Edexcel

Chemistry
HAKIM ABBAS, (M.Sc.)

Unit 3B
23 April 2023

Edexcel Chemistry
Unit 3B: As Level Chemistry Revision Notes

Email: hakimabbas@yahoo.com

Web: https://sites.google.com/site/hakimabbas31site/
Table of Contents
Topic 1 – Test for Ions.....................................................................................3
Specification...................................................................................3
Tests.................................................................................................3
Topic 2 – Test for Gases..................................................................................6
Specification...................................................................................6
Tests.................................................................................................6
Topic 3 – Volumetric Analysis........................................................................7
Specification...................................................................................7
Volumetric analysis.......................................................................7
What is a standard solution?......................................................7
How is a 250cm3 standard solution prepared?......................7
Using the pipette...........................................................................8
Using the burette...........................................................................8
Common indicators.......................................................................8
Enthalpy change measurements................................................9
Possible sources of error..............................................................9
Topic 4 – Organic Procedures......................................................................10
Specification.................................................................................10
Many organic reactions are slow and require prolonged heating 10
Simple distillation........................................................................10
Fractional distillation...................................................................10
Re-crystallization method..........................................................11
Melting point determination......................................................11
Organic tests................................................................................11
Topic 5 – Group 1 and 2 Reactions..............................................................12
Specifications...............................................................................12
Sulphate solubility.......................................................................12
Hydroxide solubility....................................................................12
Heating carbonates and nitrates..............................................12
Action of heat on compounds...................................................12
Distinguishing between hydrocarbons....................................13
Identifying some functional groups.........................................13
Distinguishing between different classes of alcohol............13
Specification.................................................................................13
General safety..............................................................................14
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Topic 5 – Group 1 and 2 Reactions

Topic 1 – Test for Ions

Specification

a) Recognise the results of reactions of compounds specifically mentioned in Units 1 and 2 of the

specification and the results of tests for simple ions: carbonate, hydrogencarbonate, sulphate(VI), sulphite,

chloride, bromide, iodide, nitrate, ammonium, lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, strontium

and barium

Tests
Ion Formula Test Observations
Test 1
Heat the solid in a test tube with a Bunsen
burner. Limewater should turn from
colourless to cloudy in the
It should decompose producing the oxide and presence of carbon dioxide
carbon dioxide. E.g. due to precipitation of
calcium carbonate.
Carbonate CO32-
Test for the gas using limewater solution.
Vigorous effervescence.
Test 2 Limewater should turn from
Add dilute HCl to the solid. colourless to cloudy in the
Test for the gas evolved using limewater presence of carbon dioxide
solution. due to precipitation of
calcium carbonate.
Test No precipitate forms since
Hydrogencarbonate HCO3- Add calcium chloride to a hydrogencarbonate calcium hydrogencarbonate
solution. is soluble.
Test
White precipitate of barium
Sulphate (VI) SO42- Add barium chloride solution acidified with
sulphate forms.
dilute HCl to the test solution.
Test
Warm the sulphite with dilute HCl.
Sulphite SO32- The solution turns green.
Test for gases using acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) solution (or paper)
Test 1
White steamy acidic fumes
Add concentrated sulphuric acid to the solid
are seen - HCl fumes.
chloride.
Test 2
Chloride Cl- Add dilute nitric acid to a solution of a chloride
to acidify the solution. This eliminates any White precipitate of AgCl
carbonates or sulphites. forms.
Add silver nitrate to the solution.
Add dilute ammonia solution. Solid dissolves.
Bromide Br- Test 1
Steamy brownish acidic
Add concentrated sulphuric acid to the solid
fumes are seen.
bromide.
Test 2'
Add dilute nitric acid to a solution of a bromide
to acidify the solution. This eliminates any Cream precipitate of AgBr
carbonates or sulphites. forms.
Add silver nitrate to the solution.
Add concentrated ammonia solution. Solid dissolves.

Edexcel Chemistry Unit 3B: Revision Notes Hakim Abbas

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Topic 5 – Group 1 and 2 Reactions

Test 1 Purple acidic fumes are

Add concentrated sulphuric acid to the solid seen. The mixture turns to a
iodide. brown slurry.
Test 2
Iodide I- Add dilute nitric acid to a solution of a iodide to Yellow precipitate of AgI
acidify the solution. This eliminates any forms.
carbonates or sulphites.
Add silver nitrate to the solution. Solid is insoluble.
Add concentrated ammonia solution.
Test 1
Heat solid nitrate. Oxygen gas is evolved that
will relight a glowing splint.
If group 1 solid (not Li) then will decompose to
give the nitrite and oxygen. Brown gas is seen (NO2).
Oxygen gas is also evolved
Nitrate NO3- All other solid nitrates decompose to give the and will relight a glowing
metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. splint.
Test 2
Boil nitrate solution with aluminium/Devarda’s Litmus paper turns blue in
alloy, in sodium hydroxide solution. the presence of ammonia.
Test vapour with red litmus paper.
Test
NH
+ Warm ammonium compound with NaOH.
Ammonium NH 4 3
Test vapours immediately using damp red
turns the litmus paper blue.
litmus paper.
Test
Dip nichrome wire in HCl.
Lithium Li+ Dip wire in solid.
Heat wire in centre of flame.
Observe colour of flame.
A carmine red flame is seen.
Test
Dip nichrome wire in HCl.
Sodium Na+ Dip wire in solid.
Heat wire in centre of flame.
Observe colour of flame. A yellow flame is seen.
Test
Dip nichrome wire in HCl.
Potassium K+ Dip wire in solid. A lilac flame is seen.
Heat wire in centre of flame.
Observe colour of flame.
A white solid forms which is
Test insoluble in excess
Magnesium Mg2+
Add NaOH solution to the magnesium solid. NaOH(aq). This is
Mg(OH)2(s)
Test
Dip nichrome wire in HCl.
Calcium Ca2+ Dip wire in solid. A brick red flame is seen.
Heat wire in centre of flame.
Observe colour of flame.
Test
Dip nichrome wire in HCl.
Strontium Sr2+ Dip wire in solid. A crimson red flame is seen.
Heat wire in centre of flame.
Observe colour of flame.
Test
Dip nichrome wire in HCl.
Barium Ba2+ Dip wire in solid. A apple green flame is seen.
Heat wire in centre of flame.
Observe colour of flame.

Edexcel Chemistry Unit 3B: Revision Notes Hakim Abbas

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Topic 5 – Group 1 and 2 Reactions

Topic 2 – Test for Gases

Specification

b) Recognize the chemical tests for simple gases, to include hydrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ammonia,

chlorine, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide

Tests
Name Formula Test Observations
Hydrogen H2 Ignite gas. Squeaky pop is heard.
Place a glowing splint in a sample
Oxygen O2 The glowing splint relights.
of the gas.
Bubble gas through limewater A solution turns from colourless to cloudy. A
Carbon
CO2 (saturated solution of calcium white (milky) precipitate of calcium carbonate
dioxide
hydroxide) forms which is sparingly soluble.
Test for gas using damp red litmus
Ammonia NH3 Litmus paper turns blue.
paper.
Test 1
Test for gas using damp litmus Chlorine bleaches the litmus paper very quickly.
paper (red or blue)
Test 2
Test for gas using moist starch- The paper turns blue-black.
iodide paper.
Chlorine Cl2
Test 3
Pass gas through a solution of a The solution turns from colourless to orange.
bromide.

Test 4
The solution turns from colourless to brown
Pass gas through a solution of an
(possibly with a black precipitate, iodine).
iodide.
Nitrogen
NO2 Not many tests for this gas. The gas is brown.
dioxide
Test 1
Bubble gas through a solution of
The solution turns from orange to green.
potassium dichromate (VI)
dissolved in sulphuric acid.
Sulphur
SO2
dioxide Test 2
Bubble gas through a solution of
The solution turns from purple to colourless.
potassium manganate (VII)
dissolved in sulphuric acid.

Edexcel Chemistry Unit 3B: Revision Notes Hakim Abbas

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Topic 5 – Group 1 and 2 Reactions

Topic 3 – Volumetric Analysis

Specification

c) Describe the techniques used in volumetric analysis and enthalpy change measurements

Volumetric analysis

Volumetric analysis (titration) involves the reaction between two solutions. For one solution, both the

volume and the concentration are known; for the other, the volume only is known. Apparatus used includes

a burette, a pipette and a volumetric flask.

What is a standard solution?

A solution for which concentration is accurately known. The concentration may have been found by a

previous titration or by weighing the solute and making a solution of known volume. Such a solution is a

primary standard solution.

How is a 250cm3 standard solution prepared?

 Make sure that the balance is clean and dry. Wipe it with a damp cloth.

 Place the weighing bottle on the pan and take the balance (i.e. re-zero it)

 Take the bottle off the balance and add solid to it. This ensures that no spillages fall on the pan.

 Take the balance of the weighing bottle + solid and find the balance of solid by subtraction.

 Replace on balance, and if the required amount is added, withdraw the mass.

 When you have the required amount, write its value down immediately.

 Wash out a 250cm3 volumetric flask three times using pure water.

 Transfer the solid to a 250cm3 volumetric flask using a funnel, and wash out the weighing bottle into

the flask through the funnel using distilled water.

 Add about 100cm3 of distilled water to the flask.

 Stir the solution using a glass rod until all the solid visibly dissolves into a solution.

 Wash all remaining apparatus including the glass rod, funnel and transfer the rest of this to the flask.

 Make up to 250cm3 with distilled water so that the bottom of the meniscus just touches the 250cm3

mark.

 Attach a stopper to the flask.

 Shake the flask vigorously and/or invert the flask 5 or 6 times to create a solution with uniform

concentration.

 Concentration of solution = mass of solid used/molar mass of solid x 1000/250 (units moldm-3)

Edexcel Chemistry Unit 3B: Revision Notes Hakim Abbas

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Topic 5 – Group 1 and 2 Reactions

Using the pipette

 A glass bulb pipette will deliver the volume stated on it within acceptable limits only.

 Using a pipette filler, draw a little of the solution to be used into the pipette and use this to rinse the

pipette.

 Fill the pipette to about 2-3cm3 above the mark. Pipette fillers are difficult to adjust accurately, so

quickly remove the filler and close the pipette with your forefinger (not thumb). Release the solution

until the bottom of the meniscus is on the mark.

 Immediately transfer the pipette to the conical flask in which you will do the titration, and allow the

solution to dispense under gravity.

Using the burette

 Making sure that the tap is shut, add about 10-15cm3 of the appropriate solution to the burette and

rinse it out, not forgetting to open the tap and rinse the jet.

 Close the tap and fill the burette. A small funnel should be used to add the solution but be careful not to

overfill the funnel.

 Remove the funnel, because titrating with a funnel in the burette can lead to serious error if a drop of

liquid in the funnel stem falls into the burette during the titration.

 Bring the meniscus on to the scale by opening the tap to allow solution to pass through the burette.

There is no particular reason to bring the meniscus exactly to the zero mark.

 Make sure that the burette is full to the tip of the jet.

 After a suitable indicator has been added to the solution in the conical flask, swirl the flask under the

burette with one hand whilst adjusting the burette tap with your other hand.

 Add the solution in the burette to the conical flask slowly, swirling the flask all the time.

 As the endpoint is approached, the indicator will change colour more slowly. The titrant should be added

drop by drop near to the endpoint.

 Repeat the titration until you have three concordant titres, i.e. volumes that are similar. This means

within 0.2cm3 or better if you have been careful. Taking the mean of three tires that differ by 1cm3 or

more is no guarantee of an accurate answer.

Common indicators

 Methyl orange - yellow in alkali, red in acid & orange in neutral solutions(usually the end point of a

titration)

 Phenolphthalein - pink in alkali, colourless in acid.

Edexcel Chemistry Unit 3B: Revision Notes Hakim Abbas

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Topic 5 – Group 1 and 2 Reactions

Enthalpy change measurements

 Weigh a spirit lamp (containing a liquid alcohol) using a balance accurate to 3 decimal places. Record

the mass measured.

 Use a measuring cylinder to put 100 cm3 of distilled water into a small beaker and clamps this at a fixed

height above the spirit lamp (about 2 cm).

 Record the initial temperature of the water using a thermometer.

 Light the lamp using a burning splint.

 Heat the water using the spirit lamp until the temperature has gone up by about 10C. Stir the water

with the thermometer the whole time.

 Put a cap on the spirit to stop the alcohol burning. The lid stops also stops further evaporation of the

liquid alcohol.

 Reweigh the spirit lamp and record the mass.

 Calculate the enthalpy change

Possible sources of error

 There may be heat loss due to the apparatus used and heat may have dissipated through the insulating

material --> should use a polystyrene cup and insulation like a lid.

 The specific heat capacity and density of water are used (and not of HCl).

 The masses of solid added to the acid are ignored.

 It is assumed that the specific heat capacity of the polystyrene cup is negligible.

 Some heat is lost when the hydrogen or carbon dioxide are evolved in the reactions.

Edexcel Chemistry Unit 3B: Revision Notes Hakim Abbas

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Topic 5 – Group 1 and 2 Reactions

Topic 4 – Organic Procedures

Specification

d) Describe the techniques used in simple organic preparations such as distillation and heating under reflux

Heating under reflux - This allows reactions to occur slowly, over a long period of time, without any loss of

volatile liquid. The solvent evaporates and is condensed and returns to the flask.

Many organic reactions are slow and require prolonged heating

 To achieve this without loss of liquid, reaction mixtures are heated in a flask carrying a vertical

condenser.

 This is heating under reflux; the solvent is condensed and returned to the flask, so the mixture can be

heated as long as desired.

 To heat the round bottomed flask, either use a water bath, an oil bath or a heated plate mantle. A

Bunsen burner isn’t really suitable.

Simple distillation

To separate a volatile solvent from a mixture

 Simple distillation is used where a volatile component has to be separated from a mixture, the other

components of the mixture being very much volatile or non-volatile.

 The mixture is heated.

 The fraction that boils is collected within the temperature range of the fraction. (normally 1 or 2 degrees

before the boiling temperature)

 The condenser cools the fraction so it distils and is collected in the receiving flask.

Fractional distillation

To separate mixtures of volatile liquids:

 Re-crystallization - Used to purify a solid material by removing both soluble and insoluble impurities.

The choice of solvent is important. The substance must be easily soluble in the boiling solvent and much

less soluble at room temperature. This ensures the smallest possible loss of material, although some

loss is inevitable with this technique.

Edexcel Chemistry Unit 3B: Revision Notes Hakim Abbas

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Topic 5 – Group 1 and 2 Reactions

Re-crystallization method

 Dissolve the solid in the minimum amount of boiling solvent. This ensures that the solution is

saturated with respect to the main solute but not with respect to the impurities, which are present

in much smaller amounts.

 Filter the hot mixture through a preheated filter funnel. This removes insoluble impurities. The hot

funnel is necessary to prevent the solute crystallising and blocking the funnel. Filtration under

vacuum using a Buchner funnel is often preferred, because it is fast.

 Cool the hot filtrate, either to room temperature or, if necessary, in a bath of iced water. Rapid

cooling gives small crystals, slow cooling large ones. The large crystals are often less pure.

 Filter the cold mixture using a Buchner funnel.

 Wash the crystals with a small amount of cold solvent. This removes any impurity remaining on the

surface of the crystals. A small amount of cold solvent is used so that the crystals aren’t washed

away / don’t dissolve.

 Suck the crystals as dry as possible on the filter.

 Transfer the crystals to a desiccator to dry. Drying between filter paper is sometimes recommended,

but it is a very poor method.

Melting point determination

This is used to determine the purity of the re-crystallisation solid. Place small amount of the solid in the

sealed end of a capillary tube. Place in the melting point apparatus. A sharp melting point over a small

range shows purity, when compared with the set-book value of a higher melting point, that indicates an

impure solid.

Organic tests

 Collect 10 cm³ of the samples.

 Test the samples in the following order

 Alkenes – bromine water --> decolourises --> alkene

 Alcohols – Spatula of solid PCl5. Test fumes with damp litmus paper --> litmus red? White fumes near

ammonia? --> alcohol

 Halogenoalkane – Add NaOH, ethanol as solvent. Shake and warm for 3 minutes. Cool and add nitric

acid + silver nitrate. --> white = chloride; cream = bromide; yellow = iodide. --> Confirm with

ammonia

 Alkane, the substance left is the alkane.

Edexcel Chemistry Unit 3B: Revision Notes Hakim Abbas

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Topic 5 – Group 1 and 2 Reactions

Topic 5 – Group 1 and 2 Reactions

Specifications

e) recall and interpret details of the chemistry of the elements and compounds listed in Units 1 and 2 of this

specification

this includes the chemistry of Groups 1, 2 and 7 and the chemistry associated with the organic

compounds listed in topic 2.2

Sulphate solubility

If a solution of any sulphate is added to a solution of a group 2 metal compound then a precipitate is likely.

Group 2 ion in solution Effect of adding a sulphate solution

Mg2+ No precipitate, MgSO4 is soluble
Ca2+ White precipitate of CaSO4
Sr2+ White precipitate of SrSO4
2+
Ba White precipitate of BaSO4

Hydroxide solubility

If sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of a group 2 compound then a precipitate is likely.

Group 2 ion in solution Effect of adding a hydroxide solution

Mg2+ Faint white precipitate of Mg(OH)2
Ca2+ Faint white precipitate of Ca(OH)2
Sr2+ Faint white precipitate of Sr(OH)2 on standing
Ba2+ No precipitate, Ba(OH)2 is soluble

Heating carbonates and nitrates

Substance Effect of heat
Lithium and all group 2 carbonates Carbon dioxide detected
Sodium and potassium carbonates No effect (except water of crystallisation may be given off)
Sodium and potassium nitrates Oxygen only gas evolved
Lithium and all group 2 nitrates Nitrogen dioxide and oxygen evolved

Action of heat on compounds

 Carbonates - Carbon dioxide is given off.

 Hydrogencarbonates - Carbon dioxide and water formed.

 Group 1 nitrates - Nitrite and oxygen formed.

 Group 2 nitrates - Oxide, brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide and oxygen formed.

Edexcel Chemistry Unit 3B: Revision Notes Hakim Abbas

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Topic 5 – Group 1 and 2 Reactions

Distinguishing between hydrocarbons

 Alkane: Burn /oxidise/combust them. They will burn with a yellow flame and form CO2 and H2O (limited

supply of CO).

 Alkene: A yellow, sootier flame is produced (due to the extra carbon and higher ratio of

carbon:hydrogen).

Identifying some functional groups

 Alkene - Add to orange bromine water. The alkene will decolourise it.

 Halogenalkane - Heat with sodium hydroxide solution. Acidify with dilute nitric acid and then test with

silver nitrate solution as with inorganic halides.

 Alcohols or carboxylic acids containing C-OH - In a dry test tube (i.e. dry alcohol), add PCl5. Misty fumes

of HCl are produced, which turns blue litmus paper red.

Distinguishing between different classes of alcohol

Primary - Add PCl5. Warm it with aqueous potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and dilute H2SO4. Misty

fumes are given off and the colour changed from orange to green --> aldehyde.

Secondary - Misty fumes, changes to green --> ketone.

Tertiary - Misty fumes, no colour change.

Specification

f) interpret quantitative and qualitative results See http://www.thestudentroom.co.uk/attachment.php?

attachmentid=12846 for notes on calculations.

g) devise and plan simple experiments based on the chemistry and techniques summarised in a to e above

Normally the last question on the paper. It will ask you to identify certain compounds from four. E.g.

titrations, how to make a standard solution, how to titrate, identify QCO3 when heating it where Q is a

group 2 metal ion.

h) evaluate error in quantitative experiments see Appendix I for material available to assist centres in

teaching this area Percentage error = absolute uncertainty/actual value x 100%

j) comment on safety aspects of experiments based on supplied data or recall of the chemistry of the

compounds listed in Units l and 2. Safety considerations should relate to specific experiments not be of a

general nature it will be assumed that students wear eye protection during all practical work.

Edexcel Chemistry Unit 3B: Revision Notes Hakim Abbas

 13
Topic 5 – Group 1 and 2 Reactions

Halogens are toxic and harmful by inhalation, although iodine is much less so than chlorine or bromine,

because it is a solid. Chlorine and bromine must always be used in a fume cupboard. Liquid bromine causes

serious burns an must be handled with gloves.

Ammonia is toxic. Concentrated ammonia solutions should be handled in the fume cupboard.

Concentrated mineral acids are corrosive. If spilt on the hands, washing with plenty of water is usually

enough, but advice must be sought. Acid in the eye requires immediate attention and prompt professional

medical attention.

Barium chloride solution and chromates and dichromates are extremely poisonous and so should be used in

the fume cupboard/should not be inhaled.

Sodium or potassium hydroxide or concentrated ammonia in the eye is extremely serious and must always

receive professional and immediate attention. Sodium hydroxide and other alkali metal hydroxides are

amongst the most damaging of all common substances to skin and other tissue. Wear gloves, goggles and

an apron when handling these solutions in high concentrations.

General safety

 Toxic/carcinogenic – use gloves, fume cupboard

 Flammable – Water baths, no naked fumes.

 Harmful gases – Use fume cupboard

 Corrosive – wear goggles/gloves

 Spillage of concentrated acid – wash with plenty of water.

Edexcel Chemistry Unit 3B: Revision Notes Hakim Abbas