1.

(a) Siate whether the following statements are True' or False'

giving reasons:
i Hardnenability of steel having fine grains is better that of
steel having coarse grains.
ii. Martensite found in Maraging steels is very hard and brittle.
ii. For Heat Treatment of high speed sleels it is held for 3 hours
at 1205° C, before being quenched.
iv. Three cycles of tempering are used to temper high specd
steels at 65o C tempering temperature.
v. Any alloy which shows a decreasing solid solubility with
decrease in temperature can be age-hardened.
i. True: Hardness of steel is directly proportional to the hardenability. Fine-grained
steel cools more rapidly during quenching, which results in higher hardness and
better hardenability compared to coarse-grained steel.

ii. False: Martensite in Maraging steels is hard but not brittle. It has excellent
strength, toughness, and resistance to fatigue.

ii. False: Heat treatment of high-speed steel involves holding it for a short time at a
temperature between 1100°C and 1200°C before quenching. The holding time may
range from a few minutes to an hour, depending on the type of steel.

0v. False: High-speed steels are typically tempered for only one cyle at a
temperature between 500°C and 650°C.

V. True: Age-hardening is a process in which a metal is strengthened by aging it at a

relatively low temperature, which causes the formation of fine particles within the
metal. Any alloy that shows a decreasing solid solubility with decreasing
temperature can be age-hardened.
Describe the experiment to draw the TIT diagram for a eutectoid steel

The TTT (Time-Temperature-Transformation) diagram is a graph that represents

the transformation of austenite into various phases of steel as a function of time
and temperature. The TTT diagram is crucial to determine the microstructure and
properties of the steel produced. The following steps describe the experiment to
draw the TTT diagram for a eutectoid steel:

1. Preparation of Specimen: Prepare a eutectoid steel specimen by cutting and

grinding it to the desired shape and size.
2. Austenitization: Heat the specimen to a temperature slightly above the
eutectoid temperature, typically between 800°C and 900°C, in a furnace.
3.: Quenching: Quickly transfer the specimen from the furnace to a quenching
medium, such as water, oil, or brine, to rapidly cool it and prevent any
transformation of the austenite.

4. Transformation: Remove the specimen from the quenching medium at a

specific time and temperature and immediately immerse it ina salt bath or
furnace set to the desired temperature.
5. Cooling: After the specimen is held at the specified temperature for the desired
time, rermove it from the salt bath or furnace and allow it to cool to room
temperature.
6. Microstructural Analysis: Cut and polish the specimen to expose the
microstructure, and then etch it with a suitable chemical reagent. Observe the
microstructure using a microscope.
7: Plotting the TTT Diagram: Repeat the above process for different cooling rates,
holding times, and temperatures to obtain a series of microstructures. Plot the
obtained data in a graph with time on the x-axis and temperature on the y-axis.
The resulting curve is the TTT diagram for the eutectoid steel.

In this way, we can obtain the TTT diagram for a eutectoid steel, which can be used
to determine the microstructure and properties of the steel produced under
different cooling rates and holding times.
P What is the effect of alloying elements on eutectoid temperature A and
composition?

Eutectoid temperature and composition are affected by the presence of alloying

elements in a steel. Alloying elements are added to steel to modify its properties,
such as corrosion resistance, strength, ductility, and toughness. The effect of
alloying elements on eutectoid temperature A and composition is described below:

1, Effect on Eutectoid Temperature A:

The addition of alloying elements to steel can raise or lower the eutectoid
temperature A. For example:

" Nickel, chromium, and manganese raise the eutectoid temperature and shift it
to the right.
Silicon, aluminum, and tungsten lower the eutectoid temperature and shift it to
the left.

2. Effect on Eutectoid Composition:

The addition of alloying elements to steel can also affect the eutectoid
composition. For example:

Nickel, manganese, and chromium increase the eutectoid composition of

carbon in steel, leading to a higher carbon content in the pearlite phase.
" Silicon and aluminum decrease the eutectoid composition of carbon in steel,
leading to a lower carbon content in the pearlite phase.

Additionally, some alloying elements can form carbides, nitrides, or other

compounds that can affect the microstructure and properties of the steel. For
example, vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum form carbides that increase the
hardness and wear resistance of the steel. Boron forms nitrides that increase the

hardenability of the steel. Thus, the effect of alloying elements on eutectoid

temperature A and composition depends on the specific element added and its
concentration in the steel.
Explain the following terms in brief:
i. Austenite.

ii. Inter lamellar spacing. ii. Ideal critical diameter

i. Austenite: Austenite is a face-centered cubic (FCC) form of iron and its aloys,
stable at high temperatures. It is a non-magnetic, high-temperature phase that is
formed when steel is heated above itscritical temperature (Ac3) and then cooled
rapidly. Austenite is characterized by its high ductility, low strength, and good
machinability. It is a metastable phase that can transform into different
microstructures, such as pearlite, martensite, or bainite, depending on the cooling
rate and temperature.

i. Interlamellar spacing: Interlamellar spacing is the distance between the

cementite (Fe3C) particles or lamellae in pearlite. Pearlite is a lamellar mixture of
ferrite and cementite that is formed by the eutectoid transformation of austenite.
The interlamellar spacing in pearlite depends on the cooling rate during the
transformation and the composition of the steel. It is an important factor that
affects the mechanical properties of the steel, such as strength, toughness, and
ductility. Generally, a smaller interlamellar spacing leads to a higher strength and
hardness of the steel.

ii. ldeal critical diameter: ldeal critical diameter is the maximum diameter of a bar

that can be fully hardened by quenching in a particular quenching medium, without

cracking or excessive distortion. It is an important parameter that determines the
hardenability of a steel. The ideal criticaldiameter depends on the chemical
composition of the steel, the quenching medium, and the cooling rate. It is affected
by the size and distribution of the austenite grains, the carbon content, and the
alloying elements in the steel. The ideal critical diameter is determined
experimentally by quenching different sizes of test specimens and measuring the
hardness, distortion, and cracking. It is an important consideration in the heat
treatment of steels, as it determines the size and shape of the components that
can be hardened effectively without defects.
Discuss the factors affecting hardenability of steel

Hardenability is the ability of steel to form a hard and durable surface layer after
heat treatment. The hardenability of steel is influenced by several factors,
including:

1: Carbon content: The carbon content is the primary factor affecting

hardenability. Steels with higher carbon content have a higher hardenability
because they can form a greater amount of martensite during quenching.
2: Alloying elements: The addition of alloying elements such as chromium,
molybdenum, nickel, and vanadium can improve hardenability by forming
carbides that slow down the diffusion of carbon atoms, leading to a finer and
more uniform distribution of martensite.

3. Grain size: Smaller grain sizes increase hardenability because they provide
more nucleation sites for the formation of martensite during quenching.
4: Cooling rate: The cooling rate during quenching is a critical factor affecting
hardenability. Faster cooling rates increase hardenability by reducing the time
available for the diffusion of carbon atoms and promoting the formation of
martensite.

5. Quenching medium: The choice of quenching medium, such as oil, water, or

polymer, also affects hardenability. Quenching in water or polymer provides
faster cooling rates and higher hardenability than quenching in oil.
P Explain pack carburizing of steel.

Pack carburizing is a process used to increase the carbon content of low-carbon

steels by exposing them to a carbon-rich environment at high temperatures. In this
process, steelparts are packed in a container with a carbonaceous material, such
as charcoal, and heated in a furnace for an extended periodof time.

During the pack carburizing process, carbon diffuses from the carbonaceous
material into the surface of the steel, forming a carbon-rich layer called a case. The
depth of the case depends on the temperature, time, and carbon potential of the
carburizing atmosphere. The carbon concentration decreases with depth, forming
a gradient that extends into the core of the steel.

The carburizing atmosphere is typically generated by introducing a hydrocarbon

gas, such as propane or methane, into the furnace. The gas decomposes at high
temperatures, releasing carbon that diffuses into the steel.

The pack carburizing process can be controlled to achieve a specific case depth
and carbon content. The resulting carbon-rich surface layer provides increased
wear resistance, fatigue strength, and improved hardness. After the carburizing
process is complete, the parts are quenched in oil or water to transform the surface
layer into martensite, a hard and durable crystalline structure. Finally, the parts are
tempered to reduce the brittleness and improve toughness of the steel.
P Write short notes on the following i. Defects in heat treatment and their remedies.

i. Austenite to martensitic transformation. i. Gas carburizing of steel.

0v. Nitriding of steel.

V. Heat treatment of 18% Ni- marageing steel

i. Defects in heat treatment and their remedies:

Heat treatment is a critical process for the production of high-quality steel parts.
However, several defects can occur during heat treatment, including quench
cracking, distortion, decarburization, and improper microstructure. The following
are some remedies to prevent these defects:

* Quench cracking can be prevented by proper selection of quenching media,

reducing the cooling rate, and controlling the part geometry.
Distortion can be reduced by proper fixture design, avoiding uneven heating
and cooling, and minimizing temperature gradients.
Decarburization can be prevented by using a protective atmosphere or
reducing the exposure time to the high-temperature environment.
Improper microstructure can be avoided by using proper austenitizing
temperature, holding time, and cooling rate.

ii. Austenite to martensitic transformation:

Austenite is a high-temperature phase of iron and steel that is stable at elevated

temperatures. When austenite is rapidly cooled, it transforms into a hard and brittle
phase called martensite. This transformation is known as the austenite to
martensitic transformation, and it occurs due to a diffusionless shear mechanism
that causes a sudden change in crystal structure. The formation of martensite
increases the hardness and strength of steel, making it suitable for a variety of
applications.

iii. Gas carburizing of steel:

Gas carburizing is a process used to increase the surface hardness of low-carbon
steels by exposing them to a carbon-rich gas at elevated temperatures. The gas is
typically a hydrocarbon such as methane or propane, and it is introduced into a
furnace along with the steel parts. The carbon diffuses into the surface of the steel,
forming a carbon-rich case. The depth of the case depends on the temperature
and time of the carburizing process, and it can be controlled to achieve the desired
hardness and case depth. After carburizing, the parts are quenched and tempered
to achieve the desired microstructure and properties.

iv. Nitriding of steel:

Nitriding is a process used to increase the surface hardness and wear resistance of
steel by exposing it to a nitrogen-rich environment at elevated temperatures. The
nitrogen diffuses into the surface of the steel, forming a hard and durable layer
called a nitride case. The depth and composition of the nitride case depend on the
temperature, time, and nitrogen potential of the nitriding atmosphere. Nitriding can
be done using two methods: gas nitriding and plasma nitriding. Gas nitriding
involves exposing the parts to a nitrogen-rich gas, while plasma nitriding uses a
plasma discharge to ionize nitroaen gas and diffuse it into the surface of the steel.
G Regenerate response
 Quench cracking can be prevented by proper selection of quenching media,
reducing the cooling rate, and controlling the part geometry.
" Distortion can be reduced by proper fixture design, avoiding uneven heating
and cooling, and minimizing temperature gradients.
* Decarburization can be prevented by using a protective atmosphere or
reducing the exposure time to the high-temperature environment.
*Improper microstructure can be avoided by using proper austenitizing
temperature, holding time, and cooling rate.

ii. Austenite to martensitic transformation:

Austenite is a high-temperature phase of iron and steel that is stable at elevated
temperatures. When austenite is rapidly cooled, it transforms intoa hard and brittle
phase called martensite. This transformation is known as the austenite to
martensitic transformation, and it occurs due to a diffusionless shear mechanism
that causes a sudden change in crystal structure. The formation of martensite
increases the hardness and strength of steel, making it suitable for a variety of
applications.

i. Gas carburizing of steel:

Gas carburizing is a process used to increase the surface hardness of low-carbon
steels by exposing them to a carbon-rich gas at elevated temperatures. The gas is
typically a hydrocarbon such as methane or propane, and it is introduced into a
furnace along with the steel parts. The carbon diffuses into the surface of the steel,
forming a carbon-rich case. The depth of the case depends on the temperature
and time of the carburizing process, and it can be controlled to achieve the desired
hardness and case depth. After carburizing, the parts are quenched and tempered
to achieve the desired microstructure and properties.

0v. Nitriding of steel:

Nitriding is a process used to increase the surface hardness and wear resistance of
steel by exposing it to a nitrogen-rich environment at elevated temperatures. The
nitrogen diffuses into the surface of the steel, forming a hard and durable layer
called a nitride case. The depth and composition of the nitride case depend on the
temperature, time, and nitrogen potential of the nitriding atmosphere. Nitriding can
be done using two methods: gas nitriding and plasma nitriding. Gas nitriding
involves exposing the parts to a nitrogen-rich gas, while plasma nitriding uses a
plasma discharge to ionize nitrogen gas and diffuse it into the surface of the steel.

V. Heat treatment of 18% Ni-maraging steel:

18% Ni-maraging steel is a type of high-strength steel that is often used in
aerospace and other high-performance applications. It is characterized by its high
strength, toughness, and resistance to fatigue and stress corrosion cracking. The
heat treatment of 18% Ni-maraging steel involves solutionizing at high
temperatures to dissolve the precipitates, followed by a quenching process to form
martensite. The parts are then aged at lower temperatures to allow the
precipitation of intermetallic phases, which contribute to the strength and
toughness of the steel. The heat treatment process is critical to achieving the
desired microstructure and properties of the steel.
 (e) Austforming vs. Austempering:
Austforming and austempering are both heat treatment processes used to
produce bainite, a microstructure consisting of a mixture of ferrite and a
metastable iron carbide called austenite. However, the key difference between
austforming and austempering is the cooling rate.

In austforming, the material is cooled rapidly to below the bainite transformation

temperature to form martensite, which is then transformed to bainite by holding at
an intermediate temperature. This process results in a fine, uniform bainitic
microstructure with excellent toughness.

In austempering, the material is cooled at a slower rate to an intermediate

temperature within the bainite transformation range, where it is held until the
bainite transformation is complete. This process results in a coarser bainitic
microstructure with lower toughness than that produced by austforming.

() Steels suitable for ausforming:

Steels that are suitable for ausforming include low-alloy steels, medium-carbon
steels, and high-carbon steels. These steels have a high hardenability, which allows
them to be transformed to bainite by austforming. The resulting bainitic
microstructure has excellent strength

P (a) What are the steps in precipitation hardening? (b) Which alloys are suitable for
precipitation hardening?

(a) The steps in precipitation hardening are as follows:

1. Solution Treatment: The alloy is heated to a high temperature to form a solid

solution. This helps in the dissolution of the precipitates.
2. Quenching: The alloy is rapidly cooled from the high temperature to room
temperature to prevent the precipitation of the solute atoms.
3. Aging: The quenched alloy is heated to a lower temperature, where the solute
atoms begin to precipitate out of the solution, forming small particles.
4. Hardening: The small precipitated particles obstruct the movement of
dislocations, making it difficult for them to move. This leads to an increase in
strength and hardness of the alloy.

(b) Alloys that are suitable for precipitation hardening typically have a high
concentration of solute atoms that can form precipitates. Some examples of alloys
suitable for precipitation hardening are:

1. Aluminum Alloys: Aluminum alloys with copper, zinc, or magnesium are

commonly used in aerospace and automotive industries.
2. Nickel Alloys: Nickel alloys with titanium, aluminum, or niobium are used in gas
turbines, aerospace, and chemical processing industries.
3. Stainless Steels: Stainless steels with molybdenum or copper are used in
chemical processing and oil refining industries.
4. Titanium Alloys: Titanium alloys with aluminum, vanadium, or molybdenum are
used in aerospace, medical, and marine industries.
5: Copper Alloys: Copper alloys with beryllium are used in electrical and electronic
industries.

In general, alloys with a small difference in atomic size between the solute and
solvent atoms anda large difference in their electronegativity are suitable for
precipitation hardening.
P (c) What is precipitation free zone (PFZY? How it can be avoided? Explain in details.

Precipitation-free zone (PFZ) is a region in an alloy that does not contain any
precipitates or has a very low concentration of precipitates due to the presence of
solute atoms. The PFZ is formed during the aging process of precipitation
hardening when the solute atoms are consumed in the formation of precipitates in
some regions of the alloy, leaving the PFZ depleted in solute atoms and, hence, free
of precipitates.

The formation of a PFZ is undesirable as it reduces the strength and hardness of

the alloy in that region, making it more susceptible to failure. Therefore, it is
important to avoid the formation of a PFZ during the precipitation hardening
process.

There are several ways to avoid the formation of a PFZ:

1. Optimize the Aging Time and Temperature: The aging temperature and time
should be carefully controlled to ensure that the precipitation process occurs
uniformly throughout the alloy. This can be done by performing a series of
experiments to determine the optimal aging temperature and time for the
specific alloy.
2. Control the Cooling Rate: The cooling rate after solution treatment and before
aging should be carefully controlled to prevent the formation of a PFZ. Rapid
cooling rates can lead to the formation of a PFZ due to the depletion of solute
atoms.
3. Increase the Solute Concentration: Increasing the solute concentration can
reduce the formation of a PFZ by providing more solute atoms for the formation
of precipitates.
4. Reduce the Grain Size: Reducing the grain size of the alloy can also help to avoid
the formation of a PFZ by increasing the density of nucleation sites for the
formation of precipitates.
In summary, the formation of a PFZ can be avoided by carefully controlling the
aging time and temperature, the cooling rate, increasing the solute concentration,
and reducing the grain size of the alloy.
 Differentiate between austforming and austempering (c) What type of steels is
suitable for ausforming? Explain with

Austforming and austempering are two heat treatment processes used to improve
the strength and toughness of steels. While both processes involve the formation
of bainite, they differ in terms of their cooling rates and temperatures.

Austforming involves quenching the steel from a high temperature (above the
austenite phase) to an intermediate temperature range (between the bainite and
martensite phases) at a slow and controled rate. The steel is then held at this
temperature until it has fully transformed into bainite, which is a fine-grained and
high-strength microstructure. This process is typically used for medium and high
carbon steels, and can improve the toughness, ductility, and fatigue resistance of
the material.

Austempering, on the other hand, involves quenching the steel from a high
temperature to an intermediate temperature range at a very fast rate, followed by
holding the steel at that temperature until the bainite transformation is complete.
This process is typically used for low-carbon and low-alloy steels, and can improve
the ductility, toughness, and fatigue resistance of the material.

The key difference between the two processes is the cooling rate: Austforming
involves a slower cooling rate than austempering. Asa result, austforming is more
suitable for steels that can withstand slower cooling rates without developing large
amounts of undesirable microstructures such as martensite. Austempering is more
suitable for steels that can undergo rapid cooling rates without developing
martensite or other brittle microstructures.

Steels that are suitable for ausforming typically have medium to high carbon
content and are often used in applications where high strength and toughness are
required, such as gears, shafts, and springs. The steel composition should be
carefully controlled to ensure that the bainite transformation occurs at the desired
temperature range and the cooling rate is slow enough to prevent the formation of
undesirable microstructures.
P (b) Why tempering is necessary after hardening of steel? Discuss the structural
changes takes place in different stages of tempering of steel.

Tempering is necessary after hardening of steel to improve its ductility, toughness,

and reduce its brittleness. When steel is hardened, it becomes very hard and
brittle, which can cause it to crack or break under stress. Tempering reduces the
hardness of the steel and makes it more ductile, which improves its ability to
absorb shocks and resist deformation.

The structural changes that occur during tempering depend on the temperature
and duration of the tempering process. The main structural changes that occur
during tempering are as follows:

1. Stage 1: Recovery
During the initial stage of tempering, known as the recovery stage, the steel is
heated to a temperature of around 200-300°C. At this temperature, the steel
recovers some of its ductility and toughness, and the internal stresses caused
by the hardening process are partially relieved.
2. Stage 2: Recrystallization
The next stage of tempering is recrystallization, which occurs at temperatures
between 300-500°C. At this stage, the microstructure of the steel begins to

change, and new grains start to form, replacing the deformed and strained
grains created during hardening. The new grains are more evenly distributed,
leading to a more uniform and stable microstructure.
3. Stage 3: Grain Growth
The final stage of tempering is grain growth, which occurs at temperatures
above 5O0°C. At this stage, the grains grow in size, leading to a reduction in
strength and an increase in ductility. This results in a more uniform and stable
microstructure that is less prone to cracking or breaking under stress.

In summary, tempering is necessary after hardening to improve the ductility and

toughness of the steel. The structural changes that occur during tempering involve
and the
the recovery of internal stresses, the recrystallization of the microstructure,
that is
growth of new grains, resulting in a more uniform and stable microstructure
less prone to cracking or breaking under stress.
C
P (a) Describe the malleablizing heat treatment process for production of malleable
cast iron castings.

(b)Explain with sketch the mechanism of longitudinal and sidewise growth of

pearlite during austenite to pearlite transformation. (c) Why Aluminum rivets are
stored in refrigerator?

(a) Malleablizing heat treatment is a process used to convert white cast iron into
malleable cast iron. The process involves heating the cast iron in a furnace to a
temperature of around 850-950°C for several hours, followed by a slow cooling
process. During the heating process, the carbon in the white cast iron is converted
into graphite nodules, which gives the iron its malleable properties. The cooling
process is critical to the success of the process, as it must be slow enough to allow
the graphite nodules to form, but not so slow as to allow the iron to become hard
and brittle.

(b) The austenite to pearlite transformation is a diffusion-controlled process that

involves the growth of pearlite plates within the austenite matrix. The mechanism
of longitudinal and sidewise growth of pearlite during this transformation can be
explained as follows:

" Longitudinal growth: This occurs when the pearlite plates grow in the direction
of the length of the austenite grain. The growth occurs by the diffusion of
carbon and other elements from the austenite matrix into the pearlite plate.
This diffusion occurs more rapidly along the austenite grain boundaries, which
causes the pearlite plates to grow preferentially in the direction of the grain
length.
* Sidewise growth: This occurs when the pearlite plates grow perpendicular to
the length of the austenite grain. The growth occurs by the diffusion of carbon
and other elements from the austenite matrix into the pearlite plate. This
diffusion occurs more slowly along the pearlite plate boundaries than along the
austenite grain boundaries, which causes the pearlite plates to grow
perpendicular to the grain length.

(c) Aluminum rivets are stored in a refrigerator to prevent them from oxidizing and
becoming brittle. When aluminum is exposed to air, it forms a thin layer of
aluminum oxide on its surface, which can cause the metal to become brittle over
time. Storing aluminum rivets in a refrigerator helps to slow down the oxidation
process, which can help to extend the life of the rivets and prevent them from
becoming brittle. Additionally, storing the rivets in a cool, dry place can also help to
prevent moisture from accumulating on the surface of the rivets, which can also
contribute to corrosion and oxidation.