Unit I

Introduction to Python:
Python is a general-purpose interpreted, interactive, object-oriented, and high-level
programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum during 1985- 1990. Like Perl,
Python source code is also available under the GNU General Public License (GPL).
This tutorial gives enough understanding on Python programming language.

Why to Learn Python?:

Python is a high-level, interpreted, interactive and object-oriented scripting language.
Python is designed to be highly readable. It uses English keywords frequently where as other
languages use punctuation, and it has fewer syntactical constructions than other languages.

Python is a MUST for students and working professionals to become a great

Software Engineer specially when they are working in Web Development Domain. I will list
down some of the key advantages of learning Python:

 Python is Interpreted − Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You do

not need to compile your program before executing it. This is similar to PERL and
PHP.

 Python is Interactive − You can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact with the
interpreter directly to write your programs.

 Python is Object-Oriented − Python supports Object-Oriented style or technique of

programming that encapsulates code within objects.

 Python is a Beginner's Language − Python is a great language for the beginner-

level programmers and supports the development of a wide range of applications
from simple text processing to WWW browsers to games.

Characteristics of Python:
Following are important characteristics of Python Programming −

 It supports functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.

 It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building

large applications.

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  It provides very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type checking.

 It supports automatic garbage collection.

 It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA, and Java

Applications of Python:
As mentioned before, Python is one of the most widely used language over the web.
I'm going to list few of them here:

 Easy-to-learn − Python has few keywords, simple structure, and a clearly defined
syntax. This allows the student to pick up the language quickly.

 Easy-to-read − Python code is more clearly defined and visible to the eyes.

 Easy-to-maintain − Python's source code is fairly easy-to-maintain.

 A broad standard library − Python's bulk of the library is very portable and cross-
platform compatible on UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.

 Interactive Mode − Python has support for an interactive mode which allows
interactive testing and debugging of snippets of code.

 Portable − Python can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms and has the same
interface on all platforms.

 Extendable − You can add low-level modules to the Python interpreter. These
modules enable programmers to add to or customize their tools to be more efficient.

 Databases − Python provides interfaces to all major commercial databases.

 GUI Programming − Python supports GUI applications that can be created and
ported to many system calls, libraries and windows systems, such as Windows MFC,
Macintosh, and the X Window system of Unix.

 Scalable − Python provides a better structure and support for large programs than
shell scripting.

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Python Overview:
Python is a high-level, interpreted, interactive and object-oriented scripting language.
Python is designed to be highly readable. It uses English keywords frequently where as other
languages use punctuation, and it has fewer syntactical constructions than other languages.

 Python is Interpreted − Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You do

not need to compile your program before executing it. This is similar to PERL and
PHP.

 Python is Interactive − You can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact with the
interpreter directly to write your programs.

 Python is Object-Oriented − Python supports Object-Oriented style or technique of

programming that encapsulates code within objects.

 Python is a Beginner's Language − Python is a great language for the beginner-

level programmers and supports the development of a wide range of applications
from simple text processing to WWW browsers to games.

History of Python:

Python was developed by Guido van Rossum in the late eighties and early nineties at
the National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science in the Netherlands.

Python is derived from many other languages, including ABC, Modula-3, C, C++,
Algol-68, SmallTalk, and Unix shell and other scripting languages.

Python is copyrighted. Like Perl, Python source code is now available under the
GNU General Public License (GPL).

Python is now maintained by a core development team at the institute, although

Guido van Rossum still holds a vital role in directing its progress.

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Features Of Python:

Python's features include −

 Easy-to-learn − Python has few keywords, simple structure, and a clearly defined
syntax. This allows the student to pick up the language quickly.

 Easy-to-read − Python code is more clearly defined and visible to the eyes.

 Easy-to-maintain − Python's source code is fairly easy-to-maintain.

 A broad standard library − Python's bulk of the library is very portable and cross-
platform compatible on UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.

 Interactive Mode − Python has support for an interactive mode which allows
interactive testing and debugging of snippets of code.

 Portable − Python can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms and has the same
interface on all platforms.

 Extendable − You can add low-level modules to the Python interpreter. These
modules enable programmers to add to or customize their tools to be more efficient.

 Databases − Python provides interfaces to all major commercial databases.

 GUI Programming − Python supports GUI applications that can be created and
ported to many system calls, libraries and windows systems, such as Windows MFC,
Macintosh, and the X Window system of Unix.

 Scalable − Python provides a better structure and support for large programs than
shell scripting.

Apart from the above-mentioned features, Python has a big list of good features, few are
listed below −

 It supports functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.

 It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building

large applications.

 It provides very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type checking.

 It supports automatic garbage collection.

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  It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA, and Java.

Local Environment Setup

Open a terminal window and type "python" to find out if it is already installed and
which version is installed.

 Unix (Solaris, Linux, FreeBSD, AIX, HP/UX, SunOS, IRIX, etc.)

 Win 9x/NT/2000

 Macintosh (Intel, PPC, 68K)

 OS/2

 DOS (multiple versions)

 PalmOS

 Nokia mobile phones

 Windows CE

 Acorn/RISC OS

 BeOS

 Amiga

 VMS/OpenVMS

 QNX

 VxWorks

 Psion

 Python has also been ported to the Java and .NET virtual machines

Getting Python:

The most up-to-date and current source code, binaries, documentation, news, etc., is
available on the official website of Python https://www.python.org/

You can download Python documentation from https://www.python.org/doc/. The

documentation is available in HTML, PDF, and PostScript formats.

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Installing Python:

Python distribution is available for a wide variety of platforms. You need to

download only the binary code applicable for your platform and install Python.

If the binary code for your platform is not available, you need a C compiler to compile the
source code manually. Compiling the source code offers more flexibility in terms of choice
of features that you require in your installation.

Here is a quick overview of installing Python on various platforms −

Unix and Linux Installation:

Here are the simple steps to install Python on Unix/Linux machine.

 Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/downloads/.

 Follow the link to download zipped source code available for Unix/Linux.

 Download and extract files.

 Editing the Modules/Setup file if you want to customize some options.

 run ./configure script

 make

 make install

This installs Python at standard location /usr/local/bin and its libraries

at /usr/local/lib/pythonXX where XX is the version of Python.

Windows Installation:
Here are the steps to install Python on Windows machine.

 Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/downloads/.

 Follow the link for the Windows installer python-XYZ.msi file where XYZ is the
version you need to install.

 To use this installer python-XYZ.msi, the Windows system must support Microsoft
Installer 2.0. Save the installer file to your local machine and then run it to find out if
your machine supports MSI.

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  Run the downloaded file. This brings up the Python install wizard, which is really
easy to use. Just accept the default settings, wait until the install is finished, and you
are done.

Macintosh Installation:
Recent Macs come with Python installed, but it may be several years out of date.
See http://www.python.org/download/mac/ for instructions on getting the current version
along with extra tools to support development on the Mac. For older Mac OS's before Mac
OS X 10.3 (released in 2003), MacPython is available.

Jack Jansen maintains it and you can have full access to the entire documentation at
his website − http://www.cwi.nl/~jack/macpython.html. You can find complete installation
details for Mac OS installation.

Setting up PATH
Programs and other executable files can be in many directories, so operating systems
provide a search path that lists the directories that the OS searches for executables.

The path is stored in an environment variable, which is a named string maintained by the
operating system. This variable contains information available to the command shell and
other programs.

The path variable is named as PATH in Unix or Path in Windows (Unix is case
sensitive; Windows is not).

In Mac OS, the installer handles the path details. To invoke the Python interpreter
from any particular directory, you must add the Python directory to your path.

Setting path at Unix/Linux:

To add the Python directory to the path for a particular session in Unix −

 In the csh shell − type setenv PATH "$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press Enter.

 In the bash shell (Linux) − type export PATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and

press Enter.

 In the sh or ksh shell − type PATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press Enter.

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  Note − /usr/local/bin/python is the path of the Python directory

Setting path at Windows:

To add the Python directory to the path for a particular session in Windows −

At the command prompt − type path %path%;C:\Python and press Enter.

Note − C:\Python is the path of the Python directory

Python Environment Variables:

Here are important environment variables, which can be recognized by Python −

Sr.No. Variable & Description

1
PYTHONPATH

It has a role similar to PATH. This variable tells the Python interpreter where to locate the
module files imported into a program. It should include the Python source library
directory and the directories containing Python source code. PYTHONPATH is
sometimes preset by the Python installer.

2
PYTHONSTARTUP

It contains the path of an initialization file containing Python source code. It is executed
every time you start the interpreter. It is named as .pythonrc.py in Unix and it contains
commands that load utilities or modify PYTHONPATH.

3 PYTHONCASEOK

It is used in Windows to instruct Python to find the first case-insensitive match in an

import statement. Set this variable to any value to activate it.

4 PYTHONHOME

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 It is an alternative module search path. It is usually embedded in the PYTHONSTARTUP
or PYTHONPATH directories to make switching module libraries easy.

Running Python:

There are three different ways to start Python −

Interactive Interpreter

You can start Python from Unix, DOS, or any other system that provides you a command-
line interpreter or shell window.

Enter python the command line.

Start coding right away in the interactive interpreter.

$python # Unix/Linux
or
python% # Unix/Linux
or
C:> python # Windows/DOS

Here is the list of all the available command line options −

Sr.No. Option & Description

1 -d

It provides debug output.

2 -O

It generates optimized bytecode (resulting in .pyo files).

3 -S

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 Do not run import site to look for Python paths on startup.

4 -v

verbose output (detailed trace on import statements).

5
-X

disable class-based built-in exceptions (just use strings); obsolete starting with version 1.6.

6 -c cmd

run Python script sent in as cmd string

7 file

run Python script from given file

Script from the Command-line:

A Python script can be executed at command line by invoking the interpreter on your
application, as in the following −

$python script.py # Unix/Linux

or
python% script.py # Unix/Linux
or
C: >python script.py # Windows/DOS

Note − Be sure the file permission mode allows execution.

Integrated Development Environment:

You can run Python from a Graphical User Interface (GUI) environment as well, if you
have a GUI application on your system that supports Python.

 Unix − IDLE is the very first Unix IDE for Python.

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  Windows − PythonWin is the first Windows interface for Python and is an IDE with
a GUI.

 Macintosh − The Macintosh version of Python along with the IDLE IDE is available
from the main website, downloadable as either MacBinary or BinHex'd files.

If you are not able to set up the environment properly, then you can take help from your
system admin. Make sure the Python environment is properly set up and working perfectly
fine.

Note − All the examples given in subsequent chapters are executed with Python 2.4.3
version available on CentOS flavor of Linux.

We already have set up Python Programming environment online, so that you can execute
all the available examples online at the same time when you are learning theory. Feel free to
modify any example and execute it online.

First Python Program:

Let us execute programs in different modes of programming.

Interactive Mode Programming:

Invoking the interpreter without passing a script file as a parameter brings up the
following prompt −

Type the following text at the Python prompt and press the Enter −
$ python
Python 2.4.3 (#1, Nov 11 2010, 13:34:43)
If you
>>> print are running
"Hello, new version of Python, then you would need to use print statement
Python!"
[GCC 4.1.2 20080704 (Red Hat 4.1.2-48)] on linux2
with parenthesis as in print ("Hello, Python!");. However in Python version 2.4.3, this
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
produces the following result −
>>>
Hello, Python!

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Script Mode Programming:
Invoking the interpreter with a script parameter begins execution of the script and
continues until the script is finished. When the script is finished, the interpreter is no longer
active.

Let us write a simple Python program in a script. Python files have extension .py.
Type the following source code in a test.py file −

We
printassume
"Hello,that you have Python interpreter set in PATH variable. Now, try to run this
Python!"
program as follows −

This produces
$ python the following result −
test.py
Hello, Python!

Let us try another way to execute a Python script. Here is the modified test.py file −

We assume that you have Python interpreter available in /usr/bin directory. Now, try to run
#!/usr/bin/python
this program as follows −

printproduces
"Hello, Python!"
This the following
$ chmod +x test.py # Thisresult −
is to make file executable
$./test.py
Hello, Python!

Python Identifiers:

A Python identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, class, module or

other object. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore (_) followed
by zero or more letters, underscores and digits (0 to 9).

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 Python does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $, and % within identifiers.
Python is a case sensitive programming language. Thus, Manpower and manpower are two
different identifiers in Python.

Here are naming conventions for Python identifiers −

 Class names start with an uppercase letter. All other identifiers start with a lowercase
letter.

 Starting an identifier with a single leading underscore indicates that the identifier is
private.

 Starting an identifier with two leading underscores indicates a strongly private

identifier.

 If the identifier also ends with two trailing underscores, the identifier is a language-
defined special name.

Reserved Words:

The following list shows the Python keywords. These are reserved words and you
cannot use them as constant or variable or any other identifier names. All the Python
keywords contain lowercase letters only.

and exec not

assert finally or

break for pass

class from print

continue global raise

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 def if return

del import try

elif in while

else is with

except lambda yield

Variable:
Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store values. This means that
when you create a variable you reserve some space in memory.

Based on the data type of a variable, the interpreter allocates memory and decides
what can be stored in the reserved memory. Therefore, by assigning different data types to
variables, you can store integers, decimals or characters in these variables.

Assigning Values to Variables:

Python variables do not need explicit declaration to reserve memory space. The
declaration happens automatically when you assign a value to a variable. The equal sign (=)
is used to assign values to variables.

The operand to the left of the = operator is the name of the variable and the operand
to the right of the = operator is the value stored in the variable. For example −

#!/usr/bin/python

counter = 100# An integer assignment miles = 1000.0# A floating point

name= "John"# A string

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 print counter print miles print name

Here, 100, 1000.0 and "John" are the values assigned to counter, miles,
and name variables, respectively. This produces the following result −

100
1000.0
John

Multiple Assignment:

Python allows you to assign a single value to several variables simultaneously. For
example

a=b=c=1

Here, an integer object is created with the value 1, and all three variables are assigned
to the same memory location. You can also assign multiple objects to multiple variables. For
example −

a,b,c = 1,2,"john"

Here, two integer objects with values 1 and 2 are assigned to variables a and b
respectively, and one string object with the value "john" is assigned to the variable c.

Comments in Python:

A hash sign (#) that is not inside a string literal begins a comment. All characters
after the # and up to the end of the physical line are part of the comment and the Python
interpreter ignores them.

This produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/
pythonPython!
Hello, # First
comment

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You can type a comment on the same line after a statement or expression −

name = "Madisetti" # This is again comment

You can comment multiple lines as follows −

# This is a comment.
# This is a comment, too.
# This is a comment, too.
# I said that already.

Following triple-quoted string is also ignored by Python interpreter and can be used as a
multiline comments:

'''
This is a multiline
comment.
'''

Using Blank Lines:

A line containing only whitespace, possibly with a comment, is known as a blank line
and Python totally ignores it.

In an interactive interpreter session, you must enter an empty physical line to

terminate a multiline statement.

Waiting for the User:

The following line of the program displays the prompt, the statement saying “Press
the enter key to exit”, and waits for the user to take action −

Here, "\n\n" is used to create two new lines before displaying the actual line. Once
#!/usr/bin/python
the user presses the key,
raw_input("\n\nPress the program
the enter ends. This is a nice trick to keep a console window
key to exit.")
open until the user is done with an application.

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Multiple Statements on a Single Line:

The semicolon ( ; ) allows multiple statements on the single line given that neither
statement starts a new code block. Here is a sample snip using the semicolon −

import sys; x = 'foo'; sys.stdout.write(x + '\n')

Multiple Statement Groups as Suites:

A group of individual statements, which make a single code block are called suites in
Python. Compound or complex statements, such as if, while, def, and class require a header
line and a suite.

Header lines begin the statement (with the keyword) and terminate with a colon ( : )
and are followed by one or more lines which make up the suite. For example −

if expression :
suite
elif expression :
suite
else :
suite

Command Line Arguments:

Many programs can be run to provide you with some basic information about how
they should be run. Python enables you to do this with -h −

$ python -h
usage: python [option] ... [-c cmd | -m mod | file | -] [arg] ... Options and arguments (and corresponding enviro
-c cmd : program passed in as string (terminates option list)
-d: debug output from parser (also PYTHONDEBUG=x)
-E: ignore environment variables (such as PYTHONPATH)
-h: print this help message and exit

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 [ etc. ]

Indentation In python:

Python provides no braces to indicate blocks of code for class and function
definitions or flow control. Blocks of code are denoted by line indentation, which is rigidly
enforced.

The number of spaces in the indentation is variable, but all statements within the block must
be indented the same amount. For example −

if True:
print "True"
else:
print "False"

However, the following block generates an error −

if True:Thus, in Python all the continuous lines indented with same number of spaces would
form
print a block. The following example has various statement blocks −
"Answer"
Note − Do not try to understand the logic at this point of time. Just make sure you
print "True"various blocks even if they are without braces.
understood
else:
#!/usr/bin/python import sys
print
try:
# "Answer"
open file stream
file = open(file_name, "w") except IOError:
print "There was an error writing to", file_name

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 sys.exit()
print "Enter '", file_finish, print "' When finished" while file_text != file_finish:
file_text = raw_input("Enter text: ") if file_text == file_finish:
# close the file file.close break
file.write(file_text) file.write("\n")
file.close()
file_name = raw_input("Enter filename: ") if len(file_name) == 0:
print "Next time please enter something" sys.exit()
try:
file = open(file_name, "r") except IOError:
print "There was an error reading file" sys.exit()
file_text = file.read() file.close()
print file_text

Multi-Line Statements:

Statements in Python typically end with a new line. Python does, however, allow the
use of the line continuation character (\) to denote that the line should continue. For example

total = item_one + \
item_two + \
item_three

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Statements contained within the [], {}, or () brackets do not need to use the line continuation
character. For example −

days = ['Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday',

'Thursday', 'Friday']

Quotation in Python:

Python accepts single ('), double (") and triple (''' or """) quotes to denote string
literals, as long as the same type of quote starts and ends the string.

The triple quotes are used to span the string across multiple lines. For example, all the
following are legal −

word = 'word'
sentence = "This is a sentence."
paragraph = """This is a paragraph. It is
made up of multiple lines and sentences."""

Operator:

Operators are the constructs which can manipulate the value of operands.Consider the
expression 4 + 5 = 9. Here, 4 and 5 are called operands and + is called operator.

Python language supports the following types of operators.

 Arithmetic Operators

 Comparison (Relational) Operators

 Assignment Operators

 Logical Operators

 Bitwise Operators

 Membership Operators

 Identity Operators

Let us have a look on all operators one by one.

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Python Arithmetic Operators:

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then −

Operator Description Example

+ Addition Adds values on either side of the operator. a+b=

30

- Subtraction Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand. a–b=-
10

* Multiplies values on either side of the operator a*b=

Multiplication 200

/ Division Divides left hand operand by right hand operand b/a=2

% Modulus Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns remainder b%a=
0

** Exponent Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators a**b =10

to the
power 20

// Floor Division - The division of operands where the result is the 9//2 = 4
quotient in which the digits after the decimal point are removed. But if and
9.0//2.0
= 4.0, -

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 one of the operands is negative, the result is floored, i.e., rounded away 11//3 = -
from zero (towards negative infinity) − 4, -
11.0//3 =
-4.0

Python Comparison Operators:

These operators compare the values on either sides of them and decide the relation
among them. They are also called Relational operators.

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then −

Operator Description Example

== If the values of two operands are equal, then the condition becomes true. (a == b)
is not
true.

!= If values of two operands are not equal, then condition becomes true. (a != b)
is true.

<> If values of two operands are not equal, then condition becomes true. (a <> b)
is true.
This is
similar
to !=
operator.

> If the value of left operand is greater than the value of right operand, then (a > b) is
condition becomes true. not true.

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< If the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, then (a < b) is
condition becomes true. true.

>= If the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of right (a >= b)
operand, then condition becomes true. is not
true.

<= If the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right (a <= b)
operand, then condition becomes true. is true.

Python Assignment Operators:

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then −

Operator Description Example

= Assigns values from right side operands to left side operand c=a+b
assigns
value of a
+ b into c

+= Add AND It adds right operand to the left operand and assign the result to left c += a is
operand equivalent
to c = c +
a

-= Subtract AND It subtracts right operand from the left operand and assign the result c -= a is
to left operand equivalent
to c = c -
a

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*= Multiply It multiplies right operand with the left operand and assign the c *= a is
AND result to left operand equivalent
to c = c *
a

/= Divide AND It divides left operand with the right operand and assign the result c /= a is
to left operand equivalent
to c = c /
a

%= Modulus It takes modulus using two operands and assign the result to left c %= a is
AND operand equivalent
to c = c %
a

**= Exponent Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators and c **= a is

AND assign value to the left operand equivalent
to c = c
** a

//= Floor It performs floor division on operators and assign value to the left c //= a is
Division operand equivalent
to c = c //
a

Python Bitwise Operators:

Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit by bit operation. Assume if a = 60;
and b = 13; Now in the binary format their values will be 0011 1100 and 0000 1101
respectively. Following table lists out the bitwise operators supported by Python language
with an example each in those, we use the above two variables (a and b) as operands −

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a = 0011 1100

b = 0000 1101

a&b = 0000 1100

a|b = 0011 1101

a^b = 0011 0001

~a = 1100 0011

There are following Bitwise operators supported by Python language

Operator Description Example

& Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result if it exists in both operands (a & b)
(means
0000 1100)

| Binary OR It copies a bit if it exists in either operand. (a | b) = 61

(means
0011 1101)

^ Binary XOR It copies the bit if it is set in one operand but not both. (a ^ b) = 49
(means
0011 0001)

~ Binary Ones (~a ) = -61

Complement (means
It is unary and has the effect of 'flipping' bits. 1100 0011
in 2's
complement
form due to

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

 a signed
binary
number.

<< Binary Left Shift The left operands value is moved left by the number of bits a << 2 =
specified by the right operand. 240 (means
1111 0000)

>> Binary Right Shift The left operands value is moved right by the number of bits a >> 2 = 15
specified by the right operand. (means
0000 1111)

Python Logical Operators:

There are following logical operators supported by Python language. Assume

variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20 then

Operator Description Example

and Logical If both the operands are true then condition becomes true. (a and b)
AND is true.

or Logical OR If any of the two operands are non-zero then condition becomes (a or b)
true. is true.

not Logical NOT Used to reverse the logical state of its operand. Not(a
and b) is
false.

Python Membership Operators

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

Python’s membership operators test for membership in a sequence, such as strings, lists, or
tuples. There are two membership operators as explained below −

Operator Description Example

In Evaluates to true if it finds a variable in the specified sequence and false x in y,

otherwise. here in
results in
a 1 if x is
a
member
of
sequence
y.

not in Evaluates to true if it does not finds a variable in the specified sequence and x not in
false otherwise. y, here
not in
results in
a 1 if x is
not a
member
of
sequence
y.

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

Python Identity Operators:

Identity operators compare the memory locations of two objects. There are two
Identity operators explained below −

Operator Description Example

Is Evaluates to true if the variables on either side of the operator point to x is y,

the same object and false otherwise. here is results
in 1 if id(x)
equals id(y).

is not Evaluates to false if the variables on either side of the operator point to x is not y,
the same object and true otherwise. here is
not results in
1 if id(x) is
not equal to
id(y).

Python Operators Precedence:

The following table lists all operators from highest precedence to lowest.

Sr.No. Operator & Description

1 **

Exponentiation (raise to the power)

2 ~+-

Complement, unary plus and minus (method names for the last two are +@ and -@)

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3
* / % //

Multiply, divide, modulo and floor division

4 +-

Addition and subtraction

5
>> <<

Right and left bitwise shift

6
&

Bitwise 'AND'

7 ^|

Bitwise exclusive `OR' and regular `OR'

8
<= < > >=

Comparison operators

9 <> == !=

Equality operators

10
= %= /= //= -= += *= **=

Assignment operators

11
is is not

Identity operators

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

 12
in not in

Membership operators

13 not or and

Logical operators

Standard Data Types:

The data stored in memory can be of many types. For example, a person's age is
stored as a numeric value and his or her address is stored as alphanumeric characters. Python
has various standard data types that are used to define the operations possible on them and
the storage method for each of them.

Python has five standard data types −

 Numbers

 String

 List

 Tuple

 Dictionary

Python Numbers:

Number data types store numeric values. They are immutable data types, means that
changing the value of a number data type results in a newly allocated object.

Number objects are created when you assign a value to them. For example −

var1 = 1
var2 = 10

You can also delete the reference to a number object by using the del statement. The
syntax of the del statement is −

del var1[,var2[,var3[ ,varN]]]]

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

 You can delete a single object or multiple objects by using the del statement. For
example −

del var
del var_a, var_b

Python supports four different numerical types −

 int (signed integers) − They are often called just integers or ints, are positive or
negative whole numbers with no decimal point.

 long (long integers ) − Also called longs, they are integers of unlimited size, written
like integers and followed by an uppercase or lowercase L.

 float (floating point real values) − Also called floats, they represent real numbers
and are written with a decimal point dividing the integer and fractional parts. Floats
may also be in scientific notation, with E or e indicating the power of 10 (2.5e2 =
2.5 x 102 = 250).

 complex (complex numbers) − are of the form a + bJ, where a and b are floats and J
(or j) represents the square root of -1 (which is an imaginary number). The real part
of the number is a, and the imaginary part is b. Complex numbers are not used much
in Python programming.

Examples:
Here are some examples of numbers

int long float complex

10 51924361L 0.0 3.14j

100 -0x19323L 15.20 45.j

-786 0122L -21.9 9.322e-36j

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

 080 0xDEFABCECBDAECBFBAEL 32.3+e18 .876j

-0490 535633629843L -90. -.6545+0J

-0x260 -052318172735L -32.54e100 3e+26J

0x69 -4721885298529L 70.2-E12 4.53e-7j

 Python allows you to use a lowercase L with long, but it is recommended that you use
only an uppercase L to avoid confusion with the number 1. Python displays long
integers with an uppercase L.

 A complex number consists of an ordered pair of real floating point numbers denoted
by a + bj, where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part of the complex number.

Number Type Conversion:

Python converts numbers internally in an expression containing mixed types to a

common type for evaluation. But sometimes, you need to coerce a number explicitly from
one type to another to satisfy the requirements of an operator or function parameter.

 Type int(x) to convert x to a plain integer.

 Type long(x) to convert x to a long integer.

 Type float(x) to convert x to a floating-point number.

 Type complex(x) to convert x to a complex number with real part x and imaginary
part zero.

 Type complex(x, y) to convert x and y to a complex number with real part x and
imaginary part y. x and y are numeric expressions

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

Mathematical Functions:

Python includes following functions that perform mathematical calculations.

Sr.No. Function & Returns ( description )

1 abs(x)

The absolute value of x: the (positive) distance between x and zero.

2 ceil(x)

The ceiling of x: the smallest integer not less than x

3 cmp(x, y)

-1 if x < y, 0 if x == y, or 1 if x > y

4 exp(x)

The exponential of x: ex

5 fabs(x)

The absolute value of x.

6 floor(x)

The floor of x: the largest integer not greater than x

7 log(x)

The natural logarithm of x, for x> 0

8 log10(x)

The base-10 logarithm of x for x> 0.

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9 max(x1, x2,...)

The largest of its arguments: the value closest to positive infinity

10 min(x1, x2,...)

The smallest of its arguments: the value closest to negative infinity

11 modf(x)

The fractional and integer parts of x in a two-item tuple. Both parts have the same sign as
x. The integer part is returned as a float.

12 pow(x, y)

The value of x**y.

13 round(x [,n])

x rounded to n digits from the decimal point. Python rounds away from zero as a tie-
breaker: round(0.5) is 1.0 and round(-0.5) is -1.0.

14 sqrt(x)

The square root of x for x > 0

Random Number Functions:

Random numbers are used for games, simulations, testing, security, and privacy
applications. Python includes following functions that are commonly used.

Sr.No. Function & Description

1 choice(seq)

A random item from a list, tuple, or string.

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2 randrange ([start,] stop [,step])

A randomly selected element from range(start, stop, step)

3 random()

A random float r, such that 0 is less than or equal to r and r is less than 1

4 seed([x])

Sets the integer starting value used in generating random numbers. Call this function
before calling any other random module function. Returns None.

5 shuffle(lst)

Randomizes the items of a list in place. Returns None.

6 uniform(x, y)

A random float r, such that x is less than or equal to r and r is less than y

Trigonometric Functions:

Python includes following functions that perform trigonometric calculations.

Sr.No. Function & Description

1 acos(x)

Return the arc cosine of x, in radians.

2 asin(x)

Return the arc sine of x, in radians.

3 atan(x)

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 Return the arc tangent of x, in radians.

4 atan2(y, x)

Return atan(y / x), in radians.

5 cos(x)

Return the cosine of x radians.

6 hypot(x, y)

Return the Euclidean norm, sqrt(x*x + y*y).

7 sin(x)

Return the sine of x radians.

8 tan(x)

Return the tangent of x radians.

9 degrees(x)

Converts angle x from radians to degrees.

10 radians(x)

Converts angle x from degrees to radians.

Mathematical Constants:

The module also defines two mathematical constants −

Sr.No. Constants & Description

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

 1
pi

The mathematical constant pi.

2 e

The mathematical constant e.

Python Strings:

Strings are amongst the most popular types in Python. We can create them simply by
enclosing characters in quotes. Python treats single quotes the same as double quotes.
Creating strings is as simple as assigning a value to a variable. For example −

var1 = 'Hello World!'

Accessing Values in Strings:
var2 = "Python Programming"

Python does not support a character type; these are treated as strings of length one,
thus also considered a substring.

To access substrings, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or
indices to obtain your substring. For example −

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/python
var1 = 'Hello
var1[0]: H
World!' ytho
var2[1:5]:
var2 = "Python
Programming" print
"var1[0]: ", var1[0]

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

Updating Strings:

You can "update" an existing string by (re)assigning a variable to another string. The
new value can be related to its previous value or to a completely different string altogether.
For example −

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/python
var1 = 'Hello
Updated String :- Hello Python
World!'
Escape Characters:

Following table is a list of escape or non-printable characters that can be represented

with backslash notation.

An escape character gets interpreted; in a single quoted as well as double quoted

strings.

Backslash Hexadecimal Description

notation character

\a 0x07 Bell or alert

\b 0x08 Backspace

\cx Control-x

\C-x Control-x

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 \e 0x1b Escape

\f 0x0c Formfeed

\M-\C-x Meta-Control-x

\n 0x0a Newline

\nnn Octal notation, where n is in the range 0.7

\r 0x0d Carriage return

\s 0x20 Space

\t 0x09 Tab

\v 0x0b Vertical tab

\x Character x

\xnn Hexadecimal notation, where n is in the range 0.9,

a.f, or A.F

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

String Special Operators:

Assume string variable a holds 'Hello' and variable b holds 'Python', then −

Operator Description Example

+ Concatenation - Adds values on either side of the operator a + b will

give
HelloPython

* Repetition - Creates new strings, concatenating multiple copies of the a*2 will
same string give -
HelloHello

[] Slice - Gives the character from the given index a[1] will
give e

[:] Range Slice - Gives the characters from the given range a[1:4] will
give ell

In Membership - Returns true if a character exists in the given string H in a will

give 1

not in Membership - Returns true if a character does not exist in the given M not in a
string will give 1

r/R Raw String - Suppresses actual meaning of Escape characters. The print r'\n'
syntax for raw strings is exactly the same as for normal strings with the prints \n and
exception of the raw string operator, the letter "r," which precedes the print

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

 quotation marks. The "r" can be lowercase (r) or uppercase (R) and must R'\n'prints
be placed immediately preceding the first quote mark. \n

% Format - Performs String formatting See at next

section

String Formatting Operator:

One of Python's coolest features is the string format operator %. This operator is
unique to strings and makes up for the pack of having functions from C's printf() family.
Following is a simple example −

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/python
print
My "Myisname
name Zara is
and%sweight
and weight is %d kg!" % ('Zara', 21)
is 21 kg!

Here is the list of complete set of symbols which can be used along with % −

Format Symbol Conversion

%c character

%s string conversion via str() prior to formatting

%i signed decimal integer

%d signed decimal integer

%u unsigned decimal integer

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%o octal integer

%x hexadecimal integer (lowercase letters)

%X hexadecimal integer (UPPERcase letters)

%e exponential notation (with lowercase 'e')

%E exponential notation (with UPPERcase 'E')

%f floating point real number

%g the shorter of %f and %e

%G the shorter of %f and %E

Other supported symbols and functionality are listed in the following table −

Symbol Functionality

* argument specifies width or precision

- left justification

+ display the sign

<sp> leave a blank space before a positive number

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

# add the octal leading zero ( '0' ) or hexadecimal leading '0x' or '0X',
depending on whether 'x' or 'X' were used.

0 pad from left with zeros (instead of spaces)

% '%%' leaves you with a single literal '%'

(var) mapping variable (dictionary arguments)

m.n. m is the minimum total width and n is the number of digits to display
after the decimal point (if appl.)

Triple Quotes:

Python's triple quotes comes to the rescue by allowing strings to span multiple lines,
including verbatim NEWLINEs, TABs, and any other special characters.

The syntax for triple quotes consists of three consecutive single or double quotes.

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result. Note how every
#!/usr/bin/python
single
para_strspecial character
= """this is a longhas been
string converted
that to its printed form, right down to the last
is made up
NEWLINE at the
of several lines andend of the string
non-printable betweensuch
characters the "up." and closing triple quotes. Also note
that
as
TAB ( \t ) and they will show up that way when
displayed. NEWLINEs within the string, whether
explicitly given like this within the brackets [ \n ], or just
a NEWLINE within the variable assignment will also
show up.

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

NEWLINEs occur either with an explicit carriage return at the end of a line or its escape
code (\n) −this is a long string that is made up of several lines and non-printable characters
such as

TAB ( ) and they will show up that way when displayed. NEWLINEs within the string,
whether explicitly given like this within the brackets [ ], or just a NEWLINE within the
variable assignment will also show up.

Raw strings do not treat the backslash as a special character at all. Every character
you put into a raw string stays the way you wrote it −

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/
python print
C:\nowhere
'C:\\nowhere'
Now let's make use of raw string. We would put expression in r'expression' as follows −

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/python
C:\\nowhere
print r'C:\\nowhere'
Unicode String:

Normal strings in Python are stored internally as 8-bit ASCII, while Unicode strings
are stored as 16-bit Unicode. This allows for a more varied set of characters, including
special characters from most languages in the world. I'll restrict my treatment of Unicode
strings to the following −

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/python
print u'Hello,
Hello, world!
world!'
As you can see, Unicode strings use the prefix u, just as raw strings use the prefix r.

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

Built-in String Methods:

Python includes the following built-in methods to manipulate strings −

Sr.No. Methods with Description

1 capitalize()

Capitalizes first letter of string

2 center(width, fillchar)

Returns a space-padded string with the original string centered to a total of width columns.

3 count(str, beg= 0,end=len(string))

Counts how many times str occurs in string or in a substring of string if starting index beg
and ending index end are given.

4 decode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict')

Decodes the string using the codec registered for encoding. encoding defaults to the
default string encoding.

5 encode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict')

Returns encoded string version of string; on error, default is to raise a ValueError unless
errors is given with 'ignore' or 'replace'.

6 endswith(suffix, beg=0, end=len(string))

Determines if string or a substring of string (if starting index beg and ending index end are
given) ends with suffix; returns true if so and false otherwise.

7 expandtabs(tabsize=8)

Expands tabs in string to multiple spaces; defaults to 8 spaces per tab if tabsize not
provided.

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8 find(str, beg=0 end=len(string))

Determine if str occurs in string or in a substring of string if starting index beg and ending
index end are given returns index if found and -1 otherwise.

9 index(str, beg=0, end=len(string))

Same as find(), but raises an exception if str not found.

10 isalnum()

Returns true if string has at least 1 character and all characters are alphanumeric and false
otherwise.

11 isalpha()

Returns true if string has at least 1 character and all characters are alphabetic and false
otherwise.

12 isdigit()

Returns true if string contains only digits and false otherwise.

13 islower()

Returns true if string has at least 1 cased character and all cased characters are in
lowercase and false otherwise.

14 isnumeric()

Returns true if a unicode string contains only numeric characters and false otherwise.

15 isspace()

Returns true if string contains only whitespace characters and false otherwise.

16 istitle()

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 Returns true if string is properly "titlecased" and false otherwise.

17 isupper()

Returns true if string has at least one cased character and all cased characters are in
uppercase and false otherwise.

18 join(seq)

Merges (concatenates) the string representations of elements in sequence seq into a string,
with separator string.

19 len(string)

Returns the length of the string

20 ljust(width[, fillchar])

Returns a space-padded string with the original string left-justified to a total of width
columns.

21 lower()

Converts all uppercase letters in string to lowercase.

22 lstrip()

Removes all leading whitespace in string.

23 maketrans()

Returns a translation table to be used in translate function.

24 max(str)

Returns the max alphabetical character from the string str.

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

25 min(str)

Returns the min alphabetical character from the string str.

26 replace(old, new [, max])

Replaces all occurrences of old in string with new or at most max occurrences if max given.

27 rfind(str, beg=0,end=len(string))

Same as find(), but search backwards in string.

28 rindex( str, beg=0, end=len(string))

Same as index(), but search backwards in string.

29 rjust(width,[, fillchar])

Returns a space-padded string with the original string right-justified to a total of width
columns.

30 rstrip()

Removes all trailing whitespace of string.

31 split(str="", num=string.count(str))

Splits string according to delimiter str (space if not provided) and returns list of
substrings; split into at most num substrings if given.

32 splitlines( num=string.count('\n'))

Splits string at all (or num) NEWLINEs and returns a list of each line with NEWLINEs
removed.

33 startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string))

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

 Determines if string or a substring of string (if starting index beg and ending index end are
given) starts with substring str; returns true if so and false otherwise.

34 strip([chars])

Performs both lstrip() and rstrip() on string.

35 swapcase()

Inverts case for all letters in string.

36 title()

Returns "titlecased" version of string, that is, all words begin with uppercase and the rest
are lowercase.

37 translate(table, deletechars="")

Translates string according to translation table str(256 chars), removing those in the del
string.

38 upper()

Converts lowercase letters in string to uppercase.

39 zfill (width)

Returns original string leftpadded with zeros to a total of width characters; intended for
numbers, zfill() retains any sign given (less one zero).

40 isdecimal()

Returns true if a unicode string contains only decimal characters and false otherwise.

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

Python Lists:

The list is a most versatile datatype available in Python which can be written as a list
of comma-separated values (items) between square brackets. Important thing about a list is
that items in a list need not be of the same type.

Creating a list is as simple as putting different comma-separated values between

square brackets. For example −

list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];

list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];
list3 = ["a", "b", "c", "d"]

Similar to string indices, list indices start at 0, and lists can be sliced, concatenated and so on.

Accessing Values in Lists:

To access values in lists, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or
indices to obtain value available at that index. For example −

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/python
list1 = ['physics',
list1[0]: physics 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];
list2 = [1, [2,
list2[1:5]: 2, 3,3,4,4,5,5]6, 7 ];
print "list1[0]: ", list1[0]
Updating Lists:
print "list2[1:5]: ", list2[1:5]

You can update single or multiple elements of lists by giving the slice on the left-
hand side of the assignment operator, and you can add to elements in a list with the append()
method. For example −

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

#!/usr/bin/python
list = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997,
2000]; print "Value available at index
2:"
print list[2]
list[2] =
2001;
Note − append() method is discussed in subsequent section.

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Value available at index 2 :

1997
New value available at index 2 :
2001

Delete List Elements:

To remove a list element, you can use either the del statement if you know exactly
which element(s) you are deleting or the remove() method if you do not know. For example

When the above code is executed, it produces following result −

#!/usr/bin/python
list1 = ['physics',
['physics', 'chemistry',
'chemistry', 1997,
1997, 2000]
2000];
After print list1
deleting value at index 2 :
del list1[2];
['physics', 'chemistry', 2000]
print "After deleting value at index 2 :
Note − remove() method is discussed in subsequent section.
" print list1

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

Basic List Operations:

Lists respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean concatenation and
repetition here too, except that the result is a new list, not a string.

In fact, lists respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on strings in the prior
chapter.

Python Expression Results Description

len([1, 2, 3]) 3 Length

[1, 2, 3] + [4, 5, 6] [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] Concatenation

['Hi!'] * 4 ['Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!'] Repetition

3 in [1, 2, 3] True Membership

for x in [1, 2, 3]: print x, 123 Iteration

Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes:

Because lists are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for lists as they
do for strings.

Assuming following input −

L = ['spam', 'Spam', 'SPAM!']

Python Expression Results Description

L[2] SPAM! Offsets start at zero

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 L[-2] Spam Negative: count from the right

L[1:] ['Spam', 'SPAM!'] Slicing fetches sections

Built-in List Functions & Methods:

Python includes the following list functions −

Sr.No. Function with Description

1 cmp(list1, list2)

Compares elements of both lists.

2 len(list)

Gives the total length of the list.

3 max(list)

Returns item from the list with max value.

4 min(list)

Returns item from the list with min value.

5 list(seq)

Converts a tuple into list.

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Python includes following list methods

Sr.No. Methods with Description

1 list.append(obj)

Appends object obj to list

2 list.count(obj)

Returns count of how many times obj occurs in list

3 list.extend(seq)

Appends the contents of seq to list

4 list.index(obj)

Returns the lowest index in list that obj appears

5 list.insert(index, obj)

Inserts object obj into list at offset index

6 list.pop(obj=list[-1])

Removes and returns last object or obj from list

7 list.remove(obj)

Removes object obj from list

8 list.reverse()

Reverses objects of list in place

9 list.sort([func])

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 Sorts objects of list, use compare func if given

Python Tuples:

A tuple is a collection of objects which ordered and immutable. Tuples are sequences,
just like lists. The differences between tuples and lists are, the tuples cannot be changed
unlike lists and tuples use parentheses, whereas lists use square brackets.

Creating a tuple is as simple as putting different comma-separated values. Optionally

you can put these comma-separated values between parentheses also. For example −

tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);

tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 );
tup3 = "a", "b", "c", "d";

The empty tuple is written as two parentheses containing nothing −

tup1 = ();

To write a tuple containing a single value you have to include a comma, even though there is
only one value −

tup1 = (50,);

Like string indices, tuple indices start at 0, and they can be sliced, concatenated, and so on.

Accessing Values in Tuples:

To access values in tuple, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or
indices to obtain value available at that index. For example −

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/python
tup1 = ('physics',
tup1[0]: physics 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);
tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 );
print "tup1[0]: ", tup1[0];
print "tup2[1:5]: ", tup2[1:5];

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

tup2[1:5]: [2, 3, 4, 5]

Updating Tuples:

Tuples are immutable which means you cannot update or change the values of tuple
elements. You are able to take portions of existing tuples to create new tuples as the
following example demonstrates −

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/python
tup134.56,
(12, = (12,'abc',
34.56);
'xyz')
tup2 = ('abc', 'xyz');
Delete Tuple
# Following actionElements:
is not valid for
tuples # tup1[0] = 100;
Removing
# So let's create a individual tuple elements is not possible. There is, of course, nothing
new tuple as
wrong
followswith
tup3putting
= tup1together
+ tup2; another tuple with the undesired elements discarded.
print tup3;
To explicitly remove an entire tuple, just use the del statement. For example −

This produces the following result. Note an exception raised, this is because after del
#!/usr/bin/python
tup tuple
tup = does not
('physics', exist any more
'chemistry', 1997,−
2000); print tup;
del tup;
print "After deleting tup :
"; print tup;

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000)
After deleting tup :
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 9, in <module>
print tup;
NameError: name 'tup' is not defined

Basic Tuples Operations:

Tuples respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean concatenation
and repetition here too, except that the result is a new tuple, not a string.

In fact, tuples respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on strings in
the prior chapter −

Python Expression Results Description

len((1, 2, 3)) 3 Length

(1, 2, 3) + (4, 5, 6) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) Concatenation

('Hi!',) * 4 ('Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!') Repetition

3 in (1, 2, 3) True Membership

for x in (1, 2, 3): print x, 123 Iteration

Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes:

Because tuples are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for tuples as
they do for strings. Assuming following input −

L = ('spam', 'Spam', 'SPAM!')

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

 Python Expression Results Description

L[2] 'SPAM!' Offsets start at zero

L[-2] 'Spam' Negative: count from the right

L[1:] ['Spam', 'SPAM!'] Slicing fetches sections

No Enclosing Delimiters:

Any set of multiple objects, comma-separated, written without identifying symbols,

i.e., brackets for lists, parentheses for tuples, etc., default to tuples, as indicated in these
short examples −

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/python
print
abc 'abc', -4.24e93,
-4.24e+93 18+6.6j,
(18+6.6j) xyz
'xyz'; of
Value x, yx =, y1,: 2;
12
print "Value of x , y : ", x,y;
Built-in Tuple Functions:

Python includes the following tuple functions −

Sr.No. Function with Description

1 cmp(tuple1, tuple2)

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

 Compares elements of both tuples.

2 len(tuple)

Gives the total length of the tuple.

3 max(tuple)

Returns item from the tuple with max value.

4 min(tuple)

Returns item from the tuple with min value.

5 tuple(seq)

Converts a list into tuple.

Python Dictionary:

Each key is separated from its value by a colon (:), the items are separated by
commas, and the whole thing is enclosed in curly braces. An empty dictionary without any
items is written with just two curly braces, like this: {}.

Keys are unique within a dictionary while values may not be. The values of a
dictionary can be of any type, but the keys must be of an immutable data type such as
strings, numbers, or tuples.

Accessing Values in Dictionary:

To access dictionary elements, you can use the familiar square brackets along with
the key to obtain its value. Following is a simple example −

#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}
print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name']
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age']

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

dict['Name']: Zara
dict['Age']: 7

If we attempt to access a data item with a key, which is not part of the dictionary, we get an
error as follows −

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}
dict['Alice']:
print "dict['Alice']:
Traceback ", dict['Alice']
(most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 4, in <module>
print "dict['Alice']: ", dict['Alice'];
KeyError: 'Alice'

Updating Dictionary:

You can update a dictionary by adding a new entry or a key-value pair, modifying an
existing entry, or deleting an existing entry as shown below in the simple example −

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name':
dict['Age']: 8 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'}
dict['Age'] = 8;DPS
dict['School']: # update existing entry
School
dict['School'] = "DPS School"; # Add new entry
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age']
print "dict['School']: ", dict['School']

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

Delete Dictionary Elements:

You can either remove individual dictionary elements or clear the entire contents of a
dictionary. You can also delete entire dictionary in a single operation.

To explicitly remove an entire dictionary, just use the del statement. Following is a
simple example −

This produces the following result. Note that an exception is raised because after del
#!/usr/bin/python
dict
dict dictionary
= {'Name':does not'Age':
'Zara', exist 7,
any more −
'Class': 'First'}
del dict['Name']; # remove entry with key
dict['Age']:
'Name' dict.clear();
Traceback (most recent# call
remove
last):all entries in
dict
File "test.py", line 8, in <module>
delprint
dict ;"dict['Age']:
# delete",entire
dict['Age'];
dictionary print
TypeError: 'type'"dict['Age']: ",
object is unsubscriptable
dict['Age']
Note − del() method is discussed in subsequent section.

Properties of Dictionary Keys:

Dictionary values have no restrictions. They can be any arbitrary Python object,
either standard objects or user-defined objects. However, same is not true for the keys.

There are two important points to remember about dictionary keys −

(a) More than one entry per key not allowed. Which means no duplicate key is allowed.
When duplicate keys encountered during assignment, the last assignment wins. For example
−

#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Manni'}

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

 print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name']

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

dict['Name']: Manni

(b) Keys must be immutable. Which means you can use strings, numbers or tuples as
dictionary keys but something like ['key'] is not allowed. Following is a simple example −

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {['Name']:
Traceback 'Zara',call
(most recent 'Age': 7}
last):
print
File "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name']
"test.py", line 3, in <module>
dict = {['Name']: 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'

Built-in Dictionary Functions & Methods:

Python includes the following dictionary functions −

Sr.No. Function with Description

1 cmp(dict1, dict2)

Compares elements of both dict.

2 len(dict)

Gives the total length of the dictionary. This would be equal to the number of items in the
dictionary.

3 str(dict)

Produces a printable string representation of a dictionary

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

4 type(variable)

Returns the type of the passed variable. If passed variable is dictionary, then it would
return a dictionary type.

Python includes following dictionary methods −

Sr.No. Methods with Description

1 dict.clear()

Removes all elements of dictionary dict

2 dict.copy()

Returns a shallow copy of dictionary dict

3 dict.fromkeys()

Create a new dictionary with keys from seq and values set to value.

4 dict.get(key, default=None)

For key key, returns value or default if key not in dictionary

5 dict.has_key(key)

Returns true if key in dictionary dict, false otherwise

6 dict.items()

Returns a list of dict's (key, value) tuple pairs

7 dict.keys()

Returns list of dictionary dict's keys

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

8 dict.setdefault(key, default=None)

Similar to get(), but will set dict[key]=default if key is not already in dict

9 dict.update(dict2)

Adds dictionary dict2's key-values pairs to dict

10 dict.values()

Returns list of dictionary dict's values

Data Type Conversion:

Sometimes, you may need to perform conversions between the built-in types. To
convert between types, you simply use the type name as a function.

There are several built-in functions to perform conversion from one data type to
another. These functions return a new object representing the converted value.

Sr.No. Function & Description

1 int(x [,base])

Converts x to an integer. base specifies the base if x is a string.

2
long(x [,base] )

Converts x to a long integer. base specifies the base if x is a string.

3 float(x)

Converts x to a floating-point number.

4
complex(real [,imag])

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

 Creates a complex number.

5 str(x)

Converts object x to a string representation.

6
repr(x)

Converts object x to an expression string.

7 eval(str)

Evaluates a string and returns an object.

8 tuple(s)

Converts s to a tuple.

9
list(s)

Converts s to a list.

10 set(s)

Converts s to a set.

11
dict(d)

Creates a dictionary. d must be a sequence of (key,value) tuples.

12 frozenset(s)

Converts s to a frozen set.

13
chr(x)

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,

 Converts an integer to a character.

14 unichr(x)

Converts an integer to a Unicode character.

15
ord(x)

Converts a single character to its integer value.

16 hex(x)

Converts an integer to a hexadecimal string.

17 oct(x)

Converts an integer to an octal string.

Prepared by D.MOHANA PRIYA M.Sc., M.Phil.,