesses, individuals representing businesses or simply
individuals representing themselves. Use our free sample letter of introduction template
below to help you get started. Keep reading below for a free sample introduction letter, tips
and links to other resources.
In third party introduction letters, the writer is addressing someone they are familiar with
and introducing a third party to the recipient. Generally, specific requests for employment or
other assistance accompany the letter. These letters tend to be less formal as they are usually
sent to someone you know well.
In blind contact introduction letters, the writer does not know the recipient. The entire
purpose of the letter is to make the introduction. These types of letters are essential in
building business and customer relationships.
Introduction letters are often confused with referral letters, cover letters or application letters,
each of which is used under different circumstances.
You goal is to make a great first impression with a powerful letter of introduction.
1. Address your letter to a specific person, whenever possible.
2. Begin your letter by stating your name and your position or role, if relevant.
3. Tell how you got the reader’s name, if applicable.
4. State the purpose for your letter.
5. Indicate what it is that you hope to accomplish by sending your letter
For example, set up a time that you can meet in person with the reader or what you would
like the reader to do in response to your letter (such as grant you an interview).
6. Include any other important information about yourself or the purpose of your letter. For
example, include your contact information, brief history of your organization, your goals, or
the like).
7. Close by thanking the person, and end on a positive note.
There are two main types of introduction letters: those written to introduce a person, and
those introducing a product.
How to write an introduction letter to introduce another individual:
- As you begin, mention the person by name.
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- Identify your personal or professional association with the person. Briefly tell the reader
about your experience with the person.
- For a business contact, you might want to include the person’s qualifications or positive
qualities, or mention past projects he/she has worked on or companies he/she has worked for.
- Identify the purpose of your letter and what you hope to accomplish by sending it.
- If you would like to give the reader the opportunity to meet with the person you are
introducing, include the person’s contact information or mention when and possibly where
the individuals might be able to meet. However, do not put the reader under any obligation.
- Especially for business contacts, you might include the person’s business card, if possible.
- Close your letter by indicating your confidence that the meeting would be a positive
experience for both individuals, by reaffirming your hope that they can meet, by restating
your esteem for the individual, etc.
How to write an introduction letter to introduce a company, organization, product, or
service:
- Identify the name of your company or organization.
- Tell about the company or organization. Mention how it was started, how long you’ve been
in business, your mission or business objective or goals, and so forth.
- If appropriate, identify the product(s) or service(s) you provide, and identify the benefits of
buying or using these products or services. Tell why they are better than those of the
competition; how they will save the reader time/money, make his/her quality of life better, or
help him/her to accomplish a certain goal; and so on. In short, tell the reader why he/she
must have the product or service you offer.
- Invite the person to an open house, grand opening, sale, etc., if applicable.
- If you represent an organization, describe the benefits of the organization, such as the good
they do in the community, what they have been able to accomplish in the past, the benefits of
membership (if applicable), and so forth.
- Invite the reader to be your customer or to join your organization, or include information on
how he/she can purchase your product or service, whether at a physical store, online, over
the phone, etc.
- Include information that will allow the reader to find out more if desired about your
company or organization or the products or services you provide.
- Close by expressing your hope that the person will want to join your organization or
become a customer.
- How to write an introduction letter to introduce a new product or service to an established
customer:
- Thank the reader for his/her past business.
- Describe the new products or services you are offering.
- Indicate why the reader should purchase the product or service (i.e., mention the benefits of
the product or service).
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- If possible, include a pamphlet, brochure, catalog, etc. that shows and describes the new
products or services.
- If you are making a special promotional offer or having a special sale on the new products
or services, include information about it.
- Indicate how the person can find out more information or tell how he/she can buy your
product or service.
- Close by reiterating how valuable the customer is to you and, if desired, by mentioning
your hope that the reader will buy the new product(s) or service(s) you are offering.
This sample introduction letter is a great example of how to bring two friends or associates
together. Please use this only as a general guide. How formal or informal you need to be in
your letter is extremely situational. The following example might just be an e-mail.
Dear Ryan,
I am writing to introduce you to a remarkable young woman, Cami Larsen. She has worked
for me the past 6 months and has done an excellent job.
Cami has been very valuable to our team. She has a bachelor's degree in marketing and she
has a great sense of current market trends. She has been marketing lead on several key
projects for us. Her husband recently was transferred to New York so she will be leaving us
shortly. We will be sad to see her go. Since she will be coming your way, I was hoping that
you might be willing to consider Cami for a position in your firm or assist her with finding
other opportunities in New York. She will be a great asset to whoever hires her on.
Let me know if you have any questions or you can reach Cami directly at (123) 456-7890. I
am sure she can provide you with a resume if you wish. Thank you for your time and
assistance.
Bill
The purpose of this letter is to briefly introduce myself as Dynatek's new Sales
Representative, Business Accounts. I very recently joined the company and am taking over
your account from Jack Winters who has moved on to other challenges in this industry.
I have just completed Dynatek's management orientation program and am now keen to meet
face-to-face with all of my key customers.
Accordingly, as a first step in my customer familiarization process, I would like to meet with
you personally, for about an hour or so, to discuss Office-Tech's needs and concerns. At the
same time I would also like to take that opportunity to briefly review Dynatek's latest
offering of products and services.
To set up a meeting for this at your convenience, I propose to call your office by the end of
this week. It is my hope that we will be able to arrange to meet at your offices before the end
of the month.
As your new Dynatek Business Account Representative I believe that my paramount concern
is how both Dynatek Inc. and I can better serve Office-Tech Furnishings Inc.
I look forward to meeting with you and learning more about your company in the near
future.
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Sincerely,
Jim O'Malley
Senior Sales Representative
Employee Introduction
While introducing a new employee to the existing customers, the content of the letter must
focus on why the employee is being introduced to the customer, and how is he/she going to
aid the customer. Highlight the qualifications, abilities, and skill sets of the employee that are
necessary from the customer's point of view.
Brett Davis
2531 Murry Street
Virginia Beach, VA 23464
I am glad to introduce you … (1) Mr. Barry Samuel, who has joined our Sales Department
… (2) the Regional Manager … (3) the state of Virginia.
Mr. Samuel has a rich 20-year experience … (4) the marketing and sales field, and has
worked … (5) organizations including Berger & Co. and Cosmos Automobiles Inc. He is a
Michigan University graduate, and has completed his management studies … (6) McGill
University. His expertise … (7) the technical as well as marketing domains makes him an
ideal candidate … (8) us as well as our esteemed customers including you.
Mr. Samuel will soon get … (9) touch … (10) you to ascertain the prior commitments and
orders. … (11) case … (12) any queries, you can reach Mr. Samuel … (13) 235-9356
anywhere … (14) 9 A.M. … (15) 7 P.M.
Sincerely,
(Signature)
Daniel Hampton
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Managing Director
Company/Product Introduction
When you're venturing into a new business, building a client base forms one of the crucial
steps for survival of the business. An introductory letter serves as a means to reach out to
potential targets, and create awareness about the organization as well as the promotional
strategies and offers. Similarly, it also aids organizations to inform the existing customers
about new products or services.
Ex.24. Complete the sentences in the following letter. Use the words below.
A free sample; announce; Brochure; enclosed; pleasure and pride; range of products;
research and surveys; thankful; will contact you; would like.
Kelly Gonzales
2913 Oakwood Circle
Los Angeles, CA 90017
It is with great … (1) that we would like to … (2) our new range of cautiously formulated
foot care products.
After meticulous laboratory … (3), we have developed an array of products to cater to your
foot care needs. This new … (4) includes scrubs for getting rid of the dead cells, as well as
massage oils and foot creams enriched with vitamin E and shea butter. A brochure furnishing
the details of each product has been … (5) with this letter.
Being an esteemed customer, we … (6) to offer you with a free pedicure as well as … (7) of
each of the new products. Our representative … (8) to fix an appointment for the same.
Sincerely,
(Signature)
Julie Thomson
President - Marketing Department
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Enclosure: … (10) for Foot Care products.
Ex.25. Put the parts of the letter (A-H) in the correct order (1-8).
(A) John Doe
(B) Enclosure
(C) Dear Ms. Brown:
(D) Ms. Anna Brown, Chair
Department of Linguistics
Right State University
1415 University Drive
Felicity, OH 45435
(E) Sincerely,
[Signature]
(F) I want you to know you have an exceptional employee, Jane Doe, in your support
division. Her calm, patient manner was a great help to me when my frustration was at an all-
time high. Her knowledge of the software and her remarkable problem-solving abilities are
rare indeed. If the quality of a firm's employees is an indication of future success, then Doe
Corporation has a very bright future.
(G) 1600 Main Street
Springfield, Kansas 12345
(H) December 1, 2013
[Date]
Mr./Ms./Dr. Recipient
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Dear Mr./Ms./Dr. Recipient
I am writing to introduce you to [name of person], who joined/will be joining our company
on [date]. He/she will be [provide some information about this person's title and function
with your company.]
[In this part of the letter, you give more information about the person's duties. Tell the reader
about his or her previous employment, and what this person will be doing for the reader and
the reader's business. Use a paragraph or two to outline this information.]
[In this section provide the reader with information about the new person's educational
background and credentials. This is your opportunity to indicate why the person is qualified
to help the reader.]
[Wrap up the letter by telling the reader how to contact the new person or indicating that he
or she will be looking after the reader's account from this point forward, as appropriate. You
may also want to tell the reader that the new hire will be in touch with the reader shortly.]
Sincerely,
Your Name
Your Title
Mr./Ms./Dr. Recipient
As a valued customer of [ABC Company], I want to take this opportunity to tell you about
an exciting new development for us. We have just expanded our product line to include
offerings from [XYZ Company].
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I have known [name of owner] from XYZ Company for a number of years, and I can tell you
that his/her products are of the finest quality. I wouldn't have taken this step if I didn't feel
that XYZ Company's products would complement our own and provide a real benefit to our
customers.
The enclosed brochure will provide you with more information about XYZ Company and
their product line. If you would like more information, please feel free to contact me at [your
phone number and/or e-mail address].
When you are ready to order, we are available during [hours of service] or online at [your
website URL here].
We value your business and look forward to continuing to serve you in the future. Please
don't hesitate to get in touch with us regarding questions you may have. I, and my staff, look
forward to hearing from you.
Sincerely,
Your Name
Your Title
GRAMMAR
MODAL VERBS
Ex.1. Modals of Ability. Put in 'can', 'can't', 'could' or 'couldn't'. If none of these is
possible use 'be able to' in the correct tense.
1. … you swim when you were 10?
2. We … get to the meeting on time yesterday, because the train was delayed by one hour.
3. He … arrive at the party on time, even after missing the train, so he was very pleased.
4. He's amazing, he … speak five languages, including Chinese.
5. I … drive a car until I was 34. Then I moved to the countryside, so I had to learn.
6. I looked everywhere for my glasses but I … find them anywhere.
7. I searched for your house for ages. luckily I … find it in the end.
8. She's seven years old, but she … read yet. Her parents are getting her extra lessons.
9. I read the book three times, but I … understand it.
10. James … speak Japanese when he lived in Japan, but he's forgotten most of it now.
11. I … understand the chapter we had to read for homework. It was so difficult.
12. I … lift this box - it's too heavy! Would you help me?
13. Lucy … make it to our meeting after all. She's stuck in traffic.
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14. John … play tennis really well. He's champion of his club.
15. Julian … play excellent golf when he was only ten.
Ex.4. Rewrite the sentences and use the verbs can, may or must.
1. Maybe she will return tonight. - She … return tonight.
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2. Don't stand up! - You … stand up!
3. I'm sure they will finish it in a minute. - They … finish it in a minute.
4. There is no need to answer the letter. - You … answer the letter.
5. Please, do it for me. - … you do it for me?
6. I'd like to see your children. - … I see your children?
7. I am not good at football. - I … play football.
8. Do your homework! - You … do your homework.
9. Let's take a taxi. - We … take taxi.
10. Read this book! - You … read this book.
Ex.5. Choose the right modal verb in the brackets to fill the gap.
1. You … (must/may) obey the law!
2. You … (must/should) write her a letter.
3. … (Must/May) I smoke ?
4. You … (must/mustn't) drive on the right in Great Britain.
5. It … (must/may) rain this afternoon.
6. How … (must/can) I contact you ?
7. You … (mustn’t/shouldn't) have drunk so much.
8. She looks beautiful, she … (must/could) be a model.
9. She … (must/can't) be more than thirty, she looks so young.
10. Who's that man over there ? He … (must/should) be the one you were waiting for.
Ex.6. Use the verbs can, may, must, need in positive or negative forms.
1. Excuse me! … you speak French?
2. Alan isn't coming tonight. He … come tomorrow, I hope.
3. There's a lot of work to do in the house. You … help me!
4. You … call him anymore. I have already called him.
5. She is over there. … you see her?
6. … I borrow your pen, please?
7. Teachers … beat children. It's forbidden.
8. I can hear some voices. Someone … be in the house.
9. We … eat sweets! We are on a diet.
10.You … buy it on Sunday if you want. The shops are open.
11.You … drive me to the station. I can walk.
12.We want to be the best. We … practise!
Ex.7. Choose the most appropriate answer to express the idea specified in parentheses.
1. You … go there with me. I can handle it, it's not difficult. (Absence of necessity)
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A may not B must not C don't have to D had better not
2. … bring me a glass of cold water? (Request)
A Could you B Can't you C Would you mind D Why don't you
3. I … give you a lift to the station. My car broke down yesterday. (Ability)
A must not B should not C may not D can't
4. I don't know what to do. – You … your father for advice. (Suggestion)
A are able to ask B could ask C must ask D have to ask
5. He didn't go to the park with us yesterday because he … write a report. (Necessity)
A should B must C had to D could
6. I left my bag here just five minutes ago. You … it! (Strong probability)
A may have seen B must have seen C were able to see D could see
7. You … the bills two weeks ago. (Advice)
A had better pay B should pay C ought to pay D should have paid
8. I don't know how to help you. Try asking Anton for help. He … be able to find a solution.
(Possibility)
A must B has to C might D will
9. I … play tennis every day when I was younger. (Repeated action in the past)
A had to B was able to C used to D could
10. You want to call them now? It's already after midnight! They ... (Strong probability)
A must sleep B should sleep C may sleep D must be sleeping
Ex.9. Fill in each gap using one of the above modal verbs: must, can’t, could, may,
might.
Example: Someone is knocking on the door. I’m sure it’s my brother – he promised to come
today. - Someone is knocking on the door. It must be my brother – he promised to come
today.
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1. I'm sure he is here - I can see his car in front of the building. - He … be here. I can see his
car in front of the building.
2. They're coming this week but I don't know which day. They … be coming tomorrow.
3. I'm not sure I'm going to pass the exam. I don't feel very confident. - I … pass the exam. I
don't feel very confident.
4. I've bought a lottery ticket. There's a chance I'll become a millionaire! – I … become a
millionaire!
5. I'm sure she doesn't speak French very well - she's only lived in Paris for a few weeks. –
She … speak French very well. She's only lived in Paris for a few weeks.
6. My key's not in my pocket or on my desk so I'm sure it's in the drawer. - My key's not in
my pocket or on my desk so it … be in the drawer.
7. Someone told me that Mark was in Mexico but I saw him yesterday so I'm sure he's not
abroad. - Mark … be abroad.
8. You got the job? That's great. I'm sure you're delighted. - You got the job? That's great.
You … be delighted.
9. They told me to prepare the project by tomorrow but it's alomost impossible to have it
done so fast. – I … finish it by tomorrow if I stay at work all night, but I'm not sure.
10. I asked them to send the goods as soon as possible; we … receive them by the end of the
week if the post is fast.
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