An Introduction To Psychology: Module

An Introduction to Psychology MODULE - I
Foundations of
Psychology
1 Notes
AN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
As human beings our curiosity drives us to know the reasons behind various events
happening around us. Whenever we meet somebody or see someone doing something
we immediately try to understand as to why this person is doing this kind of activity.
Similarly we often try to understand our own experiences and behaviors in different
situations. The eagerness and curiosity guide us to think as to how people are different
from each other in terms of their intellect, aptitude and temperament: Why do they
become happy or sad? How do they become friendly or develop antagonistic
relationships? How do some people learn anything quickly while others take relatively
more time? The answer to all these questions may be given by a novice as well as a
person who has learned psychology. The answer of the novice can be guided by
common sense but a psychologist can study the reasons behind such activities in a
systematic way and can provide scientific answers to these questions which can be
tested time and again. In this lesson we will try to understand the nature and scope of
psychology in detail.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
• explain the nature of psychology and its definition;

• describe the scope of psychology;
• elaborate the basic psychological processes; and
• explain the fields of psychology.
1.1 NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS DEFINITION

In simple words psychology is a systematic and scientific study of mental processes,
experiences and behaviors - both overt and covert. The word ‘psychology’ has its
PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE 1

MODULE - I An Introduction
Psychology to Psychology
Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
origin in two Greek words ‘psyche’ and ‘logos’. The word ‘psyche’ in Greek language
refers to ‘spirit’ or ‘soul’ and the word ‘logos’ refers to ‘discourse’ or ‘study’. During
earlier times it was considered as a discipline which deals with the study of soul. In
India the study of such questions was the main concern during Vedic and Upanishadic
period. Various aspects of mental processes were analyzed. Subsequently the schools
Notes of Yoga, Samkhya, Vedant, Nyaya, Buddhism, and Jainism provided detailed accounts
of mind, mental processes and methods to control mind. In modern period it started
at Calcutta University in 1916 with establishment of the Department of Psychology.
In the western world, the formal beginning of psychology as an independent discipline

goes back to 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental laboratory
at the University of Leipzig, in Germany. Since then the growth of psychology has
covered a long journey. Today it is one of the very popular subjects among social
sciences. It studies all the shades of experiences, mental processes and behaviours.
A comprehensive analysis of all these aspects provides a scientific understanding of
human nature. In the following sections we will try to understand all the components
which collectively define psychology.
(A) Study of experience
Psychologists study a variety of human experiences which are mainly personal or

private in nature. They may range from experiences of dream, conscious experiences
at different stages of life and experiences when the consciousness is altered through
meditation or use of psychedelic drugs. The study of such experiences helps the
psychologist to understand the personal world of the individual.
(B) Study of mental processes
Psychology as the study of mental processes tries to investigate the activities

happening in the brain which are primarily non physiological in nature. These mental
processes include perception, learning, remembering and thinking. These are internal
mental activities which are not directly observed but inferred from the behavioural
activities of the person. For example, we can say that somebody is thinking if he or
she displays certain activities related to finding solution to a mathematical problem
assigned to him or her.
(C) Study of behaviour
The range of behaviours studied in psychology is very broad. It includes simple

reflexes (e.g. eye blinking), common response patterns such as talking to friends,
verbal reports about feelings and internal states and complex behaviours such as
handling computers, playing piano and addressing a crowd. These behaviours are
either observed directly through naked eyes or are measured through instruments.
They are generally exhibited verbally or nonverbally (e.g. facial expression) when
an individual reacts to a stimulus in a given situation.
Thus in psychology the main unit of investigation is the individual human being and
his or her experiences, mental processes and behaviours.
2 PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE

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Psychology
Be
ha
e
nc
vio
rie
ur
Notes
pe
Ex
Mental processes
Fig. 1.1: Aspects of the subject matter of psychology
INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1

1. Fill in the blanks:
a. The word ‘psychology’ has its origin in two Greek words ———— and
—————— .
b. The main unit of investigation is psychology is the individual ———— —
—————— .
c. Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental ——————————
at the University of Leipzig, in Germany.
d. Psychology is the study of ——————————, —————————
——— , and ——————————————.
1.2 SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

From the definition of psychology now it might be clear to you that psychology
addresses a variety of issues related to mental and behavioural functioning of an
individual. Such a study helps us to develop a basic understanding about human
nature and facilitates us to deal with a number of personal and social problems.
The study of human beings starts with the functioning of biological systems especially
the nervous system. Under central nervous system psychology studies the functions
of various parts of brain which regulate our feelings, emotions and thinking. Within
autonomic nervous system the role of hormones and neurotransmitters in determining
our behavior is important. In addition psychology studies as to how a given socio-
cultural environment interacts with innate biological, intellectual and social attributes
of the child and facilitates healthy development of the child.

Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
As a living organism you encounter a lot of sensory input every moment. Your task
is not only to process that information but to store and retrieve it when it is required
to be used. Attention and perception help to process information. Memory helps us
to register, retain and retrieve information, and thinking provides us the ability to
manipulate and improve the stored information. Within psychology, all these are
Notes
studied under the domain of higher mental processes or cognition.
In your life you must have come across many persons who have reached highest
level of accomplishment. But such an accomplishment is not attained at once; it is
the result of continuous learning in which the individual acquires the necessary skills
and competencies through regular practice. Psychology helps us to understand the
processes involved in reaching this high level of accomplishment.
In order to understand the purpose behind any kind of behaviour psychologists use
the concept of motivation. It primarily focuses on the investment of mental energy
and consistency of effort towards achieving the set goals. The various shades of
feelings such as anger, fear, love, joy, and sadness which we experience during the
course of our life are studied within the realm of emotion.
You will certainly agree that no two individuals are the same in terms of their physical
attributes such as height, weight, skin colour or facial features as well as psychological
attributes such as intelligence, personality, temperament and interest. An
understanding of these and other aspects of individual differences facilitates the
psychologist to select right person for the right job and to provide guidance and
counseling for various matters of personal as well as professional concern. The
understanding of individual differences also helps the psychologist to differentiate
between normative (customary, accepted) and abnormal (deviant, unusual) behaviors.
Thus psychology as a discipline has a vast scope. It not only studies human beings
across the life span but also tries to explore mental processes and potentials in order
to facilitate achieving a better quality of life.
Activity 1
The Power of Positive Thinking: Health and Happiness
By thinking and saying positive thoughts to yourself and others, you can gradually
create a positive change in yourself as well as in others. Try this exercise with
your friends or family members. Ask your friends as to how many of them are in
a ‘positive’ mood and how many in a ‘negative’ mood. Then instruct your friends
to shake hands with others and genuinely say “ I wish you happiness and good
health” . Again ask your friends about their mood, to see how many report ‘positive’
and how many ‘negative’. Yes, you will be surprised - the number of reported
‘positive’ moods has gone up.

Foundations of
Psychology
1.3 BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES
While studying behaviour it is one of the most important tasks for psychologists to
understand the processes which collectively influence a particular behaviour. These
psychological processes are Notes
(A) Sensation: It refers to our awareness about various stimuli which we encounter
in different modalities such as vision, hearing, touch and taste.
(B) Attention: During attention we selectively focus on a particular stimulus among
many stimuli available to us. For instance while listening to a lecture in the
classroom we attend to the words pronounced by the teacher and, try to ignore
the other stimuli present in the classroom, such as noise made by the fan.
(C) Perception: In the case of perception we process information and make out the
meaning of the stimuli available to us. For example, wo look at a pan and
recognize it as an object used for writing.
(D) Learning: It helps us acquiring new knowledge and skills through experience
and practice. The acquired knowledge and skills further bring a relative change
in our behavior and facilitate our adjustment in varied settings. For example, we
learn language, riding a bicycle and applying mathematical skills to solve various
problems. .
(E) Memory: The information we process and learn is registered and stored in the
memory system. Memory also helps us to easily retrieve the stored information
when it is required for use. For example, writing the answers in the examination
after studying for the paper.
(F) Thinking: In the case of thinking we use our stored knowledge to solve various
tasks. We logically establish the relationships among various objects in our mind
and take rational decision for a given problem. We also evaluate different events
of the environment and accordingly form an opinion.

1. State whether the following statements are True or False:
a. In learning we acquire new skills through training and experience.
b. In sensation stimuli are stored in the brain.
c. In thinking we use stored knowledge to solve various tasks.
d. In attention we attend to all the stimuli present in the environment.

Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
1.4 FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY
During its journey of more than a hundred years, psychology as a field of enquiry
has grown in many directions. In contemporary times a number of specialized fields
with focused area of application have developed. The emergence of different fields
Notes
in psychology indicates the importance and relevance of these areas in our daily life.
In this section we will briefly learn about some of these fields.
Abnormal Psychology: This branch of psychology tries to describe, assess, predict

and control those categories of behaviours which are considered as unusual and
non-normative. It also deals with various categories of psychological disorders which
affect the mental health of the individual. It assesses abnormality in the individual
through standardized psycho-diagnostic tools and suggests problem specific
treatment.
Cognitive Psychology: It deals with acquisition, storage, transformation and

application of information the individual uses to understand and interpret events
happening around him/her.
Clinical and Counseling Psychology: Clinical psychology is primarily concerned

with diagnosis and treatment of various psychological disorders. A clinical
psychologist is trained in psychotherapeutic techniques which are used to treat people
suffering from psychological disorders. They are employed in hospitals and clinics
dealing with mental health problems. The counseling psychologist deals with mild
problems pertaining to adjustment in social and emotional life, and provides
specialized services to deal with marital problems, stress oriented problems and
career choice.
Educational Psychology: This field of psychology is mainly concerned with

academic performance. It studies the role of various factors which influence learning
processes in classroom setting. It focuses on assessing the aptitude, skills and
intellectual potential of the students and evaluating their performance. An educational
psychologist also helps students to overcome learning difficulties.
Environmental Psychology: This field is concerned with the study of interaction

between physical environment and human behaviour. It studies the impact of noise,
heat, humidity, pollution and crowding on human performance. It also focuses on
the impact of physical environment on psychological health of individuals.
Health Psychology: This field focuses on the impact of various psychological factors
(e.g. stress) on the onset progress and treatment of illness. It also deals with various
life style diseases such as hypertension, coronary heart disease, cancer and diabetes.
Organizational Psychology: This field is concerned with application of

psychological principles and models to study the selection and performance of

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employees in organizational settings. It also studies the concepts of leadership,
motivation, job satisfaction and performance appraisal.
Developmental Psychology: This field is concerned with the study of various

physical and psychological factors which influence the systematic changes which
the individual experiences across the different stages of life. Notes
Emerging Fields: In addition to the fields mentioned above a number of new areas
have emerged. Some of these fields are sports psychology, military psychology,
aviation psychology, forensic psychology, peace psychology, neuropsychology,
political psychology, feminist psychology and positive psychology.

1. Describe any two fields of psychology and indicte their applications.
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

• Psychology is a systematic and scientific study of mental processes, experiences
and behaviors - both overt and covert – as they take place in a socio-cultural
setting.
• In India the study of soul/consciousness was the main concern during Vedic and
Upanishadic period.
• The formal beginning of psychology was in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt
established the first experimental laboratory at the University of Leipzig, in
Germany.
• The scope of psychology is wide as it addresses a variety of issues related to
mental and behavioral functioning of the individuals.
• Study of psychology helps us to develop a basic understanding about human
nature and facilitates dealing with a number of personal and social problems.
• The various psychological processes that are involved in human behavior are
sensation, attention, perception, learning, memory, and thinking.
• Psychology has a number of specialized fields of study. Each field helps us
understand human behavior in specific domain.

Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Define psychology. With the help of examples explain the different components
Notes of this definition.
2. Explain the various psychological processes which influence human behavior.
Support your answer with relevant examples.
3. Describe four different fields of psychology. Which field of psychology interests
you the most? Give reasons.
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

1.1
1. Psyche, logos
2. Human being
3. Laboratory
4. Experiences, mental processes, behaviors
1.2
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. False
1.3 Refer to section 1.4
Hints for Terminal Questions
1. Refer to section 1.3

Methods of Psychology MODULE - I
Foundations of
Psychology
2 Notes
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
In the last lesson we noted that the interpretation of a psychological phenomenon by

a psychologist may differ from that of a novice. A psychologist follows a systematic
scientific procedure which has sound theoretical base in order to explain and interpret
the phenomenon. Psychology has various methodological ways or approaches to
understand and explain psychological phenomena. We will be studying about some
of these approaches. In order to obtain responses from individuals a number of
psychological tools or instruments are used. The responses taken on those tools
constitute the basic data which are analyzed to study human experiences, mental
processes and behaviours. In this lesson we will discuss these aspects in detail.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the different approaches to the study of psychological processes;
• describe some important methods used in understanding human behaviour; and
• describe various instruments used in understanding behaviour and psychological
processes.
2.1 APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL

PROCESSES
As discussed in the previous lesson psychologists use a variety of approaches to
describe, predict and control behaviour and mental processes. The main approaches
are briefly described below.
Biological Approach: This approach focuses on biological structures and

phenomena such as brain, genes, hormones, endocrine system and neurotransmitters
in order to understand the dynamics of behaviour. Its main focus is on the role of

MODULE - I Methods
Psychology of Psychology
Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
different parts of brain in regulating feelings, memories, emotions and other aspects
of behaviour. Similarly the impact of over-secretion or under-secretion of different
kinds of hormones in governing behaviour is studied. Behaviour genetics as one of
the subdesciplines studies the genetic determinants of behaviour. Moreover, this
approach looks for physiological basis of human behaviour.
Notes
Psychoanalytic Approach: The father of psychoanalytic approach Sigmund Freud
focused on unconscious libidinal energy in describing the present state of the
individual. He studied mind in terms of hierarchical arrangements of experiences in
the form of different layers of consciousness (e.g. conscious, preconscious, and
unconscious). Freud explored the nature and quality of unconscious through analysis
of dreams, slips of the tongue, neuroses, psychoses, work of art, and rituals. He
assumed that majority of human behaviours are triggered by unconscious motivation.
Thus to understand the present human behaviour the analysis of unconscious mental
contents is considered most important.
Humanistic Approach: Contrary to Freud, the father of humanistic approach Carl
Rogers put greater emphasis on conscious experiences of the present situation, role
of interpersonal experiences across the course of life, and people’s capacity to grow
toward psychological maturity. This approach basically assumes that a person is an
active and self-actualizing agent and has a choice in deciding his behaviour. As a
part of the self-actualizing process a person seeks to maintain a congruence between
self and experience. However, because of past experiences with conditional positive
regard, he may deny or distort the experiences that threaten one’s self-system. Such
a self-system can be changed in the therapeutic setting through genuineness,
unconditional positive regard, and empathic understating of the client’s problem by
the therapist.
Behaviorist Approach: The unit of analysis for this approach is explicit, objective
and overt behaviour and its relationship with environmental stimulation. The father
of behaviorism J. B. Watson emphasized on objective analysis of behaviour. He
advocated that behaviour is largely governed by the association between stimulus
and response and the behaviour can be shaped in a desired direction by
manipulating this association.
Cognitive Approach: The cognitive approach emerged as an alternative to the
mechanistic paradigm of behaviourism. This approach mainly focuses on the study
of information processing capacity of the individual in terms of perception,
remembering, thinking, language, reasoning, problem solving and decision making
which are called higher mental processes. It proposes that we look out for information
in the world and our behaviour depends upon the way we process this information.
This approach largely relies on computational models and assumes that behaviour
and mental processes can best be understood by treating them in terms of information
processing.

Foundations of
Psychology
The above discussed approaches indicate that mental processes, experiences and
behaviours can be understood from various vantage points. In fact human behaviour
is complex and its varied aspects are to be appreciated in many ways.
Notes
INTEXT QUESTION 2.1
1. ———————— ——————— focuses on the role of different parts of
brain in regulating feelings, memories, emotions and other aspects of behaviour.
2. Focus of the ———————— ———————— is on the information
processing capacity of the individual.
3. ———————————— ————————— assumes that the person
is active and self-actualizing agent and has a choice in deciding his behaviour.
4. According to the ———————————— ————————————
majority of human behaviours are triggered by unconscious motivation.
5. The unit of analysis for the —————————— ————————— is
explicit, objective and overt behaviour and its relationship with environmental
stimulation
2.2 METHODS TO UNDERSTAND PSYCHOLOGICAL

PROCESSES
In order to understand human behaviour various scientific methods are used. The
purpose of study or research is to develop principles and theories, test them and
apply for solving different human problems. In this way we develop dependable
understanding that helps us in guiding behaviour in various situations. Since human
beings are complex living organisms their behaviours are shaped by many factors
both intrinsic and extrinsic to him or her.
A psychological research carried out scientifically has the characteristics of objectivity
which means that such researches are free from any kind of biases. It is testable time
and again and can be open to all. One can verify its authenticity by following the
same method in terms of getting the same result. It has scope for self-correction. In
other words the researcher corrects his or her understanding if there is some error
and goes for revision. The scientific studies have also the characteristic of replication
which means that the results of the study are consistently verified by similar other
studies across different settings.
Thus in psychology a number of methods are used to carry out scientific studies.
These methods are discussed below.
Observation: While shopping in the market you must have noticed various activities
of the people. When you observe their activities you also think about as to why they

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Foundations of
Psychology
are doing those activities and probably you reach to a conclusion about the causes of
such activities. Such a way of knowing about others is called observation. However,
the meaning of observation goes a little further as compared to discussed above.
Observation as a method of enquiry is often understood as a systematic registering
of events without any deliberate attempt to interfere with variables operating in the
Notes event which is being studied.
Some Interesting Facts about Observational Method

Perhaps the most famous informal observations in the history of developmental
psychology are the observations made by Jean Piaget on his three children
when they were infants. These observations went on to become the empirical
foundation for Piaget’s developmental theory. You can also observe the
developmental patterns of your younger sibling or nephew, to understand the
changes in sensori-motor development and other aspects of development.
This method is used in natural as well as laboratory settings. When it is used to study
the events happening in natural environment it is called naturalistic observation
such as observing the behaviour of children on playground. In this case the observer
(psychologist) has no control on the extraneous variables. He or she simply records
the entire activities and then analyze them. On the contrary in the case of laboratory
observation the event under study is controlled by the observer. For example, studying
the effect of induced stress on task performance.
Observation is also divided into participant and non-participant types depending

on the role of observer. In the case of participant observation the researcher mixes
up with the event under study and conducts the study. Where as in the case of non-
participant observation the researcher maintains an optimum distance and has little
impact on the events under study.
One of the most important advantages of observation is that it studies the range of
behaviours in the form in which they are happening. However, this method requires
more time and effort. It often becomes victim of the biases of researcher.
Activity 1
Method of Observation
To develop an observation tool, you need to establish the indicators for the
observation. Indicators are based on what you expect to find in the environment,
or process. The second aspect is to consider each of the indicators and measure
them for their presence or absence.
A. Now try to use the observational method to collect data:
Make a video recording of any family function, or use a recording that is
easily available and study it for non-verbal communication cues. Identify the
indicators, such as smiling, shaking hands, the act of Namaste, use of hands

Foundations of
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and the like. Count with the help of tallies how many times these cues are used
by the people in the video recording. You can prepare a table with various
aspects of observable behaviours; this will help you to understand which non-
verbal cue is used more in the Indian setting. Also try to find out about gender
difference, do men shake hands more than women, do women touch the feet Notes
of elders more than men? You can generate many more questions of your
choice.
Experimentation: In the case of experiment the experimenter studies the effect of

one variable on the other by deliberately manipulating and controlling one
variable. The variable which is controlled and manipulated by the experimenter is
called independent variable (IV) and the variable on which the impact of
independent variable is studied is known as dependent variable (DV). In a simple
experiment two groups are formed. One is experimental group in which participants
receive the independent variable. The other is control group in which behaviour is
observed without giving the independent variable. By manipulating independent
variable the experimenter is in a position to state that change induced in one variable
brings change in another variable. Apart from these variables the experimenter has
to also simultaneously take care of other variables which are beyond his or her control.
Such variables are called relevant variables and need to be controlled as they might
confound the effect of independent variable.
In experimental studies three kinds of relevant variables are taken into account.
These are organismic variables, situational variables and sequential variables.
Organismic variables are related to personal characteristics of the participants such
as age, sex, and personality features. Situational variables are concerned with the
quality of physical environment during the conduct of experiment such as temperature,
humidity and noise. Sequential variables are related to the very procedure of
conducting the experiment when the participant is required to be tested across several
conditions. Hence exposure of the participant to varied conditions may result either
in attaining proficiency due to practice effects or in developing fatigue and monotony
towards experiment.
Experimenters use following techniques to control the unwanted effect of relevant
variables.
(i) Elimination: In this technique extraneous variables are eliminated from the
experimental setting.
(ii) Making Conditions Constant: In this technique the extraneous variables which
cannot be eliminated are kept constant in order to make their effect same during
the entire experiment.
(iii)Matching: Through this technique the relevant variables are equated or held
constant across all the conditions of experiment.
(iv)Counter Balancing: This technique is used to minimize the effect of order or
sequence. This is usually done by dividing the participants in two groups. On

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first occasion half of the group (Group A) is given task 1 and the other half
(Group B) is given task 2. On the second occasion Group A is given task 2 and
Group B is given task 1.
(v) Random assignment: In the case of random assignment all the participants
Notes have equal chance to be exposed to experimental and control conditions. It
removes the systematic differences between groups.
In addition to experiments carried out in controlled setting (laboratory experiment)
experiments are also conducted in natural life conditions. They are called field
experiments and quasi experiments. Like laboratory experiment independent variable
is manipulated and participants are assigned to different groups. In quasi experiments
independent variable is manipulated in natural setting using naturally occurring groups
to form experimental and control groups.
Case Study: You must have seen a doctor asking personal details in addition to the
information about the medical problem of the patient or a media person asking so
many questions about various aspects of life while taking interview of a popular
person. The purpose behind asking these questions is to know more about the person
in terms of his experiences, relationships and interaction with others so as to prepare
profile of the person. In psychology this method is called case study.
In the field of psychological enquiry case study method has its own importance and
relevance. In this method the main unit of analysis is the individual and his experiences
across different contexts in life. It focuses on the individual’s interactional patterns
with significant others as well as his personal experiences across different real life
situations. In order to prepare a case history of data are taken from many sources for
example his or her family history, educational life, medical history and social life.
This method is very popular in clinical psychology and life span developmental
psychology.
In order to prepare the case history usually interview, observation and psychological
tests are used to obtain information about the individual. The data collected through
these techniques are analyzed in detail. A comprehensive profile of the individual is
developed which reflects the description of events in his or her life. Case study helps
to locate unique experiences of life as well as the various emotional and adjustment
problems of the individual.
Though case study gives a detailed and in-depth description of individual’s life we
cannot make a very conclusive judgment about the individual without further
establishing the reliability and validity of such information from various sources
such as family members, friends and administration of some standardized
psychological measures. Caution should be taken in planning data-collection from
the individual and interpretation of the responses given by the individual.
Survey: You might be aware that television news channels or newspapers ask you
to send your view through SMS on current issues of national or international
importance. While doing this they try to seek the opinion of people on those issues

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to communicate their view to the Government as well as to the society. For example
they conduct opinion poll during the election as to which political party enjoys support
of the majority of the people. Conducting such a study is called survey research. It is
one of the popular research methods not only in psychology but also in other
disciplines such as sociology, political science, economics and management.
Notes
In psychology survey method is generally used to study the pattern of opinions,
attitudes, beliefs and values of the people. This method is also used to test the
hypothesis about the relationship of variables especially when some incident takes
place. For example media tried to analyze the responses of the people across the
country after the attack by terrorists on Mumbai. In order to collect the data from
people a variety of sources are used such as directly contacting the participants with
a set of questions and taking their interview, sending the questionnaire through email
or through post and asking them to send SMS by their mobile phones. Thus in
survey, research is generally conducted through questionnaire or interview. It can be
conducted on a single individual as well as on a group.

1. Observation is divided into ————————— and —————————
——— observation depending on the role of observer.
2. In an experiment the experimenter studies the effect of one variable on the other
by deliberately —————————— and ——————————— one
variable.
3. In the case study method the main unit of analysis is the ————————
and his experiences across different contexts in life.
4. The variable which is controlled and manipulated by the experimenter is called
————————————— variable and the variable on which its impact
is studied is known as ——————————— variable.
5. ————————— method is generally used to study the pattern of opinions,
attitudes, beliefs and values of the people.
2.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOLS

While conducting psychological research a variety of tools are used to collect data
and relevant information from the participants. These tools are in the form of paper,
instruments or computer software. The administration of these tools helps the
psychologist to obtain verbal, written, behavioural or physiological responses. In
this section we will discuss some of the psychological tools which are frequently
used in conducting research.

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Foundations of
Psychology
Psychological Tests: You must have heard about psychological tests which measure
intelligence, aptitude and interest. Development of test is a major area of activity in
psychological research. The tests are designed and developed to assess various
psychological attributes. They are developed on the basis of a theoretical framework.
For example a test of intelligence is developed following a theory of intelligence.
Notes These tests are administered to the individual alone or in a group setting. The obtained
score of the individual on the test reveals his or her position in relation to others who
also respond to the same test. Thus a psychological test provides an objective
assessment of different qualities and limitations of the individual. A standardized
psychological test has properties of reliability and validity. Reliability of a test
refers to its consistency in terms yielding dependable scores. Validity of a test
reveals the extent to which the test measures what it claims to measure.
Depending on the nature and administration a test can be either verbal or non-
verbal (performance). In a verbal test the responses are taken in oral form. In non-
verbal or performance test the responses are taken in the form of performance or
certain behaviour. Psychological tests are also categorized as objective and projec-
tive. An objective test contains direct items about the psychological construct. The
individual has limited freedom to respond to the items of the objective test. A pro-
jective test uses ambiguous, vague and unstructured stimuli such as pictures, inkblots,
drawings, incomplete sentences etc. In this type of test the individual is free to give
his/her responses.
Thus a number of tests are used to assess psychological attributes of the individual.
The score on the test reveals the extent to which the individual possesses those
attributes. Such scores help the psychologist to decide about the future course of
action.
Questionnaire: A questionnaire consists of a set of questions to which the individual
is required to respond. The items (questions) of the questionnaire can be either in
closed-ended form or in open-ended form. In the case of closed-ended item the
individual is provided with limited alternative and he or she has to choose only one
alternative which reflects his or her view on the item. In open-ended items the
individual is free to give his or her response the way he or she likes. The instruction
as to how to respond to the items of the questionnaire is written on the first page.
Data from a large number of individuals can be taken at a time as the questionnaire
can be easily administered to a group of people. The items of questionnaire are
written in simple and explicit language so that anyone can understand it. All the
items tap various aspects of the construct which is measured. The items are often
arranged in the sequence from general to specific.
Interview: It is a techniques of data collection in which a face-to-face interaction
occurs between two persons with a set objectives. The person who conducts interview
is called interviewer and the person who give responses is called interviewee. The
interviews are also conducted through telephone, internet and video conferencing.
The main purpose of interview is to understand various personal characteristics such
as attitudes, values, interests and preferences.

Foundations of
Psychology
Two types of interviews are often used to obtain information. These are structured
interview and unstructured interview. In the case of structured interview the
questions are already framed with the possible response options. The interviewee is
required to respond to the set of framed questions by choosing one option. For example
the attribute of friendliness can be measured by giving the option ranging from ‘highly Notes
friendly’, ‘often friendly’ to ‘least friendly’. Unstructured interview is a little flexible.
It comprises of a variety of open-ended questions and the interviewee gives his or
her responses as freely as possible. During the course of interview the interviewer
also frames and reframes the questions and facilitates the entire process of interview.
Conducting interview to recruit suitable candidates for a particular job is a good
example of unstructured interview.
In order to conduct an interview the interviewer should possess certain skills which
help him/her to elicit maximum responses from the interviewee. A skilled interviewer
easily establishes rapport with the interviewee by reliving his/her anxiety and making
him comfortable during the course of interview. He has command over his language
which helps him to put even difficult questions in simple and lucid way in order to
probe at a deeper level. He has control over his feelings and emotions which does
not give any cue to the interviewee during the interview.
In the field of psychology interview is used for recruitment and selection, counseling,
marketing and advertising, attitude survey etc.
In this chapter you have learnt about the various approaches that help understand the
nature and causes of human behaviour, and about the different methods that help us
to gain more knowledge about mental processes.

1. A ————————— ——————— provides an objective assessment of
different qualities and limitations of the individual.
2. ————————————— of a test refers to its consistency in terms
yielding the scores from the representative sample for which it has been designed.
3. —————————— of a test reveals the extent to which the test measures
what it claims to measure.
4. A ———————— —————— uses ambiguous, vague and unstructured
stimuli such as pictures, inkblots, drawings, incomplete sentences.
5. The items (questions) of the questionnaire can be either in ————————
—————— form or in —————————- form.

MODULE - I Methods
Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
6. Interview as one of the techniques of data collection is often referred as a ——
—————— ———————— between two persons with a set objective.
7. In the case of ———————————— —————————— the
questions are already framed with the possible options/
Notes
8. ——————————— ————————————— comprises of a
variety of open-ended questions and the interviewee gives his or her responses
as freely as possible.

• There are different approaches to explain, describe, predict and control behaviour
and mental processes. The main approaches are Biological, Psychoanalytic,
Behaviouristic, Humanistic and Cognitive. Scientific method has the
characteristics of being objective, testable, self-correcting and replicable.
• Different methods are used to understand human behaviour. Observational method
helps to describe a phenomenon in a laboratory or natural setting. It can be
participant or non-participant.
• Experimental method studies the effect of one variable on another variable by
manipulating one and controlling other variables.
• Case study focuses on one person. The person is studied in great detail to
understand the underlying issues.
• A questionnaire consists of a set of questions, which the respondent answers. It
can be an open or closed ended.
• Interview is a face-to-face interaction regarding a given topic. Interview can be
structured or unstructured.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Describe three main approaches used by psychologists to understand mental
processes. Why do we need so many approaches to understand human behaviour?
2. Describe the characteristics of scientific method. Explain the use of observation
for data collection.
3. Discuss the experimental method as a scientific method. Identify the techniques
used to control relevant variables.
4. Discuss how psychological tools are used to understand human behaviour and
psychological processes.

Foundations of
Psychology
ANSWERS TO INEXT QUSTIONS

2.1
1. Biological approach Notes
2. Cognitive approach
3. Humanistic approach
4. Psychoanalytic approach
5. Behaviouristic approach
2.2
1. Participant, non-participant
2. Manipulating, controlling
3. Individual
4. Independent, dependent
5. Survey
2.3
1. Psychological tet
2. Reliability
3. Validity
4. Projective test
5. Close-ended, open-ended
6. Face –to-face interaction
7. Structured interview
8. Unstructured interview

MODULE - I Individual
Psychology Differences
Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
Notes 3
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
It is often said that no two individuals are exact duplicates; they differ from each
other in some way or the other. Hence the job of the psychologist is to identify and
understand this uniqueness in individuals. Such a similarity or difference between
persons reveals individual differences. It happens in our day-to-day life when we
see people around us. A question comes to mind; how and why people appear similar
or different to each other? For example when we think about their physical appearance,
we often ask ourselves why some people have dark or fair complexion, why some
people are tall and some are short, why some are thin and why some are very fat.
When we think about their psychological characteristics we often come across people
who are very talkative or less talkative, some laugh too much whereas others take
much time even to smile, some are very friendly whereas some prefer to be alone.
The present lesson tries to answer all such queries which can bother us in our everyday
life. In psychology, these are called individual differences referring to the extent
and kind of variations or similarities among people on some of the important
psychological aspects such as intelligence, personality, interest, and aptitude. This
lesson will also help us understand how to assess such similarities or variations
among individuals.
OBJECTIVES
• describe the nature of individual differences;
• understand how to assess individual differences;
• discuss the nature and definition of intelligence and tools to measure it;
• explain the nature and definition of aptitude and tools to measure it;
• explain interest and tools to measure interest; and
• discuss the nature of personality and describe the different techniques used in
personality assessment.

Individual Differences MODULE - I
Foundations of
Psychology
3.1 NATURE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
It has been observed that if we collect information about people’s characteristics
from a large sample and examine the pattern of distribution (as shown in Fig.-3.1)
we find that a large majority of the people fall in the middle range while a small
Notes
proportion lies in extreme categories. For example, most of the people fall in the
category of average height and very few are very tall or very short. This holds true
for many more characteristics including intelligence and other psychological
attributes.
Fig. 3.1 Distribution of height of a large sample of persons
The fact that people are different from each other is a very common observation.
The differences in psychological characteristics are often consistent and form a stable
pattern. By ‘consistent’, we mean that people tend to show regularity in their behaviour
and their patterns of behaviour do not change very frequently. This consistency and
stability in behaviour is unique to every person. People develop their unique traits/
characteristics and patterns of behaviour due to their genetic make up and the
environment in which they are brought up. Once we know these differences
systematically we can utilize the capabilities of people efficiently for their healthy
development. Knowing about the specific characteristics of a person is necessary in
order to extend support and utilize his or her potential to optimal level.
Individual differences occur due to interaction of genetic and environmental factors.

We inherit certain characteristics from our parents through genetic codes. The
phenotype or the expressed forms of our characteristics depend on contributions of
the socio-cultural environment. This is the reason why we are not exactly like our
parents and our parents not exactly like our grandparents. We do share similarities
with our parents in respect of many physical attributes like height, colour of eyes,
shape of nose etc. We also inherit certain cognitive, emotional and other characteristics
from our parents like intellectual competence, love for sport, creativity etc. However,
our own characteristics develop largely by the support from the environment which
we inhabit.
The environment is responsible as how we are reared, the kind of atmosphere at

house, whether it is liberal or strict, the type of education that we get, what we learn
from people, around us, books, cultural practices, peers, teachers and media All
these aspects refer to ‘environment’ which help in developing our potentials.

Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
Environment, by providing models and other opportunities, helps us develop many
traits and skills. Our inheritance alone cannot decide what we become but our
environment also contributes. We know the example of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar,
who was born in a very poor family but, with the right education and environment,
became a great lawyer and also designed the Constitution of India. The latest and
Notes most well known example would be of our former President Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
You can also remember many such examples, who did not become great because of
inheritance but because of the environment. Now you know that our genetic codes
vary. At the same time, surrounding environment also differs from person to person.
It sets limits or defines a range by offering different opportunities. That is why the
pattern of development of each of us is different from others. It makes us think why
we are similar in certain ways and different in others.

1. Explain the term ‘individual differences’.
3.2 ASSESSING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Psychological assessment refers to the use of specific procedures for evaluating
personal qualities, behaviours and abilities of individuals. These procedures describe
people by specifying how they are different from or similar to other individuals.
Such assessments are frequently done by most of us when we make judgments such
as ‘nice’, ‘good’, ‘bad’, ‘attractive’, ‘ugly’, ‘genius’ and ‘idiot’ etc. Such judgments
can be erroneous many times. Scientific psychology tries to systematize these
procedures so that assessment can be made with minimum error and maximum
accuracy. Psychologists have developed ‘tests’ to assess these characteristics. A
psychological test is a structured technique used to generate a carefully selected
sample of behaviour.
In order to be useful for the purpose of drawing inferences about the person being
tested, it is necessary that the test should be reliable, valid and standardized. A test is
reliable if it measures a given characteristic consistently. For instance, if you assess
something the scores on separate occasions should be more or less similar. Thus a
person, if found to be of average intelligence on one occasion should also appear of
average intelligence if tested after two weeks. If a test tells two different values
while assessing the object on two occasions then it will be called unreliable. A test
of intelligence can be called reliable only when a person scores high or low
consistently on both the occasions. A good test is found to have high reliability.
The validity of a test refers to the degree to which it assesses what it intends to
assess. A valid test of personality gives a measure of a person’s personality and
predicts behaviour in situations where that aspect of personality is pertinent.

Foundations of
Psychology
Finally, in order to be useful, an assessment tool should be standardized.
Standardization involves establishing the procedure of administration of a test to all
persons in the same way under the same conditions. It also involves establishing
group norms so that an individual’s score can be compared with those of others in a
defined group. It is very important because a test score is only a relative score. It
does not provide an absolute value as found in physical measurement. Standardization Notes
ensures uniformity and objectivity in administration and makes the results
interpretable.
Psychologists have developed tests to measure different human characteristics. In

schools, we use achievement tests which measure what people have learnt.
Psychologists frequently use tests of ability and personality. The tests of ability tell
what an individual can do when he or she is at his/her best. Ability tests measure
capacity as potential rather than achievement. Tests of intelligence and aptitude come
under this category. Aptitude refers to the ability to learn a particular kind of skill
required in a specific situation. Personality tests measure the characteristic ways of
thinking, feeling or behaving.

1. Define psychological assessment. Explain the need for psychological assessment.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Discuss in brief the main properties of a psychological test.
3.3 NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE AND ITS ASSESSMENT

You often come across the term intelligence in everyday life. We generally use this
term whenever we find somebody doing something very good which goes beyond
our expectation. Intelligence is one of the psychological terms used quite frequently
in various settings (e.g. school). Who can be called ‘Intelligent’? The one who gets
highest marks in exams? That person who earns many educational degrees? Is the
doctor more intelligent, or the engineer or the lawyer or the artist? One may answer
these questions in different ways depending on the meaning of intelligence.
Intelligence is much more than getting degrees. Intelligence refers to “multifaceted
abilities of people”. It gets expressed in many ways. It comes in many forms. Some
people are good in studies, some are good in repairing machines, some are good in
acting and some are great in sports. People are very good in one subject and average
in some other. The most important thing is that ‘intelligence’ is ‘functional’. It is
‘used’ to do something and to achieve something.

Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
In psychology, the term intelligence has been defined in many ways. One of the
earliest definitions of intelligence was given by Binet and Simon in 1905 who defined
it as the “ability to judge well, to understand well, and to reason well”. One of the
most popular definitions of intelligence was given by Wechsler who defined it as
“the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think
Notes rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment”.
Gardner defined intelligence as “the ability or skill to solve problems or to fashion
products which are valued within one or more cultural settings”. He used the term
‘Multiple Intelligences’ and advocated that there are eight types of intelligences
such as Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Spatial, Musical, Bodily-kinaesthetic,
Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic.
Though the first attempt to measure intelligence was made by Sir Francis Galton a
more systematic approach was developed by Alfred Binet, a French Psychologist. In
1905, Binet gave the concept of Mental Age (MA) which refers to an individual’s
level of mental development relative to the environment in which he/she lives. The
term Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was first devised by William Stern, a German
psychologist, in 1912. IQ is defined as mental age divided by chronological age, and
multiplied by 100: (IQ = MA/CA × 100). For example if the mental of a child is 12
and his/her Chronological age is 8 then the IQ of the child would be 150. The
intelligence test developed by Binet was revised subsequently and in 1916 the test
was given the name of Stanford - Binet test of intelligence. One of the most popular
and widely used tests of intelligence is Wechsler Scales of Intelligence. These scales
have been designed for individuals of different age groups such as Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS) for adults and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC) for children between the age of 6 and 16 years.
Intelligence tests are of two kinds Individual test and Group test. An individual test
of intelligence can be administered to a single individual at a given time whereas a
group test is administered to more than one individual at a time. On the basis of
nature of items, intelligence tests are Verbal, Non-verbal, and Performance Tests. A
verbal test requires understanding of written words. Hence it can be administered to
literate individuals only. In non-verbal test, pictures or illustrations are used as item
of the test. Performance tests are made up of certain concrete tasks. Both non-verbal
and performance tests can be administered to literate and illiterate individuals.

1. What do you understand by the term intelligence?
_______________________________________________________________
2. What is IQ?
_______________________________________________________________

Foundations of
Psychology
3.4 APTITUDES AND INTERESTS, AND THEIR ASSESSMENT
You may have come across people who are very proficient in one task but not that
much in another task. Some of your friends may be very good in mathematics but
very poor in social science. Such people possess special abilities or characteristics
in a particular field but relatively low in other field. In psychology, this is called Notes
aptitude. An aptitude is a combination of characteristics that indicates an individual’s
capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or skill, after training. These qualities
can be harnessed by appropriate training. In other words, if a person does not have
the special abilities required to become a musician, such as discrimination between
pitch, tone, rhythm, and other aspects of musical sensitivity, he/she would not be a
good musician, even after sufficient training.
There are salient differences between intelligence, aptitude, and achievement.
Intelligence relates to the ability of a person to do certain thing at a given time.
Aptitude refers to the potential ability of an individual to perform a task, which
generally consists of a combination of abilities. Achievement involves performance
at any given point of time in a particular subject (e.g. mathematics) with which you
have been made familiar.
Aptitude tests are used for predicting success in a vocation such as clerical aptitude,
mechanical aptitude, musical aptitude, typing aptitude, etc. Each of these tests usually
contains a number of sub-tests. Several multiple aptitude test batteries have been
developed to assess aptitude, such as Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), the General
Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), and the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
(ASVAB).
Psychologists have constructed a number of tests to measure interest for children
and adults. There are vocational interest tests which help identify the interest of a
person in particular vociational areas. There are also general interest inventories.
Vocational interest tests are paper-pencil tests that assess a person’s interest and
match them with success in various occupations.

1. Define aptitude.
_______________________________________________________________
2. What do you understand by aptitude batteries?
3.5 NATURE OF PERSONALITY

We all use the term ‘personality’ in day-to-day life. In psychology personality is
thought as a person’s unique and relatively stable behaviour pattern which remains
consistent across situations and over a period of time.

Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
The term personality has been defined in diverse ways. Allport in 1937 gave a very
popular definition of personality which is still referred to by scholars. According to
him “personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”.
Notes Psychologists have approached personality from different perspectives. Each of these
perspectives explains some aspects of personality. Now let us study in brief about
some of these perspectives:
I) The trait perspective tries to describe personality in terms of various traits.

Some times the traits are grouped into clusters. These clusters are called “types”.
For instance introversion and extraversion are two types of personality traits.
II) The psychodynamic perspective calls attention to the unconscious needs and
conflicts as well as the influence of earlier stages of development on our lives.
Sigmund Freud, a noted psychologist, provided the core concepts for this
perspective.
III) The socio-cultural perspective highlights the importance of the social and
cultural environment. In view of this theory, our personality and behaviour patterns
are acquired through interaction with others and adoption of social and cultural
norms.
IV) The humanistic perspective emphasizes the enormous potential for freedom
and growth present in each one of us. It is a view which is optimistic and
emphasizes-on positive aspects of life and potentialities.

1. Define personality. Describe any two perspectives on personality?
3.6 TECHNIQUES OF PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

In the field of personality assessment the major focus is on the study of the nature
and intensity of various characteristics, which are generally reflected through the
behaviour of the individual in a given situation. Personality assessment measures
are classified into three categories.
A. Objective or Self report measures of personality.

B. Projective or Indirect measures of personality.
C. Situational measures of personality.

Foundations of
Psychology
A. Objective or Self-Report Measures of Personality
In measures of this kind, the person is asked to report about himself/herself on a set
of statements organized in the form of a questionnaire or inventory. The nature of
the statement can be either closed ended or open ended. In the case of closed ended
statements, rating scales or optiional answers are given whereas in the case of open- Notes
ended statements, the person is free to describe himself or herself. A number of tests
have been developed to assess different trait domains of personality. Some of the
self-report measures of personality, which are widely used to assess personality, are
being discussed below.
(i) Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness- Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-

PI-R): This test is currently one of the most popular personality assessment
tools being used across the world. This test has been developed by Costa and
McCrae (1992) and is based on Five-Factor Model of Personality. The test has
been developed based on longitudinal studies over 15 years. It provides scores
on five major dimensions of personality. These five dimensions and facets are as
follows: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness and
Conscientiousness.
(ii) Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF): This test was originally
developed by Raymond B. Cattell, Karen Cattell and Heather E. P. Cattell in
1949. Since then, the test has undergone four revisions in 1956, 1962, 1967-69,
and 1988-93. Currently the fifth edition developed by Conn & Ricke (1994) is in
practice. This test is popularly known as 16 PF and is used for age group of 16
and above. It yields scores on 16 primary traits such as social boldness, dominance,
vigilance, emotional stability and rule consciousness.It also measures five global
factors, which are Extraversion, Anxiety, Tough-Mindedness, Independence and
Self-control.
(iii)In India a number of self- report measures of personality have been developed.
Some of these modified versions are Bell Adjustment Inventory by Mohsim and
Hussain, Maslow Security-Insecurity Inventory by Singh and Jamuar, Maudsley
Personality Inventory of Eysenck in Hindi by Singh and Jodhpur Multiphasic
Personality Inventory by Joshi and Malik, amongst others.
B. Projective or Indirect Measures of Personality
Projective or indirect measures of personality are widely used personality assessment
tools. Unlike the self-report measures where the individual is provided with structured
test stimuli, in projective tests the individual has to respond to unstructured or
ambiguous stimuli. The basic assumption behind using unstructured test stimuli in
projective tests is that the individual projects his/her latent or unconscious feelings,
needs, emotions, motives etc. on to the ambiguous stimulus. The responses of the
individual in the form of projection reflect the nature of his/her personality.

Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
Some popular Projective Technique are Rorschach Ink Blot Test, Thematic
Appreception Test and Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank.
C. Situational or Observation Measures of Personality.
Another technique to assess personality is to observe the behaviour of the individual
Notes in purposefully designed situation. Such tests are more effective in the assessment
of leadership, dominance, responsibility, extraversion-introversion etc. One of the
first situational tests was developed by Hartshorne, May, and their associates (1928,
1929, 1930) for the Character Education Enquiry (CEE). This test measures traits
like altruism, honesty and self-control. However, situational measures of personality
came into light during World War II when the United State Office of Strategic Services
(OSS) used situational tests for selection of military personnel for critical overseas
assignments. One of the variants of this test is Situational Stress Test in which the
individual has to react to various stressful, frustrating, or emotionally disruptive
situations where his helpers are obstructive and uncooperative.

1. What is a self-report measure of personality?
_______________________________________________________________
2. Discuss the use of projective technique in measuring personality.
_______________________________________________________________
3. What do you understand by situational or observational measure of personality?
_______________________________________________________________

• The study of individual differences focuses on the extent and kind of variations
or similarities among people on some of the important psychological aspects
such as intelligence, personality, interest, and aptitude.
• Individual differences occur due to interaction of genetic and environmental
factors. The differences in psychological characteristics are often consistent and
form a stable pattern. This consistency and stability in behaviour is unique to
every person.
• Psychological assessment refers to the use of specific procedures for evaluating
personal qualities, behaviours and abilities of individuals. These procedures
describe people by specifying how they are different from or similar to other
individuals.
• A test should be reliable, valid and standardized. A test is reliable if it measures
a given characteristic consistently. The validity of a test refers to the degree to

Foundations of
Psychology
which it assesses what it intends to assess. Standardization involves establishing
the procedure of administration of a test to all persons in the same way under the
same conditions.
• Intelligence refers to “multifaceted abilities of people”. In psychology the term
intelligence has been defined in many ways. Binet and Simon in 1905 defined it Notes
as the “ability to judge well, to understand well, and to reason well”.
• One of the most popular definitions of intelligence was given by Wechsler in
1939. He defined intelligence as “the aggregate or global capacity of the individual
to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the
environment”.
• Gardner used the term ‘Multiple Intelligences and advocated that there are eight
types of intelligences such as Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Spatial, Musical,
Bodily-kinaesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic.
• The first systematic effort to assess intelligence was made in 1905 by Alfred
Binet, a French psychologist, who gave the concept of Mental Age (MA).
• The term Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was at first devised by William Stern, a
German Psychologist, in 1912. IQ is defined as mental age divided by
chronological age, and multiplied by 100. IQ= MA/CA × 100.
• There are several Intelligence Scales developed by Wechsler such as Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) for adults.
• There are salient differences between intelligence, aptitude, and achievement.
Intelligence refers to the ability of a person to do a certain thing at a given time.
Aptitude refers to the potential ability of the individual to learn to perform a
task. Achievement involves performance at any given point of time in a particular
subject (e.g. mathematics) with which you have been made familiar.
• Aptitude tests are used for prediction of success in various kinds of vocations
such as clerical aptitude, mechanical aptitude, musical aptitude, typing aptitude,
etc. Several multiple aptitude test batteries have been developed to assess aptitude.
The most widely used is Differential Aptitude Test (DAT).
• Personality refers to a person’s unique and relatively stable behaviour patterns
which remain consistent across situations and over a period of time. Allport
defined personality as the “dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”.
• Psychologists have approached personality from different perspectives. These
viewpoints can be grouped in to four major types: Psychodynamic perspective,
Socio-cultural perspective, Humanistic perspective, and Trait perspective.
• Personality measures are classified into three categories: Self report measures,
Projective measures, and Situational measures.

Secondary Course
Foundations of
Psychology
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the term “individual differences”?
Notes 2. Define Intelligence. Name any two Intelligence Tests.
3. Explain the differences between Intelligence, Aptitude and Achievement.
4. Identify the major perspectives towards the understanding of personality.

3.1
1. Extent and kind of variations or similarities among people on psychological
characteristics. They occur due to interaction of genetic and environmental factors.
3.2
1. Use of specific procudures employed in evaluating personal qualities, behaviours
and abilities of individuals.
2. Reliability, validity, standardization.
3.3
1. Aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally and deal effectively with the environment.
2. Intelligence quotient is mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by
100 IQ = MA/CA × 100
3.4
1. Combination of characteristics that indicates an individual’s capacity to acquire
some specific skill or knowledge after training.
2. Are developed to assess aptitude eg. Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) and General
Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)
3.5
1. Person’s unique and relatively stable behaviour pattern which remains consistent
across situations and over a period of time. Trait perspective, biological
perspective, psychodynamic perspective, socio-cultural perspective, humanistic
perspective (any two).

Foundations of
Psychology
3.6
1. Person is asked to report about himself / herself on a set of statements.
2. Individual has to respond to unstructured or ambiguous stimuli. The responses
in the form of projection reflect the nature of his/her personality.
Notes
3. Behaviour of individual is observed in purposefully designed situations.
2. Refer to sections 3.2 & 3.3

MODULE - II Learning
Psychology Secondary Course
Basic
Psychological
Processes
4
Notes
LEARNING
You must have observed a young human baby. If you wave your hands in front of the eyes
of a new born you will see that the child automatically closes her eyes. A human baby is
born with simple reflexes and when grown as an adult the individual becomes capable of
performing many complex behaviours. This happens because of learning. The process of
learning is continuous and goes on throughout life. From simple behaviours, like switching
on the light, or picking up a book from the table to complex behaviours like driving a car
or piloting a spaceship, all become reality only due to learning.
Learning empowers a person by making him/her what one is not and wants to become. All
children are born with limited capacity of reflexes but it is only through learning that people
become great scientists like Homi Bhabha, Vikram Sarabhai, leaders like Mahatma Gandhi
and Pandit Nehru or any one whom you may admire. Without learning one is handicapped.
People realize their potentials through learning and become what they dream. This lesson
will help us understand the process of learning and its types.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the process of learning and its definition;
• describe the nature of classical and operant types of conditioning;
• explain learning by observation; and
• explain concept learning, skill learning and transfer of training.
4.1 LEARNING
Most of our behaviours are acquired through the process of learning. Learning may be
defined as a relatively durable change in behaviour due to experience. Thus, if the change

Learning MODULE - II
Basic
Psychological
in behaviour is temporary, or due to instinct or maturation, it is not learning. The key Processes
feature of learning is experience. Any change in behavior in the absence of practice or
experience does not qualify as learning. For example the maturational changes in the child,
like crawling, standing and walking at certain ages are not included in learning. Similarly,
illness and drug induced temporary changes are not due to learning. To qualify as learning,
a change in behaviour must be relatively enduring.
Notes
Interestingly enough learning is not directly observable. It is often inferred from changes in
the external behaviour. It is apparent in terms of improvement in the performance. You
may recollect your own early childhood experiences when you were required to learn
alphabets. In the beginning we make more errors. However, when we start practicing the
errors decrease and a time comes when the behaviour becomes flawless. The decrement
in the number of errors with increase in practice clearly indicates that learning is taking
place.
How Do We Learn?
Learning helps us adapt to the surrounding environment. After living in a particular socio-
cultural environment for some time, we learn the norms of the society and all that is expected
of us and become responsible citizen and members of family and work organization. All
this is possible on account of learning. We use learning to acquire various types of skills.
But the crucial question is how do we learn?
Psychologists, on the basis of studies on human beings and on animals, have tried to
explain the process of learning. They have identified some procedures that are used in the
acquisition of simple as well as complex responses. The two basic types of learning are
classical conditioning and operant or instrumental conditioning. In addition, we have
observational learning, verbal learning, concept learning, and skill learning. Let us briefly
consider some of the important types of learning.
(i) Classical Conditioning : Learning through Association

Classical conditioning is also known as Pavolovian conditioning because it was discovered
by a Russian scientist Ivan P. Pavlov who was interested in studying stimulus-response
relationship. He worked with dogs. The animal was harnessed and food was presented to
the dog by a laboratory assistant. Pavlov realized that the salivary response had been
learned by the dog. He proceeded to study this type of learning in detail. (See Fig. 4.1)
Pavlov presented to the dog a series of trials in which a tone (buzzer) was paired with food
(biologically important stimulus). The learning trials consisted of pairing the tone,
(Conditioned Stimulus or CS) with food (Unconditioned Stimulus or UCS). The tone
presented was rather short (e.g., 10 secs) and the time interval between the tone and
presentation of food, was between 2 to 3 minutes.

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Notes
Fig. 4.1: Classical Conditioning

During the initial trials the dog salivated when the food was presented. Secretion of saliva
to food is a natural response and, therefore, the saliva is called Unconditioned Response
(UR). Later, the buzzer was presented first. It was followed by food. After some pairing
trials of buzzer and food, the dog started salivation at the ringing of buzzer alone. The
buzzer is called Conditioned Stimulus (CS) because the dog has been conditioned to
salivate at the presentation of the buzzer itself. The secretion of saliva on the presentation
of buzzer is called Conditioned Response (CR). The steps of conditioning process are
shown in Fig. 4.2.
Procedure Response
Before conditioning
Food Salivation
(UCS) (UCR)
Buzzer Orienting Response
(CS)
During conditioning (Acquisition phase)
Food + Buzzer Salivation
(UCS) (CS) (CR)
(Repeated pairing of the UCS and CS )
After conditioning
Buzzer Salivation
(CS) (CR)
UCS = Unconditioned Stimulus; CS = Conditioned Stimulus;
UCR = Unconditioned Response; CR = Conditioned Response
Figure 4.2: The process of classical conditioning.

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It can be observed from Fig. 4.2 that originally the sound of the buzzer (CS) elicits only an
Processes
orienting response (alerting response) and elicits salivation when the food is consistently
presented in close association with the buzzes. Immediately after the buzzer is rung, the
animal elicits salvation. This is called acquisition.
It has been found that if the buzzer (CS) is presented on each trial but the food (US) is not
presented, extinction will take place. That is, the buzzer will no more elicit saliva (CR) Notes
and if it is continued for some time extinction will take place.
It has also been found that if a gap of some duration occurs after extinction and if the
buzzer (CS) is again presented without food (US) the dog will salivate (produce CR) for
a few trials. This recovery of CR after extinction is called spontaneous recovery.
(ii) Operant Conditioning : Modification of Behaviour through Reinforcement
If a child completes the home work she is praised (rewarded) by the parents and the child
learns to perform the task. If the child breaks a plate, he/she is scolded (punished) and she
will learn not to repeat the behaviour. This is called Operant Conditioning or instrumental
conditioning. In other words, we learn to perform behaviours that produce positive outcomes
and avoid behaviours that yield negative outcomes.
We may define operant conditioning as a process through which organisms learn to repeat
behaviours that produce positive outcomes or avoid or escape from the negative outcomes.
B.F. Skinner is considered as the most influential psychologist advocating the role of
operant conditioning in learning. He developed an experimental chamber (called Skinner
Box) to study learning process in rats. (see Fig. 4.3)
The chamber included a lever attached to the front wall. Pressing the lever is the response
to be learned. The hungry rat is placed in the chamber and it starts doing random activity
in it. After some time, the rat accidentally presses the lever and a pellet of food drops
automatically in the plate and the rat eats it. After eating the pallet the rat again starts
activity in the chamber. After some activity
it again presses the lever and gets pellet (a
reward). Gradually the random activity
changes to more specific activity around
the lever. Finally, the rat learns that pressing
the lever results in dropping of the food, a
satisfying outcome. In other words the
pressing of lever by the rat is instrumental
in providing food (reinforcement). The
response (pressing the lever) is reinforced
and the behaviour is acquired or learned.
The pressing of lever by the rat is
instrumental in getting the food, a satisfying
consequence (positive reinforcement) and
that is why this type of learning is also called Fig. 4.3: Skinner Box

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Processes instrumental learning. It is also called operant conditioning because the behaviour of rat or
any organism is a kind of operation on the environment.
INTEXT QUESTION 4.1

Notes
Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
1. Learning is a ………….. permanent change in …………..
2. Pavlovian conditioning is known as ……………… conditioning.
3. ……………. advocated the role of operant conditioning.
4. Operant conditioning is also called …………. learning.
4.2 REINFORCEMENT AND OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Much of the human learning could be explained with the help of operant conditioning
method. For example, parents and other authorities attempt to discourage aggressive
behaviours by punishing them and reward for good behaviours. The role of reinforcement
is very crucial in operant conditioning. It can be positive or negative. Let us understand
these two types of reinforcement.
Positive Reinforcement : Reinforcement is any operation or action that increases the

rate of response. In Skinner’s experiment the rat responded by pressing the lever and
obtained food. This is called positive reinforcement. So, a positive reinforcement or reward
(e.g., food, sexual pleasure, etc.) is the operation that increases the strength of a specific
behaviour. Positive reinforcement is any stimulus that strengthens a response that precedes
it (e.g., lever pressing is reinforced by food).
Negative Reinforcement : Another quite different way of increasing the rate of response
is through negative reinforcement. Suppose that in the Skinner Box the rat receives electric
shock to the feet every second. When the rat presses the lever, the shock is removed for
10 secs. This increases the rate of response. This procedure is called negative reinforcement
which involves application of an aversive stimulus (e.g. heat, electric shock, scudding
etc.). The word “negative” refers to the nature of the reinforcer (aversive stimulus). It is a
“reinforcement” because it increases the rate of response. This procedure is called “escape”
learning because the rat can escape the shock if it presses the lever. Another kind of
negative reinforcement can result in conditioning called “avoidance” learning where the rat
can avoid the shock by pressing the lever. In escape or avoidance learning the reinforcer is
negative and the organism learns to escape or avoid its presence.

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Schedules of Reinforcement Processes
How do we reinforce the correct responses? It could be by using continuous or partial
reinforcement. In the case of continuous reinforcement, every correct response is reinforced.
For example, when the rat presses the lever every time it gets a food pellet (reinforcement).
Alternatively, the responses are reinforced partially or intermittently (some times only).
The continuous reinforcement is useful for establishing or strengthening new behaviours. Notes
The partial reinforcement, on the other hand, is more powerful in maintaining the acquired
behaviours.
Observational Learning : Modelling
Observational learning is the third major way we learn. Acquiring new skills by observing
the behaviour of others is very common. It is a part of everyday life. Observational learning
depends on the existence of appropriate model in one’s environment. That is, the child
picks up behaviour while the appropriate model is performing an activity. For example,
young people learn aggression through watching the actions of others (models). Television
programmes and movies provide much of the learning to the young people. When children
watch violence on TV they tend to learn such behaviours. We learn various social roles
through observational learning. However, observational learning is a complex process, far
more complex than mere imitation. Children acquire information and learn skills through
observational learning but do not put it into immediate use. People, particularly youngesters,
can often be influenced in positive ways when they have appropriate role models.
INTEXT QUESTION 4.2

State whether the following statements are True or False:
1. Positive reinforcement is any action that reduces the rate of response.
2. The aversive response is called as escape learning.
3. Reinforcement can be partial or continuous.
4. Partial reinforcement does not help in maintaining behaviour.
5. Observational learning depends on the existence of appropriate model.
4.3 SOME OTHER TYPES OF LEARNING

Till now we have read about learning and conditioning. Now we will read briefly about the
other types of learning.

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Processes Verbal Learning
You are reading this lesson and trying to understand the concept of learning. This is possible
because of verbal learning. You have learned language. People in different parts of the
world learn different languages. The process of learning language is called verbal learning.
If you recollect your younger days you will notice that you started with identifying alphabets,
Notes then moved to words and finally sentences. When you learn a foreign language you use
pairs of words. Psychologists study how various procedures like serial learning and paired
associates learning are used.
Concept Learning
This is about developing categories of objects and events. It is very important in our life
that we should discriminate between things on the basis of some criterion. For example,
the terms ‘boys’, ‘girls’, ‘fruits’ and ‘furniture’ refer to concepts. A concept involves a
variety of objects clubbed together. Use of categories or class names helps us to
communicate and perform different activities. The concepts may be natural or artificial.
They may be as abstract and concrete. Love, freedom and democracy are examples of
abstract concepts. Cow, table, boy, girl, orange and rose are examples of concrete concepts.
While learning a concept we make one response to all the stimuli belonging to that category.
Thus we refer to all kinds of tables as table or all boys as boy. In fact all kinds of higher
learning necessarily involves concept learning. Concepts help us to reduce the complexity
of our world. In lesson 7 you will read more about concept formation.
Skill Learning
An important area of learning involves acquiring various types of skills like riding a bicycle,
writing, car driving, piloting an air craft, leading a group and motivating others etc. All of
these involve skills. Those who are able to learn these and other skills get opportunities in
life. Once the skill is acquired one may over learn it. It may become automatic and one is
able to perform it with ease and comfort. As a result people perform tasks spontaneously
and can perform more than one task at a time (e.g. talking to a person and car driving).
4.4 TRANSFER OF TRAINING

It is interesting to note that learning of one task does not remain confined to that specific
task only. That learning is used in other situations also. A person’s ability to utilize knowledge,
skills and any kind of learning is highly appreciated. If a child learns to multiply or divide
she can use the process not only in the class but also in the market place or at home if it is
required. Transfer of training refers to the process of using earlier learning in a new situation.
It is positive if the first learning helps the second learning. It can be negative if the first
learning interferes with the second learning. It can be zero if the first learning neither helps
nor interferes with the second learning.

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Learning transforms a person in many ways and occurs throughout one’s life. Good learners
Processes
utilize each and every opportunity as an occasion for learning. The methods or types of
learning mentioned earlier provide only some basic ideas about learning. The changes that
take place in personality, attitude and interest are also consequences of certain types of
learning. They take place in complex ways. As learning progresses your ability to learn
also develops. If you learn you become a better person, flexible in approach and competent
enough to appreciate the reality. Notes
Some Tips for Better Study Habits

Studying of a topic can be facilitated if you realize that effort and motivation both
are important. In order to gain more while preparing a topic or studying some thing
you need to attend to the following points.
Study at a Specific Place: You must study in a quiet, well-lighted area free of
disturbance. If possible, you should also have at least one place where you only
study. Do nothing else at the spot: Keep magazines, radios, friends, and other
distractions out of that area. In this way, studying will become strongly linked with
one specific place. Once there, you’ll find it relatively easy to get started.
Organize Your Study through Spaced Sessions: It is quite reasonable to review
intensely before an exam. However, if you are actually learning some topic for the
first time you are asking for trouble. It has been found that spaced practice is a more
efficient way to study. It involves a large number of relatively short study sessions,
rather than one or two long ones (called massed practice).
Use Memory Aids: Psychologists have found many techniques useful for improving
memory. Most of them link new information to certain ideas or images that are easy
to remember.
Try to Test Yourself: When studying you can arrange to take several practice
tests before the real one in examination. In other words, studying should indicate
self-testing by use of flash cards, learning checks, a study guide or questions you
ask yourself.
Over Learning: It has been found that many students underprepare for exams,
and most overestimate how well they will do in exams. A solution to both problems
is overlearning. To overlearn, you should continue studying beyond bare mastery of
a topic. This means that you need to give yourself time for extra study and review
after you think you are prepared for a test.
Avoid procrastination: A tendency to procrastinate is almost universal.
Procrastinators put off work until the last moment. They work only under pressure,
skip classes and give false reasons for late work. This has negative effect on learning
and performance. Use of a formal time schedule and setting up specific goals may
help to study more effectively.

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1. What are the main types of learning?
_______________________________________________________________
Notes
2. What is transfer of training?
_______________________________________________________________

• Learning may be defined as a relatively durable change in behaviour due to experience.
If the change in behaviour is temporary, or due to instinct or maturation, it is not
learning.
• Learning helps us adapt to our environment.
• The two basic types of learning are classical conditioning and operant conditioning or
instrumental learning.
• Classical conditioning involves pairing of a neutral stimulus and a natural stimulus (CS
and UCS) leading to formation of association between neutral stimulus and response.
• Operant conditioning is a process through which organisms learn to repeat behaviours
that produce positive outcomes or avoid or escape from the negative outcomes.
• Skinner defined reinforcement as any operation or action that increases the rate of
response.
• In escape or avoidance learning the reinforcer is negative and the organism learns to
escape or avoid its presence.
• In the case of continuous reinforcement, every correct response is reinforced.
• The process of learning language is called verbal learning.
• An important area of learning involves acquiring skills like riding a bicycle, writing, car
driving, piloting an air craft, leading a group, motivating others etc.
• Observational learning is also used in acquiring new skills by observing the behaviour
of others.
• Transfer of training refers to the process of using earlier learning in a new situation. It is
positive if the first learning helps the second learning.
• Learning transforms a person in many ways and occurs throughout one’s life. Good
learners utilize each and every opportunity as an occasion for learning.

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TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What is learning? Give an example?
2. Describe the process of classical conditioning.
Notes
3. What are the main types of reinforcement? What is the role of reinforcement in operant
conditioning?
4. Give examples of observational learning and skill learning.
5. What is the significance of transfer of training?

4.1
1. relatively, behaviour
2. classical
3. B.F. Skinner
4. Instrumental
4.2
1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
4.3
1. Skill learning, verbal learning and concept learning.
2. Transfer of training refers to the process of using earlier learning in a new situation.

MODULE - II Sensory Processes: Attention
Psychology and Perception
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5
Notes
SENSORY PROCESSES: ATTENTION

AND PERCEPTION
The purpose of describing sensory receptors, attention and perception is to familiarize you
with the way our sense organs collect information and how it is processed by our brain.
We have five sense organs through which we acquire information. These include eye, ear,
skin, nose and tongue. We have mainly two functions of our senses: survival and sensuality.
If we could not see any colors or the beauty of flowers or the pictures on our television or
the traffic lights, our life would become dull and risky. Colors do not really exist “out there”
in objects rather our world of colour is a product of sensory and perceptual processes of
brain. We derive sensual pleasure in breathing fresh air enjoying tasty food, good music or
feeling relaxed by gently touching a cat or dog. Our senses do more than just making
contact with our external world. They add to happiness, variety and satisfaction in life.
Sensation is a process by which neutral impulses are created by stimulation of sensory
neurons that results in awareness of conditions inside or outside the body. Perception
refers to the elaboration and interpretation of these sensory experiences. It is governed
with our past and present experiences. With the help of this lesson you will learn how we
derive a world of reality from the information that we receive from our sense organs.
OBJECTIVES
• understand various senses and the sense organs;

• know the qualities that are common to all senses;
• understand the factors in attention; and
• identify some other senses beyond these five senses.

Sensory Processes: Attention and Perception MODULE - II
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5.1 SENSATION Processes
Sensation can be explained as the process by which one form of energy is converted into
another form. For example light is converted into neural impulses by which we code sensory
events in our system that can be processed by our brain. The sensory systems process
information reaching to the brain. The motor systems process information going out of the
Notes
brain to muscles and glands. Sometimes your parents switch on the T.V. and adjust the
volume of sound that they can hear. Suppose you adjust it to a volume which you are able
to detect but your mother says that she is unable to hear and asks you to increase the
volume. If your mother asks you to stop after some point that means that difference of
adjustment has been noticed by your mother. This minimal amount of change of volume
between two stimuli that is being recognized by your mother is called a “difference
threshold”. Background of a stimulus also affects our sensation. For example stars are
present in the sky in day time and at night but are visible only after sunset or at nighttime
because they can not be detected due to intense background of the daylight sun.
We all are also guided by factors of expectations and experiences. Experience of sensation
is not simply a yes/no, present/absent mechanism. For example you are expecting a very
close friend of yours to visit your home at 4 p.m. At 4 p.m. that friend reaches your house
and pushes the doorbell button. Other members of your house do not notice it but you are
able to notice that sound. It is primarily because of your expectation that you notice this
second clearly while others do not notice it. The minimum amount of physical energy
needed to produce a sensory experience is called “absolute threshold”.
We have several sense organs. The table below describes them
Table 5.1: Fundamental human senses
Sense Stimulus Sense organ Sensation

sight light waves eye colors, patterns, textures
hearing sound waves ear noise, tones, music
skin sensations external touch skin touch, cold, warmth, pain
smell volatile materials nose odors
taste soluble materials tongue sweet, salty, bitter
Let us look briefly at each of the senses.
• Vision: Vision is extremely important for all of us. Humans and animals with good
vision have advantage in each and everything in life. We experience vision with the
help of our eyes which function like a camera. The eye gathers and focuses light like a
camera. Sir Isaac Newton, who in the seventeenth century discovered the laws of

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Processes motion and gravity, also discovered that when white light passes through a prism it
separates into a rainbow of color – the visible spectrum.
• Color blindness: Not everyone sees colors in the same way. Some people are born
with a color deficiency. Color blindness is the partial or total inability to distinguish
colors. Most color blind people have trouble in distinguishing red from green.
Notes • Hearing: Hearing is equally important for our daily life. It is a principal sensory modality
for human communication. Sounds are created when actions cause objects to vibrate.
When vibrating objects push the molecules of medium back and forth we can experience
sound. Frequency refers to the number of cycles a wave completes in a given amount
of time. It is usually expressed in cycles per second (CPS) or hertz (Hz). Sound
cannot travel in a true vacuum (such as outer-space) because there is no medium there
to move or vibrate.
• Pitch : Pitch is the highness or lowness of a sound determined by the sound’s frequency.
High frequencies produce high pitch and low frequencies produce low pitch.
• Loudness: The loudness or physical intensity of a sound is determined by its amplitude.
Sound waves with large amplitudes are experienced as loud and those with small
amplitudes as soft. Loudness of sound is measured in units called decibels (dB).
• Timbre: The quality of a sound wave’s complexity is its timbre. The sounds that we
call noise contain many frequencies that are not systematically related to each other.
• Sense of bodily orientation (vestibular sense)
It is the sense of bodily orientation with respect to gravity, especially how our heads
are positioned, whether straight leaning, reclining or upside down. The vestibular sense
also tells us when we are moving or how our motion is changing.
• Sense of bodily position and the movement of body parts (Kinesthetic sense)
Kinesthetic sense is the sense of body position and the movement of body parts relative
to each other. It is a sense that provides sensory feedback about motor activities of
our body, for example how the hand moves to pick up the telephone when it rings.
• Sense of smell (olfaction)
The sense of smell involves a sequence of bio-chemical activities that triggers neural
impulses. Once activated these neural impulses convey odor information to the brain.
• Sense of taste (gustation)
The taste receptor cells are gathered in the taste buds on the upper side of the tongue.
The experience of sweetness or saltiness is affected by these taste buds. There are
only four true or primary taste qualities: sweet, sour, bitter and saline. Taste sensitivity
develops in infancy but decreases in old age. Taste receptors can be damaged by

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excessive use of alcohol, smoking, acids or hot foods but they are also replaced every Processes
few days and a permanent loss of taste is extremely rare.
• Skin senses: Our skin contains nerve endings that are stimulated by contact with
external objects and it produces sensations of cold, warmth or pressure. The sensitivity
to pressure is maximum on face, tongue and hands and it is less on our backs. Touch
plays an important role in human relations and emotions. Notes
• Sense of pain: Pain is the body’s response to stimulation from noxious stimuli. Acute
pain is reaction to sharp or sudden stimulation. The pain one feels in everyday life is
also related to psycho-social and cultural habits. What “pain” a person experiences
depend upon the meaning one attaches to pain and also on attention one receives from
near and dear ones.

1. Discuss the role of vision and hearing in our lives.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Briefly explain the concept of ‘threshold’.
_______________________________________________________________
5.2 PERCEPTION
In the last section we dealt with sensation, the process of bringing information into the
brain. This section is about perception, or how we use sensations into meaningful patterns.
As we encounter a variety of events in our daily lives, the brain actively selects, organizes
and integrates sensory information to create a picture of the world. Some of our perceptions
are native or inborn and many other perceptions are a result of our past experiences.
Sensation is the stage where neural activity codes the information about nature of stimulation.
Perception is the next stage in which an internal representation of an object is formed. This
representation provides a working description of perceiver’s external environment.
Perception involves synthesis of simple sensory features into percept of an object that can
be recognized.
This helps in identification and recognition, and meaning is assigned to the percepts.
Perception and recognition are combined processes that do not act separately. For example
a circular object may be a cricket ball or orange.
Stages of perception: The physical object in the world is called the distal stimulus (distant
from the observer) and the optical image on the retina is called the proximal stimulus

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Processes (proximate or near to observer). The major task of perception is to determine the distal
stimulus based on information of proximal stimulus – to know what the world out there is
“really like” using one’s imagination of mind.
There is more to perceiving which includes physical properties such as shape or size and
past experiences.
Notes
Mental Processes
↓
↓ ↓ ↓
Expectations Knowledge Beliefs
↓
Identification/Recognition
↑
Analysis into parts
↑
Perceptual Synthesis of Features
↑
Organization → Depth → Consistency
↑
Sensation
↑
Sensory Processes
↑
Environmental Stimulation of Objects
Fig. 5.1: The Process of Perception

1. Explain the concept of perception.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Describe the process of perception.
_______________________________________________________________
5.3 PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION

Perception is an organized process. The most common form of perceptual organization is
called figure ground organization in which sensations are grouped into objects or figures

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that stand out on a plainer background. Look at Figure 5.2. Do you see a nose or two Processes
faces?
Notes
Fig. 5.2: Reversible Figure and Ground Organistion
Reversible goblet is a favourite demonstration of a figure-ground reversal. Note that either

the light portion or the dark portion can be perceived as a figure against a background.
A. Laws of Perceptual Grouping
The factors which determine perceptual grouping are:-
(a) Proximity: All other factors being equal, stimuli that are near one another tend to be
grouped together. For example, if four stand near one another and a fifth 10 feet away,
the adjacent four will be seen as a group and the distant fifth as an outsider. Events that
are close in time and space are also perceived together.
(b) Similarity: Stimuli that are similar in size, shape or color tend to be grouped together.
(c) Continuity: Perception tends toward simplicity and continuity. Even if there are dots
in a circular fashion, the person will see them as a complete circle.
(d) Closure: It is the tendency to complete a figure that is incomplete but has a consistent
overall form.
(e) Common region: Stimuli that are found within a common area tend to be seen as a
group.
++ + + +
++ + + +
++ + + +
Fig. 5.3: Laws of Perceptual Grouping

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Processes B. Perceptual Constancy
Perception of an object’s shape, size or brightness remains the same even though its image
on the retina has changed. This is called perceptual constancy and is found in all senses,
though most examples given here are of vision.
If the perceived size of an object remains the same, even though the size of its image on the
Notes retina changes it is called size constancy.
In shape constancy the shape of an object remains stable even though the shape of its
retina image changes.
Brightness constancy refers to the fact that the brightness of objects appears to stay the
same as lighting conditions change.
C. Depth Perception
It is the ability to see three-dimensional space and to accurately judge distances. Without
depth perception you can’t ride on a motorcycle, or drive a car, catch a ball, thread a
needle or simply walk around a room. The world would look like a flat surface. The ability
of depth perception is partly innate and partly learned.
Depth cues are features of environment and messages from the body that supply information
about distance and space. The cues which work with just one eye are called monocular
cues and those which require two eyes are called binocular cues. Binocular cues are the
most basic source of depth perception that is caused due to retina disparity (a discrepancy
in the images that reach the right and left eyes). A person with one eye will have very
limited depth perception.
Pictorial cues for depth are features found in paintings, drawings and photographs that
impart information about space, depth and distance. This influence causes apparent per-
ception of things which are not there. For example, if you stand between two railway
tracks, they appear to meet at the horizon, even though they actually remain parallel.
Figure 5.4: Three powerful illusions. In drawing A, known as the Muller-Lyer

illusion, the bottom line looks longer than the top line. Actually, they are equal
in length. In drawing B, the Ponzo illusion, the top horizontal line looks longer;
again, both lines are equal. In drawing C, known as the horizontal-vertical
illusion, the vertical line looks longer, check with a ruler to see that it’s not!

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Illusions are distorted perception of stimuli that exist, whereas hallucination is perception Processes
of objects or events that have no external reality. An example of illusion is the Muller-Lyer
illusion in which horizontal line with outgoing arrow-heads appears shorter than the line
with inward arrows.
Notes
1. Describe various determinants of perceptual organization.
_______________________________________________________________
2. What do you understand by the term perceptual constancy?
_______________________________________________________________
3. Discuss depth perception with help of an example.
_______________________________________________________________
5.4 ATTENTION
Attention: Have you ever noticed that while doing both, driving and talking on your
mobile you may not pay attention to driving. Or when you are studying and loud music is
on in the neighbourhood you lose attention on your studies. ‘Divided attention’ can lead to
accidents when people are driving and watching some other objects.
‘Selective attention’ is a process in which we give priority to a particular incoming sensory

message. Attention has broadly three possible functions: (a) as a sensory filter (b) as a
response selection and (c) as a gateway to consciousness.
Determinants of Attention
• Physical factors: All other things being equal, physical factors like repetition, contrast,
shape, size, brightness and contrast do affect our attention. A good packaging or
bright light attracts us. That is why all big companies invest a lot on packaging their
products in an attractive manner. Similarly an advertisement which is published on a
regular basis in newspapers and electronic media catches the attention of customers
more easily than non-advertised products.
• Motives and attention: Motives also play a role in shaping our perception. For
example, if you are hungry food-related words are more likely to gain your attention
than non-food words. Advertisers and propagandists take advantage of two motives
that are very common in our society: anxiety and sex. Many products such as toothpastes,
food products even automotives highlight the health concern to catch the attention of

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Processes customers. On the other hand items of fashionable products play on the desire to be
attractive. The political parties cash on appeals to fear to make their voice heard by
the public at large.
Notes INTEST QUESTIONS 5.4

1. Discuss the concept of Attention?
_______________________________________________________________
2. Identify the various determinants of attention.
_______________________________________________________________
5.5 EXTRA SENSORY PERCEPTION

Extra sensory perception is the ability to perceive objects or events in ways that cannot be
explained by known sensory capacities.
Parapsychology is the study of extra sensory perception phenomena. Events that seem to
lie outside the region of accepted scientific laws are called psi-phenomena. An example of
extrasensory perception when a person intuitively ‘feels’ that his brother who is in another
city is not well. Another example could be when you just ‘know’that an earthquake is
going to happen in your city.
Clairvoyance: It is the ability to perceive events or gain information in ways that appear
unaffected by distance or normal barriers. Telepathy or perception of another person’s
thoughts or the ability to read someone else’s mind.
Pre-cognition: The ability to predict or perceive accurately future events.
Psycho-kinesis: The ability to exert influence over inanimate objects by will-power (mind
over matter). Some rare persons are able to move objects only through concentration but
without touching them.
A few psychologists strongly believe in extrasensory perception but the majority does not
subscribe to it.
5.6 APPLICATIONS OF PERCEPTION IN EVERYDAY LIFE

There are several ways in which knowledge of the process of sensation, perception and
attention can be used in everyday life.
• Eyewitness: You may be aware that eyewitness testimony is key to decisions in the
judiciary. Not only do advocates and police officers lay strong emphasis on eye witness

Basic
Psychological
testimony, but they have a strong belief that it is usually correct. But psychologists in Processes
large numbers are of the opinion that eyewitness errors are very common in perception.
In fact impressions formed when a person is surprised, stressed or threatened are
especially prone to distortion. Therefore it would be advisable for the investigative
agencies and jurors to gather more evidence instead of solely relying on eyewitness
while coming to a conclusion.
Notes
• Perceptual awareness and positive psychology: Do some people perceive things
more accurately than others? Humanistic psychologists believe that some people
perceive themselves and others with unusual accuracy. Habituation is when we stop
paying attention to familiar stimuli. When a stimulus is repeated without change our
response to it habituates or decreases. It seems that creative people attend to stimuli,
even those that are repeated.
• The value of paying attention: We have this general tendency to generalize without
paying attention to the diversity of possibilities. Perceptual clarity requires rigorous
effort of paying more and more attention. Breaking perceptual habits and interrupting
habituation can lead to good results. If you begin to question your own perceptions by
bringing another interpretation to the same reality you can get marvelous outcomes in
your activities.

• Sensation is the process by which neural impulses are created by stimulation or sensory
neurons that results in awareness of conditions inside or outside our body.
• There are five main senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. In addition we also
have vestibular sense and kinesthetic sense.
• Perception is the process through which an internal representation of an object is
formed. It involves synthesis of simple sensations, and assigning meaning to the whole.
• Principles of perceptual organization include nearness, similarity, continuity and closure
and help identify the figure against the background.
• Depth perception is the ability to judge distance and perceive three dimensional space.
It involves monocular and binocular cues.
• Perceptual constancy refers to the fact that we interpret a familiar object as having the
same size, shape or color even if the sensations point otherwise.
• Attention is the ability to focus our senses on a particular object. It involves selectivity
and is influenced both by physical and psychological factors.
• Extra-sensory perception is the ability to perceive events or objects in ways that cannot
be explained by known sensory capacities.

Secondary Course
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Psychological
Processes • Knowledge of perceptual psychology helps in everyday life and in learning how to
improve our attention and perception.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Notes 1. Describe the importance of perception in our daily life.
2. Define perception and also discuss principles of perceptual organization.
3. Discuss the concept of depth perception and perceptual constancy.
4. What do you understand by Extra-sensory perception?
5. Describe the various applications of perception.

5.1
1. Vision is extremely important. We experience vision with the help of our eyes which
are like a camera.
2. The minimum amount of change between two stimuli that can be recognised is called
“difference threshold”.
The minimum amount of physical energy needed to produce a sensory experience is
called “absolute threshold”.
5.2
1. Perception is when an internal representation of an object that was earlier sensed is
formed.
2. When we sense an object, we sensation is in the form of the organisation, depth and
consistencey of stinulus. Perceptual processes then analyse this into parts and mental
process help us identify the stimulus.
5.3
1. Factors which determine perceptual organisation are figure ground organisation,
perceptual consistency and depth perception.
2. Perception of an object’s shape, size or brightness remains the same even though its
image on the retiva has changed. This is called perceptival consistency.
3. Depth perception is the ability to see three dimensional space and judge distances.
For example depth perception helps us drive a motorcycle or a car and helps us catch
a ball.
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Psychological
5.4 Processes
1. Attention is the process by which we notice stimuli. Selective attention is a process in
which we give priority to a particular sensory message.
2. The determinants of attention are physical factors and motives.
Hints for Terminal Questions Notes
1. Refer to unit 5.1

MODULE - II Memory
Basic
Psychological
Processes
6
Notes
MEMORY
If you are asked to tell the name of your favourite actor, actress or singer, it won’t
take more than a second to come out with the answer. In the same way we all remember
our childhood friends, interesting incidents relating to them, our family members,
relatives and so many other things. Have you ever wondered how we remember all
these things, and do not forget them over long periods? All this is possible because
of memory.
The human memory has immense potential. You must be knowing that before the
Vedas were scripted, the oral tradition existed which means that the immense wealth
of knowledge was passed on from one generation to another by the oral tradition.
This was totally dependent on our memory. Memory is crucial in our life because it
helps building bridges in the flow of experiences and allows us to have a sense of
continuity. In this lesson we will study about this dynamic system which we call
memory.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the nature of memory;

• differentiate between the stages of memory;
• describe forgetting; and
• list some strategies for enhancing memory.
6.1 MEMORY AND FORGETTING

Psychologists consider memory and learning to be different processes, though both
are closely related. While, learning refers to the acquisition of new behaviours through
experience, memory refers to the process of storing the outcomes of learning in the
form of information that can be retrieved when required. In this lesson you will learn

Memory MODULE - II
Basic
Psychological
about memory and forgetting. You can very easily understand the significance of
Processes
memory by visualizing a situation about a person who has lost his memory. He will
lose his identity and cannot connect various experiences, events, and people. Such a
person will lead a miserable life. This happens in brain damaged people or in old age
when people develop some kind of memory loss, as in Alzheimer’s disease.
Memory refers to the set of processes involved in storing information. This specific Notes
process is termed as retention. Memory can be defined as a perceptually active mental
system that receives, encodes, modifies, and retrieves information. We can not directly
observe the process of memory. It can be studied indirectly by measuring retention.
Three basic methods of measuring retention are : Recall, Recognition, and Relearning.
Let us briefly discuss these methods.
Measuring Retention: Recognition, Recall and Relearning
When you are not able to remember someone’s name but you know that you have
seen his/her face before, this is the process of recognition. In this process you are
checking the stimulus (face) with your memory content to find a match. In the same
manner when one tries to remember a name without a face in front, it is called
recall. Recall is a process of using a general stimulus and finding the information
about it from memory. When you are given a question in an exam you use the process
of recall. When you answer multiple choice items, you are asked to match the
information with the provided pieces of information. You have to identify and match
it with the information which is already stored in your memory. Recognition is easier
than recall. Relearning is the method of learning the material another time. It usually
takes less time than original learning.
6.2 STAGES OF MEMORY
Psychologists have discovered that memory is not a single or unitary system. It has
more than one distinct system. In other words, there are more than one type of memory.
According to the most acceptable model of memory, there are three major systems
of memory : Sensory Memory; Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory
(LTM). Information moves successively through these three systems if attention is
given to the material. If attention (focused awareness) is not given, information does
not move further into the system.
Rehearsal loop
Sensory Sensory STM LTM

input memory (first stage) (Second stage)
Rehearsal loop
Forget Forget
Fig. 6.1: Stages of Memory

MODULE - II Memory
Basic
Psychological
Processes Sensory Memory : Hold any object about 12 inches in front of you. Look at it
steadily for a while. Close your eyes and notice how long the clear image of that
object lasts. A clear visual image of any object will last in sensory memory for about
half a second after the stimulus is removed. Sensory memory holds representations
of sensory input for very brief periods of time, depending upon the modality involved.
There are different sensory registers for each of the senses.
Notes
Short-Term Memory (STM) : Look up for a moment and note what attracts your
visual attention. Try to identify the sounds and sensations that you are experiencing
now. What have you identified is the content of short-term memory or STM. It holds
relatively small amounts of information for brief periods of time, usually 30 seconds
or less. This is the memory system we use when we look up the phone number and
dial it. If we are connected on the first instance the telephone number is forgotten.
However, if we get the line engaged for some time, we keep on dialing the number
and through repeated dialing rehearsal of the telephone number we push it to the
long-term memory (LTM) storage.
However, it has been found that short-term storage is more than a passive “holding
area” (e.g. holding a telephone number). On the contrary, it involves active processing
of information. This finding has led psychologists to use the term working memory.
It means that something active goes on during the short-term memory. Attempt
Activity 1 to understand the working of STM.
Activity 1
Working of Short Term Memory (STM) Read out aloud the following sequence
of numbers to a friend and ask him/her to immediately write in the order the
numbers that were spoken out aloud. After each set read the next set of numbers
and so on. Note that the series begins with three digits and increases by one digit
each time.
4 2 8
1 4 6 3
5 7 4 9 2
6 0 8 1 3 5
1 8 4 7 9 2 6
3 5 0 1 7 4 2 9
2 7 3 9 6 8 1 4 5
How many digits can your friend recall?
Probably, your friend will recall up to 7 (± 2) digits.
STM has a limited capacity to hold information. In general it holds about 5 to 9 units
(the “magic number” 7 ± 2) of information at one go. If the number of units goes
higher, new information displaces or writes over the existing units. Thus in the
example given earlier it is easy to remember a telephone number consisting of 7 to 9

Memory MODULE - II
Basic
Psychological
digits. If more information is added we lose at least part of the phone number.
Processes
However, this limitation in capacity can be effectively expanded by a process known
as chunking i.e. several units of meaningful information are packed into one chunk.
For example the number 194720021941 (12 digits) can easily he remembered if the
12 digits are chunked into three units 1947, 2002, 1941, all referring to calendar
years.
Long – Term Memory (LTM) : It refers to the memory system for the retention of Notes
large amounts of information for long periods of time. It is the memory system that
permits us to remember events that happened many years ago, yesterday, last year,
and so on. It is the long-term memory that allows us to remember factual information
making it possible for us to learn different subjects, appear for examinations and
communicate with others. It brings continuity and meaning to our life.
When we pay attention to a piece of information and engage in active rehearsal the
material is stored in the long-term memory (LTM). Information in the sensory memory
enters short-term memory when it becomes the focus of our attention. If we do not
pay attention to the incoming sensory information, the material fades and quickly
disappears. We tend to pay attention to certain information and not to the other.
Paying attention to certain aspects of our world is what we call. “selective attention”.
The information from STM is often rehearsed by us. This rehearsal helps the transfer
of that information from STM to LTM.
Activity 2
How Long Term Memory (LTM) works.
Ask the same friend, without looking at the written digits, to recall the four-digit
number (1462). Even if you were to prompt your friend by saying that the number
starts with ‘1’, it is highly doubtful that your friend will be able to recall even
these four - digits.
Do you know as to why this happens? Because there was no rehearsal and therefore
the four-digit number was not stored in the LTM.
Table 6.1: Nature of three systems of memory

Characteristics Sensory Memory Short-term Memory Long-term Memory
Duration Iconic about ½ sec 20 seconds Life time
Echoic about 2 sec
Capacity Large 7±2 Unlimited
Forgetting Trace decay Decay, interference Interference, Decay
and displacement Lack of Cues
Encoding Sensory (visual) Phonological or Semantic and
(auditory) visual-semantic sensory
Retrieval Parallel search Serial exhaustive Parallel distributed
search search

MODULE - II Memory
Basic
Psychological
Processes
1. What is recall?
_______________________________________________________________
Notes
2. List the different stages of memory.
_______________________________________________________________
6.3 TYPES OF MEMORY

In recent years psychologists have conceptualized memory into four types as given
below:
Semantic : This deals with knowledge, meaning and generalized experiences. What
ever we remember from books and information about world events and meanings of
words are included in it.
Episodic : It refers to the experiences which are personal to an individual. You do

so many things in a day. They are your unique experiences. Memory of such
experiences is accessible by you only. They are part of your episodic memory.
Procedural : This deals with memory for actions or ways of doing certain things or
performing certain activities.
Meta Memory : It is memory for your memory. We not only remember things but
also remember that we can remember. People may be good or poor in understanding
their own memories.
6.4 FORGETTING
It is a common experience that sometimes we are unable to remember information
that we need at a particular time. We find that on some occasions this lets us down as
we are unable to remember the information that we require desperately. During
examinations we are unable to remember or retrieve what we had learned. This is
what we call forgetting. Why does this occur? Many explanations have been offered
to explain this kind of loss. Let us briefly consider some theories to explain the
causes of forgetting.
(i) Decay : Some psychologists think that it is due to gradual fading of memory
traces or decay that happens with lapse of time. This does not explain why certain
memories fade forever while others seem to be well preserved. Passing of time
cannot, therefore, be considered as the main cause of forgetting. You can see that
in Table 6.1

Memory MODULE - II
Basic
Psychological
(ii) Interference : A more useful explanation is found in the view called interference
Processes
theory. It argues that memories are lost because of what happens to them during
the period when we retain them. Thus inhibition or interference by subsequently
learned material becomes the major cause of forgetting. There are two types of
such interference – Retroactive interference and Proactive interference.
Retroactive interference (acting back wards) occurs, when the current information
interferes with what has been retained earlier. For example, you learn Punjabi Notes
language on Monday and Bengali on Tuesday. During a Punjabi test taken on
Wednesday interference is expected from the learning of Bengali words.
Forgetting may also occur due to (acting forwards) proactive interference. This
is a situation in which earlier information in the memory interferes with the
current information. Suppose you have been driving a scooter with gears. Now,
you have a new scooter which has no gears (automatic drive). You will tend to
change the gears in the new scooter and this habit can persist for long. Proactive
interference thus explains one’s inability to acquire new knowledge or habit
because of the powerful interference from old habits.
(iii) Level of Processing : While learning some material we may attend to it in
detail and process at a deeper level or neglect it and attend at a surface level.
This may be a cause of forgetting.
Activity 3
Effect of Delay and Interference on STM.
Ask a friend to remember a sequence of three consonant letters, such as, FJQ,
while counting backwards from a given number, such as 462. After the three
consonant letters have been said and your friend has counted backwards for
about 15-20 seconds, ask him/her to recall the three consonant letters, that is,
FJQ. Does your friend will find it difficult because the counting task prevents
him/her from rehearsing the letters and allows the memory trace to decay.
Now give more three consonant letters (WCT, QRB) and ask the friend to
count backwards (743, 947). You are likely to note that now your friend has
greater difficulty in remembering the letters! Yes, this is due to proactive
inhibition.
6.5 STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING MEMORY

How good is your memory? We all would like to improve our memories so that we
can retain more facts and information. This is possible with little effort and almost
anyone can improve his or her memory. Here are some tips to enhance one’s memory.
1. Deep Processing : If you want to learn something and wish to enter information
into long-term memory, you have to think about it. You need to consider its
meaning and examine its relationship to information you already have. Careful
planning, considering the meaning of information, and relating it to existing
knowledge is helpful in learning it and remembering it later. The retention of
material is dependent directly upon the depth at which it has been processed.
Deeper level in terms of meaning is very important. Second, the depth of

MODULE - II Memory
Basic
Psychological
Processes processing also refers to the rehearsal of material to be remembered. Greater the
rehearsal, more the chances of recalling the material later.
2. Attending carefully : If you want to learn something well and ensure its retention
in long-term memory you have to put in conscious effort to attend to it carefully.
3. Minimize interference : You have learned that interference is a major cause of
forgetting and you should try to reduce it as much as possible. In general, the
Notes more similar the materials to be learned, the more likely they will produce
interference. Thus, you should arrange your studies so that you don’t study similar
subjects one right after the other. For example, if you have to study two languages,
study them on different days.
4. Distributed practice : While learning some material it is beneficial to learn it
using distributed practice in which there is a gap between trials. Take rest after a
period of study. If the chapter is lengthy, divide it into two or three parts and
learn a part in one go. After mastering one part then go to the second and so on.
Do not try to cram all the information you want to memorize at once.
5. Using memory aids : People use various cues, indicators and signs to connect
events. This often facilitates remembering. You can use visual imagery to
remember objects and places. For example, if you visit a new place, you can
remember the location by remembering several associated objects and places.
You may remember the place to be close to a cinema hall, in front of a signal
post and so on.
6. Shorthand codes : You can develop your own shorthand codes to memorize
long list of items. You can use the first letter of each word or item and construct
a unique “word”. For example, to remember the seven constituents of light we
use VIBGYOR; where V stands for Violet, I for Indigo, B for Blue, G for Green,
Y for Yellow, O for Orange and R for Red. During the school days. We used to
forget the order of Mughal emperors in history subject. We developed a shorthand
code : BHAJSA” where B stands for Babar, H for Humayun, A for Akbar, J for
Jahangir, S for Shahjahan and A for Aurangzeb. It helped remembering the names
in order.
You can use the tips in Figure 6.2 to help you memorize your course material
Fig. 6.2: Tips to memorize course material

Memory MODULE - II
Basic
Psychological
6.6 REPRESSION : FORGETTING PAINFUL EVENTS Processes
The events and experiences that are threatening or painful are eliminated from our
consciousness. This is called repression. Freud believed that the repressed memories
are pushed into hidden recesses of the unconscious mind. Such repressed memories
may cause many psychological problems for the individual. Amnesia refers to a loss
of memory due to illness, injury, drug abuse or other causes. Notes

1. Make a list of the major types of memory.
_______________________________________________________________
2. State any two causes of forgetting.

_______________________________________________________________

• Memory refers to the set of processes involved in storing information and the
specific process is termed as retention.
• Three basic methods of measuring retention are : Recall, Recognition, and
Relearning.
• Sensory memory holds representations of sensory input for brief periods of time,
depending upon the modality involved.
• Short – term memory or STM holds relatively small amounts of information for
brief periods of time, usually 30 seconds or less.
• Long – Term Memory is a memory system for the retention of large amount of
information for long periods of time.
• Forgetting is loss of memory or failure to recall. It is caused by several factors
including decay, level of processing and depression.
• Memory can be enhanced with the help of mnemonic stragegies
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Describe briefly the three stage model of memory.

MODULE - II Memory
Basic
Psychological
Processes 2. Describe the properties of short term memory.
3. List the main causes of forgetting.

Notes
6.1
1. Recall is a process of using a general stimulus and finding the information that is
in the memory.
2. Sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory
6.2
1. Semantic, Episodic, Procedural and Meta memory.
2. Decay, Interference, Level of processing


Thinking and Problem Solving MODULE - II
Basic
Psychological
Processes
7
Notes
THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Have you ever thought about how you have acquired knowledge about all that you
know today? It may instantly come to your mind that your teachers have taught you
about this, your parents made you learn all these things, or you read about all these
in books. In all these situations you have learnt something to build your knowledge
base. Thus the process of knowing or of acquiring knowledge is called cognition.
The process of acquiring knowledge is facilitated by cognitive processes such as
attention, thinking, remembering, and reasoning. These cognitive processes are
controlled and regulated by higher center of the brain, the cerebral cortex. The
cognitive processes are very much specific to human beings and are guided by
concepts, facts, propositions, rules, and memories. All these cognitive activities are
governed by thinking. Hence, in this chapter you will learn about what is thinking,
stages of problem solving, stages of creative thinking, and processes involved in
making decisions.
OBJECTIVES
• understand the nature of thinking;
• describe various stages of problem solving;
• explain creativity and its role in life; and
• explain the process of decision making.
7.1 THE NATURE OF THINKING

Thinking is perhaps one aspect of our mental activity which continues even when
we are asleep. The difference between what is thinking and what is not thinking is
just our awareness about the particular thinking process. Hence thinking is a complex
mental process which involves manipulation of information. Such information is

MODULE - II Thinking and Problem Solving
Basic
Psychological
Processes collected through our senses (such as vision, hearing, smelling etc) from the
environment, as well as the information which is stored in our memory because of
our encounter with many events and situations in the past. Thinking is a constructive
process in the sense that it helps us to form a new representation of any object or
event by transforming available information. It involves a number of mental activities,
such as inferring, abstracting, reasoning, imagining, judging, problem solving, and
Notes creative thinking. Such activities take place in our mind and can be inferred from
our behaviours. Thinking is usually initiated by a problem and goes through a sequence
of steps such as judging, abstracting, inferring, reasoning, imagining, and
remembering. These steps are often directed towards solution of the problem. The
example given below will help you to understand this in a better way.
In order to reach your new school on time suppose you are trying to find out the
shortest route from your home to your new school. Your choice will be guided by
many factors such as condition of the road, the density of traffic during your school
time, safety while walking on the road etc. Finally you take a decision about the best
possible shortest route after considering all these factors. Thus, a simple problem
like this also requires thinking. The solution to this problem emerges after processing
information that is available to us from the environment and our past experience.
Thinking relies on a variety of mental structures such as concepts and reasoning.
We will briefly learn about these mental structures.
Concepts: Concepts are one of the key elements of thinking. Concepts represent
objects, activities, ideas, or living organisms. They also represent properties (such
as “sour” or “brave”), abstractions (such as “anger” or “fear”), and relations (such
as “smaller than” or “more intelligent than”). Concepts are mental structures which
allow us to organize knowledge in systematic ways. We cannot observe them directly,
but we can infer them from behaviour.
We as human beings have the capacity to abstract the essential characteristics of

objects, events or whatever we perceive. For example, when we see a Potato we
categorize it as ‘vegetable’, and when we see a towel we categorize it as ‘cloth’.
Whenever we encounter a new stimulus we tend to treat it as a member of a familiar
or remembered category and take the same action toward it and give it the same
label.
Reasoning: Reasoning is also one of the key aspects of thinking. It is a process that
involves inference. Reasoning is used in logical thinking and problem solving. It is
goal directed, and the conclusions or judgments are drawn from a set of facts. In
reasoning, information from the environment and the stored information in the mind
are used following certain rules. There are two types of reasoning: deductive and
inductive. In deductive reasoning we try to deduce or draw conclusion from a set of
initial assertions or premises; where as in inductive reasoning we start from available
evidence to generate a conclusion about the likelihood of something. Most cases of
scientific reasoning are inductive in nature. Scientists and even lay people consider
a number of instances and try to determine what general rule covers them all. For

Basic
Psychological
example, the person is a priest, because he is wearing plain cloth, prays and eats
Processes
simple food.

Notes
1. What is thinking?
_______________________________________________________________
2. What are the different mental components of thinking?
_______________________________________________________________
7.2 PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem solving is part and parcel of our daily life. Every day we solve a number of
problems ranging from simple to complex. Some problems take little time where as
some take much time to solve. We look for alternative solutions if do not get the
right kind of resources to solve the problem in hand. In the case of solving any type
of problem our thinking becomes directed and focused and we try to use all the
resources, both internal (mind) and external (support and help of others) to arrive at
the right and appropriate decision. For example if you want to score good marks in
an exam, you study hard, take the help of teachers, friends, and parents and finally
you score good marks. Thus problem solving is directed thinking focused towards
dealing with a specific problem. This thinking has three elements: the problem, the
goal, and the steps to reach the goal. There are two methods which are used
prominently in problem solving. These are- “Means-end-analysis” and
“Algorithms”. In the case of Means-end-analysis a specific step-by-step procedure
is followed for solving certain types of problems. In the case of ‘heuristics’ the
individual is free to go for any kind of possible rules or ideas to reach the solution. It
is also called rule of thumb.
Problem Solving and Mental Set: Sometimes we use a particular strategy/technique

to solve a problem but we may or may not succeed in our effort to solve the problem.
This creates a set to approach future problems that are incountered by a person. The
set continues even if the problem is different. Despite this, we use the same strategy/
technique when ever we come across the same problem and again fail to reach the
solution. Such phenomenon in problem solving is called mental set. A mental set is
a tendency on the part of an individual to respond to a new problem in the same
manner that he or she has used earlier to solve a problem. Previous success with a
particular rule produces a kind of mental rigidity/fixedness/set, which hinders the
process of generating new ideas to solve a new problem. A mental set inhibits or
affects the quality of our mental activities. However, in solving our real life problems
we often rely on past learning and experience with similar or related problems.

Basic
Psychological
Processes In Activity 1 You may not be able to solve the problem, because of the mental set
that one has to keep the lines within the grid of nine dots. By going outside the
boundaries, you will succeed.
Notes INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.2

1. Define problem solving. Discuss the two types of problem solving.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Discuss the role of mental set in problem solving.
_______________________________________________________________
7.3 CREATIVITY AND ITS ROLE IN LIFE

Do you know whatever you see around you, the things which you use for work in
everyday life, the transport you use for commuting from one place to another etc are
all the products of human thinking? Creativity is a particular kind of thinking which
involves reaching out to the solution of a problem in a unique and novel way which
was nonexistent earlier. Creativity is the mother of all inventions and discoveries in
the world. Unlike routine solutions to the problems, creative solutions are novel,
original, and unique, that others have not thought of before. The creative solutions
or productions are sudden or spontaneous and are the outcome of a lot of work and
preparation already done consciously and unconsciously. The sudden appearance of
new ideas is called insight. The creative thinker can be any more such as an artist,
musician, writer, scientist or sports person.
Stages of Creative Thinking: Graham Wallas , one of the leading psychologists of

early twentieth century stated that there are five stages of creative thinking. These
are Preparation, incubation, illumination, evaluation, and revision. We briefly discuss
these five steps of creative thinking in the subsequent section.
1. Preparation: This is the first stage in which the thinker formulates the problem
and collects facts and materials necessary for the solution. He/she finds that the
problem cannot be solved after days, weeks, or months of concentrated effort.
Unable to solve the problem the thinker deliberately or involuntarily turns away
from the problem, initiating stage two i.e. incubation. At this stage of problem
solving, it is important to overcome negative consequences of mental set and
any kind of mental set or bias.
2. Incubation: This is a stage of no solution and involves a number of emotional
and cognitive complexities. However, the negative effects of mental set, functional
fixedness, and other ideas that interfere with the solution tend to fade. Perhaps,
fatigue and too much of concern with the problem also mount up during this

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Psychological
period. Further, the unconscious thought processes involved in creative thinking
Processes
are at work during this stage.
3. Illumination: In this stage a potential solution to the problem seems to be realized
as if from nowhere. It is about having the insight about the possible solution.
Illumination occurs with its “aha” experience when a sudden idea or solution
appears into consciousness. Notes
4. Evaluation: In this stage the obtained solution is verified or tested to see if it
works. Frequently, the insight may turn out to be unsatisfactory, and may need
some modification in the strategy of approaching the problem.
5. Revision: Revision is required in the case a solution which is not satisfactory.
It has been found that creative people are generally talented (e.g. artists, musicians,
mathematicians etc.), and have specific abilities. Creative people have been found
to have some specific personality characteristics such as they are independent in
their judgments, self-assertive, dominant, impulsive, prefer complexity, etc.
1. What is creativity? What are the possible characteristics of a creative person?

_______________________________________________________________
2. Discuss in brief the stages of creative thinking.
_______________________________________________________________
7.4 DECISION MAKING

We make several decisions in our day-to-day life, such as decisions pertaining to our
personal life, social life, education, career etc. When we take a decision which gives
us success where as our faulty decisions do not yield the desired result. Decision
making is also related with another term ‘judgment’. Let us discuss these two aspects
of thinking separately.
Decision Making: Decision- making is a kind of problem solving in which we

select an appropriate alternative out of a number of alternatives available to us. For
example, you have the option to choose between History and Psychology courses in
your eleventh grade. You attend classes in both the subjects to decide upon the course
to choose. Suppose you find that the contents of psychology are relevant, interesting
and new and the teacher is intelligent, friendly, knowledgeable, and having good
verbal ability; all qualities that you value in a teacher. So, on the basis of judgment
about the subject and qualities of the teacher you decide to choose the psychology
course.

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Psychological
Processes Judgment: Judgment is a process of forming opinions, arriving at conclusions, and
making critical evaluations about objects, events and people on the basis of available
information. The process of judgment is often automatic and spontaneous. It does
not require any prompting. Some judgmental choices are habitual like need for going
for a morning walk before getting ready. Judgments involve evaluating information
about the world (objects, events, persons, etc.), while decisions require making
Notes choices.

1. What is the difference between decision making and judgment? Discuss in brief.
_______________________________________________________________

• The process of knowing or acquiring knowledge is called cognition. The process
of acquiring knowledge is facilitated by processes such as attention, thinking,
remembering, and reasoning. These cognitive processes are controlled and
regulated by higher center of the brain, the cerebral cortex.
• Thinking is a complex mental process which involves manipulation of
information. Such information is collect through our senses (such as vision,
hearing, smelling etc) from the environment, or is based on information which is
stored in our memory because of our encounter with many events and situations
in the past.
• Thinking is a constructive process in the sense that it helps us to form a new
representation of any object or event by transforming available information. It
involves a number of mental activities, such as inferring, abstracting, reasoning,
imagining, judging, problem solving, and creative thinking.
• Concepts are one of the key elements of thinking. Concepts are mental structures
which allow us to organize knowledge in systematic ways. We cannot observe
them directly, but we can infer them from behaviour.
• Reasoning is another key aspects of thinking. It is a process that involves inference.
Reasoning is used in logical thinking and problem solving. It is goal directed,
and the conclusions or judgments are drawn from a set of facts.
• There are two types of reasoning: deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning
we try to deduce or draw conclusion from a set of initial assertions or premises;
where as in inductive reasoning we start from available evidence to generate a
conclusion about the likelihood of something.

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• Problem solving is directed thinking focused towards dealing with a specific
Processes
problem. It has three elements: the problem, the goal, and the steps to reach the
goal.
• A mental set is a tendency on the part of an individual to respond to a new
problem in the same manner that he or she has used earlier to solve a problem.
Previous success with a particular rule produces a kind of mental rigidity/
fixedness/set, which hinders the process of generating new ideas to solve a new Notes
problem.
• Creativity is a particular kind of thinking which involves reaching out to the
solution of a problem in a unique and novel way which was nonexistent earlier.
Creativity is the mother of all inventions and discoveries in the world. Creative
solutions are novel, original, and unique that others have not thought of before.
• There are five stages of creative thinking. These are Preparation, incubation,
illumination, evaluation, and revision.
• Decision- making is a kind of problem solving in which we select an appropriate
alternative out of a number of alternatives available to us. Judgment is a process
of forming opinions, arriving at conclusion, and making critical evaluations about
objects, events and people on the basis of available information.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Give any 2 examples each for (a) Concepts (b) Reasoning (c) Problem solving.
2. Identify any 5 creative persons who are famous in India.
3. Explain the concept of decision-making and its importance in daily life.

7.1
1. Complex mental process involving manipulation of information.
2. Concepts and reasoning
7.2
1. Directed thinking focussed towards dealing with a specific problem Means-and
- analysis and Algorithms
2. Mental set inhibits the quality of mental activities.
7.3
1. Thinking which involves reaching out to solutions in a uniqe and novel way

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which was nonexistent earlier. Creative persons can be self-assestive, dominant,
Processes
impulsive, may prefer complexity etc.
2. Preparation, incubation, illumination, evaluation revision.
7.4
1. Decision making is a kind of problem solving. Judgement is a process of forming
Notes
opinions, arriving at conclusions and making critical evaluations.
1. Refer to section 7.1 & 7.2

Motivation and Emotion MODULE - II
Basic
Psychological
Processes
8
Notes
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Have you noticed how each one of us is busy in one or the other activities? We try
our best to achieve certain goals; and, if some difficulty comes in the way we feel
frustrated. These statements show that our daily life is influenced by our needs such
as hunger, thirst, achievement, affiliation etc. Not only that, we also feel happy, sad,
angry or violent. The former aspects refer to motivation and the latter refer to different
types of emotions. This lesson explains the relevance of motivation and emotions in
human life. Motivation helps in answering the question: why do people seek to do
certain things?. This helps us understand why people differ in terms of their behaviour.
Emotions play an equally important role in everything we do, affecting our
relationships with others and health. Both concepts are important because they help
us understand the reasons for the various activities we indulge in and help determine
the unique personality of each person.
OBJECTIVES

• define the concepts of motives and needs;
• understand goal directed behaviour;
• describe the different aspects of emotions; and
• explain the role of emotions in organizing behaviour.
8.1 NATURE OF MOTIVATION

Have you wondered as to – ‘Why does your father/mother go to work everyday?’
‘Why do you study for long hours?’ ‘Why do you like to play with your friends?’ or
‘Why does your mother stay up the whole night and care for you when you are
feeling unwell?’
Each of these questions has an answer as there is a reason or motive behind each

MODULE - II Motivation and Emotion
Basic
Psychological
Processes type of activity mentioned. Working, studying, playing and caring are some important
activities which are considered purposeful. Motives, wants, needs, interests and
desires help explain our movement towards the chosen goals. A need or motive
directs us to act or behave in a particular way towards a certain goal. Thus you study
for long hours to achieve good results and your mother looks after you because of
the affection and concern she has for you as her child.
Notes
A. The Concept of Motivation
Motivation plays an important role in directing human behaviour. There are several
characteristics of motivation. First, it pushes us to reach the goals we have set for
ourselves. In order to reach our goals we need to be aroused or feel active. Too little
arousal will make us feel dull and relaxed, whereas, too much arousal may make us
withdraw from our goal. Hence we must be motivated to maintain a balanced or
optimum level of arousal. Second, people are motivated to behave in certain ways
because of the pleasing and pleasant properties of external stimuli, such as, money,
good grades, food, which motivate the person to act in a purposeful/focussed manner.
Third, motivation is the result of the person’s thoughts and expectations. It can be of
two types: intrinsic motivation that comes from within the person, based on personal
enjoyment of any task, and extrinsic motivation which is based on external rewards
such as money, pay and grades. You will find that sometimes we work hard and
produce high quality work when motivation is intrinsic rather than extrinsic. On the
other hand, we are also influenced by the external rewards. In life, both types of
motivation are important. Finally, motivational needs are ordered such that basic
needs such as hunger and thirst are satisfied first and then other higher-needs, such
as need for achievement and power are fulfilled. Let us now learn about the hierarchy
of needs.
B. The Hierarchy of Needs
According to psychologist Abraham Maslow, there are several levels of needs that
each person must strive to meet before he or she can achieve the highest level of
personal fulfilment. Thus, a person must be able to fulfil the primary (biological)
needs at the lowest level, as indicated in Figure 1. Once these needs are met then
safety becomes important, followed by need to belong and to love and be loved.
The desire to belong to groups such as family, friends, and religious groups makes
us feel loved and accepted by others. If we succeed in satisfying the mentioned
needs then we feel the need to have self esteem, confidence, and feeling of self-
worth. Next come cognitive needs which include need for knowledge and
understanding, followed by need for order and beauty. Finally a person moves
towards reaching the full potential called self-actualization. Such a person has the
qualities of self awareness, is socially responsive, and is open to the challenges of
life. This type of organization of needs is called a hierarchy, or ranking in a series.

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Psychological
Processes
Notes
Figure 8.1: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
As life goes on people gain wisdom and knowledge of how to handle situations,
thus they move up the ladder or hierarchy. A person may move up and down the
hierarchy depending upon the situation he or she finds himself in. This hierarchy
may not hold true for different cultures. It has been found that in countries like
Sweden and Norway quality of life is very important and social needs are more
sought after than self-actualization. In some cultures security needs are more dominant
than self-actualization making job security more important than job satisfaction.
C. Primary Needs
‘Need’ refers to a lack of something that is necessary for us. We feel hungry when
our blood sugar level is low, thus we need to eat food to satisfy our hunger. Motives
or needs are characterized in terms of primary and secondary needs or motives.
Important primary needs are biological needs such as hunger, thirst, oxygen, rest,
sleep, temperature regulation, warmth, shelter, excretion, and sex. These needs have
to be satisfied for us to stay alive. Needs such as hunger and sleep are cyclical in
nature or are repetitive. Thus we need to eat and sleep regularly. Attempt Activity 1
to understand the effects of not eating or sleeping for a long time.

Basic
Psychological
Processes Activity 1
Primary Needs
a) Effect of lack of sleep on performance. Try to keep awake for a long period
of time, for example for about 16 hours. Now list your experience on two
aspects: i) how long you take to learn a lesson and ii) your feelings at this
Notes point of time.
b) Effect of not eating for a long period of time. Try not to eat for a long period,
for example, 8 hours. List your experience in terms of how you feel. Rate
your feelings on a five point scale in terms of: i) extent of low feeling, ii)
level of irritation and annoyance. Also try to concentrate on reading a new
lesson. Are you able to read the lesson? If not, why is this so?
The starting point of many biological needs is an imbalance in the physiological

conditions of our body. Our body tries to maintain a state of balance called
homeostasis. This balance is crucial. There must be enough water content in our
body, body temperature must not be high or too low, glucose levels must be adequate
and so on. Without maintaining this balance we would not be able to function properly
in our daily life activities. Can you recall when you or a family member suffered
from high fever and had to rest in bed for a few days? A state of balance must be
maintained within our body to carry out our daily activities.
Why do we eat or feel hungry? There are several factors involved in the hunger
need. Stomach contractions or ‘hunger pangs’ indicate that the stomach is empty
and low levels of glucose and protein in the blood make us hungry. In addition, the
smell, taste or appearance of food may lead to a desire to eat. When you reach home
the smell of your favourite dish makes you feel hungry! Many factors work together
to make us feel hungry. It is interesting that you can go hungry for long periods but
not without water. We feel thirsty because we lose water content due to perspiration,
breathing and urination.
Influence of Culture and Environment on Primary Needs

Do you know that our biological needs, such as hunger, are influenced by
environmental factors? Often we are likely to feel hungry because of a number of
reasons rather than due to low glucose levels in the blood. Environmental factors
that have an effect on hunger and eating are:
• Learned liking and habits, for example, a person who enjoys having pizza will
want to eat it even if not hungry.
• Stress can lead to eating, for example, examination stress makes some students
eat more than is required.
• External cues, such as when it is dinner time or your mother calls out for dinner
you are likely to feel hungry. The smell and attractive appearance of food may
also make you feel hungry.

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• Dietary restraints, if the doctor has advised a patient to avoid sweet foods there Processes
may be an increased desire to eat sweets.
D. Secondary Needs
Secondary needs lead to psychological or social motives. They are called social
motives because they are learned in social groups, particularly the family. As children
grow up and interact with others they acquire certain needs which can be fulfilled in Notes
a group setting. For example, achievement motivation is acquired by children through
their parents, role models and socio-cultural influences. Some common social motives
are:
Achievement: To strive for success and excellence, carry out difficult tasks.
Affiliation: To seek and enjoy the company of others, to make friends.
Power: To strive for impact on others, to influence, control and persuade others.
Nurturance: To help and take care of others such as children, elderly or sick persons.
Aggression: To fight, forcefully overcome opposition, to hurt and ridicule.
Exploration: To seek a variety of stimulation, to explore novel things.
The type and strength of social motives differ from person to person. For example,
you may have high needs for achievement and affiliation, whereas your friend could
have a moderate need for achievement and a low need for affiliation. Or, you could
have a high need for affiliation and your friend a high need for exploration.
Mother Teresa’s concern for the poor, sick and helpless

made her open the Missionaries of Charity in 1950. It
provides food for the needy and runs schools, hospitals,
orphanages, youth counselling centres, and, homes for
lepers and the dying. Mother Teresa’s work has touched
the lives of thousands of people. Her concern for others
makes her high on need for nurturance. Do read the poem
written by Mother Teresa as shown on www.youtube.com.
Nelson Mandela dedicated himself to the struggle of African
people and was imprisoned for 27 years before he achieved
freedom for his people. In fact he did not want personal freedom
but fought for the setting free of common people. He was
influenced by Mahatma Gandhi’s way of thinking. For him it is
important to live in peace and harmony and have equal
opportunities for all people. Nelson Mandela was able to achieve
difficult goals and his commitment helped him accomplish his purpose in life.
Watch the video on www.youtube.com ‘Making Poverty History – Nelson
Mandela’ and ‘First Nelson Mandela Interview’

Basic
Psychological
Processes We can also classify needs into three basic types: existence needs that include all
primary needs that are essential for survival; relatedness needs include safety,
belongingness, esteem and other social relationships needs; and, growth needs
include those aspects that help people to develop their full potential. It is important
to understand that biological and psychological needs do not work in isolation. They
influence each other and determine human behaviour.
Notes

1. Explain the concept of motivation.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Differentiate between primary and secondary motives.
_______________________________________________________________
3. Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
_______________________________________________________________
4. Discuss the role of culture and environment in our needs and motives.
_______________________________________________________________
Quiz 1
1. The process by which a person moves towards fulfilment of wants is called:
a. need b. incentive c. motivation d. goal
2. Secondary needs are acquired through
a. biological needsb. social interaction c. intrinsic procession d. innate needs
3. According to Maslow the most basic needs are:
a. safety b. cognitive c. love d. biological
4. Reema gets Rs. 20 for every good grade she obtains in school. Reema is receiving:
a. intrinsic motivation b. extrinsic motivation c. primary need d. growth need
5. Ashok has a high need for …………….. because he likes to study and investigate
new things.
a. love b. nurturance c. exploration d. achievement

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8.2 NATURE OF EMOTIONS Processes
Each one of us has experienced strong feelings that are associated with pleasant or
negative experiences. Examples of emotion are feeling happy when enjoying a movie,
or getting embarrassed when we break a neighbour’s beautiful vase, or sadness after
an argument with our best friend. Emotions influence our everyday behaviour.
Notes
A. Functions of Emotions
Emotions play several important functions in our lives.
• Emotions prepare us for action: When you see a person with a gun coming
towards you, the emotion of fear and the accompanying bodily changes will help
you run away from the situation.
• Emotions help arrange our activities and future behaviour in some order:
Emotions help us to gather information and increase our chances of making the
right response in the future. When a person threatens us we will try to avoid
meeting that person out of fear. Positive emotions can act as reinforcement such
as, wanting to repeat an action which brought us praise and joy.
• Emotions help us interact effectively with others: When we show our emotions
other people watching them may come to be familiar with our way of behaving
and know how we are likely to act again in the future. Similarly, others’emotional
expressions help us understand how to behave with them.
Activity 2
In column A are some situations which we all go through. In column B are
emotions we might experience in these situations. Try and match column A to
column B.
A B
(i) You had fight with your best friend (i) Surprise, excitement
(ii) You are about to go for an interview / exam (ii) Fear, nervousness
(iii) You and your family are going for a picnic (iii)Sorrow, sadness
(iv) You are about to receive the results of (iv)Disgust
an exam that you do not think you did well on.
(v) You have received an unexpected gift (v) Scared, nervousness
(vi) You see a man chewing pan/tobacco and (vi)Excitement, happiness
spitting on the road

Basic
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Processes
Notes
Fig. 8.2: Emotional Expressions

B. Components of Emotions
Emotion has three basic components or parts:
1. Physiological changes: when a person feels an emotion certain changes take
place in our body such as increase in heart rate, blood pressure, pupil size is
increased, perspiration takes place, breathing is faster and the mouth may become
dry. Think about the last time when you went to the examination centre to write
your exam or when you were angry at your younger brother. You may have
experienced these bodily changes.
2. Behavioural changes and emotional expression refer to the outward and
noticeable signs of what a person is feeling. These include facial expressions,
bodily postures, and gestures with the hand, running away, smiling, frowning,
and slumping in a chair. The six primary emotions in facial expressions are: fear,
anger, sadness, surprise, disgust and happiness. This means that these emotions
are easily recognized in people from all over the world.
3. Emotional Feelings: Emotion also includes the personal/individual feeling. We
can label the emotion felt as: happy, sad, angry, disgusted and so on. Labelling

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Psychological
of a feeling is shaped by past experiences and the culture one belongs to. On Processes
seeing a person with a stick in his/her hand we may run away or prepare ourselves
to fight, whereas, if a well known singer is in your neighbourhood you will go to
the place to hear him sing your favourite songs.
Cognition or understanding of the situation is the most important part of
emotional experiences. Some psychologists feel that we think and then feel, Notes
while others believe that our emotional reactions are so fast that thinking about
the situation does not arise. Attempt Activity 3 to check which explanation is
correct according to you? Human emotions involve so many things, past
experience, culture, individual differences therefore at times we may first act
and then think about it, whereas in other situations we can first think before
reacting.
Activity 3
Emotion and Thinking
Think and answer: when you suddenly see a dog snarling near by do you first
run away or do you first think ‘What should I do?’ and then decide to run?
Make a list of other situations where you are likely to first react and other
situations where you are likely to first think and assess the situation and then
you will respond.
Most of the times we feel a mixture of emotions. For example, when a person wins
a lottery she may show the emotions of shock, disbelief, surprise and joy. We are
also familiar with each other’s feelings and know what it means to him or her. Hence
you know when your friend is happy to receive a gift and sad when you have had an
argument with her. However your experience of emotions of joy and fear is different
from your friend’s. Going for a walk may provide you with pleasure whereas for
your friend a hug from her mother gives the feeling of pleasure. The meaning a
feeling has for you or your friend is influenced by past experiences and memories.
Activity 4
There are many ways by which we describe our feelings. Prepare a list of the
various emotions people feel. Make your own list of emotions. Also ask your
family members and friends. You will realize that the list is very long for
human emotions have a wide range.
C. Emotions and Culture
Do people in all cultures express their emotions similarly? Yes, research indicates
that the six basic emotions are expressed universally. Therefore, Indians, Americans,
Germans or Japanese express joy and fear in the same basic way. Each primary
emotion is associated with a unique set of facial and muscular movements.

Basic
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Processes Yet you must understand that the behaviour of people from various countries is
different from your behaviour. Japanese tend to show very little emotional display
as compared to Italians. Why does this difference in display exist if there are basic
universal emotions? The answer is that as we grow up we come into contact with
family members and others. The social experiences lead to the development of display
rules which are approved way of showing of emotions. These rules are learnt during
Notes childhood and this learning becomes noticeable in the expression of emotions. Can
you recall any instance when you have received a gift that you do not like? Have you
not thanked profusely with a smile ‘pasted on your face’? This is known as ‘making
of emotion’. Interestingly there may have been instances when you have been able
to note the difference between a made up smile and a true smile.

1. State the functions of emotions in our lives.
_______________________________________________________________
2. With the help of examples identify the components of emotions.
_______________________________________________________________
3. State how display rules are influenced by culture.
_______________________________________________________________
Quiz 2
State whether the following statements are true or false:
1. Emotions prepare us for action. T/F
2. When a person feels an emotion no bodily changes take place. T/F
3. Emotional expression is only shown through facial expressions. T/F
4. Labelling of emotions is influenced by past experience and the culture one belongs
to. T/F
5. Display rules are approved ways that are noticeable in the expression of emotion.
T/F
8.3 ROLE OF EMOTION AND MOTIVATION IN HUMAN

BEHAVIOUR
Can you imagine a situation when you are about to appear for an important
examination or are going to receive a prize for securing the first position in class and
you do not feel anything? Or, you are walking alone down a dark street at midnight
and someone is following you and again you are not feeling anything? Absence of
not being motivated to do something and absence of feelings is likely to make us act
in a robotic fashion.
Basic
Psychological
We have tried to understand motivation and emotions as two distinct concepts. In
Processes
real life both are closely related and connected and separating the two concepts is a
difficult task. In this unit you have learned that along with motivation we also feel
our experiences. In the examples provided above the act of studying long hours and
the experience of success provides you with a sense of achievement and happiness.
The emotional feelings of love and affection your parents have towards you also
motivate them to care for you. The death of a loved one brings on the emotion of Notes
sadness whereas we experience anger at being treated unfairly. Emotions not only
motivate us, they also indicate the reason for motivation. They play an important
role in our lives.
Hence your motivation is also accompanied by emotions. Any situation that brings
about a strong emotion is likely to motivate you to either repeat it or to avoid it. Thus
both motivation and emotion are forces that push us towards action. Primary needs
like hunger, thirst and sleep and secondary needs like achievement, power or approval
are accompanied by emotional reactions of satisfaction, joy and pride. It can be said
that:
• Both motivation and emotion move, activate and help control and plan human
behaviour.
• The feeling part of emotion has a motivational component. It helps us to get
what we want and to avoid what we do not want in life.
• Emotions can serve as motives. For example, a frightened child may cry out for
help and seek comfort and security from a loved one, such as, a mother or father.

• Motivation is a want or need that helps us move towards our goal. It moves us to
act or behave in a particular way.
• Motives and needs are characterized in terms of primary motives (biological)
and secondary (psychological) motives. Primary needs are due physiological
imbalance while secondary needs are influenced by social experiences of the
individual.
• According to the hierarchy model, biological needs must be fulfilled before
psychological needs.
• Emotions play three important functions: prepare us for action, organize our
behaviour and future, and, interact effectively with others.
• Emotions have three interrelated components: physiological changes, behavioural
and emotional expression and subjective feelings.
• Basic emotions and their expressions are universal in nature yet culture provides
guidelines towards how and when to show emotions.

Basic
Psychological
Processes • Motivation and emotion together activate and organize our life. Motivation leads
to emotional experience and this further motivates (reinforces) a person to act.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Notes 1. Write three examples of motivated action. Now identify the important
characteristics of motivation.
2. Identify the important components of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Which
motives are satisfied first? Provide reasons as to why this is so.
3. With suitable examples describe the role of motivation and emotion in organizing
our behaviour.
Activities/Exercises
1. Interview a person who has achieved prominence in his or her field. For example,
the president of a company, a sports person, a dancer or a physically challenged
person. Ask the person about his/her life – starting from childhood to the current
position, incidents that influenced them, the various challenges and how they
were overcome. Prepare a case study.
2. Collect a number of magazines, and newspapers. Cut photographs which show
different facial expressions. Make a collage of these photographs to understand
the different emotions in human life.
3. Interview a dancer or theatre person. Ask the person about different emotional
expressions and how they are used to communicate specific emotions. Try to
note how the body posture, gestures, and facial expressions communicate
emotions.

8.1 Refer to Section 8.1
Quiz 1
1. c
2. b
3. d
4. b
5. c

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Quiz 2
Processes
1. T
2. F
3. F
4. T
Notes
5. T
2. Refer to section 81
Web Sites
The following websites will help you to further understand motivation and emotions.
1. http://thesituationist.files.wordpress.com/2007/10/emotions.jpg
Types of emotions: (a) In this site robots have been used to depict different types
of emotions. Study in detail how each part of the face (forehead, eyebrows, size
of eye pupil, etc.)
(b) https://sfari.org/image/image_gallery?img_id=136061&t =1241787803666
Whereas in this site humans have been used to show six different emotions. Can
you identify them?
(c) http://www.scribd.com/doc/12910868/Paul-Ekman-Emotions-Revealed-
Recognizing-Faces-and-Feelings-to-Improve-Communication-and-Emotional-
Life
This E-book by Paul Ekman has a number of photographs which you can observe
to understand different types and display of emotions. On page 236 in the appendix
there is a test ‘Reading Faces’ consisting of 14 photographs that you can attempt
. At the end of the e-book answers with explanations are also provided .

MODULE - III Nature and Determinants of Development
Human
Development
Notes 9
NATURE AND DETERMINANTS OF
DEVELOPMENT
One of the most important features of all living beings is change. The changes are
most striking when we see the transition in human life spanning from conception to
death. The journey from an unborn baby to an adult and then on to an old person is
very fascinating. Even a casual observation of the human lives around you will make
it clear that several changes happen each day in our bodies and psychological
functioning. Some changes are noticeable while some can not be immediately or
clearly observed. Some of these changes are determined more by hereditary or genetic
factors, while some depend more on environmental and cultural factors. Different
cultures hold different goals for development and use different strategies to bring up
children. In order to help individuals develop in the best way possible, it is important
to understand the nature and process of development throughout the life-span.
OBJECTIVES
• describe the nature of development and distinguish it from other related concepts;
• describe the important domains and stages of human development;
• identify major genetic and environmental influences on human development;
and
• learn about the effects of environmental factors on pre-natal as well as post-
natal development.
9.1 NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT

In this section, we will try to understand what is meant by the term “development”,
distinguish it from other related concepts, and identify its main characteristics.

Nature and Determinants of Development MODULE - III
Human
Development
A. The Concept of “Development”
The term “development” is generally used to refer to the dynamic process by which
an individual grows and changes throughout its life-span. It is often thought of as
the process of qualitative change taking place from conception to death. In this way
Notes
development is a broad term and deals with all areas including physical, motor,
cognitive, physiological, social, emotional and personality. It should be noted that
developments in all these areas are inter-related. For example, a 13 year-old girl
undergoes physical and biological changes in her body and such changes are in turn
related to her mental, social and emotional development.
Life begins at conception when mother’s ovum fertilized by the father’s sperm and
a new organism is created. From that point till death an individual keeps on changing.
Such changes are not random but orderly and generally follow a pattern. It may be
noted that the developmental changes are not always incremental or evolutionary.
They may also involve a decline in the functioning called “involution”. A child
loses milk teeth in the process of development while an old person may show decay
in memory and physical functioning. Development, therefore, is best viewed as a
gain-loss relationship in which newer and different kinds of changes take place.
Older behavior patterns may lose their salience while new ones may emerge.
Development is shaped by the joint influences of both nature and nurture in a cultural
context. Nature refers to the hereditary contribution a child receives from parents at
the time of conception. Genetics determines several aspects of a person’s physical
structure and functioning as well as some psychological characteristics to a certain
extent. Nurture refers to the influences of the complex physical and social ecology
in which we develop and grow. Various aspects of the child’s ecology (e.g. physical
facilities, social institutions and rituals, and school) influence the developmental
outcomes in important ways.
B. Key Developmental Concepts
The term “development” is often used interchangeably with “growth” and

“maturation”, but these terms need to be carefully distinguished.
“Growth” generally refers to the quantitative additions or changes in the organic

structure. For instance as we become older, the body size, height, weight, proportion
of parts of our body change in measurable ways. Also, the vocabulary increases.
“Development” on the other hand, is a broader term which often includes growth,
but is used more to refer to functional and qualitative changes in cognitive ability,
perceptual ability, personality and emotional development and so on.
“Maturation” is a term that refers to the natural unfolding of changes with increasing
age, e.g. hormonal changes as the individual reaches puberty. An example of this

Human
Development
can be seen in breast development which is influenced by release of estrogen when
a girl reaches adolescence. Maturation refers to the changes which are primarily
biological in nature and occur due to our genetic programme. Our biological structure
follows a predetermined course of changes with time. This can be seen in the
development of teeth during childhood. Changes in body proportions with age provide
Notes an example of such predetermined universal trends. The size of the head is roughly
half of the whole body at birth, but the proportion keeps decreasing until adulthood,
when it is less than one-fourth of the whole body. Therefore, maturational changes
in our body are primarily due to the ageing process rather than learning or other
factors such as illness or injury.
It must be noted that changes in behavior also occur due to “learning”. Learning
takes place as a result of a person’s interaction with the environment. Maturation
provides the raw material and sets the stage for learning to occur. Taking the case of
learning to read, the child needs to be biologically ready. The eyes need to develop
proper focusing ability before a child can learn to read. Therefore, maturation and
learning jointly bring about changes in a person’s behaviour.
“Evolution” is a term that refers to species-specific changes. Evolutionary changes

happen very gradually and are passed on from one generation to the other so that the
species is better equipped for survival. The evolution from apes to human beings
took place over a period of about 14 million years. Changes that occur at the level of
species are called phylogenetic and those that occur at the level of individual are
called ontogenetic. The term evolution is also used to describe the incremental
changes that take place in the course of development.
C. Characteristics of Development
We can now summarize the characteristic features of development to help us

distinguish it from other kinds of changes.
• Development is a life-long process, spanning from conception till death.

• Developmental changes are often systematic, progressive and orderly. They
usually follow a pattern, proceeding from general to specific, and from simple to
complex and integrated levels of functioning.
• Development is multi-directional, i.e. some areas may show a sharp increase
while other areas may show a decline. Developmental changes usually involve
an increase in maturity towards higher levels of functioning, e.g. increase in
vocabulary’s size and complexity. But it may also involve a decrease or loss,
such as in bone density or memory in old age.
• Moreover the rate of growth and development is not always constant. ‘Plateaus’
are often seen in the pattern of development, indicating periods of no apparent
improvement.

Human
Development
• Developmental changes can be quantitative, e.g. increase in height with age, or
qualitative, e.g. formation of moral values.
• Development is both continuous as well as discontinuous process. Some changes
may occur very rapidly and be overtly visible, such as appearance of the first
tooth, while some changes may not be sharp enough to be observed easily in Notes
day-to-day functioning, such as understanding of grammar.
• Developmental changes are relatively stable. The temporary changes due to
weather, fatigue or other chance factors will not qualify as development.
• Developmental changes are multi-dimensional and inter-related. They may
happen together in many areas at a time, or can occur one at a time. During
adolescence there are rapid changes in the body as well as in emotional, social
and cognitive functioning.
• Development is highly plastic or flexible. This means that the same person may
suddenly show greater improvement in a particular area than expected from the
past rate of development. An enriched environment can produce unexpected
changes in the physical strength, or in memory and intelligence levels.
• Development is contextual. It is influenced by historical, environmental and
socio-cultural factors. The loss of a parent, an accident, a war, an earthquake and
child-rearing customs are examples of factors which may influence development.
• There are considerable individual differences in the rate or tempo of
developmental changes. These differences could be due to hereditary factors or
environmental influences. Some children can be very precocious for their age,
while some children show developmental delays. For example, though an average
child begins to speak 3 word sentences around 3 years of age, there will be some
children who have mastered this much before 2 years, while there will be some
who are not able to speak full sentences even by 4 years. Moreover, there will be
some children who are not able to speak even beyond the upper limit of the
range.

1. Write True/False against each statement:
a. Development refers to both quantitative and qualitative changes. T/F
b. Development follows a constant rate. T/F
c. The study of development does not cover old age. T/F
d. A person may show increase in some aspects and show decline in
other aspects at the same time T/F
e. Enrichment of the environment can produce dramatic changes. T/F

Human
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2. Write short answers to the following questions:
a. Explain the concept of development.
_______________________________________________________________
b. State any 3 major characteristics of human development.
Notes
_______________________________________________________________
9.2 DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT

As we have noted development is an inclusive term that incorporates changes in
several areas. These areas or domains deal with 3 broad categories:
1. Physical and motor development: It refers to changes in body-size and structure,
functioning of various body systems, brain development, perceptual and motor
development.
2. Cognitive development: It refers to the development of cognitive and intellectual
processes, including memory, attention, intelligence , academic knowledge,
problem solving, imagination and creativity. It also includes development of
language.
3. Socio-emotional development: It refers to how we develop relationships with
other people, and how our emotions emerge and change as we grow older. It
includes emotional communication and self-control, understanding of self and
others, interpersonal skills, personality, and emergence of friendship and moral
reasoning.
Physical Domain
Socio-
emotional Cognitive
Domain Domain
Fig. 9.1: Inter-relatedness of the domains of development
These domains or areas are inter-related and combine in a holistic manner to make a
person’s developmental pattern unique. Each domain influences and is influenced
by others. As a baby develops physically, several motor skills are acquired. As the

Human
Development
baby becomes capable of grasping, reaching, sitting, crawling, standing and walking,
he/she is able to better explore the environment, resulting in further cognitive
development. Improved thinking and understanding helps formation of better social
relations as well as emotional expression and comprehension. On the whole, each
domain helps the child move towards enriched experiences, learning and overall
development. Notes

1. Fill in the blanks in the following statements:
a. Improvement in memory and language indicates development in the ——
——domain.
b. Interpersonal relationships fall in the ___________ domain.
c. Changes in size and structure of the body fall in the _______domain of
development.
d. ___________ broad domains of development can be categorized for the
sake of convenience.
9.3 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Even though development is a continuous process, some theorists believe that various
stages can be identified for the sake of locating major shifts and determining the
developmental tasks. This helps in monitoring the pace of developmental changes.
It must be pointed out that there is no sharp dividing line between them. Each stage
has certain characteristic features and prepares the ground for the next stage. Some
theorists have suggested stages in specific areas of development. For instance Piaget
who identified stages of cognitive development and Freud who suggested stages of
psycho-sexual development. These theories are explained in other lessons.
A. Developmental Stages: A Life Span Perspective
Most psychologists identify the following stages of development:
• Prenatal period (from conception to birth) : In this period, the single-celled

organism changes into a human baby within the womb.
• Infancy and toddlerhood (birth-2 years): Rapid changes in the body and brain
help several sensory, motor, social and cognitive capacities to emerge.
• Early childhood: (2-6 years): Motor skills are refined, language develops, ties
are formed with peers, and the child learns through play.

Human
Development
• Middle childhood (6-11 years): These are the school years when the child
acquires literacy skills, thought processes are refined, friendships emerge and
self-concept is formed.
• Adolescence (11-20 years): This period is marked by puberty which signals the
onset of rapid physical and hormonal changes, emergence of abstract thinking,
Notes
sexual maturity, stronger peer ties, sense of self and autonomy from parental
control.
• Early adulthood (20-40 years): This is the stage of life when the youngster
leaves home for the sake of education, or to find a career, and to form intimate
relationships leading to marriage and having children.
• Middle adulthood (40-60 years): At this stage the person is at the peak of his/
her career. There is a need to help children begin independent lives, and to look
after own parents who are aging.
• Late adulthood (60 years till death): This period is marked by retirement from
work, decrease in stamina and physical health, bonding with grand-children,
and dealing with impending old age and death of self and spouse.
Fig. 9.2: Stages of human development
Though the stages of development are universally recognized, the exact age range is
arbitrary and depends on cultural factors. In some cultures, for example, there is no
distinct phase of adolescence with the stress associated with it. One simply moves
from childhood to adulthood. The concept of old age is undergoing a change with
enhanced medical, health and cosmetic facilities. Life-span expectancy has also
increased and reached to 65 years in India.
B. Life Stages : An Indigenous View

Ancient texts also view the human life-span in terms of stages. Life is seen as a
process of evolution in four stages known as Ashramas, which literally means a
dwelling place. There are four main Ashramas:

Human
Development
• Brahmacharya: During this period the major task is learning while living as a
student under the guidance of a Guru, with emphasis on discipline and simple
living.
• Grihastha: In this phase of life an individual has to work and take on the
responsibility of raising and maintaining a family within the social context. Notes
• Vanaprastha: It is a period of seclusion after one has raised the family and
completed the duties towards it. It requires severe discipline and austerity and
sharing responsibilities with the younger people.
• Sanyasa: It is the final stage of life when one needs to achieve complete
detachment from worldly objects, freedom from desire, and move towards
ultimate self-knowledge and renunciation from the world.
These stages or ashramas are based on the principle that a human being should
grow, participate and discharge worldly duties and contribute to the progress and
welfare of society and move towards liberation and spiritual growth. It is desired
that the older persons should give way to the younger generation. In this scheme one
lives in a web of obligations to society as well as environment including all living
beings such as animals and trees. It emphasizes co-existence with this whole living
world rather than being a consumer and exploiting the environment for personal
gains.
C. Developmental Tasks
Each developmental stage is characterized by a dominant feature or a leading
characteristic which determines its uniqueness. For example, a child is expected to
go to school and study while an adult is expected to work and raise a family. Certain
characteristics stand out more prominently than others and each period is called a
stage. People learn certain behavior patterns and skills more easily and successfully
at certain stages and this becomes a social expectation. For example, a child is
supposed to be able to go independently to school in middle childhood. Such social
expectations of a particular age common to all persons constitute “developmental
tasks”. If a person is able to master the developmental task of a particular stage, he
or she is considered to have successfully moved on to the next stage of development.

1. Write True or False after each statement:
a. Developmental stages have a fixed age range.
b. Prenatal period extends from birth to conception.
c. Adolescence is marked by rapid physical and psychological changes.

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d. There are four stages in the Hindu view of development.
e. The Hindu concept of development encourages staying away from the family.
f. Developmental tasks are social expectations of a particular age group.
Notes a. State the major stages of development as described in ancient Hindu texts.
_______________________________________________________________
b. What do you understand by the term “developmental tasks”?
_______________________________________________________________
9.4 INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT

It is important to understand the factors that determine the course of development.
Each one of us is a product of genetic factors and environmental influences. The
role of maturation and learning has already been described briefly in an earlier section.
Let us now look at the contributions of heredity and environment in some detail.
A. Genetic Influences
At the time of conception, the ovum of the mother and the sperm cell of the father
unite to form a new cell. The small particles in the nucleus of the cell are called
chromosomes. The chromosomes exist in pairs. The human cell has 46 chromosomes
arranged in 23 pairs. One member from each pair comes from the mother and the
other one from the father. Chromosomes store and transmit genetic information.
The genes, which are the actual trait carriers, are found in very large numbers in
each chromosome.
The fertilized zygote brings together various combinations of chromosomes. In this

way, different genes are transferred from each child of the same set of parents. Due
to this reason each child bears greater similarity to his on her blood relatives than to
anyone else. At the same time there are also many differences amongst blood relatives.
B. Genotypes and Phenotypes
Genetic transmission is a complex process. Most characteristics that we observe in

human beings are combinations of a large number of genes. Innumerable permutations
and combinations of genes are responsible for the large differences in physical and
psychological characteristics.
Only identical or monozygotic twins have exactly the same set of chromosomes and
genes as they are formed by duplication of a single zygote. Most twins are fraternal
or di-zygotic, who develop from two separate zygotes. These fraternal twins may
resemble each other like brother and sister, but they will also be different from one
another in many ways.

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Notes
Fig. 3: Differences between Mono-zygotic and Di-zygotic twins
Genes can be dominant or recessive. It is a known fact that there is more color
blindness or lack of sensitivity to certain colors among males than females. A
grandmother and mother can transmit this condition to the male child without being
color blind themselves. This is because in the male this disorder is dominant, whereas
in female it is recessive. The genes form pairs. If both genes in a pair are dominant,
the individual will display the specific trait (e.g. color blindness). If one gene is
dominant and the other recessive, the dominant will prevail. The recessive gene will
be passed on and may show up in a later generation.
The dominant gene, therefore, is the one responsible for a particular trait to show up
in a person. The characteristics which show up and are displayed e.g. eye color, are
called phenotypes. The recessive gene does not show up as a trait, unless paired
with another gene just like it. The characteristics that are carried genetically as
recessive genes but are not displayed are called genotypes.
Genotype, therefore, refers to the actual genetic material or a person’s genetic heritage
while phenotype refers to the individual’s physical and behavioral characteristics
which are determined by both genetic and environmental factors.
C. Environmental Influences
Nature refers to what a child has inherited genetically from her parents, while the
influence of environment on the development of the child is referred to as nurture.

Human
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To understand the development of a person, we have to study the complex interaction
between nature and nurture or heredity and environment.
Environmental influences are important both at the prenatal and postnatal stages of
human development. At the prenatal stage, when a fetus is in the mother’s womb,
Notes internal or external harmful agents, such as certain legal or illegal drugs, alcohol,
lead and pollutants can harm the unborn baby’s development. The mother’s nutrition,
diseases and emotional stress can also affect the development of the fetus.
After birth, several types of environmental factors operate to influence the

development of the child. The ecological systems theory of development views
environmental factors organized as concentric circles of systems.
/Temple Business
Fig. 4: Ecological systems influencing human development
The micro-system is the immediate environment at home and interactions between

them and the child’s own characteristics. The meso-system consists of the
relationships between family members and school and neighborhood. The exo-system
refers to the influences of indirect agencies such as work-place of the parents or
community services. The macro-system is the outermost layer which includes cultural
values, laws and customs. The systems are ever-changing and dynamic. There is
also a chronosystem which refers to the time dimension. As the child grows, there
are changes within each system, and also changes due to the child’s interaction with
the environment. On the whole, in ecological systems theory, children are both
products and producers of their environments, in a network of interdependent effects.

Human
Development
The present view of development gives importance to both nature and nurture.
Heredity and environment are inseparably interwoven, each affecting the impact of
the other on the child. Development therefore has certain universal features, as well
as features unique to the individual. It is important to understand the role of heredity,
but more fruitful to understand how the environment can be improved, so as to help
the child develop in the best possible way within the limits set by heredity. Notes
An understanding of the principles and determinants of development helps us in

several ways:
1. It helps us to know what to expect of the individual’s capability at a particular
age.
2. It gives information on when to provide opportunities and stimulation for optimal
development.
3. It helps to parents, teachers and others who work with children, to prepare them
for the physical and psychological changes that are to take place.
4. It helps us to be prepared for changes in our bodies and personalities as we grow
older.
5. It helps us to understand that it is possible to facilitate the process of development
by providing an enriched environment.

a. Heredity is determined at the time of ____________.
b. There are ___ pairs of chromosomes in a human cell.
c. Genes can be ___________ or __________.
d. Characteristics that are carried in the genetic code but not displayed are called
______________.
e. In the ecological systems theory, the layer which consists of cultural values,
laws and customs is called the ___________.
f. External agents that can harm the unborn baby in the womb are called
___________.
a. Explain the terms ‘genotype” and “phenotype”.
_______________________________________________________________

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b. Briefly explain the main features of the ecological systems theory of
development.
_______________________________________________________________
Notes
• Development refers to the process by which the individual grows and changes
during its life-span, from conception to death.
• Development is systematic, orderly, progressive, multi-dimensional, multi-
directional, plastic and contextual.
• The major domains of development are physical, cognitive and socio-emotional.
• Stages of development can be categorised for the sake of convenience, ranging
from prenatal stage to late adulthood or old age.
• Each stage is characterized by certain developmental tasks which are social
expectations for a given age group.
• Hereditary factors are determined at the time of conception and genetic
information is carried by genes and chromosomes.
• Genotypes refer to the characteristics which are carried genetically but not
displayed.
• Phenotypes refer to those characteristics which are displayed.
• Environmental factors influence both prenatal and post-natal development.
• External harmful agents can cause damage to the fetus in the mother’s womb.
• Maternal disease, nutrition and stress can influence fetal development.
• The ecological systems theory proposes several sub-systems in the growing child’s
environment which can influence development.
• Both nature and nurture jointly influence development.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between the terms “development”, “growth”, “maturation” and
“evolution”.
2. Describe the major domains of development.
3. Identify the major stages of human development.
4. Discuss the relative importance of nature and nurture in development.

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9.1
1. a. true Notes
b. False
c. False
d. True
e. True
2. a. Refer to section 9.1.1
b. Refer to 9.1.3
9.2
a. cognitive
b. socio-emotional
c. physical
d. three
9.3
1. a. False
b. False
c. True
d. True
e. False
f. True
2. a. Refer to Section 9.3.2
b. Refer to Section 9.3.3
9.4
1. a. conception
b. 23
c. dominant, recessive
d. genotypes

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e. macrosystem
f. teratogens
Notes b. Refer to section 9.4.3

1. Refer to section 9.1.2

Childhood MODULE - III
Human
Development
10 Notes
CHILDHOOD
Childhood is a beautiful phase of life for most of us. It is a period associated with
play, fantasy, and innocence. It is the crucial phase in life and involves important
aspects of growth and development which are critical for the entire life span.
The childhood period can be further classified into four sub-stages:
(a) Infancy (birth to 2 years),
(b) Early childhood (2 to 6 years),
(c) Middle childhood (6 to 11 years), and
(d) Adolescence (12 to 19 years).
Infancy provides the foundation for all areas of development. It is a period marked
by extremely rapid physical growth and development of sensori-motor skills. Infancy
is also important for cognitive, language and socio-emotional development. This
stage has already been discussed. Adolescence will be taken up in the next lesson.
In this lesson, we will try to understand how various aspects of development such as
physical, motor, cognitive, social and personality development proceed during
childhood. We will also study the socialization process during childhood in the cultural
context.
OBJECTIVES
• describe physical and motor development in childhood;

• understand cognitive development during childhood;
• explain socio-emotional and personality development in childhood; and
• understand the process of socialization within the cultural context.

MODULE - III Childhood
Human
Development
10.1 PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT IN
CHILDHOOD
While physical growth is extremely rapid during infancy, it is comparatively slower
Notes in childhood. As the child’s body size, height and weight increase, there are also
changes in muscular and skeletal structure. This leads to development of several
motor skills in childhood. The studies have shown certain universal trends in both
physical and motor development.
The sequence of physical and motor development is fairly uniform across different
cultures. Yet there are large individual differences. One child may walk at 10 months,
while another may walk only at 24 months. The major milestones of physical and
motor development in infancy and childhood are given in Table 10.1
Table 10.1: Milestones of Physical and Motor Development
Lifting chin up while lying on stomach 1 month

Lifting head and chest 2 months
Rolling over 4 months
Picking up objects with palm without sitting with support 5 months
Finer use of thumb and fingers 7 months
Sitting alone (without support) 8 months
Standing with support (holding on to furniture) 8-9 months
Crawling 9 months
Standing independently 9-10 months
Taking few steps without holding on and walking holding on 12-13 months
Grasping objects with thumb and forefingers 13-14 months
Walking alone 15 months
Running and climbing stairs 2 years
Walking on tip toe 2½ years
Riding a tricycle 3 years
Throwing ball over head, walking down stairs with one foot to a step 4 years
Copying a complex figures 6 years
Understanding of physical and motor development is extremely important as it

provides the basis for the development of child’s personality, social and emotional
development. It helps establish emotional bonding between the child and the mother
figure. It also helps mastery over the child’s own body and movements.

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A. Gross and Fine Motor Development
Motor development is usually classified into ‘gross motor’ and ‘fine motor’ categories.
Gross motor development refers to control over large muscle groups that enable
the child to get around, e.g. crawling, standing and walking. They usually involve Notes
the limbs or the whole body. Fine motor development refers to control over smaller
muscle movements e.g. grasping, pinching etc. Fine motor skills are necessary to
engage in smaller, more precise movements, generally using the hands and fingers.
Fine motor skills are different than gross motor skills which require less precision to
perform the daily tasks.
Table 10.2: Gross and Fine Motor Development Milestones

Child’s age Activities involving Fine Motor Skills
0 and 3 months Holding an object
3 and 6 months Trying to reach out for objects, putting things in mouth
6 months and 1 year Trying to hold food, using hand and fingers to play
games
1 year and 1-1/2years Scribble on paper, trying to play throw and catch with
the ball
1-1/2 and 2 years Drawing lines with pencil, using a spoon to eat food
with little help
2 and 3 years Brushing teeth and buttons cloths with help
3 and 5 years Builds using building blocks, uses a pencil to draw,
turn pages of a book
5 and 7 years Draws various shapes very easily, brushes and combs
without support, cuts shapes very clearly
10.1. 3 Physical and Motor Development in Early Childhood (2-6 years)
Early childhood covers the period from 2 to 6 years. It is also known as the preschool
stage. The child who has become mobile is now able to widen the sphere of activities
beyond the immediate family. Through interaction with the wider society and the
environment the child learns the rules of appropriate social behavior of and develops
mental abilities which prepare him/her for formal education and schooling. Most
infants appear to be quite clumsy in their physical and motor activities. But gradually
their locomotion skills become refined and graceful. Body balance while walking
and running improves noticeably. A 3-year-old can run in a straight line and jump
smoothly without falling down. A 4-year-old can skip, jump on one foot and catch a
large ball thrown from a distance.

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Development of Fine Motor Skills during Childhood
• 2-3 years: Undresses self and assists with dressing, Copies a circle and a
cross, Strings four large beads, Turns a single page, Snips with scissors on
a line, Buttons/unbuttons large buttons.
Notes
• 3-5 years: Copies a square, Prints own name – tripod pencil grasp, Ties
shoelaces, Cuts on line continuously, Prints some capital letters.
• 5-7 years: Copies a triangle, Cuts our simple shapes, Copies first name,
Prints numerals 1 to 5, Color within lines, Pastes and glues appropriately
Between 2 and 3 years, young children stop “toddling,” and develop a smoother
gait. They also develop the ability to run, jump, and hop. They can participate in
throwing and catching games with larger balls.
Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing
both feet together on each step before proceeding to the next step. However, they
may still need some assistance to prevent fall as they are likely to be unsteady in this
new skill. Children of this age can jump and hop higher as their leg muscles grow
stronger.
During this period, children become better at catching and throwing, can hit a
stationary ball with a bat, learn to ride a tricycle, and can kick a ball placed directly
in front of their bodies. They can create things with their hands, such as building
towers out of blocks, molding clay into rough shapes, and scribbling with a crayon.
Children of this age often begin showing a preference for using one hand more often
than the other, which is the beginning of becoming left or right-handed.
Between 3 and 4 years, children improve in eating food themselves and can use
utensils like forks and spoons. They can now hold a crayon or pencil by the writing
hand rather than just grasping it with the fist. They can also make twisting motion
with their hands, useful for opening door knobs or twisting lids to open jars. Most
children are toilet trained by 4 years of age.
As children reach the age of schooling, the rate of physical growth becomes slower
until puberty when there is a rapid ‘growth spurt’.
By the age of six, the child is physically capable of coordinated actions which require
body balance. Small muscle coordination required for fine motor activities, such as
putting on shirt buttons or copying a simple figure, improves quite dramatically
during the early childhood years. Children can also complete other self-care tasks
beyond dressing and undressing, such as brushing their teeth and combing their hair.
Children of this age can also independently feed themselves without an adult’s
immediate supervision or help.

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Development
During 5 to 6 years of age, young children continue to refine the earlier skills. They
can run faster and can start to ride bicycle with training wheels for added stability. In
addition, they can step sideways. Children of this age begin mastering new forms of
physical play such as the jungle gym, and begin to use the see-saw, slide, and swing
on their own. Notes
Development in Middle Childhood (6-11years)
During this period physical growth becomes more gradual and rate of overt change
becomes slower until puberty at about 11-13 years when there is again a rapid ‘growth
spurt’. There are changes in height, weight and muscular strength and swiftness.
During this period, there are large gender differences. Girls are slightly shorter than
boys during 6 to 8 years but then the trend reverses. Girls start putting on weight. A
10 year old girl may look taller and heavier than a boy of the same age. The growth
spurt for boys comes later than for girls.
During this period, children achieve greater control over large and small muscle
groups. They keep getting stronger, faster and attain better motor co-ordination. School
children are energetic and enjoy all types of outdoor games. Increase in cognitive
capacity also helps them learn the rules of new games.
The 6-7 year-old children can copy complex figures such as a diamond, color patterns
and figures and assemble tools and model toys. They also become more skillful in
games requiring skillful eye-hand coordination such as throwing, catching and hitting
targets. They continue to refine fine motor skills and build upon earlier skills.

Write short answers to the following questions:
1. Give names of any 3 gross motor skills developed in childhood.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Give names of any 3 fine motor skills developed in childhood.
_______________________________________________________________
10.2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Cognitive development refers to the way children learn and process information. It
includes improvement in attention, perception, language, thinking, memory and
reasoning.

Human
Development
According to Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory, our thoughts and reasoning
are part of adaptation. Cognitive development follows a definite sequence of stages.
Piaget described four major stages of cognitive development:
• Sensori-motor stage (Birth- 2 years)
Notes • Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)
• Concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
• Formal operational stage (11+ years)
Piaget’s Cognitive
Development
Theory
Pre- Concrete Formal

Sensori-motor operational
operational operational
stage (Birth- 2 stage (11+
stage (2-7 stage (7-11
years) years)
years) years)
Fig 10.1: Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
The following section takes a look at cognitive development through childhood as

indicated by Piaget’s theory.
Cognitive Development in Early Childhood (2 to 6 years)

During this period children become increasingly proficient in using symbols such as
words and images to represent a variety of objects, situations and events. By the
time children enter school they have a reasonably good vocabulary. In fact, children
are very receptive at learning language when they are exposed to multiple languages
in different contexts. They often grow up as bilingual or multilingual children. They
have better understanding of language compared to monolingual children who use
only one language.
Capacity for sustained attention improves during the early childhood. A 3-year-old
child may persist on a task such as coloring with crayons, playing with toys or
watching television for not more than 15-20 minutes at a stretch. By contrast, a 6-
year-old can be found to be working on an interesting task for an hour or more.
Children also become more selective in their attention. As a result their perceptual
skills also improve.

Human
Development
Thinking becomes more logical and capacity to remember and process information
also improves. Through interaction with the environment the child learns the rules
of appropriate social behavior which prepare him/her for schooling.
Early childhood, from 2 to 6 years, is the phase when the child progresses through
the Pre-operational stage. There are 2 sub-stages of the Pre-operational Stage: Notes
a) Symbolic Function (2 to 4 years)

b) Intuitive Thought (4 to 7 years)
During the Symbolic Function sub-stage, children can create mental images of objects
and store them in their minds for later use. For example, such a child can draw a
picture of or pretend to play with a puppy that is no longer present there.
Children can talk about people who are traveling, or who live somewhere else. They
can also talk about or draw places they visited, as well as create new scenes and
creatures from their imagination. Children can also use their mental images of things
to role-play in games.
Piaget also believed that pre operational children have a style of thinking characterized
by Egocentrism, or the inability to see the world from someone else’s point of view.
According to Piaget, children with egocentrism explain situations from their own
perspective and understanding.
The next sub-stage in Piaget’s Preoperational cognitive development stage is the
Intuitive Thought sub-stage, which spans ages 4-7 years. Children in this sub-
stage of development learn by asking questions such as, “Why?” and “How come?”
Piaget labeled this “intuitive thought” because he believed that children at this stage
tend to be so certain of their knowledge and understanding that they are unaware of
how they gained this knowledge in the first place. These children show “Centration”.
They focus on one characteristic of object and base their decisions or judgment on
that only.
During early childhood, children’s ability to understand, process, and to produce
language also improves rapidly. There is a ‘language explosion’ between 3 and 6
years. At age 3, their spoken vocabularies consist of roughly 900 words. By age 6,
spoken vocabularies expand dramatically to anywhere between 8,000 and 14,000
words.
As children move beyond using two word sentences, they start to learn and understand
grammar rules. Beyond growing their vocabularies, young children start expanding
their ability to use different forms of words (e.g., irregular verbs such as “She brought’
rather than “She brang”)? They also begin to form more complex sentences.
B. Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood
Children at the middle childhood level are full of curiosity and are keen to explore
the environment. Memory and conceptual knowledge improve, facilitating logical

Human
Development
thinking beyond the immediate situation. Children can also engage in aesthetic
activities such as music, art and dance and develop hobbies of their own.
In Piaget’s theory, characteristics of the Concrete Operational Stage during middle

childhood are as follows:
Notes
• Understanding of logical principles.
• Improvement in spatial reasoning.
• Logical thinking limited to real and concrete situations.
In middle childhood years, language development proceeds in many ways. More
than just learning new words, children are acquiring more adult definitions of the
words they know. They create relationships among words, understand synonyms
and antonyms, and understand how prefixes and suffixes affect word meaning.

a. List any 3 major features of the pre-operational stage.
_______________________________________________________________
b. Describe any 3 major achievements of the concrete operational stage.
_______________________________________________________________
10.3 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL AND PERSONALITY

DEVELOPMENT
Infancy is a period when basic emotions are established, and the child progresses in
both emotional expression as well as recognition of emotions in others. During early
childhood, children typically start to develop self-conscious emotions like shame
and guilt as they start evaluating themselves, instead of simply reacting to caregivers’
or other adults’ evaluations.
As children become increasingly self-aware, more effective at communicating, and

better at understanding the thoughts and feelings of others, their social skills improve.
They become skilled at modifying and expressing their emotions to fit different
social situations. For example, one child may feel angry, but he/she knows that having
a tantrum at school is inappropriate. Another child learns that acting pleasant and
happy, even though she is actually feeling shy, is a better way to meet people in a
birthday party when she does not know many of the other children. Changing or

Human
Development
controlling one’s emotions in social situations is an important skill that allows children
to fit in with groups and helps in creating interpersonal relationships.
Another emotional capacity that develops during early childhood is empathy, which
is an important component of positive social behavior. As with other emotions, the
development of empathy depends on cognitive and language development. Notes
Learning how to appropriately express and deal with anger, aggression, and fear is a
valuable life and social skill. Young children often need plenty of guidance and
positive discipline in order to learn how to control their anger. Parents and caregivers
not only directly teach ways of controlling emotions, but also indirectly influence
children’s behaviour by acting as role models.
As infants grow, they begin to mature in their ability to interact with others socially.
A child’s main developmental task is to create bonds and connect with primary
caregivers. In contrast, young children branch out and began to create other social
relationships. When interacting with other children of their age, such as peers at day
care or preschool, they engage in parallel play in which they play beside each other
without truly interacting with each other.
Young children begin to play more cooperatively. In cooperative play, they engage
in the common activity in a small group. Often, these first forms of cooperative play
include pretend or symbolic play. As they continue to develop socially with peers,
they often enter a stage of rough and tumble play which includes running, racing,
climbing, or competitive games. This is the stage when social skills such as learning
to take turns and follow simple group rules and norms are practiced.
B. Middle Childhood
During this period children show fast change in social relationships. They use social
comparison to distinguish themselves from others. They start seeing things from
other’s perspective. A child begins to weigh self-worth and increasingly compares
himself/herself with peers.
Children are now able to understand emotions of pride and shame and can experience
more than one emotion in a given situation. They can suppress or conceal emotions
more effectively and use self-acquired strategies to cope. In this period, children
internalize or begin to control their values and feelings from within. They start making
judgments at this age that impact moral development.
Gender differences are observed during middle childhood. Girls may attach greater
importance to good interpersonal relationships and the family while boys may
emphasize the importance of social prestige.
A prevalent problem among children of this age group is of bullying. Researchers

have found that bullies display certain characteristics, such as being intrusive, having

Human
Development
demanding but unresponsive parents. Victims are often depressed and have lower
self-esteem.
Notes
Fig 10.2: Girls at play
In middle childhood, self-concept changes from a focus on observable characteristics

and typical behavior and emotions to an emphasis on personality traits, positive and
negative characteristics, and social comparisons. The child begins to see his or her
own strengths and limitations. This helps the move towards achievement of an identity.

a. The development of empathy depends on ________ and __________
development.
b. Girls in middle childhood attach more importance to good
____________relations while boys give more importance to own social
____________.
c. A child who is liked by some but disliked by other peers is called _______.
d. When two children are playing without interaction, it is called _________play.
e. An internal determiner of emotional development is the child’s ___________.
10.4 SOCIALIZATION
The process of acquiring norms, values and beliefs, which are considered significant
in a society, is called socialization. It is the process of transmitting cultural values,
preferences and patterns of behavior to children. This is done by various processes,

Human
Development
institutions and people. Socialization involves regulating children’s behavior and
disciplining their undesirable or inappropriate behavioral tendencies.
Parents, families, children’s peer groups, schools, religious institutions and mass
media such as television are some important agents of socialization. They influence
the process of child rearing directly as well as indirectly and reinforce culturally Notes
appropriate modes of thought and behaviour.
Early childhood is a crucial period of development because during this period children
learn a great deal about the norms, conventions and practices in their families, society
and culture. They acquire language and learn the fundamentals of culture. The primary
socializing agents during this period are the family members.
Middle childhood is the time when influence of peers and school becomes prominent,
though family context remains important. The effect of media such as television and
computers is undeniable. This is the time when social stereotypes and prejudices are
most likely to develop.
Much research has been done on the impact of parenting styles on the socialization
of the child. There are 4 main types of parenting styles:
1. Authoritarian style: demanding, controlling, insensitive parenting

2. Permissive style: indulgent, non-demanding parenting
3. Authoritative style: firm, consistent parenting, reasons given for discipline.
Neglectful or uninvolved style disintersted uncaring, low control and communication.
Besides family, peers, media and school, there are other factors which influence the
socialization process. Ethnicity and socio-economic status of the parents makes an
impact on the child’s development directly and indirectly. Ethnicity is linked to family
size, structure, education, income, composition, extended networks.
Fig 10.3: Children from low SES home

Human
Development
Notes
Fig 10.4: Child in high SES family

1. Give brief answers to the following questions.
a. What do you understand by the term ‘Socialization’?
_______________________________________________________________
b. State the major types of parenting styles.
_______________________________________________________________

• Physical development continues during early and middle childhood, but the rate
is slower than in infancy.
• There are gender differences in physical growth as girls tend to have a growth
spurt earlier than boys during middle childhood.
• Gross motor development is rapid during early childhood.
• During middle childhood, children continue to develop gross and fine motor
skills, while there is marked improvement in muscular control and eye-hand co-
ordination.
• In early childhood the child is in the pre-operational stage of cognitive
development.
• In middle childhood, the child reaches the concrete operational stage, when
conservation, transformation, seriation and logical thinking are acquired, but the
child still finds it difficult to deal with abstract concepts.
• Emotional development in childhood involves the development of self-conscious
emotions, and better self-regulation in emotional expression.

Human
Development
• Social development progresses during childhood from parallel play to co-
operative play. In middle childhood, the focus shifts gradually from family to
peers and school.
• Peer acceptance is an important determiner of a child’s self-esteem and
adjustment. Notes
• Socialization is the process of acquiring behaviors, norms, values and beliefs,
which are considered significant in a society.
• Parenting style influences the socialization process and personality development
of the child.
• Cultural and social factors influence parenting style and attitudes towards child
rearing, and hence the socialization process.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
a. Discuss the major features of physical development in early childhood
b. Describe the major features of motor development in middle childhood.
c. Discuss the main differences between the pre-operational stage and concrete
stage of Piaget’s theory.
d. Explain the major features of emotional development in early childhood.
e. Discuss how cultural factors influence the process of socialization in childhood.

10.1
1. a. Crawling, standing, walking
b. grasping, pinching, holding pencil
10.2
1. a. Craete mental images, store it, talk about events, people create new scenes
from imagination
b. understanding logical principles improvement in spatial reasoning langauge
development
10.3
1. a. cognitive, language
b. interpersonal, prestige

Human
Development
c. controversial
d. parallel
e. temperament
Notes 10.4
1. a. Acquiring norms values, beliefs, Regulation discipline of undesirable
behaviour, agents of socialization.
b. Authoritarian, permissive, authoritative and neglectful.
a. Refer to unit 10.1.3
b. Refer to unit 10.1.4
c. Refer to unit 10.2.1 and unit10.2.2.
d. Refer to unit 10.3.1
e. Refer to unit 10.4

Adolescence and Its Challenges MODULE - III
Human
Development
11 Notes
ADOLESCENCE AND ITS

CHALLENGES
Human life completes its journey through various stages and one of the most vital
stages is adolescence. Adolescence is the period of transition from childhood to
adulthood and plays a decisive role in the formation of prosocial/antisocial adult.
All of us undergo this stage which poses many challenges and is full of excitement.
At the same time it demands adjustment on many fronts.
When we come to this world we are completely dependent upon others and learn
gradually to be independent. In India, the adolescents do most of the work themselves
but the final decision regarding various domains of life is taken by their parents. For
example, an adolescent wishes to enjoy movies but parents may force him/her to
complete study first. Parents claim that they have more practical knowledge and
experience and tend to treat adolescents like children.
This lesson shall help you understand the nature of adolescence and its challenges
and major tasks faced by the adolescents, the influences that shape their personality
and some of the important problems faced by the adolescents.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the nature of adolescence as a developmental stage;
• enlist the developmental tasks encountered during adolescence;
• explain the physical development during adolescenc; and
• discuss gender roles and describe the phenomenon of generation gap.

MODULE - III Adolescence and Its Challenges
Human
Development
11.1 CONCEPT OF ADOLESCENCE
Adolescence is a period of transition when the individual changes- physically and
psychologically-from a child to an adult. It is a period when rapid physiological and
psychological changes demand for new social roles to take place. The adolescents,
Notes due to these changes often face a number of crises and dilemmas. It is the period
when the child moves from dependency to autonomy. It demands significant
adjustment to the physical and social changes.
The adolescence period in the Indian social system comes under Brahmacharya
(apprenticeship).This is the first ashram (stage of life) of development stages. In
this stage, the child learns the basic skills in relation to his future role as a responsible
adult.
It is a fact that all living beings pass through specific stages or phases of development.
Erikson believed that each stage of life is marked by a specific crisis or conflict
between competing tendencies. Only if individuals negotiate each of these hurdles
successfully they can develop in a normal and healthy manner. During this phase
adolescents must integrate various roles into a consistent self- identity. If they fail to
do so, they may experience confusion over who they are.
11.2 THE ADOLESCENT TRANSITION PERIOD

Indeed adolescence represents one of the greatest of these periods of crisis. In fact it
is the stage of stress, strain and storm. It brings many ambiguities in life. During this
phase one really does not know where he or she stands. It is believed that this
uncertainty about one’s role causes many conflicts.
It is a well-known fact that delinquency rates soar during the period of adolescence,
that suicides become increasingly prevalent, that drug and alcohol addiction may
have their beginning, and that much general happiness exists. Adolescence is also a
period when satisfactory heterosexual adjustments are facilitated or hindered, when
career is planned and philosophies of life are molded.
11.3 ADOLESCENCE : BIOLOGICAL OR SOCIAL?

Adolescence is both biological and social in nature. The beginning of adolescence
is marked by biological changes in girls and boys. As a matter of fact, just before
puberty there occurs what is known as pre-adolescent growth spurt. It takes place in
girls mostly during the age of nine to twelve years, and in boys between eleven and
fourteen years of age. During this period, and following shortly thereafter, the
secondary sexual characteristics emerge. In girls there is typically rounding out of
the hips, breast development, appearance of pubic hair, and menstruation. In boys,
some of the secondary sexual characteristics that mark the beginning of adolescence

Human
Development
are appearance of pubic hair, facial hair, and change of voice. These changes are
biologically induced.
Adolescence for both girls and boys is marked largely by social changes. Such factors
as when an adolescent leaves home, gets a job and can vote determine when his or
her transition from childhood to adulthood is accomplished. The length of this period Notes
is thus primarily a social phenomenon.
The problems adolescents face during the long period of growing up have both
biological and social roots. Physical changes and deviation can create many problems.
Society also creates problems for adolescents. Adolescents in western societies behave
differently than adolescents in eastern societies owing to varying social norms
expectations and family structure.
Activity 1
Learning by doing
List some issues on which you and your friends feel uneasy because you are
not free to do your job independently due to your parents’ interference. Discuss
with elders whether we can manage some negotiations to minimize the conflict
with parents.
11.4 FACTORS DETERMINING THE PATTERN OF

TRANSITION
Optimal development in adolescence depends on successful accomplishment of the
developmental tasks in infancy and childhood. How easy it will be for the adolescent
to make the transition into adulthood will depend partly upon the individual, partly
on environmental aids or obstructions, and partly on their experiences. Let us examine
some of these factors:
Speed of transition: The changes during adolescence take place at very fast pace.
During no other period does the individual undergo such a sudden and drastic change
in such a short time period and at no other age is he less prepared to cope with the
problems that this change brings.
Length of transition: Those who mature rapidly (in term of physical growth), find
adjustment especially difficult. They are expected to behave like adults simply because
they look like adults. On the other hand, a prolonged adolescence also brings
problems. The adolescent gets into the habit of being dependent, and this, is difficult
to overcome later.
Discontinuities in training: Much of the stress and strain during adolescence is
due to the discontinuities in training. For example, the assumption of responsibility
during adolescence is difficult because the child has so far been trained to be dependent
and submissive.

Human
Development
Degree of dependency: How dependent the young adolescent will be is determined
mainly by the kind of training he/she received during childhood. Parents often foster
dependency because they feel that adolescents are not ready to assume responsibility
for their own behaviours.
Notes Ambiguous status: In the societies like India, a child is expected to follow the
footsteps of his/her parents. This gives him/her a pattern of behaviour to imitate. In
open society, by contrast, it is assumed that every individual should be free to choose
his/her own course of self- development.
Conflicting demands: The adolescent is often confronted with conflicting demands

from parents, teachers, peers and the community.
Degree of realism: When the adolescent begins to look like an adult, (s)he is permitted
an added degree of freedom. If (s)he feels is not ready, either physically or
psychologically, to play the adult role, (s)he feels dissatisfied.
Motivation: The adolescent goes through a period of wondering how he or she will
meet the new problems the life presents. He or she would like to grow up but being
unsure of the ability to cope with the challenges of adulthood. So long as this feeling
of insecurity exists, there will be little motivation to make the transition in adulthood.
As the barriers to growing up are lowered or removed by parents, teachers, and

society, the adolescent can move smoothly in the direction of reaching the goal of
adulthood, and motivation to make the transition is normally increased.

1. Explain the factors that determine pattern of adolescent transition.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Define adolescence. Identify the various challenges faced by an adolescent.
_______________________________________________________________
11.5 DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

The term “developmental task”, refers to those problems that individuals typically
face at different periods during their life. An infant or a small child must master the
complexities of learning to walk, learning to talk, and controlling the elimination of
waste products of the body. In middle childhood such skills as learning to play games
and learning to read become of major importance.
So for as adolescents are concerned, the developmental tasks present the vital

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Development
problems which must be met and solved during the transition from childhood to
adulthood. These problems are not entirely unique to the adolescent period, but they
are ones upon which the adolescent must work if he eventually expects to achieve a
successful adult role.
Developmental Tasks for Adolescents Notes
Havinghurst has listed the following tasks.

• Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes.
• Achieving a masculine or feminine social role.
• Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively.
• Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults.
• Achieving assurance of economic independence.
• Selecting and preparing for an occupation.
• Preparing for marriage and family life.
• Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence.
• Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour.
• Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behaviour.

1. Developmental tasks of adolescent’s include:
a. preparing for marriage and family
b. crawling and creeping
c. reflecting childish behaviours
d. None of the above
2. How many developmental tasks were described by Robert Havinghurst?
a. 10 b. 6
c. 9 d. 8
Adolescence is a long period, and many young adolescents have little motivation to
master the developmental tasks for their age. In the later period, however, they realise
that adulthood is rapidly approaching. This provides them the necessary motivation

Human
Development
to prepare for their new status. As a result, they make greater strides toward the goal
of maturity than they did during early adolescence.
Successful achievement of the developmental tasks for one period in life leads to
success with later tasks, while failure leads not only to personal unhappiness and
Notes disappointment but also to difficulties with later tasks.
Regardless of whether the adolescent has successfully mastered the developmental

tasks of adolescence, he/she is, in most “advanced” cultures, automatically given
the status of adult when he/she reaches the age of legal maturity. This is in direct
contrast to more simple cultures where young people must demonstrate adult status
to their elders, in “puberty rites,” privileges, and the responsibilities.
11.6 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Adolescence is fundamentally a period of physical and physiological changes. The
young person’s reactions to physical changes may range from pride and pleasant
expectation to bewilderment and fear. When adolescents evaluate each other,
especially when they consider qualities they like in a manner of the opposite sex,
“good looks” are often mentioned. In particular they dominate in descriptions of
girls than of boys but other physical characteristics such as body build, height and
the like are often noted when boys are being “sized up”.
One of the most characteristic features of adolescence is the increase in size i.e. in
height and weight. However, the beginning of adolescence, known as pubescence,
brings with it abrupt and psychologically significant physical changes. While many
of these physical changes, such as growth in height and deepening of the voices are
obvious and commonly known, others are hidden or less obvious but nonetheless
significant.
Surge in Growth
Toward the end of childhood, usually girls at about ten or eleven and boys at twelve
or thirteen, show a period of rapid growth in height and weight (general bodily
growth). This acceleration of growth is closely linked to the increased hormonal
output of the pituitary gland, which serves not only as the catalyst to produce growth
but also as the controller of other glands (i.e. adrenals, gonads, and thyroid) that
determine both tissue growth and function.
The rapid growth continues for a period of about three or four years, with the greatest
increment in growth coming at an average age of 12.6 years for girls and 14.8 years
for boys. During this period it is not uncommon for a child to grow as much as six to
eight inches in height and to gain 18 to 22 kilograms in a year’s time.

Human
Development
For a variety of reasons, physical development in this period is characterized by
asynchronization that brings concerns to adolescents and their parents and teachers.
Skeletal and muscular development is more rapid than learning required for making
use of the new muscle mass and motor habits. The body requires new learning.
Bodily proportions also undergo changes. The facial features alter, because the growth Notes
of the lower part of the face lags behind the growth of the upper part. Legs,
proportionally, usually grow more rapidly than the body stem, and hands and feet
anticipate by several years the total body size of their owners.
General bodily growth is paralleled by physiological changes such as cardiovascular

and respiratory growth and changes in metabolism and in general movement toward
the adult states.
Skeletal Muscles: Muscles attached to bones, which bring about various types of
body movement like the limb movements.
Puberty and Sexual Development
Following closely on the heels of accelerated growth, the pituitary gland directs the
adrenal cortex and the gonads into more activity. Prior to this time, virtually equal
amount of androgenic (male) and estrogenic (female) hormones are produced for
both sexes by the adrenal cortex on the direction of anterior pituitary gland. Now an
increased amount of hormonal production differentiates the sexes; the males
producing more androgens, the females more estrogens.
Sex Hormones are substances secreted by the gonads for reproductive functions
and determination of secondary sex characteristics; e.g. estrogen in the female and
testosterone in male. Testosterone is the male sex hormone responsible for the
development of the male secondary sexual characteristics as they become sexually
mature, while in the female body, this role is played by estrogen.
Moreover, the genital and sex-appropriate tissues become more sensitive to these
sex specific hormones. The dawn of these changes is reflected in boys by beginning
of the enlargement of the testes. There follows in each sex a series of physical changes
whose appearance is highly predictable and whose sequence is unalterable. In girls
the enlargement of breast is followed by the growth of pubic hair, the menarche and
axillary hair. In boys, after the initial enlargement of the testes, there occurs pubic
hair, axillary hair, voice changes, and beard, in that order.
Thus, by observing adolescents, it is fairly easy to determine the point in pubescence

that they have reached. The observable secondary sex characteristics, such as
development of axillary hair and voice change are secondary to the primary sex
changes. Primary sex characteristics include reproductive organs whose maturity is
signaled by the menarche in the girl and by the first ejaculation in the boy.

Human
Development
Strength, Skill and Fitness
Physical development as mentioned above presents only the gross picture of the
changes that occur in adolescence. Even more significant, perhaps, are the growth
patterns of strength and skills. The post -pubescent boy, even though he may be of
Notes the same chronological age as his friends who have not yet entered pubescence, will
almost certainly be stronger and will likely have greater agility, motor coordination,
and bodily skills. He will, of course, rapidly overtake girls, whose strength already
has increased about a year earlier and who briefly challenged him. You would like to
know what forces account for this development. First, it is clear that the accelerated
production of male hormone (androgens) brings with it added muscular strength.
Second, the nature of skeletal growth, increased shoulder breadth, bigger chest cavity,
and finally, the greater lung size, heart size, and increased blood pressure are all
favourable conditions for greater physical strength.
While many of these same changes occur among girls, their physical strength increases
at a slower rate, and, of course, never equals that of males. There are two reasons for
this superiority: (a) biologically, the male is favoured by larger shoulder breadth, a
bigger chest cavity, and better leg leverage; (b) culturally, girls receive little
encouragement for the development of strength. In fact they are encouraged in the
opposite direction-to be weak and dependent, or at least to pretend that they are.
Along with increases in strength come the development of motor coordination,

reaction speed, and perceptual-motor skills. In an appraisal of physical development,
one important consideration has to do with what is optimal. Height-weight charts
are based on the average, but may, when a large segment of youth is overweight,
lead to faulty conclusions. What is average is certainly not optimal.

1. Explain how adolecence is a period of rapid physical growth and sexual
development.
_______________________________________________________________
11.7 GENDER ROLES

Gender is a much more complex term. It relates to a given society’s beliefs about the
traits and behaviours supposedly characteristic of males and females. ‘Gender roles’
refer to the expectations concerning the roles males and females should perform and
the ways they should behave. Such expectations come into play as soon as a child is
born.

Human
Development
The beliefs about gender roles continue to influence us and our behaviour throughout
life. Children’s recognition that they belong to one sex or the other called ‘gender
identity’ is established quite early in one’s life by the age of three or four. At this
time, however, they are uncertain as to whether they will always be a boy or a girl. It
is not until they are about six or seven that children acquire ‘gender consistency’— Notes
the understanding that even if they adopted the clothing, hair style, and behaviour
associated with the other sex they would still retain their current sexual identity.

1. Explain the meaning of gender role.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

• Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood to adulthood and it
plays a decisive role in relation to the formation of prosocial/antisocial adult.
• Optimal development in adolescence depends on successful accomplishment of
the developmental tasks in infancy and childhood.
• Adolescence is fundamentally a period of physical and physiological change.
The most important single feature of adolescent development consists of the
changes that take place in the young person’s body.
• Toward the end of childhood, girls at about ten or eleven and boys at twelve or
thirteen begin a period of rapid growth in height and weight.
• Gender role refers to expectations concerning the roles male and females should
adopt and the ways they should behave.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What are the primary and secondary characteristics during adolescence?
2. What are the developmental tasks of adolescents?
3. Give a detailed account of major challenges faced during adolescence.

Human
Development
11.1
Notes
1. Period of transition, rapid physical and psychological changes, New social roles,
independence, faces conflicts.
11.2
1. d
2. a
11.3
1. Speed and length of transition, training, dependency, status, demands, degree of
realism, motivation.
2. Surge in growth, height and weight, skeletal and muscular growth, sex hormones,
sexual development, sex hormones, strength and skill.
11.4
1. Society’s beliefs about behaviours characteristic of males and females. Gender
consistency and behaviour of males and females.


Adulthood and Ageing MODULE - III
Human
Development
12 Notes
ADULTHOOD AND AGEING
What is it like to grow old? What changes occur as people grow older? What does it
mean to say that some one is old? These are some of the questions which come to
our mind when we see or meet an aged person. We find that our parents do not
behave as we do. The kind of images which normally come to our mind when we
hear the word ‘adult and aging’ are responsibility, stability, forgetfulness and some
times poor health. We view the older years as a stage in life when people become
more dependent on others. Are these stereotypes or myths?
When we look into our society today we notice that the segment of older population
is growing. It has been estimated that by the year 2021 a major portion of the world’s
population will be in the category of the aged people. Becoming adult and growing
old is a biological process, but many other developments also take place along with
it. You will study about these changes in this lesson. This lesson will also help you
understand the value of the aged people in the society and relating to them in a better
way.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson you will be able to:
• explain the characteristics of the period of adulthood and old age;
• describe the key developmental changes during adulthood;
• describe the problems of ageing and coping with it; and
• appreciate the concerns of ageing and aged people.
12.1 THE ADULTHOOD STAGE

We are often told by our elders to act according to our age. Have you ever wondered
what this means? There seem to be certain normative expectations about how

MODULE - III Adulthood and Ageing
Human
Development
individuals of a certain age should act. The period of adulthood is marked by society’s
expectations of performing one’s duty as an adult. Some special roles and relationships
like family and career are the major milestones of adulthood. The spurt of growth
during adolescence stabilizes by adulthood and the individual looks forward to more
concrete roles in the society. Our capabilities and behaviours continue to change as
Notes we grow older not only because of the biological growth but also because of our
knowledge and the way we interact with environment. In the Indian tradition the
period of adulthood refers to Grihastha Ashram. During this stage an individual
enters the social life and accepts responsibilities of family, marriage and entering
into one’s career. The stage of adulthood has the following sub periods: (1) Young
adulthood (20s to 30s), (2) Middle adulthood (40s to 50s) and (3) Later adulthood
(60s and above.). Let us understand the various characteristics of each of these sub
periods.
Young Adulthood
During this period one sees himself or herself as an autonomous and independent
adult. The individual becomes financially less dependent on the parental family. A
major developmental task during this period is the choice of a career. Young men
and women tend to settle down in a career of their choice. In addition a young adult
tries to settle down and start the family life. They are also concerned about various
social issues and forming close relationships with one’s professional peers and
members of community. The duties of a person demand two-fold responsibilities
which are towards oneself as well as the society.
The stage of young adulthood is characterized by new tasks and challenges in life
such as establishing financial and emotional independence and entering into marital
relationship. Unemployment and marital discord are two typical crisis conditions
during early adulthood. According to Erikson this period is characterized by a crisis
of ‘intimacy versus isolation’. The young adults must develop the ability to form
deep intimate relationships with others, particularly in marriage. Otherwise, they
can become socially and emotionally isolated. Most young adults develop a dream
of future accomplishments or a vision of what they want to achieve as a life goal.
Such dreams motivate young adults towards goal directed efforts. Occupational and
marital choices and gaining social and economic independence are some major tasks
of early adulthood. Very often, during the early thirties individuals make a reappraisal
of their choices and seek to make specific changes in their career choice and social
relations. These experiences are described as “age thirty transition”.
Characteristics of Young Adulthood
• Choice of a career.
• Starting a family life.

Human
Development
• Forming close relationships with peers.
• Concerns about society.
Do It Yourself
Notes
Meet two adults, a male and a female. Ask them to describe their roles and
responsibilities. Record their descriptions and your own description. Compare
and discuss with your peers and tutor.

1. Identify the characteristics of young adulthood.
12.2 ADULTHOOD OR MIDDLE AGE

From the period of twenties and thirties, the individual arrives at middle age in the
forties and fifties. Middle age is characterized by competence, maturity, responsibility
and stability. This is the time when one wants to enjoy the success of job, satisfaction
derived from the family and social life. People look forward to the success of their
children. Attention gets more focused on health, the future of children, aging parents,
the use of leisure time and plans for old age. For women, menopause occurs between
the age of forty-five and fifty. Menopause is supposed to be accompanied by some
distressing physical and psychological symptoms in women. During this period men
show greater concern towards health, strength, power and sexual potency.
Middle age is also viewed as a period of creativity and significant contribution to

society. It is found that the best works of scientists, writers and artists are produced
during the late forties and early fifties. Erikson characterizes middle adulthood as a
phase of crisis involving generativity versus self-absorption. Unless a person makes
this a period of meaningful contribution he/she may become preoccupied with selfish
needs and desires. The middle age transition is also a period of turbulence. People
start viewing themselves as older and become conscious of their mortality which
often leads to emotional instability. They also engage in taking stock of their lives to
asses the extent to which they have realized their dreams. Such re-assessments often
lead to occupational changes and changes in marital relationships such as divorce.
For most people who are employd in regular jobs, the end of the middle adulthood
years involves the task of coming to terms with possible retirement from work life
and the associated readjustments in life.
Characteristics of Middle Adulthood

• Competence, maturity, responsibility and stability.
• Attention focused on children.

Human
Development
• Plans for old age.
• Occurrence of menopause in women.
Old Age
Notes
Later adulthood or the period of old age begins around the age of sixty. During this
stage most individuals lose their jobs as they retire from active service. They begin
to fear about their physical and psychological health. In our society, the elderly are
typically perceived as not so active, deteriorating intellectually, narrow-minded and
attaching significance to religion and spirituality. Many of the elderly people lose
their spouses and suffer from emotional insecurity. However, this may not be true of
everybody. Many people at the age of sixty or above remain very healthy and active
in life. The life style including exercise, diet, and regular health check up helps
people enjoy a meaningful and active life during old age.
Aging, however, is also a psychological phenomenon. There are numerous examples

of writers, statesmen, professors and yogis who lead a productive and active life
during old age. So it is important to note that old age can be a much happier and
fuller time. Mental or physical decline does not necessarily have to occur. Persons
can remain vigorous, active and dignified until their eighties or even nineties. This
is quite possible if they take adequate care of themselves right from their middle age
years. In fact, the older persons have vast reservoir of knowledge, experience and
wisdom on which the community can draw upon.

1. Describe any two characteristics of middle adulthood.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
12.3 PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE CHANGES DURING

ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE
In the present day society, with increasing health consciousness, both men and women
want to be physically and mentally fit. With advancing age certain inevitable and
universal changes such as chemical changes in cells or gradual loss of adaptive
reserve capacity take place. There are also certain cognitive changes taking place
from middle adulthood onwards. These changes are slow and gradual. Normally
people see aging as a period of physical and mental health decline. These changes

Human
Development
are mainly physical and cognitive in nature. Let us try to understand these changes.
(a) Physical Changes: It has been found that the body organs of most persons show
a 0.8 to 1 percent decline per year in the functional ability after the age of 30 years.
Part of this decline is normal, some are disease-related and some caused by factors
such as stress, occupational status, nutritional status and many other environmental Notes
factors. The major physical changes associated with aging are described as external
changes, internal changes and changes in the sensory capacities and cognitive abilities.
Let us understand these changes.
1) External Changes: This refers to the symptoms of growing old that can be seen
in an individual. With many individuals the symptoms of aging can be seen as graying
hair, aging skin shift in posture and appearance of wrinkles and other changes.
Key to Longer and Healthier Life
(a) Eat healthy diet.

(b) Exercise regularly.
(c) Reduce stress level.
(d) Don’t smoke or drink alcohol and other drugs.
(e) Cultivate certain positive qualities.
(f) Engage with activities of social welfare.
(g) Develop spirituality and faith.
2) Internal Changes: These changes refer to the symptoms of growing old that are
not visible. These include changes in the respiratory system, gastrointestinal system,
cardiovascular system, and central nervous system.
Some Great Achievers of late adulthood

• Mahatma Gandhi led India’s struggle of freedom at the age of 77.
• Baba Amte
• Ramakrishna Paramhans
• Mother Teresa
3) Changes in Sensory Capacities: With advancing age, there is gradual slow down
in the sensory abilities. As you know we communicate with the outer world through
our senses. Losing in any of the senses can have profound psychological and social
consequences.

Human
Development
Cognitive Changes: Cognition refers to the process by which information is acquired,
stored, and used. During adulthood and aging various aspects of cognition like
memory, learning, attention and speed of performance get adversely affected. The
aged people often report forgetfulness, difficulty in learning new techniques and
acquiring skills. Their concentration and responsiveness to environmental stimulus
Notes
decreases. Dementia and Alzimer and important diseases of old age. In general people
become more vulnerable during old age.
12.4 COPING WITH THE PROBLEMS DURING OLD AGE

You must be wondering whether the process of ageing can be stopped or can anyone
remain young throughout? We have noted that ageing is a biological process. This
process gets affected by many other things such as stress, tension, habit, undisciplined
life, ill health work habits etc. Leading a disciplined life means giving the body
enough time to rest, proper work habits, less tension, proper nutrition and spirituality.
It seems that aging can be delayed but no one can escape it. One must not deny and
accept one’s age and act in a realistic but optimistic manner. Different people adopt
different coping strategies to meet their life challenges. Some of the effective coping
strategies are as follows:
(1) Develop an attitude of flexibility so that one may adapt to the pressures and
problems of old age.
(2) Recognize that one has to explore new ways of coping with life events.
(3) Greater use of information seeking and problem solving strategies rather than
withdrawing or isolating.
(4) Increasing self-confidence, self-reliance, developing healthy attitudes about one’s
strengths and weaknesses.
(5) Learning and maintaining effective coping skills and adopting an active approach
towards the environment.
Use of the above styles of coping can be effective in making healthy adjustments
during old age.
Aging and Social Support
Enlarging social network is another means of coping with life problems. Participating
in various group activities such as joining clubs. Certain organizations for informal
social interaction are found very helpful for the aged. Building a social network of
people of their own age group in neighbourhood or elsewhere provides them with
greater opportunity to share their life circumstances and find emotional expressions

Human
Development
for their existing problems. Through such social networks, one can get an
unconditional expression of approval, share secrets, provide new experiences to
each other, and develop trusting relationships.
Involvement in grand parenting helps elderly satisfy many of their personal and
emotional needs. Grand parents can serve as important role models. Older people Notes
find these roles emotionally self-fulfilling and tend to derive self-satisfaction through
achievement of their grand children.
12.5 IMPORTANCE OF THE AGED PEOPLE IN THE SOCIETY

vfHkoknu”khyL; fuR;ao`)ksilsfou%A
pRokfj rL; o/kZUrs vk;qfoZ|k;”kskcye~A
“Those who greet elders and do service to them, they grow in all four dimensions
such as longevity, knowledge, fame and strength”.
One of the reasons for the growth of the Indian society is its multigenerational structure
which means staying of many generations together in one family. This phenomenon
is expressed in the form of joint family system. Aged people have been always
considered as individuals with a vast repertoire of knowledge and experience. Staying
with them and respecting them helps not only in personal growth but facilitates
multidimensional growth of a person.
Today many of the problems seen in the society are due to breakdown in the family
system. Young couples prefer to stay alone to seek independence and doing away
with the restrictions. But the repercussion of this system is largely being felt on the
younger generation. The elders in the family have always been a medium of cultural
transmission. Can you forget the stories told to you by your grand parents and their
morals? The cultural traditions followed in our country have been passed from
generation to generation. With the emerging nuclear family system, the younger
generation is becoming deprived of this rich cultural transmission. It has been found
that emotional expressions and values in young generation have also been affected
by the absence of elders in the family.

1. The body organs show a decline of 0.8 to 1 percent after the age of 30. T/F
2. Gradual changes in sensory abilities take place with ageing. T/F

Human
Development
3. One must not accept one’s age and become younger. T/F
4. Developing healthy attitudes do not help in coping with age. T/F
5. Aged people should be considered as treasure of the society. T/F
Notes

• Some special roles and relationships like family and career are the major
milestones of adulthood.
• Our capabilities and behaviours continue to change as we grow older not only
because of the biological growth process but also because of our understanding
and the way we interact with the environment.
• The stage of young adulthood is characterized by new tasks and challenges in
life such as establishing financial and emotional independence and entering into
marital relationship.
• Middle age is also viewed as a period of creativity and significant contribution
to society.
• In our society, the elderly are typically perceived as not so active, deteriorating
intellectually, narrow-minded and attaching significance to religion and
spirituality; however it may not be true.
• The major physical changes associated with ageing are described as external,
and internal changes and changes in sensory capacities.
• Leading a disciplined life means giving the body enough time to rest, proper
work habit, less tensions, proper nutrition and spirituality. This may help in coping
with the problems of old age.
• Aged people have been always considered as individuals with a vast repertoire
of knowledge and experience.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Describe the key to longer and healthier life.
2. What attitude is helpful to meet out the pressures and problems of old age?
3. What is the main cause of today’s problems in the society?
4. How can one remain healthy during old age?

Human
Development

12.2
1. Autonomous, independent, choice of career, new tasks and challenges, intimate Notes
relationships.
12.2
1. (a) Competence
(b) Attention on children
(c) Plans for old age
(d) Occurrence of menopause
2. By exercise, proper diet and regular health checkup
12.3
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. False
5. True

Curriculum
CURRICULUM
PSYCHOLOGY
Secondary Level Course (222)
RATIONALE OBJECTIVES
The study of psychology deals with important The course is designed to enable the learner:
aspects of human behaviour and mental
Understand the basic concepts of psychology
processes. The study of psychology is significant
and their application.
to one’s personal growth and development and
for facilitating the process of social development. Relate oneself positively to family,
The way we think, feel and behave with the neighborhood and society.
people and world around us influence our
Behave responsibly and in a value based
adjustment. A course in psychology at the
manner.
Secondary level will help the learners understand
themselves and their place in society and realize Learn to live a purposeful life of health and
their potentials. happiness.
MODULES
Module I Foundations of Psychology 15

Module II Basic Psychological Processes 15
Module III Human Development 15
Module IV Social Psychological Processes 15
Module V Health and Well Being 15
Module VI Work Life and Environmental Concerns 15
Module VII Yoga : A Way of life 10
Maximum Marks 100

Curriculum
Module I: Foundations of Psychology Module II: Basic Psychological Processes

Marks: 15 Marks: 15
Approach Approach
This module helps students understand the This module familiarises the learners with the
nature of psychology and the range of concepts and processes involved in knowing the
behaviours and mental processes which world. It helps to understand the basic ideas
constitute its subject matter. It would also help involved in acquiring knowledge and retaining
them to understand the methods and some it for further use. This module will also describe
important fields of psychological applications. the processes of perception and the way we
become aware of the world and think. It also
Contents
tries to provide an understanding of the ways we
Lesson 1 – An Introduction to Psychology feel and appreciate our inner world
The nature of psychology and its definitions Contents

Scope of psychology Lesson 4 – Learning
Basic psychological processes Learning
Fields of psychology Reinforcement and observational learning
Lesson 2 – Methods of Psychology Some other types of learning
Approaches to the study of psychological
Transfer of training
processes
Lesson 5 – Sensory Processes: Attention and
Methods to understand psychological
Perception
processes
Sensation
Psychological Tools
Perception
Lesson 3 – Individual Differences
Perceptual organisation
Nature of individual differences
Attention
Assessing individual differences
Extra sensory perception
Nature of Intelligence and its assessment
Applications of perception in everyday life
Aptitudes and interests, and their assessment
Nature of personality Lesson 6 – Memory
Memory and Forgetting
Techniques of personality assessment
Stages of Memory
Types of memory

Curriculum
Forgetting Cognitive development

Strategies for enhancing memory Socio-emotional and personality
Repression: Forgetting painful events development
Lesson 7 – Thinking and Problem Solving Socialisation
The nature of thinking Lesson 11 – Adolescence and its Challenges

Problem solving Concept of Adolescence
Creating and its role in life The adolescent transition period
Decision making Adolescence: Biological or social?
Lesson 8 – Motivation and Emotion Factors determining the pattern of transition
Nature of motivation Development tasks
Nature of emotion Physical development
Role of emotion and motivation in human Gender roles
behaviour
Lesson 12 – Adulthood and Aging
Module III: Human Development
The adulthood stage
Marks: 15
Adulthood or middle age
Approach
Physical and cognitive changes during
This module aims at describing the processes, adulthood and old ages
characteristics and stages of human development
and explaining the influence of biological factors Coping with the problems during old ages
and socio-cultural context on human
Importance of the aged people in the society
development.
Contents Module IV: Social Psychological Processes
Lesson 9 – Nature Determinants of Development Marks : 15
Nature of development Approach
Domains of development This module aims at describing the influence of

social institutions. It helps to udersand how
Stages of development
people behave in groups and also explains the
Influence on development formation of human beliefs, attitudes and values.
Lesson 10 – Childhood The module will also explain the process of
communication and familiarise the learners
Physical and motor development in with some major social problems.
Childhood

Curriculum
Contents Lesson 16 – Social and Educational Problems
Lesson 13 – Groups and Leadership Poverty

Some other social problems
Improtance of groups in our life
School dropouts, stagnation and wastage
Characteristics of group
Module V: Health and Well Being
Group dynamics
Marks: 15
Difference between ‘Us’ and ‘Them’
Approach
Formal and informal groups
This module aims at developing an
Group development understanding about the concepts of happiness
and well being. It describes the obstacles in the
Leadership
pursuit of happiness and psychological processes
Qualities of leader to overcome them. It also explains the concepts
of health, hygiene and describe practices for
Theories of a leadership positive mental health.
Lesson 14 – Communication Contents
Understanding the meaning of Lesson 17 – Happiness and Wellbeing
communication Concepts of happiness and well being
Elements of communication Self actualization and mature personality
Types of communication Recognizing strengths of self Actualized
individuals
Effective communication
Developing positive emotions
Features of effective communication
Self efficacy and compassion
Non-verbal communication in Indian context
Lesson 18 – Mental Disorders and their
Role and impact of media Treatment
Lesson 15 – Attitudes, Beliefs and Social Stress as a source of disturbed mental health
Cognition Types of conflicts and frustations
Nature of attitude Types of mental disorders
Formation and change of attitudes Psychotherapeutic process
Relationship between attitudes and behaviour Process of coping with stress

Beliefs and behaviour Lesson 19 – Mental Health and Hygiene
Social cognition Concept of mental health and hygiene

Curriculum
Mental health, mental ill-health and mental Need for preparation for right vocation
illness
Special training
Indicators/signs of poor mental health
Concepts of career, vocations and occupation
Behaviours which sustain good health
General requirements for a vocation
Strategies for time management
Vocational choice emerging perspective
Module VI: Work Life and Environmental
Concerns Lesson 22 – The World of Organization
Marks : 15 Organization as a system
Approach Organizational climate
This module aims at developing an appreciation Interpersonal relationship at work

of the concerns for vocational life and Productivity and excellence at work
understanding of the challenges of world of
work. It also explains the relevance of individual Strategies for developing productivity at
differences for job requirements, notions of work
work motivation. The relationship between
Lesson 23 – Environmental Stress
human being and environment, causes and
remedies of environmental stress are also Environmental stress
described.
Pollution issues
Contents
Sustainable development
Lesson 20 – Aptitude, Interest and Job
Requirements Module VII: Yoga: A Way of Living
Aptitude Marks: 10
Interest Approach
Ability This module tries to develop an appreciation

among the learners about Yoga as a way of life
Mental age and I.Q. being practised from ancient times. The module
also explains the relevance of Yoga in the
Importance and relationship among aptitude,
various stages of our life. It would also provide
interest and ability
guidelines to the learners for facing various
Analysing and communicating job stresses and tensions in life and for self
requirements development.
Lesson 21 – Preparation for the Vocational Contents

Role Lesson 24 – Healthy Mind in Healthy Body
Meaning of vocational role What is Yoga

Curriculum
Different types of yoga Lesson 26 – Nurturing the Whole Being: An

Indian perspective
Yoga to keep fit
Wholistic Personality: An ideal view
Pranayam
Theory of Trigunas
Meditation
Theory of panch koshas (Five Shelths of
Lesson 25 – Self-development and Yoga
existence)
Self-development through Yoga
Development of Koshas
Applications of Yoga in different walks of
Sri Aurobindo on levels of consciousness
life
Lesson 27 – Controlling and Disciplining the
How Yoga shapes our attindes, thinking and
Mind
behaviour?
Importance of controlling and regulating the
Yoga for motivation and excellence:
mind
(Competence) in action
Jeevan Vigyan
Patanjali on ‘Mind’: Its nature, functions
and states Preksha Dhyan
The eight-fold path of Yoga Art of Living
Transcendental meditation
Vipassana

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Basic
Psychological
Processes
7
Notes
THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Have you ever thought about how you have acquired knowledge about all that you
know today? It may instantly come to your mind that your teachers have taught you
about this, your parents made you learn all these things, or you read about all these
in books. In all these situations you have learnt something to build your knowledge
base. Thus the process of knowing or of acquiring knowledge is called cognition.
The process of acquiring knowledge is facilitated by cognitive processes such as
attention, thinking, remembering, and reasoning. These cognitive processes are
controlled and regulated by higher center of the brain, the cerebral cortex. The
cognitive processes are very much specific to human beings and are guided by
concepts, facts, propositions, rules, and memories. All these cognitive activities are
governed by thinking. Hence, in this chapter you will learn about what is thinking,
stages of problem solving, stages of creative thinking, and processes involved in
making decisions.
OBJECTIVES
• understand the nature of thinking;
• describe various stages of problem solving;
• explain creativity and its role in life; and
• explain the process of decision making.
7.1 THE NATURE OF THINKING

Thinking is perhaps one aspect of our mental activity which continues even when
we are asleep. The difference between what is thinking and what is not thinking is
just our awareness about the particular thinking process. Hence thinking is a complex
mental process which involves manipulation of information. Such information is

Basic
Psychological
Processes collected through our senses (such as vision, hearing, smelling etc) from the
environment, as well as the information which is stored in our memory because of
our encounter with many events and situations in the past. Thinking is a constructive
process in the sense that it helps us to form a new representation of any object or
event by transforming available information. It involves a number of mental activities,
such as inferring, abstracting, reasoning, imagining, judging, problem solving, and
Notes creative thinking. Such activities take place in our mind and can be inferred from
our behaviours. Thinking is usually initiated by a problem and goes through a sequence
of steps such as judging, abstracting, inferring, reasoning, imagining, and
remembering. These steps are often directed towards solution of the problem. The
example given below will help you to understand this in a better way.
In order to reach your new school on time suppose you are trying to find out the
shortest route from your home to your new school. Your choice will be guided by
many factors such as condition of the road, the density of traffic during your school
time, safety while walking on the road etc. Finally you take a decision about the best
possible shortest route after considering all these factors. Thus, a simple problem
like this also requires thinking. The solution to this problem emerges after processing
information that is available to us from the environment and our past experience.
Thinking relies on a variety of mental structures such as concepts and reasoning.
We will briefly learn about these mental structures.
Concepts: Concepts are one of the key elements of thinking. Concepts represent
objects, activities, ideas, or living organisms. They also represent properties (such
as “sour” or “brave”), abstractions (such as “anger” or “fear”), and relations (such
as “smaller than” or “more intelligent than”). Concepts are mental structures which
allow us to organize knowledge in systematic ways. We cannot observe them directly,
but we can infer them from behaviour.
We as human beings have the capacity to abstract the essential characteristics of

objects, events or whatever we perceive. For example, when we see a Potato we
categorize it as ‘vegetable’, and when we see a towel we categorize it as ‘cloth’.
Whenever we encounter a new stimulus we tend to treat it as a member of a familiar
or remembered category and take the same action toward it and give it the same
label.
Reasoning: Reasoning is also one of the key aspects of thinking. It is a process that
involves inference. Reasoning is used in logical thinking and problem solving. It is
goal directed, and the conclusions or judgments are drawn from a set of facts. In
reasoning, information from the environment and the stored information in the mind
are used following certain rules. There are two types of reasoning: deductive and
inductive. In deductive reasoning we try to deduce or draw conclusion from a set of
initial assertions or premises; where as in inductive reasoning we start from available
evidence to generate a conclusion about the likelihood of something. Most cases of
scientific reasoning are inductive in nature. Scientists and even lay people consider
a number of instances and try to determine what general rule covers them all. For

Basic
Psychological
example, the person is a priest, because he is wearing plain cloth, prays and eats
Processes
simple food.

Notes
1. What is thinking?
_______________________________________________________________
2. What are the different mental components of thinking?
_______________________________________________________________
7.2 PROBLEM SOLVING

Problem solving is part and parcel of our daily life. Every day we solve a number of
problems ranging from simple to complex. Some problems take little time where as
some take much time to solve. We look for alternative solutions if do not get the
right kind of resources to solve the problem in hand. In the case of solving any type
of problem our thinking becomes directed and focused and we try to use all the
resources, both internal (mind) and external (support and help of others) to arrive at
the right and appropriate decision. For example if you want to score good marks in
an exam, you study hard, take the help of teachers, friends, and parents and finally
you score good marks. Thus problem solving is directed thinking focused towards
dealing with a specific problem. This thinking has three elements: the problem, the
goal, and the steps to reach the goal. There are two methods which are used
prominently in problem solving. These are- “Means-end-analysis” and
“Algorithms”. In the case of Means-end-analysis a specific step-by-step procedure
is followed for solving certain types of problems. In the case of ‘heuristics’ the
individual is free to go for any kind of possible rules or ideas to reach the solution. It
is also called rule of thumb.
Problem Solving and Mental Set: Sometimes we use a particular strategy/technique

to solve a problem but we may or may not succeed in our effort to solve the problem.
This creates a set to approach future problems that are incountered by a person. The
set continues even if the problem is different. Despite this, we use the same strategy/
technique when ever we come across the same problem and again fail to reach the
solution. Such phenomenon in problem solving is called mental set. A mental set is
a tendency on the part of an individual to respond to a new problem in the same
manner that he or she has used earlier to solve a problem. Previous success with a
particular rule produces a kind of mental rigidity/fixedness/set, which hinders the
process of generating new ideas to solve a new problem. A mental set inhibits or
affects the quality of our mental activities. However, in solving our real life problems
we often rely on past learning and experience with similar or related problems.

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Processes In Activity 1 You may not be able to solve the problem, because of the mental set
that one has to keep the lines within the grid of nine dots. By going outside the
boundaries, you will succeed.
Notes INTEXT QUESTIONS 7.2

1. Define problem solving. Discuss the two types of problem solving.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Discuss the role of mental set in problem solving.
_______________________________________________________________
7.3 CREATIVITY AND ITS ROLE IN LIFE

Do you know whatever you see around you, the things which you use for work in
everyday life, the transport you use for commuting from one place to another etc are
all the products of human thinking? Creativity is a particular kind of thinking which
involves reaching out to the solution of a problem in a unique and novel way which
was nonexistent earlier. Creativity is the mother of all inventions and discoveries in
the world. Unlike routine solutions to the problems, creative solutions are novel,
original, and unique, that others have not thought of before. The creative solutions
or productions are sudden or spontaneous and are the outcome of a lot of work and
preparation already done consciously and unconsciously. The sudden appearance of
new ideas is called insight. The creative thinker can be any more such as an artist,
musician, writer, scientist or sports person.
Stages of Creative Thinking: Graham Wallas , one of the leading psychologists of

early twentieth century stated that there are five stages of creative thinking. These
are Preparation, incubation, illumination, evaluation, and revision. We briefly discuss
these five steps of creative thinking in the subsequent section.
1. Preparation: This is the first stage in which the thinker formulates the problem
and collects facts and materials necessary for the solution. He/she finds that the
problem cannot be solved after days, weeks, or months of concentrated effort.
Unable to solve the problem the thinker deliberately or involuntarily turns away
from the problem, initiating stage two i.e. incubation. At this stage of problem
solving, it is important to overcome negative consequences of mental set and
any kind of mental set or bias.
2. Incubation: This is a stage of no solution and involves a number of emotional
and cognitive complexities. However, the negative effects of mental set, functional
fixedness, and other ideas that interfere with the solution tend to fade. Perhaps,
fatigue and too much of concern with the problem also mount up during this

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period. Further, the unconscious thought processes involved in creative thinking
Processes
are at work during this stage.
3. Illumination: In this stage a potential solution to the problem seems to be realized
as if from nowhere. It is about having the insight about the possible solution.
Illumination occurs with its “aha” experience when a sudden idea or solution
appears into consciousness. Notes
4. Evaluation: In this stage the obtained solution is verified or tested to see if it
works. Frequently, the insight may turn out to be unsatisfactory, and may need
some modification in the strategy of approaching the problem.
5. Revision: Revision is required in the case a solution which is not satisfactory.
It has been found that creative people are generally talented (e.g. artists, musicians,
mathematicians etc.), and have specific abilities. Creative people have been found
to have some specific personality characteristics such as they are independent in
their judgments, self-assertive, dominant, impulsive, prefer complexity, etc.
1. What is creativity? What are the possible characteristics of a creative person?

_______________________________________________________________
2. Discuss in brief the stages of creative thinking.
_______________________________________________________________
7.4 DECISION MAKING

We make several decisions in our day-to-day life, such as decisions pertaining to our
personal life, social life, education, career etc. When we take a decision which gives
us success where as our faulty decisions do not yield the desired result. Decision
making is also related with another term ‘judgment’. Let us discuss these two aspects
of thinking separately.
Decision Making: Decision- making is a kind of problem solving in which we

select an appropriate alternative out of a number of alternatives available to us. For
example, you have the option to choose between History and Psychology courses in
your eleventh grade. You attend classes in both the subjects to decide upon the course
to choose. Suppose you find that the contents of psychology are relevant, interesting
and new and the teacher is intelligent, friendly, knowledgeable, and having good
verbal ability; all qualities that you value in a teacher. So, on the basis of judgment
about the subject and qualities of the teacher you decide to choose the psychology
course.

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Processes Judgment: Judgment is a process of forming opinions, arriving at conclusions, and
making critical evaluations about objects, events and people on the basis of available
information. The process of judgment is often automatic and spontaneous. It does
not require any prompting. Some judgmental choices are habitual like need for going
for a morning walk before getting ready. Judgments involve evaluating information
about the world (objects, events, persons, etc.), while decisions require making
Notes choices.

1. What is the difference between decision making and judgment? Discuss in brief.
_______________________________________________________________

• The process of knowing or acquiring knowledge is called cognition. The process
of acquiring knowledge is facilitated by processes such as attention, thinking,
remembering, and reasoning. These cognitive processes are controlled and
regulated by higher center of the brain, the cerebral cortex.
• Thinking is a complex mental process which involves manipulation of
information. Such information is collect through our senses (such as vision,
hearing, smelling etc) from the environment, or is based on information which is
stored in our memory because of our encounter with many events and situations
in the past.
• Thinking is a constructive process in the sense that it helps us to form a new
representation of any object or event by transforming available information. It
involves a number of mental activities, such as inferring, abstracting, reasoning,
imagining, judging, problem solving, and creative thinking.
• Concepts are one of the key elements of thinking. Concepts are mental structures
which allow us to organize knowledge in systematic ways. We cannot observe
them directly, but we can infer them from behaviour.
• Reasoning is another key aspects of thinking. It is a process that involves inference.
Reasoning is used in logical thinking and problem solving. It is goal directed,
and the conclusions or judgments are drawn from a set of facts.
• There are two types of reasoning: deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning
we try to deduce or draw conclusion from a set of initial assertions or premises;
where as in inductive reasoning we start from available evidence to generate a
conclusion about the likelihood of something.

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• Problem solving is directed thinking focused towards dealing with a specific
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problem. It has three elements: the problem, the goal, and the steps to reach the
goal.
• A mental set is a tendency on the part of an individual to respond to a new
problem in the same manner that he or she has used earlier to solve a problem.
Previous success with a particular rule produces a kind of mental rigidity/
fixedness/set, which hinders the process of generating new ideas to solve a new Notes
problem.
• Creativity is a particular kind of thinking which involves reaching out to the
solution of a problem in a unique and novel way which was nonexistent earlier.
Creativity is the mother of all inventions and discoveries in the world. Creative
solutions are novel, original, and unique that others have not thought of before.
• There are five stages of creative thinking. These are Preparation, incubation,
illumination, evaluation, and revision.
• Decision- making is a kind of problem solving in which we select an appropriate
alternative out of a number of alternatives available to us. Judgment is a process
of forming opinions, arriving at conclusion, and making critical evaluations about
objects, events and people on the basis of available information.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Give any 2 examples each for (a) Concepts (b) Reasoning (c) Problem solving.
2. Identify any 5 creative persons who are famous in India.
3. Explain the concept of decision-making and its importance in daily life.

7.1
1. Complex mental process involving manipulation of information.
2. Concepts and reasoning
7.2
1. Directed thinking focussed towards dealing with a specific problem Means-and
- analysis and Algorithms
2. Mental set inhibits the quality of mental activities.
7.3
1. Thinking which involves reaching out to solutions in a uniqe and novel way

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which was nonexistent earlier. Creative persons can be self-assestive, dominant,
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impulsive, may prefer complexity etc.
2. Preparation, incubation, illumination, evaluation revision.
7.4
1. Decision making is a kind of problem solving. Judgement is a process of forming
Notes
opinions, arriving at conclusions and making critical evaluations.
1. Refer to section 7.1 & 7.2

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8
Notes
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Have you noticed how each one of us is busy in one or the other activities? We try
our best to achieve certain goals; and, if some difficulty comes in the way we feel
frustrated. These statements show that our daily life is influenced by our needs such
as hunger, thirst, achievement, affiliation etc. Not only that, we also feel happy, sad,
angry or violent. The former aspects refer to motivation and the latter refer to different
types of emotions. This lesson explains the relevance of motivation and emotions in
human life. Motivation helps in answering the question: why do people seek to do
certain things?. This helps us understand why people differ in terms of their behaviour.
Emotions play an equally important role in everything we do, affecting our
relationships with others and health. Both concepts are important because they help
us understand the reasons for the various activities we indulge in and help determine
the unique personality of each person.
OBJECTIVES

• define the concepts of motives and needs;
• understand goal directed behaviour;
• describe the different aspects of emotions; and
• explain the role of emotions in organizing behaviour.
8.1 NATURE OF MOTIVATION

Have you wondered as to – ‘Why does your father/mother go to work everyday?’
‘Why do you study for long hours?’ ‘Why do you like to play with your friends?’ or
‘Why does your mother stay up the whole night and care for you when you are
feeling unwell?’
Each of these questions has an answer as there is a reason or motive behind each

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Processes type of activity mentioned. Working, studying, playing and caring are some important
activities which are considered purposeful. Motives, wants, needs, interests and
desires help explain our movement towards the chosen goals. A need or motive
directs us to act or behave in a particular way towards a certain goal. Thus you study
for long hours to achieve good results and your mother looks after you because of
the affection and concern she has for you as her child.
Notes
A. The Concept of Motivation
Motivation plays an important role in directing human behaviour. There are several
characteristics of motivation. First, it pushes us to reach the goals we have set for
ourselves. In order to reach our goals we need to be aroused or feel active. Too little
arousal will make us feel dull and relaxed, whereas, too much arousal may make us
withdraw from our goal. Hence we must be motivated to maintain a balanced or
optimum level of arousal. Second, people are motivated to behave in certain ways
because of the pleasing and pleasant properties of external stimuli, such as, money,
good grades, food, which motivate the person to act in a purposeful/focussed manner.
Third, motivation is the result of the person’s thoughts and expectations. It can be of
two types: intrinsic motivation that comes from within the person, based on personal
enjoyment of any task, and extrinsic motivation which is based on external rewards
such as money, pay and grades. You will find that sometimes we work hard and
produce high quality work when motivation is intrinsic rather than extrinsic. On the
other hand, we are also influenced by the external rewards. In life, both types of
motivation are important. Finally, motivational needs are ordered such that basic
needs such as hunger and thirst are satisfied first and then other higher-needs, such
as need for achievement and power are fulfilled. Let us now learn about the hierarchy
of needs.
B. The Hierarchy of Needs
According to psychologist Abraham Maslow, there are several levels of needs that
each person must strive to meet before he or she can achieve the highest level of
personal fulfilment. Thus, a person must be able to fulfil the primary (biological)
needs at the lowest level, as indicated in Figure 1. Once these needs are met then
safety becomes important, followed by need to belong and to love and be loved.
The desire to belong to groups such as family, friends, and religious groups makes
us feel loved and accepted by others. If we succeed in satisfying the mentioned
needs then we feel the need to have self esteem, confidence, and feeling of self-
worth. Next come cognitive needs which include need for knowledge and
understanding, followed by need for order and beauty. Finally a person moves
towards reaching the full potential called self-actualization. Such a person has the
qualities of self awareness, is socially responsive, and is open to the challenges of
life. This type of organization of needs is called a hierarchy, or ranking in a series.

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Notes
Figure 8.1: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
As life goes on people gain wisdom and knowledge of how to handle situations,
thus they move up the ladder or hierarchy. A person may move up and down the
hierarchy depending upon the situation he or she finds himself in. This hierarchy
may not hold true for different cultures. It has been found that in countries like
Sweden and Norway quality of life is very important and social needs are more
sought after than self-actualization. In some cultures security needs are more dominant
than self-actualization making job security more important than job satisfaction.
C. Primary Needs
‘Need’ refers to a lack of something that is necessary for us. We feel hungry when
our blood sugar level is low, thus we need to eat food to satisfy our hunger. Motives
or needs are characterized in terms of primary and secondary needs or motives.
Important primary needs are biological needs such as hunger, thirst, oxygen, rest,
sleep, temperature regulation, warmth, shelter, excretion, and sex. These needs have
to be satisfied for us to stay alive. Needs such as hunger and sleep are cyclical in
nature or are repetitive. Thus we need to eat and sleep regularly. Attempt Activity 1
to understand the effects of not eating or sleeping for a long time.

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Primary Needs
a) Effect of lack of sleep on performance. Try to keep awake for a long period
of time, for example for about 16 hours. Now list your experience on two
aspects: i) how long you take to learn a lesson and ii) your feelings at this
Notes point of time.
b) Effect of not eating for a long period of time. Try not to eat for a long period,
for example, 8 hours. List your experience in terms of how you feel. Rate
your feelings on a five point scale in terms of: i) extent of low feeling, ii)
level of irritation and annoyance. Also try to concentrate on reading a new
lesson. Are you able to read the lesson? If not, why is this so?
The starting point of many biological needs is an imbalance in the physiological

conditions of our body. Our body tries to maintain a state of balance called
homeostasis. This balance is crucial. There must be enough water content in our
body, body temperature must not be high or too low, glucose levels must be adequate
and so on. Without maintaining this balance we would not be able to function properly
in our daily life activities. Can you recall when you or a family member suffered
from high fever and had to rest in bed for a few days? A state of balance must be
maintained within our body to carry out our daily activities.
Why do we eat or feel hungry? There are several factors involved in the hunger
need. Stomach contractions or ‘hunger pangs’ indicate that the stomach is empty
and low levels of glucose and protein in the blood make us hungry. In addition, the
smell, taste or appearance of food may lead to a desire to eat. When you reach home
the smell of your favourite dish makes you feel hungry! Many factors work together
to make us feel hungry. It is interesting that you can go hungry for long periods but
not without water. We feel thirsty because we lose water content due to perspiration,
breathing and urination.
Influence of Culture and Environment on Primary Needs

Do you know that our biological needs, such as hunger, are influenced by
environmental factors? Often we are likely to feel hungry because of a number of
reasons rather than due to low glucose levels in the blood. Environmental factors
that have an effect on hunger and eating are:
• Learned liking and habits, for example, a person who enjoys having pizza will
want to eat it even if not hungry.
• Stress can lead to eating, for example, examination stress makes some students
eat more than is required.
• External cues, such as when it is dinner time or your mother calls out for dinner
you are likely to feel hungry. The smell and attractive appearance of food may
also make you feel hungry.

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• Dietary restraints, if the doctor has advised a patient to avoid sweet foods there Processes
may be an increased desire to eat sweets.
D. Secondary Needs
Secondary needs lead to psychological or social motives. They are called social
motives because they are learned in social groups, particularly the family. As children
grow up and interact with others they acquire certain needs which can be fulfilled in Notes
a group setting. For example, achievement motivation is acquired by children through
their parents, role models and socio-cultural influences. Some common social motives
are:
Achievement: To strive for success and excellence, carry out difficult tasks.
Affiliation: To seek and enjoy the company of others, to make friends.
Power: To strive for impact on others, to influence, control and persuade others.
Nurturance: To help and take care of others such as children, elderly or sick persons.
Aggression: To fight, forcefully overcome opposition, to hurt and ridicule.
Exploration: To seek a variety of stimulation, to explore novel things.
The type and strength of social motives differ from person to person. For example,
you may have high needs for achievement and affiliation, whereas your friend could
have a moderate need for achievement and a low need for affiliation. Or, you could
have a high need for affiliation and your friend a high need for exploration.
Mother Teresa’s concern for the poor, sick and helpless

made her open the Missionaries of Charity in 1950. It
provides food for the needy and runs schools, hospitals,
orphanages, youth counselling centres, and, homes for
lepers and the dying. Mother Teresa’s work has touched
the lives of thousands of people. Her concern for others
makes her high on need for nurturance. Do read the poem
written by Mother Teresa as shown on www.youtube.com.
Nelson Mandela dedicated himself to the struggle of African
people and was imprisoned for 27 years before he achieved
freedom for his people. In fact he did not want personal freedom
but fought for the setting free of common people. He was
influenced by Mahatma Gandhi’s way of thinking. For him it is
important to live in peace and harmony and have equal
opportunities for all people. Nelson Mandela was able to achieve
difficult goals and his commitment helped him accomplish his purpose in life.
Watch the video on www.youtube.com ‘Making Poverty History – Nelson
Mandela’ and ‘First Nelson Mandela Interview’

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Processes We can also classify needs into three basic types: existence needs that include all
primary needs that are essential for survival; relatedness needs include safety,
belongingness, esteem and other social relationships needs; and, growth needs
include those aspects that help people to develop their full potential. It is important
to understand that biological and psychological needs do not work in isolation. They
influence each other and determine human behaviour.
Notes

1. Explain the concept of motivation.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Differentiate between primary and secondary motives.
_______________________________________________________________
3. Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
_______________________________________________________________
4. Discuss the role of culture and environment in our needs and motives.
_______________________________________________________________
Quiz 1
1. The process by which a person moves towards fulfilment of wants is called:
a. need b. incentive c. motivation d. goal
2. Secondary needs are acquired through
a. biological needsb. social interaction c. intrinsic procession d. innate needs
3. According to Maslow the most basic needs are:
a. safety b. cognitive c. love d. biological
4. Reema gets Rs. 20 for every good grade she obtains in school. Reema is receiving:
a. intrinsic motivation b. extrinsic motivation c. primary need d. growth need
5. Ashok has a high need for …………….. because he likes to study and investigate
new things.
a. love b. nurturance c. exploration d. achievement

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8.2 NATURE OF EMOTIONS Processes
Each one of us has experienced strong feelings that are associated with pleasant or
negative experiences. Examples of emotion are feeling happy when enjoying a movie,
or getting embarrassed when we break a neighbour’s beautiful vase, or sadness after
an argument with our best friend. Emotions influence our everyday behaviour.
Notes
A. Functions of Emotions
Emotions play several important functions in our lives.
• Emotions prepare us for action: When you see a person with a gun coming
towards you, the emotion of fear and the accompanying bodily changes will help
you run away from the situation.
• Emotions help arrange our activities and future behaviour in some order:
Emotions help us to gather information and increase our chances of making the
right response in the future. When a person threatens us we will try to avoid
meeting that person out of fear. Positive emotions can act as reinforcement such
as, wanting to repeat an action which brought us praise and joy.
• Emotions help us interact effectively with others: When we show our emotions
other people watching them may come to be familiar with our way of behaving
and know how we are likely to act again in the future. Similarly, others’emotional
expressions help us understand how to behave with them.
Activity 2
In column A are some situations which we all go through. In column B are
emotions we might experience in these situations. Try and match column A to
column B.
A B
(i) You had fight with your best friend (i) Surprise, excitement
(ii) You are about to go for an interview / exam (ii) Fear, nervousness
(iii) You and your family are going for a picnic (iii)Sorrow, sadness
(iv) You are about to receive the results of (iv)Disgust
an exam that you do not think you did well on.
(v) You have received an unexpected gift (v) Scared, nervousness
(vi) You see a man chewing pan/tobacco and (vi)Excitement, happiness
spitting on the road

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Notes
Fig. 8.2: Emotional Expressions

B. Components of Emotions
Emotion has three basic components or parts:
1. Physiological changes: when a person feels an emotion certain changes take
place in our body such as increase in heart rate, blood pressure, pupil size is
increased, perspiration takes place, breathing is faster and the mouth may become
dry. Think about the last time when you went to the examination centre to write
your exam or when you were angry at your younger brother. You may have
experienced these bodily changes.
2. Behavioural changes and emotional expression refer to the outward and
noticeable signs of what a person is feeling. These include facial expressions,
bodily postures, and gestures with the hand, running away, smiling, frowning,
and slumping in a chair. The six primary emotions in facial expressions are: fear,
anger, sadness, surprise, disgust and happiness. This means that these emotions
are easily recognized in people from all over the world.
3. Emotional Feelings: Emotion also includes the personal/individual feeling. We
can label the emotion felt as: happy, sad, angry, disgusted and so on. Labelling

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of a feeling is shaped by past experiences and the culture one belongs to. On Processes
seeing a person with a stick in his/her hand we may run away or prepare ourselves
to fight, whereas, if a well known singer is in your neighbourhood you will go to
the place to hear him sing your favourite songs.
Cognition or understanding of the situation is the most important part of
emotional experiences. Some psychologists feel that we think and then feel, Notes
while others believe that our emotional reactions are so fast that thinking about
the situation does not arise. Attempt Activity 3 to check which explanation is
correct according to you? Human emotions involve so many things, past
experience, culture, individual differences therefore at times we may first act
and then think about it, whereas in other situations we can first think before
reacting.
Activity 3
Emotion and Thinking
Think and answer: when you suddenly see a dog snarling near by do you first
run away or do you first think ‘What should I do?’ and then decide to run?
Make a list of other situations where you are likely to first react and other
situations where you are likely to first think and assess the situation and then
you will respond.
Most of the times we feel a mixture of emotions. For example, when a person wins
a lottery she may show the emotions of shock, disbelief, surprise and joy. We are
also familiar with each other’s feelings and know what it means to him or her. Hence
you know when your friend is happy to receive a gift and sad when you have had an
argument with her. However your experience of emotions of joy and fear is different
from your friend’s. Going for a walk may provide you with pleasure whereas for
your friend a hug from her mother gives the feeling of pleasure. The meaning a
feeling has for you or your friend is influenced by past experiences and memories.
Activity 4
There are many ways by which we describe our feelings. Prepare a list of the
various emotions people feel. Make your own list of emotions. Also ask your
family members and friends. You will realize that the list is very long for
human emotions have a wide range.
C. Emotions and Culture
Do people in all cultures express their emotions similarly? Yes, research indicates
that the six basic emotions are expressed universally. Therefore, Indians, Americans,
Germans or Japanese express joy and fear in the same basic way. Each primary
emotion is associated with a unique set of facial and muscular movements.

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Processes Yet you must understand that the behaviour of people from various countries is
different from your behaviour. Japanese tend to show very little emotional display
as compared to Italians. Why does this difference in display exist if there are basic
universal emotions? The answer is that as we grow up we come into contact with
family members and others. The social experiences lead to the development of display
rules which are approved way of showing of emotions. These rules are learnt during
Notes childhood and this learning becomes noticeable in the expression of emotions. Can
you recall any instance when you have received a gift that you do not like? Have you
not thanked profusely with a smile ‘pasted on your face’? This is known as ‘making
of emotion’. Interestingly there may have been instances when you have been able
to note the difference between a made up smile and a true smile.

1. State the functions of emotions in our lives.
_______________________________________________________________
2. With the help of examples identify the components of emotions.
_______________________________________________________________
3. State how display rules are influenced by culture.
_______________________________________________________________
Quiz 2
1. Emotions prepare us for action. T/F
2. When a person feels an emotion no bodily changes take place. T/F
3. Emotional expression is only shown through facial expressions. T/F
4. Labelling of emotions is influenced by past experience and the culture one belongs
to. T/F
5. Display rules are approved ways that are noticeable in the expression of emotion.
T/F
8.3 ROLE OF EMOTION AND MOTIVATION IN HUMAN

BEHAVIOUR
Can you imagine a situation when you are about to appear for an important
examination or are going to receive a prize for securing the first position in class and
you do not feel anything? Or, you are walking alone down a dark street at midnight
and someone is following you and again you are not feeling anything? Absence of
not being motivated to do something and absence of feelings is likely to make us act
in a robotic fashion.
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We have tried to understand motivation and emotions as two distinct concepts. In
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real life both are closely related and connected and separating the two concepts is a
difficult task. In this unit you have learned that along with motivation we also feel
our experiences. In the examples provided above the act of studying long hours and
the experience of success provides you with a sense of achievement and happiness.
The emotional feelings of love and affection your parents have towards you also
motivate them to care for you. The death of a loved one brings on the emotion of Notes
sadness whereas we experience anger at being treated unfairly. Emotions not only
motivate us, they also indicate the reason for motivation. They play an important
role in our lives.
Hence your motivation is also accompanied by emotions. Any situation that brings
about a strong emotion is likely to motivate you to either repeat it or to avoid it. Thus
both motivation and emotion are forces that push us towards action. Primary needs
like hunger, thirst and sleep and secondary needs like achievement, power or approval
are accompanied by emotional reactions of satisfaction, joy and pride. It can be said
that:
• Both motivation and emotion move, activate and help control and plan human
behaviour.
• The feeling part of emotion has a motivational component. It helps us to get
what we want and to avoid what we do not want in life.
• Emotions can serve as motives. For example, a frightened child may cry out for
help and seek comfort and security from a loved one, such as, a mother or father.

• Motivation is a want or need that helps us move towards our goal. It moves us to
act or behave in a particular way.
• Motives and needs are characterized in terms of primary motives (biological)
and secondary (psychological) motives. Primary needs are due physiological
imbalance while secondary needs are influenced by social experiences of the
individual.
• According to the hierarchy model, biological needs must be fulfilled before
psychological needs.
• Emotions play three important functions: prepare us for action, organize our
behaviour and future, and, interact effectively with others.
• Emotions have three interrelated components: physiological changes, behavioural
and emotional expression and subjective feelings.
• Basic emotions and their expressions are universal in nature yet culture provides
guidelines towards how and when to show emotions.

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Processes • Motivation and emotion together activate and organize our life. Motivation leads
to emotional experience and this further motivates (reinforces) a person to act.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
Notes 1. Write three examples of motivated action. Now identify the important
characteristics of motivation.
2. Identify the important components of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Which
motives are satisfied first? Provide reasons as to why this is so.
3. With suitable examples describe the role of motivation and emotion in organizing
our behaviour.
Activities/Exercises
1. Interview a person who has achieved prominence in his or her field. For example,
the president of a company, a sports person, a dancer or a physically challenged
person. Ask the person about his/her life – starting from childhood to the current
position, incidents that influenced them, the various challenges and how they
were overcome. Prepare a case study.
2. Collect a number of magazines, and newspapers. Cut photographs which show
different facial expressions. Make a collage of these photographs to understand
the different emotions in human life.
3. Interview a dancer or theatre person. Ask the person about different emotional
expressions and how they are used to communicate specific emotions. Try to
note how the body posture, gestures, and facial expressions communicate
emotions.

Quiz 1
1. c
2. b
3. d
4. b
5. c

Basic
Psychological
Quiz 2
Processes
1. T
2. F
3. F
4. T
Notes
5. T
2. Refer to section 81
Web Sites
The following websites will help you to further understand motivation and emotions.
1. http://thesituationist.files.wordpress.com/2007/10/emotions.jpg
Types of emotions: (a) In this site robots have been used to depict different types
of emotions. Study in detail how each part of the face (forehead, eyebrows, size
of eye pupil, etc.)
(b) https://sfari.org/image/image_gallery?img_id=136061&t =1241787803666
Whereas in this site humans have been used to show six different emotions. Can
you identify them?
(c) http://www.scribd.com/doc/12910868/Paul-Ekman-Emotions-Revealed-
Recognizing-Faces-and-Feelings-to-Improve-Communication-and-Emotional-
Life
This E-book by Paul Ekman has a number of photographs which you can observe
to understand different types and display of emotions. On page 236 in the appendix
there is a test ‘Reading Faces’ consisting of 14 photographs that you can attempt
. At the end of the e-book answers with explanations are also provided .

Human
Development
Notes 9
NATURE AND DETERMINANTS OF
DEVELOPMENT
One of the most important features of all living beings is change. The changes are
most striking when we see the transition in human life spanning from conception to
death. The journey from an unborn baby to an adult and then on to an old person is
very fascinating. Even a casual observation of the human lives around you will make
it clear that several changes happen each day in our bodies and psychological
functioning. Some changes are noticeable while some can not be immediately or
clearly observed. Some of these changes are determined more by hereditary or genetic
factors, while some depend more on environmental and cultural factors. Different
cultures hold different goals for development and use different strategies to bring up
children. In order to help individuals develop in the best way possible, it is important
to understand the nature and process of development throughout the life-span.
OBJECTIVES
• describe the nature of development and distinguish it from other related concepts;
• describe the important domains and stages of human development;
• identify major genetic and environmental influences on human development;
and
• learn about the effects of environmental factors on pre-natal as well as post-
natal development.
9.1 NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT

In this section, we will try to understand what is meant by the term “development”,
distinguish it from other related concepts, and identify its main characteristics.

Human
Development
A. The Concept of “Development”
The term “development” is generally used to refer to the dynamic process by which
an individual grows and changes throughout its life-span. It is often thought of as
the process of qualitative change taking place from conception to death. In this way
Notes
development is a broad term and deals with all areas including physical, motor,
cognitive, physiological, social, emotional and personality. It should be noted that
developments in all these areas are inter-related. For example, a 13 year-old girl
undergoes physical and biological changes in her body and such changes are in turn
related to her mental, social and emotional development.
Life begins at conception when mother’s ovum fertilized by the father’s sperm and
a new organism is created. From that point till death an individual keeps on changing.
Such changes are not random but orderly and generally follow a pattern. It may be
noted that the developmental changes are not always incremental or evolutionary.
They may also involve a decline in the functioning called “involution”. A child
loses milk teeth in the process of development while an old person may show decay
in memory and physical functioning. Development, therefore, is best viewed as a
gain-loss relationship in which newer and different kinds of changes take place.
Older behavior patterns may lose their salience while new ones may emerge.
Development is shaped by the joint influences of both nature and nurture in a cultural
context. Nature refers to the hereditary contribution a child receives from parents at
the time of conception. Genetics determines several aspects of a person’s physical
structure and functioning as well as some psychological characteristics to a certain
extent. Nurture refers to the influences of the complex physical and social ecology
in which we develop and grow. Various aspects of the child’s ecology (e.g. physical
facilities, social institutions and rituals, and school) influence the developmental
outcomes in important ways.
B. Key Developmental Concepts
The term “development” is often used interchangeably with “growth” and

“maturation”, but these terms need to be carefully distinguished.
“Growth” generally refers to the quantitative additions or changes in the organic

structure. For instance as we become older, the body size, height, weight, proportion
of parts of our body change in measurable ways. Also, the vocabulary increases.
“Development” on the other hand, is a broader term which often includes growth,
but is used more to refer to functional and qualitative changes in cognitive ability,
perceptual ability, personality and emotional development and so on.
“Maturation” is a term that refers to the natural unfolding of changes with increasing
age, e.g. hormonal changes as the individual reaches puberty. An example of this

Human
Development
can be seen in breast development which is influenced by release of estrogen when
a girl reaches adolescence. Maturation refers to the changes which are primarily
biological in nature and occur due to our genetic programme. Our biological structure
follows a predetermined course of changes with time. This can be seen in the
development of teeth during childhood. Changes in body proportions with age provide
Notes an example of such predetermined universal trends. The size of the head is roughly
half of the whole body at birth, but the proportion keeps decreasing until adulthood,
when it is less than one-fourth of the whole body. Therefore, maturational changes
in our body are primarily due to the ageing process rather than learning or other
factors such as illness or injury.
It must be noted that changes in behavior also occur due to “learning”. Learning
takes place as a result of a person’s interaction with the environment. Maturation
provides the raw material and sets the stage for learning to occur. Taking the case of
learning to read, the child needs to be biologically ready. The eyes need to develop
proper focusing ability before a child can learn to read. Therefore, maturation and
learning jointly bring about changes in a person’s behaviour.
“Evolution” is a term that refers to species-specific changes. Evolutionary changes

happen very gradually and are passed on from one generation to the other so that the
species is better equipped for survival. The evolution from apes to human beings
took place over a period of about 14 million years. Changes that occur at the level of
species are called phylogenetic and those that occur at the level of individual are
called ontogenetic. The term evolution is also used to describe the incremental
changes that take place in the course of development.
C. Characteristics of Development
We can now summarize the characteristic features of development to help us

distinguish it from other kinds of changes.
• Development is a life-long process, spanning from conception till death.

• Developmental changes are often systematic, progressive and orderly. They
usually follow a pattern, proceeding from general to specific, and from simple to
complex and integrated levels of functioning.
• Development is multi-directional, i.e. some areas may show a sharp increase
while other areas may show a decline. Developmental changes usually involve
an increase in maturity towards higher levels of functioning, e.g. increase in
vocabulary’s size and complexity. But it may also involve a decrease or loss,
such as in bone density or memory in old age.
• Moreover the rate of growth and development is not always constant. ‘Plateaus’
are often seen in the pattern of development, indicating periods of no apparent
improvement.

Human
Development
• Developmental changes can be quantitative, e.g. increase in height with age, or
qualitative, e.g. formation of moral values.
• Development is both continuous as well as discontinuous process. Some changes
may occur very rapidly and be overtly visible, such as appearance of the first
tooth, while some changes may not be sharp enough to be observed easily in Notes
day-to-day functioning, such as understanding of grammar.
• Developmental changes are relatively stable. The temporary changes due to
weather, fatigue or other chance factors will not qualify as development.
• Developmental changes are multi-dimensional and inter-related. They may
happen together in many areas at a time, or can occur one at a time. During
adolescence there are rapid changes in the body as well as in emotional, social
and cognitive functioning.
• Development is highly plastic or flexible. This means that the same person may
suddenly show greater improvement in a particular area than expected from the
past rate of development. An enriched environment can produce unexpected
changes in the physical strength, or in memory and intelligence levels.
• Development is contextual. It is influenced by historical, environmental and
socio-cultural factors. The loss of a parent, an accident, a war, an earthquake and
child-rearing customs are examples of factors which may influence development.
• There are considerable individual differences in the rate or tempo of
developmental changes. These differences could be due to hereditary factors or
environmental influences. Some children can be very precocious for their age,
while some children show developmental delays. For example, though an average
child begins to speak 3 word sentences around 3 years of age, there will be some
children who have mastered this much before 2 years, while there will be some
who are not able to speak full sentences even by 4 years. Moreover, there will be
some children who are not able to speak even beyond the upper limit of the
range.

1. Write True/False against each statement:
a. Development refers to both quantitative and qualitative changes. T/F
b. Development follows a constant rate. T/F
c. The study of development does not cover old age. T/F
d. A person may show increase in some aspects and show decline in
other aspects at the same time T/F
e. Enrichment of the environment can produce dramatic changes. T/F

Human
Development
a. Explain the concept of development.
_______________________________________________________________
b. State any 3 major characteristics of human development.
Notes
_______________________________________________________________
9.2 DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT

As we have noted development is an inclusive term that incorporates changes in
several areas. These areas or domains deal with 3 broad categories:
1. Physical and motor development: It refers to changes in body-size and structure,
functioning of various body systems, brain development, perceptual and motor
development.
2. Cognitive development: It refers to the development of cognitive and intellectual
processes, including memory, attention, intelligence , academic knowledge,
problem solving, imagination and creativity. It also includes development of
language.
3. Socio-emotional development: It refers to how we develop relationships with
other people, and how our emotions emerge and change as we grow older. It
includes emotional communication and self-control, understanding of self and
others, interpersonal skills, personality, and emergence of friendship and moral
reasoning.
Physical Domain
Socio-
emotional Cognitive
Domain Domain
Fig. 9.1: Inter-relatedness of the domains of development
These domains or areas are inter-related and combine in a holistic manner to make a
person’s developmental pattern unique. Each domain influences and is influenced
by others. As a baby develops physically, several motor skills are acquired. As the

Human
Development
baby becomes capable of grasping, reaching, sitting, crawling, standing and walking,
he/she is able to better explore the environment, resulting in further cognitive
development. Improved thinking and understanding helps formation of better social
relations as well as emotional expression and comprehension. On the whole, each
domain helps the child move towards enriched experiences, learning and overall
development. Notes

a. Improvement in memory and language indicates development in the ——
——domain.
b. Interpersonal relationships fall in the ___________ domain.
c. Changes in size and structure of the body fall in the _______domain of
development.
d. ___________ broad domains of development can be categorized for the
sake of convenience.
9.3 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Even though development is a continuous process, some theorists believe that various
stages can be identified for the sake of locating major shifts and determining the
developmental tasks. This helps in monitoring the pace of developmental changes.
It must be pointed out that there is no sharp dividing line between them. Each stage
has certain characteristic features and prepares the ground for the next stage. Some
theorists have suggested stages in specific areas of development. For instance Piaget
who identified stages of cognitive development and Freud who suggested stages of
psycho-sexual development. These theories are explained in other lessons.
A. Developmental Stages: A Life Span Perspective
Most psychologists identify the following stages of development:
• Prenatal period (from conception to birth) : In this period, the single-celled

organism changes into a human baby within the womb.
• Infancy and toddlerhood (birth-2 years): Rapid changes in the body and brain
help several sensory, motor, social and cognitive capacities to emerge.
• Early childhood: (2-6 years): Motor skills are refined, language develops, ties
are formed with peers, and the child learns through play.

Human
Development
• Middle childhood (6-11 years): These are the school years when the child
acquires literacy skills, thought processes are refined, friendships emerge and
self-concept is formed.
• Adolescence (11-20 years): This period is marked by puberty which signals the
onset of rapid physical and hormonal changes, emergence of abstract thinking,
Notes
sexual maturity, stronger peer ties, sense of self and autonomy from parental
control.
• Early adulthood (20-40 years): This is the stage of life when the youngster
leaves home for the sake of education, or to find a career, and to form intimate
relationships leading to marriage and having children.
• Middle adulthood (40-60 years): At this stage the person is at the peak of his/
her career. There is a need to help children begin independent lives, and to look
after own parents who are aging.
• Late adulthood (60 years till death): This period is marked by retirement from
work, decrease in stamina and physical health, bonding with grand-children,
and dealing with impending old age and death of self and spouse.
Fig. 9.2: Stages of human development
Though the stages of development are universally recognized, the exact age range is
arbitrary and depends on cultural factors. In some cultures, for example, there is no
distinct phase of adolescence with the stress associated with it. One simply moves
from childhood to adulthood. The concept of old age is undergoing a change with
enhanced medical, health and cosmetic facilities. Life-span expectancy has also
increased and reached to 65 years in India.
B. Life Stages : An Indigenous View

Ancient texts also view the human life-span in terms of stages. Life is seen as a
process of evolution in four stages known as Ashramas, which literally means a
dwelling place. There are four main Ashramas:

Human
Development
• Brahmacharya: During this period the major task is learning while living as a
student under the guidance of a Guru, with emphasis on discipline and simple
living.
• Grihastha: In this phase of life an individual has to work and take on the
responsibility of raising and maintaining a family within the social context. Notes
• Vanaprastha: It is a period of seclusion after one has raised the family and
completed the duties towards it. It requires severe discipline and austerity and
sharing responsibilities with the younger people.
• Sanyasa: It is the final stage of life when one needs to achieve complete
detachment from worldly objects, freedom from desire, and move towards
ultimate self-knowledge and renunciation from the world.
These stages or ashramas are based on the principle that a human being should
grow, participate and discharge worldly duties and contribute to the progress and
welfare of society and move towards liberation and spiritual growth. It is desired
that the older persons should give way to the younger generation. In this scheme one
lives in a web of obligations to society as well as environment including all living
beings such as animals and trees. It emphasizes co-existence with this whole living
world rather than being a consumer and exploiting the environment for personal
gains.
C. Developmental Tasks
Each developmental stage is characterized by a dominant feature or a leading
characteristic which determines its uniqueness. For example, a child is expected to
go to school and study while an adult is expected to work and raise a family. Certain
characteristics stand out more prominently than others and each period is called a
stage. People learn certain behavior patterns and skills more easily and successfully
at certain stages and this becomes a social expectation. For example, a child is
supposed to be able to go independently to school in middle childhood. Such social
expectations of a particular age common to all persons constitute “developmental
tasks”. If a person is able to master the developmental task of a particular stage, he
or she is considered to have successfully moved on to the next stage of development.

1. Write True or False after each statement:
a. Developmental stages have a fixed age range.
b. Prenatal period extends from birth to conception.
c. Adolescence is marked by rapid physical and psychological changes.

Human
Development
d. There are four stages in the Hindu view of development.
e. The Hindu concept of development encourages staying away from the family.
f. Developmental tasks are social expectations of a particular age group.
Notes a. State the major stages of development as described in ancient Hindu texts.
_______________________________________________________________
b. What do you understand by the term “developmental tasks”?
_______________________________________________________________
9.4 INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT

It is important to understand the factors that determine the course of development.
Each one of us is a product of genetic factors and environmental influences. The
role of maturation and learning has already been described briefly in an earlier section.
Let us now look at the contributions of heredity and environment in some detail.
A. Genetic Influences
At the time of conception, the ovum of the mother and the sperm cell of the father
unite to form a new cell. The small particles in the nucleus of the cell are called
chromosomes. The chromosomes exist in pairs. The human cell has 46 chromosomes
arranged in 23 pairs. One member from each pair comes from the mother and the
other one from the father. Chromosomes store and transmit genetic information.
The genes, which are the actual trait carriers, are found in very large numbers in
each chromosome.
The fertilized zygote brings together various combinations of chromosomes. In this

way, different genes are transferred from each child of the same set of parents. Due
to this reason each child bears greater similarity to his on her blood relatives than to
anyone else. At the same time there are also many differences amongst blood relatives.
B. Genotypes and Phenotypes
Genetic transmission is a complex process. Most characteristics that we observe in

human beings are combinations of a large number of genes. Innumerable permutations
and combinations of genes are responsible for the large differences in physical and
psychological characteristics.
Only identical or monozygotic twins have exactly the same set of chromosomes and
genes as they are formed by duplication of a single zygote. Most twins are fraternal
or di-zygotic, who develop from two separate zygotes. These fraternal twins may
resemble each other like brother and sister, but they will also be different from one
another in many ways.

Human
Development
Notes
Fig. 3: Differences between Mono-zygotic and Di-zygotic twins
Genes can be dominant or recessive. It is a known fact that there is more color
blindness or lack of sensitivity to certain colors among males than females. A
grandmother and mother can transmit this condition to the male child without being
color blind themselves. This is because in the male this disorder is dominant, whereas
in female it is recessive. The genes form pairs. If both genes in a pair are dominant,
the individual will display the specific trait (e.g. color blindness). If one gene is
dominant and the other recessive, the dominant will prevail. The recessive gene will
be passed on and may show up in a later generation.
The dominant gene, therefore, is the one responsible for a particular trait to show up
in a person. The characteristics which show up and are displayed e.g. eye color, are
called phenotypes. The recessive gene does not show up as a trait, unless paired
with another gene just like it. The characteristics that are carried genetically as
recessive genes but are not displayed are called genotypes.
Genotype, therefore, refers to the actual genetic material or a person’s genetic heritage
while phenotype refers to the individual’s physical and behavioral characteristics
which are determined by both genetic and environmental factors.
C. Environmental Influences
Nature refers to what a child has inherited genetically from her parents, while the
influence of environment on the development of the child is referred to as nurture.

Human
Development
To understand the development of a person, we have to study the complex interaction
between nature and nurture or heredity and environment.
Environmental influences are important both at the prenatal and postnatal stages of
human development. At the prenatal stage, when a fetus is in the mother’s womb,
Notes internal or external harmful agents, such as certain legal or illegal drugs, alcohol,
lead and pollutants can harm the unborn baby’s development. The mother’s nutrition,
diseases and emotional stress can also affect the development of the fetus.
After birth, several types of environmental factors operate to influence the

development of the child. The ecological systems theory of development views
environmental factors organized as concentric circles of systems.
/Temple Business
Fig. 4: Ecological systems influencing human development
The micro-system is the immediate environment at home and interactions between

them and the child’s own characteristics. The meso-system consists of the
relationships between family members and school and neighborhood. The exo-system
refers to the influences of indirect agencies such as work-place of the parents or
community services. The macro-system is the outermost layer which includes cultural
values, laws and customs. The systems are ever-changing and dynamic. There is
also a chronosystem which refers to the time dimension. As the child grows, there
are changes within each system, and also changes due to the child’s interaction with
the environment. On the whole, in ecological systems theory, children are both
products and producers of their environments, in a network of interdependent effects.

Human
Development
The present view of development gives importance to both nature and nurture.
Heredity and environment are inseparably interwoven, each affecting the impact of
the other on the child. Development therefore has certain universal features, as well
as features unique to the individual. It is important to understand the role of heredity,
but more fruitful to understand how the environment can be improved, so as to help
the child develop in the best possible way within the limits set by heredity. Notes
An understanding of the principles and determinants of development helps us in

several ways:
1. It helps us to know what to expect of the individual’s capability at a particular
age.
2. It gives information on when to provide opportunities and stimulation for optimal
development.
3. It helps to parents, teachers and others who work with children, to prepare them
for the physical and psychological changes that are to take place.
4. It helps us to be prepared for changes in our bodies and personalities as we grow
older.
5. It helps us to understand that it is possible to facilitate the process of development
by providing an enriched environment.

a. Heredity is determined at the time of ____________.
b. There are ___ pairs of chromosomes in a human cell.
c. Genes can be ___________ or __________.
d. Characteristics that are carried in the genetic code but not displayed are called
______________.
e. In the ecological systems theory, the layer which consists of cultural values,
laws and customs is called the ___________.
f. External agents that can harm the unborn baby in the womb are called
___________.
a. Explain the terms ‘genotype” and “phenotype”.
_______________________________________________________________

Human
Development
b. Briefly explain the main features of the ecological systems theory of
development.
_______________________________________________________________
Notes
• Development refers to the process by which the individual grows and changes
during its life-span, from conception to death.
• Development is systematic, orderly, progressive, multi-dimensional, multi-
directional, plastic and contextual.
• The major domains of development are physical, cognitive and socio-emotional.
• Stages of development can be categorised for the sake of convenience, ranging
from prenatal stage to late adulthood or old age.
• Each stage is characterized by certain developmental tasks which are social
expectations for a given age group.
• Hereditary factors are determined at the time of conception and genetic
information is carried by genes and chromosomes.
• Genotypes refer to the characteristics which are carried genetically but not
displayed.
• Phenotypes refer to those characteristics which are displayed.
• Environmental factors influence both prenatal and post-natal development.
• External harmful agents can cause damage to the fetus in the mother’s womb.
• Maternal disease, nutrition and stress can influence fetal development.
• The ecological systems theory proposes several sub-systems in the growing child’s
environment which can influence development.
• Both nature and nurture jointly influence development.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between the terms “development”, “growth”, “maturation” and
“evolution”.
2. Describe the major domains of development.
3. Identify the major stages of human development.
4. Discuss the relative importance of nature and nurture in development.

Human
Development

9.1
1. a. true Notes
b. False
c. False
d. True
e. True
b. Refer to 9.1.3
9.2
a. cognitive
b. socio-emotional
c. physical
d. three
9.3
1. a. False
b. False
c. True
d. True
e. False
f. True
2. a. Refer to Section 9.3.2
b. Refer to Section 9.3.3
9.4
1. a. conception
b. 23
c. dominant, recessive
d. genotypes

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Development
e. macrosystem
f. teratogens
Notes b. Refer to section 9.4.3


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Development
10 Notes
CHILDHOOD
Childhood is a beautiful phase of life for most of us. It is a period associated with
play, fantasy, and innocence. It is the crucial phase in life and involves important
aspects of growth and development which are critical for the entire life span.
The childhood period can be further classified into four sub-stages:
(a) Infancy (birth to 2 years),
(b) Early childhood (2 to 6 years),
(c) Middle childhood (6 to 11 years), and
(d) Adolescence (12 to 19 years).
Infancy provides the foundation for all areas of development. It is a period marked
by extremely rapid physical growth and development of sensori-motor skills. Infancy
is also important for cognitive, language and socio-emotional development. This
stage has already been discussed. Adolescence will be taken up in the next lesson.
In this lesson, we will try to understand how various aspects of development such as
physical, motor, cognitive, social and personality development proceed during
childhood. We will also study the socialization process during childhood in the cultural
context.
OBJECTIVES
• describe physical and motor development in childhood;

• understand cognitive development during childhood;
• explain socio-emotional and personality development in childhood; and
• understand the process of socialization within the cultural context.

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Development
10.1 PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT IN
CHILDHOOD
While physical growth is extremely rapid during infancy, it is comparatively slower
Notes in childhood. As the child’s body size, height and weight increase, there are also
changes in muscular and skeletal structure. This leads to development of several
motor skills in childhood. The studies have shown certain universal trends in both
physical and motor development.
The sequence of physical and motor development is fairly uniform across different
cultures. Yet there are large individual differences. One child may walk at 10 months,
while another may walk only at 24 months. The major milestones of physical and
motor development in infancy and childhood are given in Table 10.1
Table 10.1: Milestones of Physical and Motor Development
Lifting chin up while lying on stomach 1 month

Lifting head and chest 2 months
Rolling over 4 months
Picking up objects with palm without sitting with support 5 months
Finer use of thumb and fingers 7 months
Sitting alone (without support) 8 months
Standing with support (holding on to furniture) 8-9 months
Crawling 9 months
Standing independently 9-10 months
Taking few steps without holding on and walking holding on 12-13 months
Grasping objects with thumb and forefingers 13-14 months
Walking alone 15 months
Running and climbing stairs 2 years
Walking on tip toe 2½ years
Riding a tricycle 3 years
Throwing ball over head, walking down stairs with one foot to a step 4 years
Copying a complex figures 6 years
Understanding of physical and motor development is extremely important as it

provides the basis for the development of child’s personality, social and emotional
development. It helps establish emotional bonding between the child and the mother
figure. It also helps mastery over the child’s own body and movements.

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Development
A. Gross and Fine Motor Development
Motor development is usually classified into ‘gross motor’ and ‘fine motor’ categories.
Gross motor development refers to control over large muscle groups that enable
the child to get around, e.g. crawling, standing and walking. They usually involve Notes
the limbs or the whole body. Fine motor development refers to control over smaller
muscle movements e.g. grasping, pinching etc. Fine motor skills are necessary to
engage in smaller, more precise movements, generally using the hands and fingers.
Fine motor skills are different than gross motor skills which require less precision to
perform the daily tasks.
Table 10.2: Gross and Fine Motor Development Milestones

Child’s age Activities involving Fine Motor Skills
0 and 3 months Holding an object
3 and 6 months Trying to reach out for objects, putting things in mouth
6 months and 1 year Trying to hold food, using hand and fingers to play
games
1 year and 1-1/2years Scribble on paper, trying to play throw and catch with
the ball
1-1/2 and 2 years Drawing lines with pencil, using a spoon to eat food
with little help
2 and 3 years Brushing teeth and buttons cloths with help
3 and 5 years Builds using building blocks, uses a pencil to draw,
turn pages of a book
5 and 7 years Draws various shapes very easily, brushes and combs
without support, cuts shapes very clearly
10.1. 3 Physical and Motor Development in Early Childhood (2-6 years)
Early childhood covers the period from 2 to 6 years. It is also known as the preschool
stage. The child who has become mobile is now able to widen the sphere of activities
beyond the immediate family. Through interaction with the wider society and the
environment the child learns the rules of appropriate social behavior of and develops
mental abilities which prepare him/her for formal education and schooling. Most
infants appear to be quite clumsy in their physical and motor activities. But gradually
their locomotion skills become refined and graceful. Body balance while walking
and running improves noticeably. A 3-year-old can run in a straight line and jump
smoothly without falling down. A 4-year-old can skip, jump on one foot and catch a
large ball thrown from a distance.

Human
Development
Development of Fine Motor Skills during Childhood
• 2-3 years: Undresses self and assists with dressing, Copies a circle and a
cross, Strings four large beads, Turns a single page, Snips with scissors on
a line, Buttons/unbuttons large buttons.
Notes
• 3-5 years: Copies a square, Prints own name – tripod pencil grasp, Ties
shoelaces, Cuts on line continuously, Prints some capital letters.
• 5-7 years: Copies a triangle, Cuts our simple shapes, Copies first name,
Prints numerals 1 to 5, Color within lines, Pastes and glues appropriately
Between 2 and 3 years, young children stop “toddling,” and develop a smoother
gait. They also develop the ability to run, jump, and hop. They can participate in
throwing and catching games with larger balls.
Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing
both feet together on each step before proceeding to the next step. However, they
may still need some assistance to prevent fall as they are likely to be unsteady in this
new skill. Children of this age can jump and hop higher as their leg muscles grow
stronger.
During this period, children become better at catching and throwing, can hit a
stationary ball with a bat, learn to ride a tricycle, and can kick a ball placed directly
in front of their bodies. They can create things with their hands, such as building
towers out of blocks, molding clay into rough shapes, and scribbling with a crayon.
Children of this age often begin showing a preference for using one hand more often
than the other, which is the beginning of becoming left or right-handed.
Between 3 and 4 years, children improve in eating food themselves and can use
utensils like forks and spoons. They can now hold a crayon or pencil by the writing
hand rather than just grasping it with the fist. They can also make twisting motion
with their hands, useful for opening door knobs or twisting lids to open jars. Most
children are toilet trained by 4 years of age.
As children reach the age of schooling, the rate of physical growth becomes slower
until puberty when there is a rapid ‘growth spurt’.
By the age of six, the child is physically capable of coordinated actions which require
body balance. Small muscle coordination required for fine motor activities, such as
putting on shirt buttons or copying a simple figure, improves quite dramatically
during the early childhood years. Children can also complete other self-care tasks
beyond dressing and undressing, such as brushing their teeth and combing their hair.
Children of this age can also independently feed themselves without an adult’s
immediate supervision or help.

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Development
During 5 to 6 years of age, young children continue to refine the earlier skills. They
can run faster and can start to ride bicycle with training wheels for added stability. In
addition, they can step sideways. Children of this age begin mastering new forms of
physical play such as the jungle gym, and begin to use the see-saw, slide, and swing
on their own. Notes
Development in Middle Childhood (6-11years)
During this period physical growth becomes more gradual and rate of overt change
becomes slower until puberty at about 11-13 years when there is again a rapid ‘growth
spurt’. There are changes in height, weight and muscular strength and swiftness.
During this period, there are large gender differences. Girls are slightly shorter than
boys during 6 to 8 years but then the trend reverses. Girls start putting on weight. A
10 year old girl may look taller and heavier than a boy of the same age. The growth
spurt for boys comes later than for girls.
During this period, children achieve greater control over large and small muscle
groups. They keep getting stronger, faster and attain better motor co-ordination. School
children are energetic and enjoy all types of outdoor games. Increase in cognitive
capacity also helps them learn the rules of new games.
The 6-7 year-old children can copy complex figures such as a diamond, color patterns
and figures and assemble tools and model toys. They also become more skillful in
games requiring skillful eye-hand coordination such as throwing, catching and hitting
targets. They continue to refine fine motor skills and build upon earlier skills.

Write short answers to the following questions:
1. Give names of any 3 gross motor skills developed in childhood.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Give names of any 3 fine motor skills developed in childhood.
_______________________________________________________________
10.2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Cognitive development refers to the way children learn and process information. It
includes improvement in attention, perception, language, thinking, memory and
reasoning.

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Development
According to Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory, our thoughts and reasoning
are part of adaptation. Cognitive development follows a definite sequence of stages.
Piaget described four major stages of cognitive development:
• Sensori-motor stage (Birth- 2 years)
Notes • Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)
• Concrete operational stage (7-11 years)
• Formal operational stage (11+ years)
Piaget’s Cognitive
Development
Theory
Pre- Concrete Formal

Sensori-motor operational
operational operational
stage (Birth- 2 stage (11+
stage (2-7 stage (7-11
years) years)
years) years)
Fig 10.1: Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
The following section takes a look at cognitive development through childhood as

indicated by Piaget’s theory.
Cognitive Development in Early Childhood (2 to 6 years)

During this period children become increasingly proficient in using symbols such as
words and images to represent a variety of objects, situations and events. By the
time children enter school they have a reasonably good vocabulary. In fact, children
are very receptive at learning language when they are exposed to multiple languages
in different contexts. They often grow up as bilingual or multilingual children. They
have better understanding of language compared to monolingual children who use
only one language.
Capacity for sustained attention improves during the early childhood. A 3-year-old
child may persist on a task such as coloring with crayons, playing with toys or
watching television for not more than 15-20 minutes at a stretch. By contrast, a 6-
year-old can be found to be working on an interesting task for an hour or more.
Children also become more selective in their attention. As a result their perceptual
skills also improve.

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Development
Thinking becomes more logical and capacity to remember and process information
also improves. Through interaction with the environment the child learns the rules
of appropriate social behavior which prepare him/her for schooling.
Early childhood, from 2 to 6 years, is the phase when the child progresses through
the Pre-operational stage. There are 2 sub-stages of the Pre-operational Stage: Notes
a) Symbolic Function (2 to 4 years)

b) Intuitive Thought (4 to 7 years)
During the Symbolic Function sub-stage, children can create mental images of objects
and store them in their minds for later use. For example, such a child can draw a
picture of or pretend to play with a puppy that is no longer present there.
Children can talk about people who are traveling, or who live somewhere else. They
can also talk about or draw places they visited, as well as create new scenes and
creatures from their imagination. Children can also use their mental images of things
to role-play in games.
Piaget also believed that pre operational children have a style of thinking characterized
by Egocentrism, or the inability to see the world from someone else’s point of view.
According to Piaget, children with egocentrism explain situations from their own
perspective and understanding.
The next sub-stage in Piaget’s Preoperational cognitive development stage is the
Intuitive Thought sub-stage, which spans ages 4-7 years. Children in this sub-
stage of development learn by asking questions such as, “Why?” and “How come?”
Piaget labeled this “intuitive thought” because he believed that children at this stage
tend to be so certain of their knowledge and understanding that they are unaware of
how they gained this knowledge in the first place. These children show “Centration”.
They focus on one characteristic of object and base their decisions or judgment on
that only.
During early childhood, children’s ability to understand, process, and to produce
language also improves rapidly. There is a ‘language explosion’ between 3 and 6
years. At age 3, their spoken vocabularies consist of roughly 900 words. By age 6,
spoken vocabularies expand dramatically to anywhere between 8,000 and 14,000
words.
As children move beyond using two word sentences, they start to learn and understand
grammar rules. Beyond growing their vocabularies, young children start expanding
their ability to use different forms of words (e.g., irregular verbs such as “She brought’
rather than “She brang”)? They also begin to form more complex sentences.
B. Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood
Children at the middle childhood level are full of curiosity and are keen to explore
the environment. Memory and conceptual knowledge improve, facilitating logical

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Development
thinking beyond the immediate situation. Children can also engage in aesthetic
activities such as music, art and dance and develop hobbies of their own.
In Piaget’s theory, characteristics of the Concrete Operational Stage during middle

childhood are as follows:
Notes
• Understanding of logical principles.
• Improvement in spatial reasoning.
• Logical thinking limited to real and concrete situations.
In middle childhood years, language development proceeds in many ways. More
than just learning new words, children are acquiring more adult definitions of the
words they know. They create relationships among words, understand synonyms
and antonyms, and understand how prefixes and suffixes affect word meaning.

a. List any 3 major features of the pre-operational stage.
_______________________________________________________________
b. Describe any 3 major achievements of the concrete operational stage.
_______________________________________________________________
10.3 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL AND PERSONALITY

DEVELOPMENT
Infancy is a period when basic emotions are established, and the child progresses in
both emotional expression as well as recognition of emotions in others. During early
childhood, children typically start to develop self-conscious emotions like shame
and guilt as they start evaluating themselves, instead of simply reacting to caregivers’
or other adults’ evaluations.
As children become increasingly self-aware, more effective at communicating, and

better at understanding the thoughts and feelings of others, their social skills improve.
They become skilled at modifying and expressing their emotions to fit different
social situations. For example, one child may feel angry, but he/she knows that having
a tantrum at school is inappropriate. Another child learns that acting pleasant and
happy, even though she is actually feeling shy, is a better way to meet people in a
birthday party when she does not know many of the other children. Changing or

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Development
controlling one’s emotions in social situations is an important skill that allows children
to fit in with groups and helps in creating interpersonal relationships.
Another emotional capacity that develops during early childhood is empathy, which
is an important component of positive social behavior. As with other emotions, the
development of empathy depends on cognitive and language development. Notes
Learning how to appropriately express and deal with anger, aggression, and fear is a
valuable life and social skill. Young children often need plenty of guidance and
positive discipline in order to learn how to control their anger. Parents and caregivers
not only directly teach ways of controlling emotions, but also indirectly influence
children’s behaviour by acting as role models.
As infants grow, they begin to mature in their ability to interact with others socially.
A child’s main developmental task is to create bonds and connect with primary
caregivers. In contrast, young children branch out and began to create other social
relationships. When interacting with other children of their age, such as peers at day
care or preschool, they engage in parallel play in which they play beside each other
without truly interacting with each other.
Young children begin to play more cooperatively. In cooperative play, they engage
in the common activity in a small group. Often, these first forms of cooperative play
include pretend or symbolic play. As they continue to develop socially with peers,
they often enter a stage of rough and tumble play which includes running, racing,
climbing, or competitive games. This is the stage when social skills such as learning
to take turns and follow simple group rules and norms are practiced.
B. Middle Childhood
During this period children show fast change in social relationships. They use social
comparison to distinguish themselves from others. They start seeing things from
other’s perspective. A child begins to weigh self-worth and increasingly compares
himself/herself with peers.
Children are now able to understand emotions of pride and shame and can experience
more than one emotion in a given situation. They can suppress or conceal emotions
more effectively and use self-acquired strategies to cope. In this period, children
internalize or begin to control their values and feelings from within. They start making
judgments at this age that impact moral development.
Gender differences are observed during middle childhood. Girls may attach greater
importance to good interpersonal relationships and the family while boys may
emphasize the importance of social prestige.
A prevalent problem among children of this age group is of bullying. Researchers

have found that bullies display certain characteristics, such as being intrusive, having

Human
Development
demanding but unresponsive parents. Victims are often depressed and have lower
self-esteem.
Notes
Fig 10.2: Girls at play
In middle childhood, self-concept changes from a focus on observable characteristics

and typical behavior and emotions to an emphasis on personality traits, positive and
negative characteristics, and social comparisons. The child begins to see his or her
own strengths and limitations. This helps the move towards achievement of an identity.

a. The development of empathy depends on ________ and __________
development.
b. Girls in middle childhood attach more importance to good
____________relations while boys give more importance to own social
____________.
c. A child who is liked by some but disliked by other peers is called _______.
d. When two children are playing without interaction, it is called _________play.
e. An internal determiner of emotional development is the child’s ___________.
10.4 SOCIALIZATION
The process of acquiring norms, values and beliefs, which are considered significant
in a society, is called socialization. It is the process of transmitting cultural values,
preferences and patterns of behavior to children. This is done by various processes,

Human
Development
institutions and people. Socialization involves regulating children’s behavior and
disciplining their undesirable or inappropriate behavioral tendencies.
Parents, families, children’s peer groups, schools, religious institutions and mass
media such as television are some important agents of socialization. They influence
the process of child rearing directly as well as indirectly and reinforce culturally Notes
appropriate modes of thought and behaviour.
Early childhood is a crucial period of development because during this period children
learn a great deal about the norms, conventions and practices in their families, society
and culture. They acquire language and learn the fundamentals of culture. The primary
socializing agents during this period are the family members.
Middle childhood is the time when influence of peers and school becomes prominent,
though family context remains important. The effect of media such as television and
computers is undeniable. This is the time when social stereotypes and prejudices are
most likely to develop.
Much research has been done on the impact of parenting styles on the socialization
of the child. There are 4 main types of parenting styles:
1. Authoritarian style: demanding, controlling, insensitive parenting

2. Permissive style: indulgent, non-demanding parenting
3. Authoritative style: firm, consistent parenting, reasons given for discipline.
Neglectful or uninvolved style disintersted uncaring, low control and communication.
Besides family, peers, media and school, there are other factors which influence the
socialization process. Ethnicity and socio-economic status of the parents makes an
impact on the child’s development directly and indirectly. Ethnicity is linked to family
size, structure, education, income, composition, extended networks.
Fig 10.3: Children from low SES home

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Development
Notes
Fig 10.4: Child in high SES family

1. Give brief answers to the following questions.
a. What do you understand by the term ‘Socialization’?
_______________________________________________________________
b. State the major types of parenting styles.
_______________________________________________________________

• Physical development continues during early and middle childhood, but the rate
is slower than in infancy.
• There are gender differences in physical growth as girls tend to have a growth
spurt earlier than boys during middle childhood.
• Gross motor development is rapid during early childhood.
• During middle childhood, children continue to develop gross and fine motor
skills, while there is marked improvement in muscular control and eye-hand co-
ordination.
• In early childhood the child is in the pre-operational stage of cognitive
development.
• In middle childhood, the child reaches the concrete operational stage, when
conservation, transformation, seriation and logical thinking are acquired, but the
child still finds it difficult to deal with abstract concepts.
• Emotional development in childhood involves the development of self-conscious
emotions, and better self-regulation in emotional expression.

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Development
• Social development progresses during childhood from parallel play to co-
operative play. In middle childhood, the focus shifts gradually from family to
peers and school.
• Peer acceptance is an important determiner of a child’s self-esteem and
adjustment. Notes
• Socialization is the process of acquiring behaviors, norms, values and beliefs,
which are considered significant in a society.
• Parenting style influences the socialization process and personality development
of the child.
• Cultural and social factors influence parenting style and attitudes towards child
rearing, and hence the socialization process.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
a. Discuss the major features of physical development in early childhood
b. Describe the major features of motor development in middle childhood.
c. Discuss the main differences between the pre-operational stage and concrete
stage of Piaget’s theory.
d. Explain the major features of emotional development in early childhood.
e. Discuss how cultural factors influence the process of socialization in childhood.

10.1
1. a. Crawling, standing, walking
b. grasping, pinching, holding pencil
10.2
1. a. Craete mental images, store it, talk about events, people create new scenes
from imagination
b. understanding logical principles improvement in spatial reasoning langauge
development
10.3
1. a. cognitive, language
b. interpersonal, prestige

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Development
c. controversial
d. parallel
e. temperament
Notes 10.4
1. a. Acquiring norms values, beliefs, Regulation discipline of undesirable
behaviour, agents of socialization.
b. Authoritarian, permissive, authoritative and neglectful.
a. Refer to unit 10.1.3
b. Refer to unit 10.1.4
c. Refer to unit 10.2.1 and unit10.2.2.
d. Refer to unit 10.3.1
e. Refer to unit 10.4

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Development
11 Notes
ADOLESCENCE AND ITS

CHALLENGES
Human life completes its journey through various stages and one of the most vital
stages is adolescence. Adolescence is the period of transition from childhood to
adulthood and plays a decisive role in the formation of prosocial/antisocial adult.
All of us undergo this stage which poses many challenges and is full of excitement.
At the same time it demands adjustment on many fronts.
When we come to this world we are completely dependent upon others and learn
gradually to be independent. In India, the adolescents do most of the work themselves
but the final decision regarding various domains of life is taken by their parents. For
example, an adolescent wishes to enjoy movies but parents may force him/her to
complete study first. Parents claim that they have more practical knowledge and
experience and tend to treat adolescents like children.
This lesson shall help you understand the nature of adolescence and its challenges
and major tasks faced by the adolescents, the influences that shape their personality
and some of the important problems faced by the adolescents.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the nature of adolescence as a developmental stage;
• enlist the developmental tasks encountered during adolescence;
• explain the physical development during adolescenc; and
• discuss gender roles and describe the phenomenon of generation gap.

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Development
11.1 CONCEPT OF ADOLESCENCE
Adolescence is a period of transition when the individual changes- physically and
psychologically-from a child to an adult. It is a period when rapid physiological and
psychological changes demand for new social roles to take place. The adolescents,
Notes due to these changes often face a number of crises and dilemmas. It is the period
when the child moves from dependency to autonomy. It demands significant
adjustment to the physical and social changes.
The adolescence period in the Indian social system comes under Brahmacharya
(apprenticeship).This is the first ashram (stage of life) of development stages. In
this stage, the child learns the basic skills in relation to his future role as a responsible
adult.
It is a fact that all living beings pass through specific stages or phases of development.
Erikson believed that each stage of life is marked by a specific crisis or conflict
between competing tendencies. Only if individuals negotiate each of these hurdles
successfully they can develop in a normal and healthy manner. During this phase
adolescents must integrate various roles into a consistent self- identity. If they fail to
do so, they may experience confusion over who they are.
11.2 THE ADOLESCENT TRANSITION PERIOD

Indeed adolescence represents one of the greatest of these periods of crisis. In fact it
is the stage of stress, strain and storm. It brings many ambiguities in life. During this
phase one really does not know where he or she stands. It is believed that this
uncertainty about one’s role causes many conflicts.
It is a well-known fact that delinquency rates soar during the period of adolescence,
that suicides become increasingly prevalent, that drug and alcohol addiction may
have their beginning, and that much general happiness exists. Adolescence is also a
period when satisfactory heterosexual adjustments are facilitated or hindered, when
career is planned and philosophies of life are molded.
11.3 ADOLESCENCE : BIOLOGICAL OR SOCIAL?

Adolescence is both biological and social in nature. The beginning of adolescence
is marked by biological changes in girls and boys. As a matter of fact, just before
puberty there occurs what is known as pre-adolescent growth spurt. It takes place in
girls mostly during the age of nine to twelve years, and in boys between eleven and
fourteen years of age. During this period, and following shortly thereafter, the
secondary sexual characteristics emerge. In girls there is typically rounding out of
the hips, breast development, appearance of pubic hair, and menstruation. In boys,
some of the secondary sexual characteristics that mark the beginning of adolescence

Human
Development
are appearance of pubic hair, facial hair, and change of voice. These changes are
biologically induced.
Adolescence for both girls and boys is marked largely by social changes. Such factors
as when an adolescent leaves home, gets a job and can vote determine when his or
her transition from childhood to adulthood is accomplished. The length of this period Notes
is thus primarily a social phenomenon.
The problems adolescents face during the long period of growing up have both
biological and social roots. Physical changes and deviation can create many problems.
Society also creates problems for adolescents. Adolescents in western societies behave
differently than adolescents in eastern societies owing to varying social norms
expectations and family structure.
Activity 1
Learning by doing
List some issues on which you and your friends feel uneasy because you are
not free to do your job independently due to your parents’ interference. Discuss
with elders whether we can manage some negotiations to minimize the conflict
with parents.
11.4 FACTORS DETERMINING THE PATTERN OF

TRANSITION
Optimal development in adolescence depends on successful accomplishment of the
developmental tasks in infancy and childhood. How easy it will be for the adolescent
to make the transition into adulthood will depend partly upon the individual, partly
on environmental aids or obstructions, and partly on their experiences. Let us examine
some of these factors:
Speed of transition: The changes during adolescence take place at very fast pace.
During no other period does the individual undergo such a sudden and drastic change
in such a short time period and at no other age is he less prepared to cope with the
problems that this change brings.
Length of transition: Those who mature rapidly (in term of physical growth), find
adjustment especially difficult. They are expected to behave like adults simply because
they look like adults. On the other hand, a prolonged adolescence also brings
problems. The adolescent gets into the habit of being dependent, and this, is difficult
to overcome later.
Discontinuities in training: Much of the stress and strain during adolescence is
due to the discontinuities in training. For example, the assumption of responsibility
during adolescence is difficult because the child has so far been trained to be dependent
and submissive.

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Development
Degree of dependency: How dependent the young adolescent will be is determined
mainly by the kind of training he/she received during childhood. Parents often foster
dependency because they feel that adolescents are not ready to assume responsibility
for their own behaviours.
Notes Ambiguous status: In the societies like India, a child is expected to follow the
footsteps of his/her parents. This gives him/her a pattern of behaviour to imitate. In
open society, by contrast, it is assumed that every individual should be free to choose
his/her own course of self- development.
Conflicting demands: The adolescent is often confronted with conflicting demands

from parents, teachers, peers and the community.
Degree of realism: When the adolescent begins to look like an adult, (s)he is permitted
an added degree of freedom. If (s)he feels is not ready, either physically or
psychologically, to play the adult role, (s)he feels dissatisfied.
Motivation: The adolescent goes through a period of wondering how he or she will
meet the new problems the life presents. He or she would like to grow up but being
unsure of the ability to cope with the challenges of adulthood. So long as this feeling
of insecurity exists, there will be little motivation to make the transition in adulthood.
As the barriers to growing up are lowered or removed by parents, teachers, and

society, the adolescent can move smoothly in the direction of reaching the goal of
adulthood, and motivation to make the transition is normally increased.

1. Explain the factors that determine pattern of adolescent transition.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Define adolescence. Identify the various challenges faced by an adolescent.
_______________________________________________________________
11.5 DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

The term “developmental task”, refers to those problems that individuals typically
face at different periods during their life. An infant or a small child must master the
complexities of learning to walk, learning to talk, and controlling the elimination of
waste products of the body. In middle childhood such skills as learning to play games
and learning to read become of major importance.
So for as adolescents are concerned, the developmental tasks present the vital

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Development
problems which must be met and solved during the transition from childhood to
adulthood. These problems are not entirely unique to the adolescent period, but they
are ones upon which the adolescent must work if he eventually expects to achieve a
successful adult role.
Developmental Tasks for Adolescents Notes
Havinghurst has listed the following tasks.

• Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes.
• Achieving a masculine or feminine social role.
• Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively.
• Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults.
• Achieving assurance of economic independence.
• Selecting and preparing for an occupation.
• Preparing for marriage and family life.
• Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence.
• Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour.
• Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behaviour.

1. Developmental tasks of adolescent’s include:
a. preparing for marriage and family
b. crawling and creeping
c. reflecting childish behaviours
d. None of the above
2. How many developmental tasks were described by Robert Havinghurst?
a. 10 b. 6
c. 9 d. 8
Adolescence is a long period, and many young adolescents have little motivation to
master the developmental tasks for their age. In the later period, however, they realise
that adulthood is rapidly approaching. This provides them the necessary motivation

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Development
to prepare for their new status. As a result, they make greater strides toward the goal
of maturity than they did during early adolescence.
Successful achievement of the developmental tasks for one period in life leads to
success with later tasks, while failure leads not only to personal unhappiness and
Notes disappointment but also to difficulties with later tasks.
Regardless of whether the adolescent has successfully mastered the developmental

tasks of adolescence, he/she is, in most “advanced” cultures, automatically given
the status of adult when he/she reaches the age of legal maturity. This is in direct
contrast to more simple cultures where young people must demonstrate adult status
to their elders, in “puberty rites,” privileges, and the responsibilities.
11.6 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Adolescence is fundamentally a period of physical and physiological changes. The
young person’s reactions to physical changes may range from pride and pleasant
expectation to bewilderment and fear. When adolescents evaluate each other,
especially when they consider qualities they like in a manner of the opposite sex,
“good looks” are often mentioned. In particular they dominate in descriptions of
girls than of boys but other physical characteristics such as body build, height and
the like are often noted when boys are being “sized up”.
One of the most characteristic features of adolescence is the increase in size i.e. in
height and weight. However, the beginning of adolescence, known as pubescence,
brings with it abrupt and psychologically significant physical changes. While many
of these physical changes, such as growth in height and deepening of the voices are
obvious and commonly known, others are hidden or less obvious but nonetheless
significant.
Surge in Growth
Toward the end of childhood, usually girls at about ten or eleven and boys at twelve
or thirteen, show a period of rapid growth in height and weight (general bodily
growth). This acceleration of growth is closely linked to the increased hormonal
output of the pituitary gland, which serves not only as the catalyst to produce growth
but also as the controller of other glands (i.e. adrenals, gonads, and thyroid) that
determine both tissue growth and function.
The rapid growth continues for a period of about three or four years, with the greatest
increment in growth coming at an average age of 12.6 years for girls and 14.8 years
for boys. During this period it is not uncommon for a child to grow as much as six to
eight inches in height and to gain 18 to 22 kilograms in a year’s time.

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For a variety of reasons, physical development in this period is characterized by
asynchronization that brings concerns to adolescents and their parents and teachers.
Skeletal and muscular development is more rapid than learning required for making
use of the new muscle mass and motor habits. The body requires new learning.
Bodily proportions also undergo changes. The facial features alter, because the growth Notes
of the lower part of the face lags behind the growth of the upper part. Legs,
proportionally, usually grow more rapidly than the body stem, and hands and feet
anticipate by several years the total body size of their owners.
General bodily growth is paralleled by physiological changes such as cardiovascular

and respiratory growth and changes in metabolism and in general movement toward
the adult states.
Skeletal Muscles: Muscles attached to bones, which bring about various types of
body movement like the limb movements.
Puberty and Sexual Development
Following closely on the heels of accelerated growth, the pituitary gland directs the
adrenal cortex and the gonads into more activity. Prior to this time, virtually equal
amount of androgenic (male) and estrogenic (female) hormones are produced for
both sexes by the adrenal cortex on the direction of anterior pituitary gland. Now an
increased amount of hormonal production differentiates the sexes; the males
producing more androgens, the females more estrogens.
Sex Hormones are substances secreted by the gonads for reproductive functions
and determination of secondary sex characteristics; e.g. estrogen in the female and
testosterone in male. Testosterone is the male sex hormone responsible for the
development of the male secondary sexual characteristics as they become sexually
mature, while in the female body, this role is played by estrogen.
Moreover, the genital and sex-appropriate tissues become more sensitive to these
sex specific hormones. The dawn of these changes is reflected in boys by beginning
of the enlargement of the testes. There follows in each sex a series of physical changes
whose appearance is highly predictable and whose sequence is unalterable. In girls
the enlargement of breast is followed by the growth of pubic hair, the menarche and
axillary hair. In boys, after the initial enlargement of the testes, there occurs pubic
hair, axillary hair, voice changes, and beard, in that order.
Thus, by observing adolescents, it is fairly easy to determine the point in pubescence

that they have reached. The observable secondary sex characteristics, such as
development of axillary hair and voice change are secondary to the primary sex
changes. Primary sex characteristics include reproductive organs whose maturity is
signaled by the menarche in the girl and by the first ejaculation in the boy.

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Strength, Skill and Fitness
Physical development as mentioned above presents only the gross picture of the
changes that occur in adolescence. Even more significant, perhaps, are the growth
patterns of strength and skills. The post -pubescent boy, even though he may be of
Notes the same chronological age as his friends who have not yet entered pubescence, will
almost certainly be stronger and will likely have greater agility, motor coordination,
and bodily skills. He will, of course, rapidly overtake girls, whose strength already
has increased about a year earlier and who briefly challenged him. You would like to
know what forces account for this development. First, it is clear that the accelerated
production of male hormone (androgens) brings with it added muscular strength.
Second, the nature of skeletal growth, increased shoulder breadth, bigger chest cavity,
and finally, the greater lung size, heart size, and increased blood pressure are all
favourable conditions for greater physical strength.
While many of these same changes occur among girls, their physical strength increases
at a slower rate, and, of course, never equals that of males. There are two reasons for
this superiority: (a) biologically, the male is favoured by larger shoulder breadth, a
bigger chest cavity, and better leg leverage; (b) culturally, girls receive little
encouragement for the development of strength. In fact they are encouraged in the
opposite direction-to be weak and dependent, or at least to pretend that they are.
Along with increases in strength come the development of motor coordination,

reaction speed, and perceptual-motor skills. In an appraisal of physical development,
one important consideration has to do with what is optimal. Height-weight charts
are based on the average, but may, when a large segment of youth is overweight,
lead to faulty conclusions. What is average is certainly not optimal.

1. Explain how adolecence is a period of rapid physical growth and sexual
development.
_______________________________________________________________
11.7 GENDER ROLES

Gender is a much more complex term. It relates to a given society’s beliefs about the
traits and behaviours supposedly characteristic of males and females. ‘Gender roles’
refer to the expectations concerning the roles males and females should perform and
the ways they should behave. Such expectations come into play as soon as a child is
born.

Human
Development
The beliefs about gender roles continue to influence us and our behaviour throughout
life. Children’s recognition that they belong to one sex or the other called ‘gender
identity’ is established quite early in one’s life by the age of three or four. At this
time, however, they are uncertain as to whether they will always be a boy or a girl. It
is not until they are about six or seven that children acquire ‘gender consistency’— Notes
the understanding that even if they adopted the clothing, hair style, and behaviour
associated with the other sex they would still retain their current sexual identity.

1. Explain the meaning of gender role.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

• Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood to adulthood and it
plays a decisive role in relation to the formation of prosocial/antisocial adult.
• Optimal development in adolescence depends on successful accomplishment of
the developmental tasks in infancy and childhood.
• Adolescence is fundamentally a period of physical and physiological change.
The most important single feature of adolescent development consists of the
changes that take place in the young person’s body.
• Toward the end of childhood, girls at about ten or eleven and boys at twelve or
thirteen begin a period of rapid growth in height and weight.
• Gender role refers to expectations concerning the roles male and females should
adopt and the ways they should behave.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What are the primary and secondary characteristics during adolescence?
2. What are the developmental tasks of adolescents?
3. Give a detailed account of major challenges faced during adolescence.

Human
Development
11.1
Notes
1. Period of transition, rapid physical and psychological changes, New social roles,
independence, faces conflicts.
11.2
1. d
2. a
11.3
1. Speed and length of transition, training, dependency, status, demands, degree of
realism, motivation.
2. Surge in growth, height and weight, skeletal and muscular growth, sex hormones,
sexual development, sex hormones, strength and skill.
11.4
1. Society’s beliefs about behaviours characteristic of males and females. Gender
consistency and behaviour of males and females.


Human
Development
12 Notes
ADULTHOOD AND AGEING
What is it like to grow old? What changes occur as people grow older? What does it
mean to say that some one is old? These are some of the questions which come to
our mind when we see or meet an aged person. We find that our parents do not
behave as we do. The kind of images which normally come to our mind when we
hear the word ‘adult and aging’ are responsibility, stability, forgetfulness and some
times poor health. We view the older years as a stage in life when people become
more dependent on others. Are these stereotypes or myths?
When we look into our society today we notice that the segment of older population
is growing. It has been estimated that by the year 2021 a major portion of the world’s
population will be in the category of the aged people. Becoming adult and growing
old is a biological process, but many other developments also take place along with
it. You will study about these changes in this lesson. This lesson will also help you
understand the value of the aged people in the society and relating to them in a better
way.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson you will be able to:
• explain the characteristics of the period of adulthood and old age;
• describe the key developmental changes during adulthood;
• describe the problems of ageing and coping with it; and
• appreciate the concerns of ageing and aged people.
12.1 THE ADULTHOOD STAGE

We are often told by our elders to act according to our age. Have you ever wondered
what this means? There seem to be certain normative expectations about how

Human
Development
individuals of a certain age should act. The period of adulthood is marked by society’s
expectations of performing one’s duty as an adult. Some special roles and relationships
like family and career are the major milestones of adulthood. The spurt of growth
during adolescence stabilizes by adulthood and the individual looks forward to more
concrete roles in the society. Our capabilities and behaviours continue to change as
Notes we grow older not only because of the biological growth but also because of our
knowledge and the way we interact with environment. In the Indian tradition the
period of adulthood refers to Grihastha Ashram. During this stage an individual
enters the social life and accepts responsibilities of family, marriage and entering
into one’s career. The stage of adulthood has the following sub periods: (1) Young
adulthood (20s to 30s), (2) Middle adulthood (40s to 50s) and (3) Later adulthood
(60s and above.). Let us understand the various characteristics of each of these sub
periods.
Young Adulthood
During this period one sees himself or herself as an autonomous and independent
adult. The individual becomes financially less dependent on the parental family. A
major developmental task during this period is the choice of a career. Young men
and women tend to settle down in a career of their choice. In addition a young adult
tries to settle down and start the family life. They are also concerned about various
social issues and forming close relationships with one’s professional peers and
members of community. The duties of a person demand two-fold responsibilities
which are towards oneself as well as the society.
The stage of young adulthood is characterized by new tasks and challenges in life
such as establishing financial and emotional independence and entering into marital
relationship. Unemployment and marital discord are two typical crisis conditions
during early adulthood. According to Erikson this period is characterized by a crisis
of ‘intimacy versus isolation’. The young adults must develop the ability to form
deep intimate relationships with others, particularly in marriage. Otherwise, they
can become socially and emotionally isolated. Most young adults develop a dream
of future accomplishments or a vision of what they want to achieve as a life goal.
Such dreams motivate young adults towards goal directed efforts. Occupational and
marital choices and gaining social and economic independence are some major tasks
of early adulthood. Very often, during the early thirties individuals make a reappraisal
of their choices and seek to make specific changes in their career choice and social
relations. These experiences are described as “age thirty transition”.
Characteristics of Young Adulthood
• Choice of a career.
• Starting a family life.

Human
Development
• Forming close relationships with peers.
• Concerns about society.
Do It Yourself
Notes
Meet two adults, a male and a female. Ask them to describe their roles and
responsibilities. Record their descriptions and your own description. Compare
and discuss with your peers and tutor.

1. Identify the characteristics of young adulthood.
12.2 ADULTHOOD OR MIDDLE AGE

From the period of twenties and thirties, the individual arrives at middle age in the
forties and fifties. Middle age is characterized by competence, maturity, responsibility
and stability. This is the time when one wants to enjoy the success of job, satisfaction
derived from the family and social life. People look forward to the success of their
children. Attention gets more focused on health, the future of children, aging parents,
the use of leisure time and plans for old age. For women, menopause occurs between
the age of forty-five and fifty. Menopause is supposed to be accompanied by some
distressing physical and psychological symptoms in women. During this period men
show greater concern towards health, strength, power and sexual potency.
Middle age is also viewed as a period of creativity and significant contribution to

society. It is found that the best works of scientists, writers and artists are produced
during the late forties and early fifties. Erikson characterizes middle adulthood as a
phase of crisis involving generativity versus self-absorption. Unless a person makes
this a period of meaningful contribution he/she may become preoccupied with selfish
needs and desires. The middle age transition is also a period of turbulence. People
start viewing themselves as older and become conscious of their mortality which
often leads to emotional instability. They also engage in taking stock of their lives to
asses the extent to which they have realized their dreams. Such re-assessments often
lead to occupational changes and changes in marital relationships such as divorce.
For most people who are employd in regular jobs, the end of the middle adulthood
years involves the task of coming to terms with possible retirement from work life
and the associated readjustments in life.
Characteristics of Middle Adulthood

• Competence, maturity, responsibility and stability.
• Attention focused on children.

Human
Development
• Plans for old age.
• Occurrence of menopause in women.
Old Age
Notes
Later adulthood or the period of old age begins around the age of sixty. During this
stage most individuals lose their jobs as they retire from active service. They begin
to fear about their physical and psychological health. In our society, the elderly are
typically perceived as not so active, deteriorating intellectually, narrow-minded and
attaching significance to religion and spirituality. Many of the elderly people lose
their spouses and suffer from emotional insecurity. However, this may not be true of
everybody. Many people at the age of sixty or above remain very healthy and active
in life. The life style including exercise, diet, and regular health check up helps
people enjoy a meaningful and active life during old age.
Aging, however, is also a psychological phenomenon. There are numerous examples

of writers, statesmen, professors and yogis who lead a productive and active life
during old age. So it is important to note that old age can be a much happier and
fuller time. Mental or physical decline does not necessarily have to occur. Persons
can remain vigorous, active and dignified until their eighties or even nineties. This
is quite possible if they take adequate care of themselves right from their middle age
years. In fact, the older persons have vast reservoir of knowledge, experience and
wisdom on which the community can draw upon.

1. Describe any two characteristics of middle adulthood.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
12.3 PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE CHANGES DURING

ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE
In the present day society, with increasing health consciousness, both men and women
want to be physically and mentally fit. With advancing age certain inevitable and
universal changes such as chemical changes in cells or gradual loss of adaptive
reserve capacity take place. There are also certain cognitive changes taking place
from middle adulthood onwards. These changes are slow and gradual. Normally
people see aging as a period of physical and mental health decline. These changes

Human
Development
are mainly physical and cognitive in nature. Let us try to understand these changes.
(a) Physical Changes: It has been found that the body organs of most persons show
a 0.8 to 1 percent decline per year in the functional ability after the age of 30 years.
Part of this decline is normal, some are disease-related and some caused by factors
such as stress, occupational status, nutritional status and many other environmental Notes
factors. The major physical changes associated with aging are described as external
changes, internal changes and changes in the sensory capacities and cognitive abilities.
Let us understand these changes.
1) External Changes: This refers to the symptoms of growing old that can be seen
in an individual. With many individuals the symptoms of aging can be seen as graying
hair, aging skin shift in posture and appearance of wrinkles and other changes.
Key to Longer and Healthier Life
(a) Eat healthy diet.

(b) Exercise regularly.
(c) Reduce stress level.
(d) Don’t smoke or drink alcohol and other drugs.
(e) Cultivate certain positive qualities.
(f) Engage with activities of social welfare.
(g) Develop spirituality and faith.
2) Internal Changes: These changes refer to the symptoms of growing old that are
not visible. These include changes in the respiratory system, gastrointestinal system,
cardiovascular system, and central nervous system.
Some Great Achievers of late adulthood

• Mahatma Gandhi led India’s struggle of freedom at the age of 77.
• Baba Amte
• Ramakrishna Paramhans
• Mother Teresa
3) Changes in Sensory Capacities: With advancing age, there is gradual slow down
in the sensory abilities. As you know we communicate with the outer world through
our senses. Losing in any of the senses can have profound psychological and social
consequences.

Human
Development
Cognitive Changes: Cognition refers to the process by which information is acquired,
stored, and used. During adulthood and aging various aspects of cognition like
memory, learning, attention and speed of performance get adversely affected. The
aged people often report forgetfulness, difficulty in learning new techniques and
acquiring skills. Their concentration and responsiveness to environmental stimulus
Notes
decreases. Dementia and Alzimer and important diseases of old age. In general people
become more vulnerable during old age.
12.4 COPING WITH THE PROBLEMS DURING OLD AGE

You must be wondering whether the process of ageing can be stopped or can anyone
remain young throughout? We have noted that ageing is a biological process. This
process gets affected by many other things such as stress, tension, habit, undisciplined
life, ill health work habits etc. Leading a disciplined life means giving the body
enough time to rest, proper work habits, less tension, proper nutrition and spirituality.
It seems that aging can be delayed but no one can escape it. One must not deny and
accept one’s age and act in a realistic but optimistic manner. Different people adopt
different coping strategies to meet their life challenges. Some of the effective coping
strategies are as follows:
(1) Develop an attitude of flexibility so that one may adapt to the pressures and
problems of old age.
(2) Recognize that one has to explore new ways of coping with life events.
(3) Greater use of information seeking and problem solving strategies rather than
withdrawing or isolating.
(4) Increasing self-confidence, self-reliance, developing healthy attitudes about one’s
strengths and weaknesses.
(5) Learning and maintaining effective coping skills and adopting an active approach
towards the environment.
Use of the above styles of coping can be effective in making healthy adjustments
during old age.
Aging and Social Support
Enlarging social network is another means of coping with life problems. Participating
in various group activities such as joining clubs. Certain organizations for informal
social interaction are found very helpful for the aged. Building a social network of
people of their own age group in neighbourhood or elsewhere provides them with
greater opportunity to share their life circumstances and find emotional expressions

Human
Development
for their existing problems. Through such social networks, one can get an
unconditional expression of approval, share secrets, provide new experiences to
each other, and develop trusting relationships.
Involvement in grand parenting helps elderly satisfy many of their personal and
emotional needs. Grand parents can serve as important role models. Older people Notes
find these roles emotionally self-fulfilling and tend to derive self-satisfaction through
achievement of their grand children.
12.5 IMPORTANCE OF THE AGED PEOPLE IN THE SOCIETY

vfHkoknu”khyL; fuR;ao`)ksilsfou%A
pRokfj rL; o/kZUrs vk;qfoZ|k;”kskcye~A
“Those who greet elders and do service to them, they grow in all four dimensions
such as longevity, knowledge, fame and strength”.
One of the reasons for the growth of the Indian society is its multigenerational structure
which means staying of many generations together in one family. This phenomenon
is expressed in the form of joint family system. Aged people have been always
considered as individuals with a vast repertoire of knowledge and experience. Staying
with them and respecting them helps not only in personal growth but facilitates
multidimensional growth of a person.
Today many of the problems seen in the society are due to breakdown in the family
system. Young couples prefer to stay alone to seek independence and doing away
with the restrictions. But the repercussion of this system is largely being felt on the
younger generation. The elders in the family have always been a medium of cultural
transmission. Can you forget the stories told to you by your grand parents and their
morals? The cultural traditions followed in our country have been passed from
generation to generation. With the emerging nuclear family system, the younger
generation is becoming deprived of this rich cultural transmission. It has been found
that emotional expressions and values in young generation have also been affected
by the absence of elders in the family.

1. The body organs show a decline of 0.8 to 1 percent after the age of 30. T/F
2. Gradual changes in sensory abilities take place with ageing. T/F

Human
Development
3. One must not accept one’s age and become younger. T/F
4. Developing healthy attitudes do not help in coping with age. T/F
5. Aged people should be considered as treasure of the society. T/F
Notes

• Some special roles and relationships like family and career are the major
milestones of adulthood.
• Our capabilities and behaviours continue to change as we grow older not only
because of the biological growth process but also because of our understanding
and the way we interact with the environment.
• The stage of young adulthood is characterized by new tasks and challenges in
life such as establishing financial and emotional independence and entering into
marital relationship.
• Middle age is also viewed as a period of creativity and significant contribution
to society.
• In our society, the elderly are typically perceived as not so active, deteriorating
intellectually, narrow-minded and attaching significance to religion and
spirituality; however it may not be true.
• The major physical changes associated with ageing are described as external,
and internal changes and changes in sensory capacities.
• Leading a disciplined life means giving the body enough time to rest, proper
work habit, less tensions, proper nutrition and spirituality. This may help in coping
with the problems of old age.
• Aged people have been always considered as individuals with a vast repertoire
of knowledge and experience.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Describe the key to longer and healthier life.
2. What attitude is helpful to meet out the pressures and problems of old age?
3. What is the main cause of today’s problems in the society?
4. How can one remain healthy during old age?

Human
Development

12.2
1. Autonomous, independent, choice of career, new tasks and challenges, intimate Notes
relationships.
12.2
1. (a) Competence
(b) Attention on children
(c) Plans for old age
(d) Occurrence of menopause
2. By exercise, proper diet and regular health checkup
12.3
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. False
5. True

Group and Leadership MODULE - IV
Social
Psychological
Processes
13
Notes
GROUPS AND LEADERSHIP
The purpose of describing group process is to familiarize you with the interpersonal
context in which individuals interact with each other. The importance of a group is
always felt whenever we are playing our role in our day-to-day social life. We use
the word ‘group’ in various contexts such as games, political party, team for
performing a task, committee members to decide about a programme, membership
of an academic body or membership of the underprivileged group. We are born as an
individual and we become members of various groups in the course of socialization.
For fulfillment of our jobs we do become members of groups. This chapter would
help you to understand the functioning of groups.
OBJECTIVES
• understand the importance of group in our life;

• recognize the characteristics of a group;
• know the way group dynamics operates;
• understand the effect of groups of our performance; and
• differentiate between formal and informal groups.
13.1 IMPORTANCE OF GROUPS IN OUR LIFE

Is human life possible without groups? Can we satisfy our needs, expectations,
emotions, challenges, and crises without being members of groups? No, we cannot
as groups are the basic components of society. The moment we are born into this
world we immediately become a part of a group - our family. It is important to be
group member as one’s family fulfills certain essential needs and helps us to survive

MODULE - IV Group and Leadership
Social
Psychological
Processes in the social world. Each group has a commonsense view of the world and as the
baby grows s/he learns what is expected of him/her to become a productive member
of the group. Soon the young child comes to acquire a sense of ‘self’ and comes to
develop a personality. Groups like family help to transmit culture of one’s society by
the process of socialization. Groups also teach us thoughts and behaviors. Also if
one is a member of a sports team, cricket or football, then we know that each member
Notes must obey rules and regulations.
In early years of life the family supports us, and then as we move on to school and
college we get the support of various social, academic, and professional groups. We
can be member of various groups such as political, religious, ethnic, sports, music,
and cultural that allow us to pursue our needs and goals. Such groups help us to
make our life more meaningful and comfortable. We cnnot live and grow as an
isolated individual moments reflection will tell you that group life allows us to fulfill
social and emotional needs. These include recognition, affiliation, security, prestige,
identity, sense of belongingness, and status. Groups also allow us to meet our task
related need such as goal achievement. Indeed groups are central to human life.

1. Why do people join groups? List the names of the groups that you belong to.
_______________________________________________________________
13.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GROUP

A group is collection of individuals who work together so as to contribute towards a
common aim or goal under the direction of a leader. Groups share common
characteristics and have a social structure as in religious groups, caste groups,
community groups of business men, sportsmen and so on. The characteristics of a
group are as follows:
• Members define themselves as group members and have a strong ‘we feeling’ a
psychological feeling of belonging to each other. Do you have a group of friends
that you are fond of? Do you not feel close to each other? Yes you are likely to
support each other in every day life.
• Group members are engaged in frequent interaction and they affect the behavior
of each other. Do you meet your friends frequently? It helps you to know how
the group is moving ahead in its goal.
• Further, group members share common norms and mutual interests and values.
They depend upon each other and rely for fulfillment of their needs and the
survival of the group.

Social
Psychological
• Members of a group are aware of rules and regulations that are to be followed, as Processes
it helps maintain order and discipline. Does your mother ask you to talk softly
while your elder brother is studying for an exam? Or that you must help in washing
the dishes after having dinner?
• Groups vary in size. They can be large or small. A family can consist of four
members or a traditional joint family can consist of 50 members or more! A Notes
political party can be of 100 members or of a few thousands.

1. State whether the following are examples of a group:
a. People crossing a street
b. Religious gathering
c. People standing at a bust stop
d. Birthday party
e. Political club
2. Describe the important features of a group.
13.3 GROUP DYNAMICS

The behavior of one member influences the behavior of other members in the group.
This process of influencing each other’s behavior pattern in a group is called group
dynamics. Group dynamics is affected by factors of individual personality, social
situation and cultural traditions. Group dynamics varies in different kinds of group
situations.
Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness refers to the shared perspective which binds the members of a group
or community. At the time of external threat people have a tendency to fight unitedly
to ward off the common threat. During war times this feeling of togetherness soars
because of common threat perceived by the group. For example, when terrorists
attacked Mumbai Taj Hotel on 26/11/2008 the people of Mumbai united forgetting
regional, linguistic and community differences.
Conformity
It is important to understand the concept of conformity while describing group

processes. Conformity is getting affected by how the behaviours of others change

Social
Psychological
Processes our own behavior by changing our beliefs. Conformity can be of two types. Sometimes
we conform to others without believing it. This type of outward conformity is called
compliance. If our compliance is to an explicit command or acting in accordance
with a direction - it is called obedience. The sincere inward conformity is a process
when we are genuinely convinced and it is called acceptance. For instance, it is
suggested that morning walk is useful for health and we start doing so.
Notes

1. What is the process of group dynamics?
_______________________________________________________________
2. With the help of examples describe cohesiveness and conformity.
_______________________________________________________________
13.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN “US” AND “THEM”

Do you not like your friends more as compared to other peers in your social world?
And, if you are a sports fan do you not like to cheer for your home during match
rather than for the visitor’s team? Yes, we have a more positive atitude towards our
group. There is a natural tendency of humans to form groups based on common
identity. We use our identity with our groups, often called in-group, to evaluate others,
termed as out-group, even when it leads to forming incorrect conclusions. We tend
to evaluate the out-group as being more similar to each other than the in-group, for
example, people say “They are all the same”. We are also likely to exaggerate the
differences between ‘us’ and ‘them’, thus we are likely to say, “They are so very
different from us”. This type of social categorization becomes associated with
stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination. When we link negative attitudes towards
other groups and differentiate between ‘us’ and ‘them’ we start creating a boundary
that separates the groups. This labeling makes the ‘them’ group to be less human.
Violent and evil acts are common against those whom we have a prejudice.
We tend to categorize people on the basis of shared characteristics. We automatically
categorize people on the basis of sex, age, and religion. Why do we categorize people
into ‘us’ and ‘them’? We categorize people because it is a quick and easy way of
dealing with people. Categorization has an adaptive function. Responding to every
person as an individual would create an overload on the perceiver’s cognitive
assessment of the person. However, if we have enough time and information then
we tend to make a more accurate perception of the person or group.

Social
Psychological
Processes
(i) Describe the important differences between “us” and “them”?
_______________________________________________________________
Notes
Group’s Effect on Performance
The effect of a group on performance can be positive or negative. There are some
important concepts that can help us understand the effect of groups.
Social Facilitation
We are affected by the mere presence of another person Mere presence means that
people are not competing with each other and they are present as a passive audience
or co-actors. Does our normal activities of eating and playing are affected by mere
presence of others? In our daily life we can notice such differences in our behavior.
It is found that cyclicts or joggers in a park times are faster when racing or moving
together than doing alone against the clock. It has also been found that social arousal
facilitates performance.
Social Loafing
Social loafting is the tendency of people in a group to exert less effort towards a
common goal. When they are individually accountable contrary to common notion
“in unity there is strength” group members are actually less motivated when reward
is equally divided and the task is less challenging, appealing or involving. In contrast
people in a group are likely to loaf less when the task is appealing and member’s
identify with the group.

1. Explain the term social facilitation?
_______________________________________________________________
2. Explain the term ‘social loafing’.
_______________________________________________________________
Social facilitation is a process by which people are aroused in a group and leads to
better performance. Social loafting refers to diffused responsibility. It means that
members of the group do not put in the necessary effort to achieve the goal or task.
Have you played the game ‘tug of war’ with a rope? Have you noticed that people in

Social
Psychological
Processes the front are putting in effort and are pulling the rope, whereas people at the tail end,
are just holding the rope? Yes, social loafing is common when one’s efort is not
being measured or rewarded.
Group Size
Notes The bigger the group size the more its members loose self-awareness and in an
aroused state are more likely to commit mob atrocities of looting, burning or lynching.
An aroused mob enables its members to believe they will not be persecuted, they
perceive the action as that of groups.
Group Polarization
When a group has to make a decision, the members meet. It is noticed that while the
discussion is going on, there is a strong tendency for the group decision to shift to be
more extreme and risky. When one holds a given opinion or position with regard to
a topic, then during a group discussion information supporting one’s view points
helps us to validate our beliefs and opinions. This shift from a position of no or little
risk to an extreme position is termed as ‘group polarization’. This happens because
group members may get new information and more persuasive arguments.
Group Think
Group think refers to group-induced distortions that do not allow objective

considerations of all the possible alternatives. It takes place when a cohesive group
remains isolated from dissenting viewpoints. The presence of a directive leader who
signals what decision he or she favors also contributes to it. The group think
phenomenon occurs due to illusion of invulnerability, unquestioned belief in the
groups morality, rationalization and conformity pressure.

1. Describe the factors that influence group work?
_______________________________________________________________
2. Describe the harmful effect of group polarization?
_______________________________________________________________

Social
Psychological
13.5 FORMAL AND INFORMAL GROUPS Processes
Groups are of various types. One major categorization is of formal and informal
groups. Groups that are established for a specific purpose are called formal groups.
This type of group is usually formed to meet clearly defined goals. The examples of
formal groups include student projects groups, committees, boards or commissions.
Notes
Informal groups on the other hand form naturally out of interaction among
individuals overtime. Informal groups may emerge out of formal groups with members
having similar ideas, values, beliefs and social needs. For instance, Indian National
Congress, Rotary Club started as small informal groups but with time became formal
groups. Spontaneous interaction of likeminded people aimed towards achieving a
common goal may give rise to the formation of informal groups. Membership of any
group depends on many things. Some of the important factors include importance,
common motive, socio-economic background, cultural aspiration, poverty,
deprivation, and job security. Attitude similarity and external factors of situation
and leadership characteristics also play an important role in the formation of groups.
13.6 GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Newly formed groups show different behaviors than groups that have been together
for sometime. This is because a group progresses through reversal stages of
development. Groups progress through the following stages: forming, storming, initial
integration and performing stage.
Forming Stage
When a group is formed, a number of issues are decided. Before joining a group,
people ask various questions including Who can become a member? What are the
roles one has to play as members? What the group can offer me? How can I contribute
to the group? In the first stage the group defines its behavior for the members and
finalise the goals of the group.
Storming Stage
In this stage members feel comfortable to express their feelings. Differences in

attitudes and needs are widely noticed during this stage. The internal and external
demands create conflicts among the members. If conflicts are ignored, members
develop bitterness and that may damage the group’s ability to perform.
Initial Integration Stage
The members in this stage develop an initial sense of closeness and belonging. By
this stage the rules are finalised which till the way group members will operate. The
members in this stage start co-operating to each other.

Social
Psychological
Processes Performing Stage
In this stage the group starts functioning as an effective unit. By this stage the group
members learn well as to how to get along with each other. The roles of members are
decided and the leadership issues are settled by now. The group starts pursuing its
goals. Most of the members at this stage are satisfied with the group.
Notes

1. State the various stages of group development.
_______________________________________________________________
13.7 LEADERSHIP
It is often said that “the youth of today are the leaders of tomorrow.” Leaders in the
various walks of life are very popular. The images of leaders in sports, politics,
cinema, business are brought to our notice through mass-media. There are different
success stories behind every successful leader and there is no single accepted quality
of becoming successful leader. The socio-cultural tradition, and politico-economic
situation are some of the important determinants of leadership. Success in family,
business, school, country or the military is often attributed to the quality of leadership.
In today’s work environment, the melting away of national and geographical
boundaries via computerisation and Internet has created greater need for global
leadership. The importance of leading in diverse environments has become more
important in today’s context. Leadership is defined as ability to influence others to
achieve certain goals. A good leader can significantly influence the behaviour, attitude
and performance of the followers.
13.8 QUALITIES OF A LEADER

If Gandhi is an example of social leader, Narayan Murthy is an example of professional
leader and Buddha, Christ, Gurunanak are examples of religious leaders. Initiative
and dominance are important in the leadership process. Leaders are heard and accepted
by a sizeable number of the people. Their followers involve communication and the
authority of such leaders is accepted by them.
The qualities required to be a successful leader varies from place to place, culture to
culture, and situation to situation. There are leaders in specialized fields such as
Sachin Tendulkar in cricket, Ratan Tata in business and Abinav Bindra in shooting
but they are not recognized as mass leaders. Successful leadership in a particular
field and leadership of the mass social spectrum are different. The main psychological

Social
Psychological
attributes of a leader are as follows:
Processes
• leaders are aware of the abilities of their followers.
• leaders have good communication skills, both verbal and non-verbal.
• leaders accept personal responsibilities and set examples for group members.
• leaders have ability to understand the situation. Notes
• leaders are good planners, visionary and trustworthy.

1. Identify the qualities of a leader
_______________________________________________________________
13.9 THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

There are many theories of leadership and important among them are the following:
Early views of leadership described that leaders are born. According to this theory
some people are born with the traits of leadership and possess inherent properties to
become leader. Subsequently many theories were developed.
A. Trait Approach : This approach attempts to tell which personal characteristics
lead to effective leadership. It has been found that the following are major traits of
leaders:
Belief in oneself (self-confidence), along with openness to the ideas of others, a
passion for the job and a drive that set an example for others, love of people,
acceptance of others, maturity and responsibility and desire to achieve goals are
other relevant leadership traits.
B. Behavioral of Approach: It has been noted that successful leaders exhibit two
types of behaviours, task centered and employee-centered. Task orientation relate to
the quality and the quantity of work. On the other hand, employee-centered orientation
focuses on meeting the personal needs of the group members.
C. Situational Approach: We often notice that situational variables play important
role in effective leadership. The effectiveness of a particular style of leadership
behaviour depends on the situation. As situation changes different leadership styles
become appropriate.
D. Path-Goal Approach: Path-goal theory focuses on how leaders influence

Social
Psychological
Processes followers’ expectations. According to it leader behaviour is acceptable when followers
view it as a source of satisfaction or showing the way to future satisfaction. The four
styles of leadership identified by path-goal theory are as follows:
(i) Directive style provides guidance to followers about what should be done and
how to do it.
Notes (ii) Supportive style is primarily concerned with establishing interpersonal relations
with the followers.
(iii)Participative style believes that follower participation improves the quality of
decisions.
(iv)Achievement oriented style sets challenging goals for the followers. Minimal
supervision is required with this style of leadership.
E. Charismatic Leadership : This kind of leadership focuses on the interpersonal
transaction between leaders and followers. Leaders are engaged in behaviours that
maintain a quality interaction between themselves and followers. The main
characteristics of there leaders are as follows:
• They offer an unusual or far-out vision of reality.
• They make sacrifices or take risks to further their vision.
• They use unconventional methods to achieve their goals.
• They communicate with confidence.
Charismatic leadership transforms followers by creating changes in their goals, values,
needs, belief and aspirations. They accomplish this transformation by appealing to
followers selves.

• Two or more persons interacting for some time having common goal constitute
a group. Group is required to satisfy our individual needs and expectations.
• Importance of group processes can be understood with the help of factors like
competitiveness, cohesiveness and co-operation that lead to enhanced
performance and productivity.
• Group processes help understanding the different aspects of group behavior at
village, caste and community levels.
• At the organizational level productivity can be immensely improved by
strengthening the group diversity and its energy.
• Humans are so complex that we have a number of theories describing leadership.

Social
Psychological
• Great men theory of leadership suggests that certain people are born to became
Processes
leaders but this view has become outdated.
• According to trait theory there are certain physical, social and psychological
characteristics that one needs to become a leader.
• The situational theory prescribes that we should understand traits and behaviour
not in isolation, but in the context of a situation. Notes
• Charismatic theory proposes a visionary approach and use of unconventional
methods in achieving goals.
• Leadership is one of the most talked about topic even in our day to day life and
a better understanding of this topic will be of great use in our practical and
professional life.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Describe various advantages of being a group member.
2. What is group dynamics?
3. Describe psychological attributes of leadership.
4. How would you go about demonstrating leadership if you were the new president
of a company?

13.1
Satisfaction of needs, identity, belongingness, development of self and personality,
socialization, discipline, goal achieement.
13.2
1.
a. No
b. Yes
c. No
d. Yes
e. Yes

Social
Psychological
Processes 2. Work together, common aim, share common characteristics, we-feeling, frequent
interaction, rules, regulations, size.
13.3
1. Influence each other, cohesiveness, conformity products of group dynamics.
Notes 2. Cohesiveness binds people together, common threat.

conformity, change in behaviour, compliance, order or command.
13.4
1. In group, out - group, social categorization, prejudice, discrimination, labeling.
13.5
1. Effect on performance due to audience presence, arousal.
2. Diffused responsibility, low effort, effort not measured or rewarded.
13.6
1. Group size, polarization, group think.
13.7
1. Forming, storming, integration, performing.
13.8
1. Initiative, dominance, communication, understanding, visionary, planner.

Communication MODULE - IV
Social
Psychological
Processes
14
Notes
COMMUNICATION
Communication, just like food and shelter, is an important means of survival. We

only have to look around us to realize that there are various means of communication
used for reaching large number of people. We can obtain entertainment, information,
knowledge, political updates, latest movie releases and the like from media, books
and other people. We exchange information through words, gestures, symbols, tones,
music, etc. In this lesson you will learn about communication, its kinds and uses,
how communication can be made more effective in our daily life and the impact of
mass media on the individual and society.
OBJECTIVES
• describe the components of communication process;

• appreciate how communication can be made more effective;
• learn the significance of non-verbal communication in the Indian context; and
• understand the role and impact of mass media.
14.1 UNDERSTANDING THE MEANING OF

COMMUNICATION
Communication is a process of interaction with people and the environment. When
we interact with others we use language to transmit information, ideas and attitudes
from one person to the other. When you learn that your friend is unwell you ask her
about her health and express your anxiety about her well-being. When you go to a
shop to buy a shirt the sales person may comment on how a particular color is suiting
you. Communication is thus a personal process which occurs between people so as
to bring about a change in behavior, and, it allows us to express our thoughts and

MODULE - IV Communication
Social
Psychological
Processes emotions through words and actions. Communication is an important tool for
controlling and motivating people by providing information to facilitate decision
making.
14.2 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Notes
The key elements of communication are:
i. Communication is a two-way process: It involves a sender and a receiver.
When you talk to your father, communication is at the individual level. When a
teacher talks to a group of students, communication is at group level.
ii. There has to be a message: The information has to be in the form of a message,
a directive, an idea, a feeling or an opinion.
iii. Commonness of understanding: Communication can occur only when there is
commonness of understanding between sender and receiver. The basis of
commonness can be culture, language, and environment. Words, phrases, idioms,
gestures and proverbs provide common basis for communication.
iv. Modifying the behavior of other people: The information transmitted to the
receiver brings forth a response in the form of some change in his/her behavior.
For example, the moment you hear that fire has broken out in the building, you
along with others will run out of the building.
v. Method of giving information: Information is provided with the help of words
or through gestures, expressions and the like.
INEXT QUESTIONS 14.1 AND 14.2

1. Which of the following statements is not correct:
a. Communication is a continuous process.
b. We can communicate through words.
c. We cannot communicate through gestures.
d. We cannot express through tones and expressions.
2. Explain the key elements of communication.

Social
Psychological
14.3 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION Processes
Communication can be broadly divided into two categories. These are:

1. Verbal communication, and
2. Non-verbal communication.
Notes
Verbal communication - When words are used as tools of interaction between two
or more individuals, it is termed as verbal communication. It can be oral or written.
Verbal communication provides us with meaningful interaction between people,
information and direction. It is a fundamental requirement for life. Researchers
have noted that on an average a person spends 10 to 11 hours every day in verbal
communication that is, reading, speaking, writing, or listening. Some common forms
of verbal communication are conversations, speeches, letters, newspapers, magazines,
telephonic conversations, etc.
Non-verbal Communication – It is interesting to note that non-verbal

communication or body language, accounts for more than 70 percent of our
communication while words account for just about 10 percent ! Thus non-verbal
communication is very important in human interaction. Gestures, eye contact, facial
expressions, posture and body orientation, distance are some of the non-verbal ways
of communicating. Non-verbal communication helps to
• create impressions beyond the verbal element of communication,

• reinforces what has been said,
• helps to express our emotions and interpersonal attitudes,
• helps to convey power, affection, dominance, respect etc,
• manage and regulate the interaction with others, and
• allows self-presentation.
There are various channels of non-verbal communication. However it is important
to note that non-verbal communication is influenced by culture; hence it must be
understood with reference to the culture. Kinesics or body language deals with
physical movement, while gaze or eye contact deals with the eyes (fixed gaze or a
lot of eye movement).
Proxemics involves the use of social distance between people. It is estimated that
following pattern of distance is maintained in different contexts: intimate space (0-
18 inches), personal space or informal distance (18 inches -4 feet), social distance or
formal distance (4feet – 12 feet), and public space (beyond 12 feet). Haptics refers
to touch as another channel of communication which is a function of culture. Usually
North Americans and North Europeans touch less, but people from Asian
Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cultures employ more social touching.

Social
Psychological
Processes
Notes
Fig. 14.2: Non verbal communication
Did You Know?

Eye contact:
• Direct eye contact indicates confidence.
• Looking downwards shows respect, listening carefully, or guilty.
• Single raised eyebrow indicates doubting.
• Both raised eye brows indicates admiration.
Posture:
• Standing erect, but not rigid, and leaning slightly forward indicates that
one is approachable, receptive and friendly.
• Facing each other – indicates interpersonal closeness.
Facial Expression
• Smile is a powerful cue that indicates happiness, friendliness, warmth, liking
and affiliation.

Social
Psychological
Processes
Fill in the blanks:
1. Reading, speaking, writing, or listening are examples of —————————
—————————. Notes
2. Gestures, eye contact, facial expressions, posture and body orientation, distance
are —————— ways of communicating.
3. The four basic channels of non-verbal communication are, —————, ——
————, —————————, ———————.
4. Haptics refers to —————— and is a function of culture.
Activity 1
Communication Game: Active Listening
Active listening is an important aspect of communication. Play this game to
learn some tips about active listening, understand your own communication
style, be an active listener, and give appropriate feedback.
1. Make a group of 4-6 people. Assign a number to each person.

2. Each person writes a sentence on a slip of paper.
3. Let person number 1 pick up any slip and read the sentence.
4. Person number 1 should now whisper the sentence to person number 2 and
so on till the message reaches back to person number. Now person number
one reads out aloud the sentence written on the slip of paper.
5. Please note: Is the message (sentence) exactly the same? Has it changed?
What are the changes?
This activity shows that verbal communication can change and distant the
message gets distorted by the time it reaches the last person. This is because
every person has his or her own style of communication, different thought
processes and ways of interpreting a message.
14.4 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

You have learnt how verbal and non-verbal communication play an important role
in our daily life. It becomes essential that we communicate effectively to others for
progress in academics, professional domains as well as to improve our interpersonal

Social
Psychological
Processes relationships. At times we are misunderstood partially or even completely. In both
cases the purpose of communication is defeated. So let us look at some of the points
we need to keep in mind so that our communication is made effective.
Before we learn about effective communication let us understand some difficulties

that hinder effective communication. Very often a message is distorted, for
Notes example, some people may change facts and say things to please their boss. People
also are selective in terms of their perception, what they see and hear is based upon
their needs, motivation, experience, and personal characteristics. While decoding a
message people may project their interests and expectations. People have a limited
capacity to process incoming information, when the information is too much
information overload takes place. Then people tend to select, ignore, pass over or
forget information. Further, when we are emotional, such as sad, angry, or very
excited, then we are likely to miss out some information. Finally, words mean
differently to different people. Language usage is influenced by age, gender and the
cultural background.
14.5 FEATURES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Certain features of effective communication are:
i) Common frame of reference – The sender and the receiver should interact at a
common level of understanding. When a mother speaks to her child she uses
words which are present in the child’s vocabulary e.g. a scolding tone, if the
child has been naughty or a concerned tone when the child is unwell. But while
speaking to her sister she will use different words, phrases and tones depending
upon the context. Thus a common level of understanding is essential for effective
communication.
ii) Mutual interest – Contents of the communication must be of mutual interest to
the sender and receiver. For a farmer how the Stock Market operates is of no
interest as his concern is about the quality of seeds and manure or the effect of
climate changes on the crops.
iii) Common Language – Language is the strongest means of verbal communication.
A common language ensures effective communication. Because it ensures
minimum misunderstanding of words, phrases, idioms and proverbs.
iv) Common environment – People from similar backgrounds understand the
message without much problem. Thus common nationality, economic status,
culture, social interests, age group and professions are some examples. Can you
make a list of the other common issues? You must have noted how it is easier to
talk to people from your own religious group, class or town.

Social
Psychological
Given below are tips on how verbal communication can be made more effective:
Processes
• Improve language by reading and listening;
• Work on voice modulation, tone and pronunciation;
• Think and then speak;
• Do not speak fast or too loudly; Notes
• Learn about culturally sensitive words, signs and contexts for different cultures.
In order to improve your body language, please remember to:
• Keep the appropriate distance, particularly with reference to culture, gender and
authority figures.
• Touch only if required, or necessary.
• Maintain eye contact in an interview situation, and be sensitive if such a
communication is frowned upon by a culture.
• Look presentable and confident.
Verbal and non-verbal communication together provide a powerful medium of
communication. If used properly and carefully, effective communication can convey
the message immediately. Advertisers make use of effective communication to make
people buy certain products. Have you noticed how advertisements make use of
well known personalities, visual images, spoken and written words and music so as
to influence us to make us want to buy a particular, car, soap, motorcycle or dress?
Can you recall some of the well known jingles ‘Thanda Matlab Coca Cola’, Daag
Ache Hai, Dhundhhate rah jaoge’. Can you recall any more such phrases?
Communication is a process of sharing meaning with each other in the world.

However the meaning attached to nonverbal communication differs from one culture
to another. It is said that spoken language is about 7 to 35 % of our communication.
The majority of our communication is through nonverbal means. Thus when verbal
language seems to be unclear we search for nonverbal cues to provide us with more
information.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.3 AND 14.5

1. State whether the following statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1. Majority of our communication is through the non-verbal channels.
2. People have an unlimited capacity to receive and process information.
3. Language usage is influenced by age, gender and cultural background.

Social
Psychological
Processes 4. Contents of the communication must be of mutual interest to the sender and
receiver.
5. Effective communication can be achieved by talking fast.
2. Describe the main the features of effective communication.
Notes
14.6 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION IN INDIAN
CONTEXT
It is important to understand the nature of non-verbal communication of any culture,
particularly as it is used in everyday life. Some non-verbal cues are common to all
cultures and they send the same message. Non-verbal communication gives us
information about our relationships with others, with regard to liking, status, age,
gender and it is appropriate for conveying our emotions also. In the Indian context
certain non-verbal cues are distinct.
Let us understand about body language and movement, or Kinesis. In the Indian
setting. couples are not expected to show affectionate or intimate gestures towards
each other, particularly if they are in a public place or in the presence of the family.
Holding of hands or even looking at one’s husband is frowned upon. Indians, like
any other culture, have distinct gestures and hand movements. In India, when you
slide one hand over your wrist, it indicates the use of a traditional Hindu woman’s
bracelet called a bangle. If this is done to a man, it questions his manhood and
provokes him to a fight.
Handshakes are common, but more so between men or between women. Handshake
between a man and woman are generally avoided. In cities like Delhi and Mumbai
handshakes between men and women in the corporate world is quite common. Hence
the context will determine the appropriate non-verbal communication.
Social factors in non-verbal communication – Indians have high power-distance
index, which indicates that cultural factors, such as hierarchy, authority, and age
(elders), play a definitive role in communications. Interpersonal relations, position
of authority, age and gender determine the distance to be maintained between two
people. People superior in status can directly look at a person from a lower status,
but a person of lower status usually stands with eyes down cast (as a mark of respect),
and stands at a reasonable distance from the superior person. For example, employer-
employee, father-son, daughter-in-law and an elder person of the husband’s family.
Women generally do not maintain eye contact with men from their husband’s family.
Often women from a conservative, traditional background cover their head with a
veil.
Indians value their personal space, usually one and a half to two meters is the norm.
Yet there is little physical distance with family and close friends. Public affection,
holding hands, hugging, amongst family and close friends is quite common. Also

Social
Psychological
after visiting family or friends, while leaving a group each member is expected to be
Processes
bid good bye individually. Indian youngsters usually bend and touch the feet of older
persons to greet them or while taking leave of them.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 14.6 Notes

1. Explain the role of culture in non-verbal communication in the Indian context.
_______________________________________________________________
14.7 ROLE AND IMPACT OF MEDIA

Media is the technological means of sending information, ideas and opinions to a
large audience. We live in a society where information and communication help us
to progress ahead in various fields of life, like work, health care, entertainment,
education, travel and personal relationships. We wake up every day to check the
news on TV, newspaper or the Internet. We are exposed to advertisements which
influence as to what we buy from the market. Children and teenagers are heavily
influenced by media information regarding fashion, ideal body type, ideal image of
beauty, urban lifestyles etc.
Positive influences - Media has an important role to play; it both educates and
enriches our lives. It provides educational information and improves academic
performance. It collects and distributes information and news (religious, political,
social, entertainment, and environmental) to the public. Media can be used for helping
a beneficial cause, such as promoting literacy or providing information about the
benefits of medical progress (vaccination, polio, health care for the child and mother,
or AIDS). It transmits social and cultural values. Media plays a significant role in
informing the public about the government policies, dealings and latest programmes.
It allows the public to address its problems and maintain democracy in the country.
Media helps to mobilize people and brings about social integration. Mass media
contact has been possible with the use of newspapers, radio, television news channels,
and the Internet.
Negative influences - Media can also have negative effects both on the individual
and society. India is well known for its diverse population in terms of faith, religion
and language. Media can be misused by spreading wrong information and news,
often leading to violence, prejudice and hatred among communities. Inciting
communal violence and praising acts of violence must be avoided. Spread of rumors
and propaganda is an organized way of spreading false information. Often media
does not respect the privacy of the individual and publishes private and confidential
material about ordinary and well-known personalities. The use of media to circulate
vulgar and obscene material is of concern to all, for the young and the adult.

Social
Psychological
Processes It must be realized that media serves important functions in society. Therefore it
must fulfill certain responsibilities and obligations. The media must maintain ethical
standards whereby it provides objective, balanced and accurate information to
the masses. It should avoid inciting the masses towards crime, violence and hatred.
Community building and national integration must be one of its objectives. In
fact the media should reflect the pluralistic nature of India and provide a voice to
Notes all members of the nation.

• Communication is a process of interaction with people and the environment.
• Communication is a two-way process with a message to bring about a change in
behavior, with commonness of understanding and a method of sending the
message.
• Verbal communication provides us with meaningful interaction between people,
by providing information and direction, through words, spoken or written.
• Non-verbal communication involves the use of gestures, eye contact, facial
expressions, posture and body orientation, and maintaining distance.
• Features of effective communication include a common frame of reference,
mutual interest, common language and common environment.
• Indian context has its unique forms of non-verbal communication.
• Communication through media has positive and negative influence on human
behavior.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. With the help of relevant examples define communication. Discuss the five
elements of communication.
2. Discuss how verbal and non-verbal communication play an important role in
our daily life.
3. Explain the different features of effective communication.
4. With the help of relevant examples discuss the unique patterns of non-verbal
communication in the Indian context.
5. Discuss the role and impact of media on society.

Social
Psychological
Processes
14.1 and 14.2
1. a. True
Notes
b. True
c. False
d. False
14.3
a. Verbal communication
b. Non-verbal communication,
c. Kinesis, gaze, proxemics, haptics
d. Touch
14.4 and 14.5
1. 1. True
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. False
14.6
1. Refer to sections 14.1 and 14.2
2. Refer to sections 14.3

MODULE - IV Attitudes, Beliefs and Social Cognition
Social
Psychological
Processes
15
Notes
ATTITUDES, BELIEFS AND SOCIAL

COGNITION
Have you noticed that when ever we meet someone we tend to evaluate him or her?
You may think of your friend as trustworthy, caring and helpful and hence have a
positive and favourable feeling towards him/her. On the other hand you may consider
your neighbour to be loud who tend to interfere in your family’s activities. You are
likely to have a negative or unfavourable feeling toward such a person. Similarly
our family, grandparents, neighbours, friends, political leaders and others
communicate their attitudes and beliefs towards us. We need to understand ourselves
and others and evaluate the social world we live in. Our attitudes and beliefs help to
understand ourselves and the people who live around us. In this lesson we will
examine the nature of attitude. We will also examine how the attitudes are formed,
how can they be changed and, the relationship between attitude and behaviour. Finally,
we will learn how do we make sense of our world by trying to find the causes of
various events in the world and the errors we may make while assessing the
happenings in the social world we live in.
OBJECTIVES
After stuyding this lesson, you will be able to:
• describe the main components of attitude;
• explain the relationship between attitude and behaviour;
• indicate the ways by which attitude change can be facilitated; and
• explain the concept of social cognition and its biases.
15.1 NATURE OF ATTITUDES

You meet your parents, family members, friends, teachers and many other people
over and over again. Gradually you start ‘thinking’ about their behaviour towards

Attitudes, Beliefs and Social Cognition MODULE - IV
Social
Psychological
you. You experience certain kind of ‘feeling’ towards them, and start ‘behaving’
Processes
toward them in a particular manner. In other words by ‘thinking’, ‘feeling’ and
‘behaving’ you come to form an attitude towards the people, events, objects and
everything that exists in the social world.
Attitudes are defined as our favourable or unfavourable evaluations of people,
objects, and situations. We communicate our attitudes in the form of statements Notes
such as: “I like mangoes”, “I enjoy classical music”, or “I do not enjoy rock music”.
When we use words such as ‘like’, ‘dislike’, ‘love’, ‘hate’, ‘good’ and ‘bad’ we are
describing our attitude towards objects, people or issues. Attitude consists of three
aspects i.e. cognitive, affective and behavioural:
1. Cognitive part – It refers to the thinking that brings about the development of
a belief about the attitude object.
2. Affective part – It refers to the direction (positive or negative feeling), intensity
of a person’s evaluation or the emotion experienced towards the attitude object.
3. Behavioural part – It is the likelihood of acting in a certain manner towards the
attitude object.
These three components, thinking, feeling and behaving, come together and we form
an attitude towards a person or an object. At times these components may be
inconsistent. Thus you may hold a positive attitude towards a neighbour – he is
intelligent and hardworking (positive qualities) – but you may not like his/her
manners. Or you may not like your neighbour but you may still help him/her when
the situation demands. Both the possibilities are likely to occur. Normally if you
hold a strong attitude, all the three components of attitude remain consistent and do
not contradict each other. For example, if a well known cricketer, like Sachin
Tendulkar, is visiting your neighbourhood and you are extremely fond (feeling) of
playing and watching cricket, then you will actively plan (thinking process), and
visit the venue (behaviour). Or, you may find Sachin Tendulkar to be an excellent
cricket player (thinking part), yet are not a keen player yourself nor do you watch the
game of cricket regularly (low liking emotional experience) and hence may decide
not to put in the effort to meet him (low probability of behaviour).
Activity 1
Components of Attitude
A) Make a list of the various aspects that you think, feel and act towards your
best friend. Identify the cognitive, affective and behavioural components of
attitudes.
B) Make a list of various issues. A list is provided below you can also use, now
rate the following - school education, smoking, teachers, drinking,
myself, dieting, meeting new people, family, friends, eating vegetables,
chocolates on a 7- point scale of liking, ranging from “least liked” (1) to
“most liked” (7).

Social
Psychological
Processes A 15 year old boy and girl student gave the following responses. You can also
make a similar representation of the ratings on various issues.
Rating of 2 Individuals on Various Issues
8
7
Notes 6
5 15-year old boy
Rating
4
3 15- year old girl
2
1
0
Dieting
Family
Drinking
Friends
Teachers
Smoking
New People
Myself
Chocolates
Vegetables
Meeting
Eating
Issues
Fig. 15.1: Ratings of 2 individuals on various issues

C) Ask a friend to rate the same list. Compare the two lists and identify the
similarities and differences between the two sets of ratings. You can prepare
your own list also.
D) Can you assess a person’s attitude by asking about only any one attitude
component?
It has been found that attitudes are held for a long period of time. Attitudes change
especially when you undergo new experiences. Also they are characteristics of a
person, and differ in type and strength from person to person depending upon the
socialization and interaction with the social world.
Functions of Attitude
Why do we form attitudes? It allows us to simplify social life which is complicated
and full of various types of information. Attitudes serve four important functions in
our lives:
1. Attitudes allow us to understand the world around us. Positive attitudes help
to come closer to some people and make you agree to their requests. You may
identify with role models (e.g. Sachin Tendulkar, Mother Teresa) and try to
develop their way of thinking and behaving. The negative attitudes make us stay
away from such people or situations.
2. Attitudes help describe the social groups that each one of us belongs to. As
members of a family, group of friends, or, religious, political group we share
similar attitudes and this helps to bind us together. Thus we may favour the
religious and political groups we belong to and show unfavourable attitude
towards the other groups.

Social
Psychological
3. Attitudes also help us to understand ‘who we are’ or our identity. Attitudes express
Processes
an individual’s values and self-concept. For example, some people value equality
while others may value freedom or compassion. Mahatama Gandhi’s attitude
towards honesty and Mother Teresa’s concern for the poor and needy is well
known.
4. Attitudes help us to get support, praise and acceptance from others. People Notes
who hold similar attitudes are attracted toward each other. For example, your
friend and you share common interests and attitudes, both of you like each other
and hence it makes easier to carry on the friendship. Thus attitudes help us to
adjust in our social interaction.

State whether statements are true or false:
1. Attitudes are positive evaluations of a person or an object.
2. Emotions expressed about an attitude object refers to the affective component of
an attitude.
3. Attitudes are held for a short period of time.
4. Attitudes provide us with a sense of self.
5. Holding specific attitudes helps us to gain approval from others.
15.2 FORMATION AND CHANGE OF ATTITUDES

By now you have understood that attitudes are basically learnt through interaction
with others and personal experiences. Usually children acquire the attitudes of their
parents. Has your mother warned you not to talk to strangers? Are you as religious as
your grand parents and parents? Attitudes are the result of many different influences
yet the common aspect is that it is acquired through different types of learning.
Direct contact: In an earlier lesson you have learnt about how a neutral object gets
associated with an established stimulus-response. Repeated association with the
stimuli evokes positive or negative feelings. The attitude object now comes to have
the same feelings. This involves classical conditioning (see Lesson 5). Strong smells,
tastes and sensory information can bring about strong emotional responses. For
example, if a child eats sprouts and dislikes it, there are chances that this dislike will
be generalized to other food items similar in colour and taste.
Direct instruction: Instructions given by parents, teachers, or leaders, lead to

formation of specific attitudes. Parents tell their children not to smoke and drink

Social
Psychological
Processes because it is unhealthy. Teachers may also reinforce this attitude. The child may
develop a negative attitude towards smoking and drinking.
Interaction with others: We are usually in the company of others and adopt attitudes
similar to the group we belong to. For example, if your group of friends think it is
‘cool’ to wear black jeans and shirts decorated with chains, you may think it cool to
be dressed in such clothes. Also, if your friends think it ‘cool’ to smoke and drink
Notes
then you may not listen to your parents and teachers but agree with the peer group.
You choose such a way of behaving, as this behaviour is reinforced by the reward
you get from your friends, that is, praise, approval and acceptance as a group member.
Further, such actions make you ‘feel good’, increase your self-esteem and make
your attitude even stronger. The use of rewards involves instrumental learning
(see Lesson 5). By controlling rewards and punishments children are taught specific
attitudes.
Observational learning: Attitudes are often learnt through observation of other
people’s actions. As a child do you remember how your grand parents sang bhajans
everyday during prayer time? As a young adult you may also now enjoy such songs.
Or, how did your mother react when she saw a stray dog? If she showed fear and an
attempt to run away from the dog, it is likely that you may also have developed the
same attitude.
In addition, the educational system, media particularly television, movies, magazines
and newspapers all influence attitude formation. Belonging to an impressionable
age children believe in what they watch on the TV. Advertisers take advantage of
this and try to get children to form specific attitudes towards what they want to sell.
As you have noticed almost all companies and organizations spend a lot of money
on advertisement aimed at pursuading people for change in their attitude.
Attitude Change
We have learnt about the nature of attitude and how attitudes are formed. No doubt,
attitudes once formed are difficult to change. Yet, because attitudes are learnt they
can also change with new learning. Attitude change depends upon the following
factors.
• Source: The person who delivers the message is called the communicator. The
probability, that you will change your attitude is higher if the message is conveyed
by experts, who are considered to be trustworthy, attractive and similar to the
person receiving the message. Thus, if the cricketer Sachin Tendukar says that a
particular drink gives him energy, the target audience is likely to be young children
who consider him as a role model in the field of sports. They are likely to buy the
drink because they assume that they would be able to ‘play like him’.
• Message: The nature of message is important because it provides the information
for attitude change. The message should be clear and well organized. Messages
that produce anxiety and fear are more effective. Thus an advertisement on soap
may explain that perspiration from the body results in bad odour and your friends

Social
Psychological
will turn away from you. Or, if you have a bath with a particular soap then you
Processes
are likely to be flooded with friends!
• Person: The characteristics of the person whose attitude is to be changed plays
an important role in attitude change. Attitudes that are strong, personally
important, complex and interconnected are difficult to change. Thus your attitude
towards family would be difficult to change rather than preference of a soap or
drink. Notes
Thus ‘who’ (communicator) says ‘what’ (message) to ‘whom’ (person for whom the
communication is meant for) will determine whether attitude change will take place
or not. What other people say and do has an effect on us. The advertising industry’s
aim is to change attitudes towards a particular product or services. They use these
three aspects of attitude change in their advertisements.
Activity 2
Attitude Change
Attitude change is possible when a message plays on the emotions of others.
Select advertisements (from television, newspaper or magazines) about body
image and target adolescents in the age group of 15-16 years. Analyze on the
basis of the three components of attitude. Which attitude component is most
dominant in the advertisement message?
Activity 3
Attitude Change
Select a magazine which has a high readership in your own city. Mark all the
advertisements in the magazine.
a) Note the words and images used in the advertisements. Now identify the three
sources of attitude change in each advertisement: the source person, the
message communicated and the person to whom the message is addressed
to. Prepare a table and find the frequency of occurrence of each source.
b) Advertisers often use a wide range of human motives/needs to sell their
products. In lesson 5 (Motivation and Emotions) you read about the different
types of motives: physiological needs, self-esteem needs, social and prestige
needs, and self-actualization amongst others. Take each advertisement and
identify the need which is being called upon. Prepare a table of the frequency
of occurrence of each need that you have identified. This project will help
you understand how advertisers use primary and secondary needs to change
the attitudes of people.

State whether the statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1. Learning plays an important role in the acquisition of attitudes.
Social
Psychological
Processes 2. We tend to adopt similar attitudes of the groups we belong to.
3. Messages that produce anxiety and fear are ineffective.
4. Change in attitude is higher if the message is conveyed by an expert.
5. Attitudes that are strong and personally important are difficult to change.
Notes
15.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR
The relationship between attitude and behaviour is complex and it is often difficult
to predict one’s attitude from his or her behaviour. How many times have you heard
people state that they want to be fit but they do not exercise, or that they are worried
about global warming but drive a big car which consumes petrol by the gallons!
People say one thing but do not necessarily follow it up with appropriate behaviours.
Studies have shown that there are certain special conditions under which attitudes
can predict behaviour:
• When attitudes are strong and consistent, that is when the three components of
attitude are clear and stable they better predict behaviour. Weak, unimportant
and ambiguous attitudes are less likely to predict behaviour.
• When one holds a strong attitude or when one is conscious of one’s attitude,
thereby it is also easily recalled and possible to predict behaviour.
• When attitudes have been formed through direct experience prediction of
behaviour is more accurate.
• When one acts under social pressure attitude may be expressed in diverse ways.
An adolescent may not want to smoke or drink because it affects health. But peer
group pressure may force him to drink. Thus his way of thinking is different
from his behaviour. When external influences are minimal then attitude-
behaviour relationship is becomes strong.
It is important to note whether behaviour is spontaneous or well planned. When
behaviour is deliberated upon and planned, particularly which college to join, or
when and whom to marry, these issues become important hence hasty decisions will
not be taken. Thus when we have time to think and it is personally relevant then the
attitude-behaviour relationship will be strong.

Read the list of attitudes carefully and state which type of learning was used for
attitude formation: direct contact, direct instruction, interaction with others and
observational learning.

Social
Psychological
1. Asha’s mother listens to Hindi classical music at home and while driving. Asha
Processes
has grown up hearing this music and now she too likes to hear this type of music.
2. Amit’s father sits down with his son and explains why it is important to stop
smoking and lead a healthy life. Amit stops smoking.
3. Shekar notes that his parents, elder brother, an uncle and close friends value
hard work and commitment to work. He also starts to hold this attitude towards Notes
his studies.
4. Five year old Rekha watches her grand mother praying everyday in the morning
now she also joins her grand mother while praying.
5. Five year old Mehak has recently joined a primary school. Her class room is
coloured brightly, with lots of toys and a teacher who is warm and pleasant. She
goes to school everyday happily.
15.4 BELIEFS AND BEHAVIOUR

Like attitudes we also have beliefs about ourselves, people and things around us.
Beliefs refer to the acceptance of something as truth. In fact when one has a strong
belief it often becomes unshakable. For instance, belief that a supernatural power
controls human destiny or a God is very strong, or, may have a belief in afterlife.
Once a belief is formed you are confident about the occurrence of certain events and
how you or people are likely to behave. It helps us understand why people behave in
a particular way or why an event has taken place. Beliefs help us to organize our
experiences in the social world and predict our own behaviour as well as the
occurrence of events.
15.5 SOCIAL COGNITION

Our minds try to make sense of the world around, and make necessary adjustments
to function in it in adaptable ways. When a friend invites you for her birthday party
you know many things about it - what type of dress to wear, you will carry a gift, that
there will be many other friends, a birthday cake and good eatables, and the like.
How do you know about it? Past experience and information about birthday parties
and associated activities help form an image about ‘birthday party’ as different from
other kinds of celebrations.
Social cognition refers to information received from the social world which is
interpreted, analysed and remembered, such that we come to think, feel and understand
about the people who live around us. But the information coming in is too much so
we have to learn to organize it in the form of schemas. Schemas are a set of
interconnected beliefs, information and examples about social objects, events and
people. Once formed the schemas guide our thinking and behaviour. They simplify
information so that we can interpret new information rapidly. There are various types
of schemas dealing with persons, events and social roles.

Social
Psychological
Schemas – Young Vs Older Generation
Request an elderly person (a male and a female) to prepare a list that describes
themselves and another list that describes the younger generation. Also, ask
the youth (a male and female) to describe themselves and the older generation.
Notes Now compare the two lists how each group has a particular schema about
themselves, as well as the other social group.
We also look for other ways to reduce information overload. We tend to use
heuristics which are simple rules for making complex decisions quickly. If
you are asked to identify a person who is abstract-minded, is committed to
her/his work, works long hours, has students surrounding her/him – name the
person – yes you are likely to say ‘professor’. This is because these are typical
attributes of a professor. Similarly, there are typical characteristics of a dancer,
doctor or politician.
Attribution: Understand the Causes of Behaviour
We also look for the causes of one’s own and other people’s behaviour. This is
termed as attribution. If your friend does not invite you for her birthday party you
are going to question why she did not do so. So we are like naïve scientists trying to
establish cause and effect relationships. If you fair poorly what reasons are you likely
to put forward and when you do well in the examination what reasons will you give?
There are two categories either you will attribute your success or failure to internal
causes pertaining to personal reasons, (e.g. “I faired poorly because I did not put in
effort”, or “I did well in the examination because I put in a great deal of effort”). The
external causes include anything outside the person. For instance, “I faired poorly
in the examination because the question paper was tough”.
Sources of Errors or Biases in Social Cognition

The internal or external causes lead us to commit the fundamental attribution
error. For example, when we see another person come late for a meeting and drop
her notes on the floor, we are likely to reach a conclusion that the person is
‘disorganized and clumsy’. We tend to explain the cause of ‘coming late’ and
‘dropping notes’ to internal causes. When we are in the same position then we are
likely to attribute the reasons of the same happening to external causes, such as,
there was a traffic jam and the floor was slippery. Thus when we perceive others we
perceive their behaviour to be caused by internal causes and say she is ‘that kind of
a person’. When we try to explain our own behaviour we do it in terms of situational
or external causes.
In our effort to understand the social world we try to reason out yet we often make
serious errors. Let us learn about some of the biases. The optimistic bias is the

Social
Psychological
tendency to believe that we are more likely than others to experience positive events.
Processes
For example we believe that we will do well in our studies, get a good job and lead
a happier life as opposed to not getting a job or falling ill.
We also have a strong negativity bias, the tendency to be sensitive to negative
information. We give more attention and assign greater importance to such types of
information. When you are informed about a person who is friendly, intelligent,
Notes
good looking and arrogant, which bit of information is likely to stand out and be
remembered? Yes, negative information will have a stronger influence than the
positive one.
We often we think in terms of “what might have been” or counterfactual thinking.
For example when we desire a good result in examination and do not get it we show
strong regret over the missed opportunity. You are likely to say “I should have studied
more and then I could have come first and be awarded the scholarship” either you
will study more next time or it could lead you to be depressed about such thinking.
Sometimes we have a tendency to notice and search for information that support
one’s beliefs and ignore information that do not conform it. This is called
confirmatory bias. People also tend to ignore basic information and get influenced
by the distinctive features of the object.
It can be said that we make errors particularly when we use heuristics as shortcuts
and when we do not put in efforts to think in detail. Also, for unimportant events we
use heuristics and automatic processing, whereas, for important events we use
conscious processing and thus make better decisions. Although we make these errors
they help us to adapt to the situation. It helps us to focus on certain information that
is of importance to us and reduces the effort for understanding the world.

Fill in the blanks:
1. ——————— help simplify information so that we can interpret new
information quickly. (schemas, social cognition)
2. ————————————— are learnt through personal experiences and
social communication. (personal schemata, role schemata, event schemata)
3. The tendency to be sensitive to negative information is called ———————
———————. (counterfactual thinking, negativity bias)
4. When we prevent ourselves about thinking of certain topics we engage in ——
————— ————————. (counterfactual thinking, thought suppression)

Social
Psychological
Processes
• Attitudes are favourable or unfavourable evaluations of people, objects, ideas
and situations. Attitude consists of three different yet interrelated components:
cognitive, affective and behavioural components. They combine to create an
Notes
attitude about an attitude object.
• Attitudes serve important functions of understanding the world, help define social
groups and our identity and help gain acceptance from others.
• Attitudes are formed through different types of learning: direct contact, direct
instruction, interaction with others and observational learning.
• Attitudes once formed are difficult to change, yet change is possible because
attitudes can be learnt under new conditions
• Two types of attitude change – incongruent and congruent change. Congruent
attitude change is easier.
• Attitude depends upon the source, message and the target person.
• Conditions under which attitudes predict behaviour – when attitudes are strong
and consistent, awareness of the attitude held, direct experience of attitude
formation and external influence is minimal.
• Social cognition involves our effort to understand the social world. Schemas
and heuristics help us to organize the incoming information from the social world.
Causal attribution helps to look for internal or external causes of behaviour.
• Social cognition is subject to many errors, such as, negativity, positivity bias,
counterfactual thinking and thought suppression.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Define attitudes. Describe the three components of attitude.
2. Briefly describe the functions of attitudes. Illustrate your answer with examples.
3. How are attitudes formed? Illustrate your answer with examples.
4. Can attitudes be changed? Explain the three important factors that help to bring
about attitude change.
5. Explain the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. Specify the conditions
under which the attitude-behaviour relationship will be strong.

Social
Psychological
6. Define social cognition. Explain the role of schemas in organizing our thinking
Processes
and behaviour.

15.1 Notes
1. F 2. T 3. F 4. T 5. T
15.2
1. T 2. T 3. F 4. F 5. T
15.3
1. Observational learning 2. Direct instruction
3. Interaction with others 4. Observational learning
5. Direct contact
15.4
1. Schemas
2. Event schemata
3. Negativity bias
4. Thought suppression
1. Refer to Section 15.1

MODULE - IV Social and Educational Problems
Social
Psychological
Processes
16
Notes
SOCIAL AND EDUCATIONAL

PROBLEMS
Social problems refer to the situations faced by the people in which achievement of genuine
goals of a community or group are not achieved due to difficulties at the level of system.
People get harassed, live under disadvantaged conditions, do not get good education, and
are subjected to discrimination and prejudice. These are examples of social problems.
These problems have many aspects including social, economic psychological and historical
and other solution requires efforts from many angles. Indian society is undergoing socio-
economic transformation. Also it has a very rich and old cultural heritage. India is also
aspiring to be a strong country at a global level. all these pressures are causing problems
and other kinds of development. Some problems like illiteracy, social tension and gender
discrimination are well known. Educational problems refer to issues of school dropout,
stagnation and wastage. They are also social problems. This lesson will help you understand
the psychological aspects of some important social problems faced in the society.
OBJECTIVES
• explain important psychological aspects of social problems: poverty, drug addiction,
and dowry;
• reflect upon the ways to solve these problems; and
• discuss the extent of school dropout, stagnation and wastage.
16.1 POVERTY
In our country, there are many people living in poverty. Poverty denies individuals and their
family of basic rights such as equality, justice, dignity, health, basic comforts and
personal security. Poverty is basically an outcome of inequalities. Poverty is usually

Social and Educational Problems MODULE - IV
Social
Psychological
defined in terms of objective poverty, which is lack of material belongings that is, lack Processes
of economic resources such as it is difficult to achieve an adequate level of living. Hence
we can say that poverty divides the population between those who have an adequate level
of living and those who do not. Subjective poverty refers to the perception and experience
of poverty as felt by a person. Deprivation on the other hand refers to loss of opportunities
and privileges that are normally available to the general population. It means lack of basic
Notes
necessities for the survival of an individual. This can take the form of inadequate
environmental conditions, impoverished experiences and characteristics of the socially
disadvantaged sections.
Fig. 16.1: The Urban Slums
Causes and Consequences of Poverty

Poverty needs to be understood as a cause as well as consequence. It is caused by several
factors and in turn causes several other problems. An important aspect of poverty is
deprivation. Deprivation, a lack of opportunity, reduces access to availability of resources
and is due to poor economic conditions. For example, education and employment have a
two way relationship with reduced opportunity to be gainfully employed. There are many
consequences of poverty. They interact with each other to bring about physical and
psychological effects on the persons. Let us examine some of the key consequences of
poverty.
Malnutrition and Development: Malnutrition influences both physical growth and affect
psychological development. A good diet helps a child to be active and happy. Malnutritution
and social impoverishment are major factors that bring about mental retardation. Children
of poor families start life with a handicap of limited food supply, widespread infections,
poor health, inadequate stimulation, and lack of education and awareness among parents.
Socialization Patterns Socialization patterns under poverty conditions are characterized
by inadequate stimulation, poor or no schooling, lack of role models, and lack of social
and emotional support from the peer group. Lack of such aspects has a detrimental influence
on the cognitive and emotional development of the growing child.

Social
Psychological
Processes Personality Development: Different personality patterns are suggested for the deprived
and non-deprived groups. Highly deprived children are likely to be high on neuroticism
and introversion, and low on extraversion than non-deprived children. Deprivation is also
related to social maladjustment, immaturity, and withdrawal. It also predisposes children
to delinquency, and proneness to more external and chance orientation than non-deprived
young adults.
Notes
Activity 1
Understanding the concept of poverty.
Talk to people belonging to different backgrounds - friends, family, neighbours,

students, emplyed unemployed, slum dwellers, amongst others. Ask each person to
define poverty and list the five most important reasons for the occurence of poverty
in India. Add your own answer and tabulate the dta. You can calculate the frequency
of each cause stated by the people. Discuss your findings with your family.
Motivational Consequences: The experiences of rewards and punishments helps in the

formation of one’s motivational orientation, poverty condition leads to low need for
achievement, low extension need, and a high need for dependence.
Mental health: There is increasing evidence of a strong association between poor mental
health and the experience of poverty and derivation. The type and extent of mental health
problems range from health problems, adjustment is higher if the individual is a migrant and
comes from a low socio-economic status. Although mental illness occurs in all ages, gender
and backgrounds, the risk is higher among the poor and homeless, unemployed, and
with low education.
Psychological Interventions: There are many causes and consequences of poverty. It

affects the individual, group and society. Psychologists work with the idea that human
development is shaped by the experiences faced by the individual. The aim towards helping
the person then is to train the individual by building up and increasing support to the
deprived person in terms of cognitive, motivational and behavioral skills. Such guidance
will increase the competency levels for effective functioning in society.
Psychological interventions do help the deprived and disadvantaged. However we must

keep the following aspects in mind. First, continuous help may lead to psychological
dependency and reliance on others. Under such conditions the deprived will not take
responsibility for their actions and not become self-sufficient. Second, psychological
interventions should be operable at all three levels: the individual, community and societal.
For example, simultaneous changes of educational practices, social policy and economic
input will have far reaching impact. Community involvement brings about commitment and
the desire to achieve success in the programmes.

Social
Psychological
Processes
1. Complete the following statements:
1. Poverty is defined in terms of ————— and —————poverty.
Notes
2. Objective poverty is the lack of —————— ——————.
3. Subjective poverty refers to the ——— and ————— felt by the person.
4. ———————————— refers to loss of opportunities and privileges that
are normally available to the general population.
5. Deprived person must be trained in terms of ——————————, ———
———, and ———————— skills.
6. Psychological interventions for poverty must operate at the ——————, —
—————, and —————————— levels.
2. Explain the causes and consequences of poverty.
16.2 SOME OTHER SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Drug Addiction. Drug addiction is a chronic problem that involves compulsive drug
seeking and dependence on it despite the fact that it has harmful effects on the individual.
It is often difficult to understand as to why some people become addicted to drugs. It
could be due to a combination of risk factors such as individual biology, socioeconomic
status, peer pressure, stress, quality of parenting, role models, and age are some important
aspects. Genetic and environmental factors interact with developmental and maturity
stages in a person’s life. The earlier a person takes to consuming drugs the more serious
the addiction. It is a common problem and a challenge during adolescence, when peer
pressure to experiment with new things is present. Drug addiction is closely related to
crime and HIV/AIDS. The effects on physical and mental health are also well documented.
Treatment is available to help people counter their addiction; however prevention of
drug addiction is a better approach. Involving families, schools, colleges, community and
media are effective ways of countering addiction. Public figures and youth icons can
participate in anti-drug campaigns.
Dowry. Dowry refers to the cash, gifts, property and material goods the man receives
from the wife’s family at the time of marriage. Dowry was earlier a way of helping with the
marriage expenses but now it has become a way of paying the groom’s family for taking on
the burden of a woman. Due to this aspect the birth of a girl in a family is considered as
an expense, and if the family is poor it puts more strain on the family. There are many

Social
Psychological
Processes reasons for dowry giving and taking. The concern by the girl’s parents to provide a good
and happy life to their daughter forces them to pay large amounts as dowry much beyond
their means. Borrowing money at high interest rates to pay dowry often puts the family in
perennial debt. Dowry is a social custom, practiced for generations. Changing such customs
is very difficult. This custom puts the young woman at very high risks. The woman who
brings in little dowry is at the mercy of the husband’s family, as they may ill treat her, harass
Notes
her and indulge in violence and torture. It is sad to note that even in the presence of the
Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961, dowry deaths, are becoming more prevalent, and indicating
that mere laws do not help in the eradication of this social evil. Effective implementation,
active involvement and cooperation of society in removing of this evil must be sought.
Boys and girls must be educated, taught to respect each other, and refusals of dowry are
some ways of eradicating this social evil.
16.3 SCHOOL DROPOUT, STAGNATION AND WASTAGE

The right to education is a fundamental right. Yet we note that children who join school
often drop out of schooling. Dropout rate is defined as the proportion of children who
discontinue school after enrolling in the schooling system. Thirty percent of children leave
school before completing five years of schooling and 50 percent leave before completing
8 years of schooling.
Two additional concepts of stagnation and wastage are important in the educational
setting. Education is necessary for the development of the person and effective contribution
of the person towards society. When the education received is of little or no help to the
person then it is termed as wastage of education. It is important for the growing child to
use the knowledge he or she has gained from education, in its absence there is wastage of
the resources. In addition the educational system needs to keep pace with demands and
needs of the context and bring about changes in the curriculum and knowledge content of
different educational fields. If it cannot do so then educational stagnation takes place. Thus
at the primary school level students initially join and after a few years leave school, leading
to wastage of the resources employed to educate the child. It becomes essential to retain
the child back in school to complete his/her education. Often children are retained in the
same class due to unsatisfactory progress. This further demotivates the child to continue
studying in school.
There are various reasons for school dropout, stagnation and wastage. These reasons fall
into three categories, namely, socio-economic, psychological and educational. The absence
of schooling activities in the vicinity, lack of awareness of necessary education among
parents, poverty, lack of interest in education, absence of educational environment,
examination failure and, the need for children to work for economic reasons are major
reasons for leaving school. In addition, poor systemic support in terms of rules and
procedures of the schooling system, curriculum that is alien to the needs of the students,
poor quality of education, and poor equipment also play a role in increasing school dropouts.

Social
Psychological
Efforts to decrease the school dropout rate are government programs such as National Processes
Literacy Mission, Sarv Sikhsha Abhïyan (Total Literacy Campaign) and Mid Day Meal
Scheme. Kerala has the highest literacy rate in the country, and other states are also doing
their best to decrease school dropouts.
Social problems described above deal with different domains of life. However you must
have noted that these problems are closely related to each other and in fact influence each Notes
other also. Hence the solutions to these problems is not easy, inputs from various disciplines
is required to help out these social problems. The role of psychology to understand human
behavior cannot be under estimated. Modification of attitudes, feelings and pattern of
behavior are significant. Psychologists along with other social scientists can provide strategies
for achieving these changes.
INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.2 AND 16.3

Fill in the blanks:
1. The sex ratio of male and female is unfavorable towards ———— .
2. Two women leaders who have emerged as leaders at national level are —— and
.............. ...............
3. Drug addiction is a chronic problem that involves ..... ........ ...... ..... ...... and
............ by the individual.
4. .............. refers to the proportion of children who discontinue school after enrolling in
the schooling system.
5. Students initially join and after a few years leave school, leading to ........... of the
resources employed to educate the child.

• Poverty is the outcome of inequalities.
• Poverty may be objective or subjective.
• Deprivation refers to loss of opportunities and privileges that are available to the normal
population.
• The causes and consequences of poverty include, malnutrition, socialization patterns,
personality development, motivational consequences, and, mental health.

Social
Psychological
Processes • Psychological interventions aim to train the person to build up and provide support in
terms of cognitive, behavioural and motivational skills.
• Drug addition and dowry seeking are other social problems.
• In the educational setting the drop out rate of students from school is high. The issues
of stagnation and wastage are relatd to school dropout.
Notes
• There are various reasons for school dropout, wastagae and stagnation - socio
economic, psychological and educational.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Define poverty. Explain the causes and consequences of poverty.
2. Write short notes on :
a. Drug addiction
b. Dowry
3. Explain the terms ‘stagnation’ and ‘Wastage’ in the educational setting. What eforts
are being made to reduce school droup outs.

16.1
1. Objective, subjective
2. Material belongings
3. Perception, experience
4. Deprivation
5. Cognitive, motivational and behavioral
6. Individual, community and societal
2. Deprivation, malnutrition, socialization patterns, personality motivation and mental
health.
16.2
1. Women
2. Sarojini Naidu and Indira Gandhi
3. Dropout

Social
Psychological
4. Wastage Processes
5. Compulsive drug seeking, dependence
2. Refer to section 16.2 Notes

MODULE - V Happiness
Psychology and Well-being
Secondary Course
Health and Well
Being
Notes 17
HAPPINESS AND WELL-BEING
People have always aspired for a long, dignified and meaningful life. However, the
stresses in contemporary life are increasing in such a way that it is becoming difficult
to cope with them. The hectic pace of life, environmental factors, and increasing
greed are making people’s lives more and more stressful. These factors influence
our life style and combine to create serious health hazards. Keeping this in view
efforts are being made to achieve health and well-being for all. The study of this area
involves many subjects such as psychology, medicine, sociology, anthropology etc.
Much concern is shown nowadays for the study of the factors influencing health,
well-being, quality of life, healthy life style, and happiness. In this lesson you will
learn about the concepts of health and well-being and how important they are for
good life and for happiness. Awareness, adoption and practice of healthy lifestyle
are the keys to our well being.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the concepts of happiness and well-being;
• distinguish between happiness and satisfaction;
• understand the concepts of self-actualization and mature personality;
• identify the strengths of self-actualized individuals; and
• discuss the ways for developing positive emotions.
17.1 CONCEPTS OF HAPPINESS AND WELL-BEING

Happiness and well-being are important and necessary for every individual. Both of
these bring about the positive feelings of joy, satisfaction, pleasure and pleasantness.
Have you remained unhappy, alone and sad for a long time? Were you able to do
your daily activities? Did you like meeting other people or talk to them? Yes, if you

Happiness and Well-being MODULE - V
Health and Well
Being
are unhappy you do not feel like doing anything. Remaining in this state for a long
time is harmful to our body and mind.
The term ‘well-being’ includes many aspects such as, happiness, energy, leisure,
peace with oneself, contentment and sensitivity to environment. Well-being involves
not only happiness and pleasure but also experiencing/feeling satisfaction in life, Notes
presence of positive feeling or affect (e g. interest, love, surprise, pleasure) and the
absence of negative feelings (e.g. anxiety, depression, stress). A very rich person
may be unhappy and a poor person may be happy. Well-being is a matter of how one
experiences and interprets one’s life conditions. Money, property, power and prestige
provide us with limited sense of well-being. It has been found that material prosperity
is positively related to life satisfaction to some extent. But indefinite increase in
material prosperity does not lead to significant life satisfaction. You may attempt
Activity 1 to understand the meaning of well-being.
Understanding the Meaning of Well-being
Activity 1
Ask some people to choose any one life style - (a) either a life of 70 years in a
village with basic amenities and few material comforts or (b) a life of 50 years
in a rich country with high living standards. Ask them to provide reasons for
their choice. You could answer this question yourself and also ask your parents
and/or friends to do the same. Compare the answers given.
Activity 2
Prepare a list of priorities/main concerns in life, that is, those things that are
needed in life. You could answer this question yourself and also ask your parents
and/or friends to do the same. Compare the lists and note how many material
and non-material aspects are listed by the younger and older generation.
A. Factors Influencing Well-Being
We can achieve a sense of well-being through a healthy lifestyle and by adopting

good habits. The basic principles of healthy life style include good diet, adequate
exercise, sleep, proper recreation and a set routine. Balance and avoidance of extremes
is very important for leading a good life.
Nutrition: Do you remember when you were unable to eat for a long period of
time? You must have felt weak, irritable and hungry. Sufficient calorie intake is
necessary for good health. Since we need energy through out the day we should not
skip meals or go on diets or under eat. We should eat a balanced diet of carbohydrates,
proteins, fats and vitamins. The reverse is also true as some people consume too
many calories and became overweight. Such people are also likely to have a lower
self-esteem particularly if the culture approves a slim body.

Secondary Course
Health and Well
Being
Exercise: Talk to your grandparents, they will tell you that they have led a physically
active life. They used their body to work and to go from place to place, whereas now
we prefer to use cars, buses and other vehicles. Decreased physical activity affects
our health and well-being. Lack of exercise can lead to headache, high blood pressure,
diabetes, backache, irritability, anxiety and depression. Today obesity is another
Notes serious problem faced by the youth and adults alike. Exercise has a positive effect
on mood. People who exercise regularly are able to control stress and enjoy high
quality of life.
Sleep: Adequate sleep is required to rejuvenate and refresh both the mind and body.
Sleep deficiency leads to irritability, anxiety, depression and disturbed thinking. How
many hours of sleep do you get? We need about 8-9 hours of sleep to function
effectively. We should try to establish a regular sleep routine and not sleep at irregular
hours. Remember that people who exercise regularly also sleep well.
Recreation: Just as we need proper nutrition, exercise and sleep, we also need to
relax and enjoy life. Indulging in certain activities, personally important to us, give
us joy, fulfilment, satisfaction and act as a diversion from the hectic life we lead in
current times.
Yoga and meditation: These activities bring discipline and peace in life. In addition
there are many health related benefits which make a person fit and active.
Having friends and maintaining relationships: Friends and other people provide
support and give opportunities to develop network, cooperation and enriching social
life.
Optimism, resilience and hope: People with optimism, resilience and hope are
found to be healthier and happier than others who lack these characteristics. Having
these positive attitudes makes a person effective and productive. Optimism refers to
being positive while resilience is the ability to be strong in difficult times.
Activity 3
Healthy Pleasures
Make a list of various things that you do every day which give you happiness
and make you feel ‘good’. A 15 year old boy wrote the following list: my
early morning run, aloo paranthas made by my mother, playing with my dog,
listening to music undisturbed, talking to my friends, time spent with my father
on Sunday evening, and, watching football matches.
It is the little pleasures we create ourselves that give us delight and a ‘good
feel’ factor.
Routine: Routines help establish healthy habits that bring structure to our lives. A
daily routine provides us with a framework and orders our life world. We know what
is expected from us; otherwise we get alarmed when we are unclear about the

Health and Well
Being
expectations from others. The positive effect of routine is that it provides a sense of
organization, control and responsibility to the person. Bad habits can be turned into
good habits. You may love to sleep late but you know that you need to keep your
body in good shape. Do you have a routine? Pick a routine that will keep you happy.
Notes

1. Identify the various aspects of well-being.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Identify the important factors that influence a healthy life style.
_______________________________________________________________
Quiz 1 State whether the statements given below are ‘True’ or ‘False’.
1. Cultivating healthy pleasures helps increase daily life pressures.
2. Adequate sleep refreshes both body and mind.
3. Consumption of more calories than required leads to more energy levels.
4. Exercise has a positive effect on mood.
5. Routines make our life boring and repetitive
B. Happiness, Well-Being and Need Satisfaction
What is happiness? All of us know what we feel when we are happy but it is often
very difficult to define it and express in words. Happiness can be a pleasant feeling
for a brief time or for a long duration. When you help a needy person or your friend
it may make you feel happy. When you are in need of help and your neighbour helps
you, that condition may also give you happiness. Happiness is not only an emotion
but refers to living a good life, experiencing well-being and enjoying good quality of
life. Happiness and well-being can be attained through many ways.
1. Material resources: Money, clothing and housing, provide us with the possibility
to satisfy our basic needs. Different needs and their nature were discussed in an
earlier lesson. We must satisfy both our primary and secondary needs to be happy.
2. Cognitive competence: The ability to search and find what we need is also
important. Thus we must be knowledgeable, intelligent, and open to learning.
3. Subjective competence: When we believe in our problem solving capacity we
have faith in our self and our abilities to achieve our goals.

Secondary Course
Health and Well
Being
Activity 4
Happiness and Well-being
a) Ask persons who are working in an organization as to how work is a source
for happiness and well-being. Ask them if they can imagine themselves
Notes “free” from work? What are their reactions to such a situation?
b) Ask a 15 year old and a 65 year old about various sources of happiness and
unhappiness. Compare the two lists to study how age influences the sources
of happiness and unhappiness.
We have many needs with some being more important than the others. Fulfilment of
our biological and psychological needs is essential. Since need satisfaction provides
us with fulfilment it leads to happiness and comfort. When we expect our desires to
be continuously fulfilled or immediately satisfied then we are likely to face problems.
Non-fulfilment of desires often leads to unhappiness and displeasure. Basic needs
must be fulfilled to feel happy and satisfied but there is a limit to it. Do you expect
your parents to fulfil every need and desire – to buy clothes every month, an outing
every week, a lavish meal every day, or to buy the latest music CD? When we desire
too many things we are likely to be dissatisfied when these desires are not fulfilled
and that leads to unhappiness. This is the reason why contentment (santosh) has
been considered important for experiencing happiness. Continuous striving for
attaining newer and newer goals pushes us toward a perpetual state of dissatisfaction
and discomfort.
Activity 5
Experiencing Happiness
Ask the following question from people of different walks of life, such as rich
and poor, educated and uneducated, men and women, boys and girls, married
and unmarried, and so on.
“Considering all things in your life, would you say you are very happy, rather
happy, not very happy, or not at all happy?”
Now calculate the frequency stated by the participants of different groups.
You can also present your results in a graphical representation, such as a pie
diagram or bar diagram.
C. Characteristics of Happy People

Happiness depends upon situational and personal characteristics. The key personal
characteristics are:
• Mental and physical health: People who are physically and mentally healthy
are happier than those who suffer from poor health.
• Psychological characteristics: Happy people believe that they are in control of
the situation, are resilient and confident and open to learning experiences (as we

Health and Well
Being
will discuss in self-actualization). Generally happy people are found to have
high self-esteem, get along with other people, feel more in control of events in
life, and, are optimistic that they can achieve their goals. Most importantly such
people are moderately happy most of the time.
• Good personal relations: Happy people interact socially and fulfil social needs Notes
of sharing, bonding and in return get support from them in time of need.
Life events: Happiness is correlated with happy events, such as, promotion, winning
an essay competition, parenthood or marriage. Do you think more wealth means
more happiness? Once our basic needs are met more wealth does not mean more
happiness. Research has indicated that happiness is more important than wealth.
There is a strong correlation between happiness and self-esteem, extraversion,
optimism, self management skills, good personal relations, progress towards goals,
spirituality and religious beliefs. Therefore happiness is closely related to different
aspects of the individual and behaviour. Societies that report being happy, value
wealth, access to knowledge, personal freedom and equality.
Do you know?
Happiness in Bhutan
Bhutan is a small country in the Himalayan ranges. In the 1970’s Bhutan gave
the world its first Happiness formula. Countries across the world calculate
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as the measure for happiness, well-being and
development of the country. Bhutan has happiness at the heart of its government
policy. They calculate “Gross National Happiness” (GNH) stating that wealth
cannot be the only factor in determining overall development. Growth and
development must be considered by a balance between the inner (self) and
outer life worlds. Thus, wealth must go hand in hand with cultural values,
connection with the environment (nature) as well as the community (people).
Research has also shown that being rich does not make people happy. Are the
Bhutanese people giving an important message to the world? Countries like
UK and France have also adopted this as a part of their government policies to
evaluate well-being of its people. You can read more details about GNH at:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_National_Happiness or watch a video about
“Happiness – Bhutan” at www.youtube.com

1. Define happiness. Identify the different ways by which happiness and well-being
can be achieved.
_______________________________________________________________

Secondary Course
Health and Well
Being
2. Can you explain why contentment (santosh) is important for maintaining need
satisfaction.
_______________________________________________________________
3. Identify the important characteristics of happy people.
Notes _______________________________________________________________
17.2 SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND MATURE PERSONALITY

In another lesson we read about motives and the crucial role they play in our life. We
learnt that fulfilment of primary needs and secondary needs is essential for growth
and development. All humans have the tendency to grow and develop. There is a
need to grow, expand and mature. All of us have talents and capabilities, but do we
really use them to the maximum? Some people appear to be doing the best that they
are capable of doing, but not all.
Self-actualization refers to the development of the individual upto his or her full
potential. We must understand that self actualization does not mean the end of growth;
it is not the path to maturity rather it is the path of maturity. You may feel that only
grown ups or elderly people achieve self actualization. You must start learning about
the process as early as possible. As we are nurtured in our social world we come to
learn social and moral values. Values help us to give direction and help us evaluate
the world to make effective decisions and successful adjustments. Love and respect
for self, others and nature, being problem centered and not self-centered, openness
to learning, having a purpose in life are some significant aspects to imbibe in life.
In addition we have to continually work for our personal growth. Just having values
is insufficient, for we must be motivated to translate our values into action. Self-
actualization provides us with the motivation to grow and expand.
Mahatma Gandhi not only advocated but also personally followed the principles of
ahimsa and disciplined life. Mother Teresa served the poor and down trodden with
love, devotion and compassion. Such people recognize and identify their potential
and put it to productive use. Self-actualization helps define the person, thus when
we say Mahatam Gandhi or Mother Teresa the words ‘ahimsa’ and ‘devotion’
immediately come to our mind.
17.3 RECOGNIZING STRENGTHS OF SELF ACTUALIZED

INDIVIDUALS
We find that some people are able to smile even when they face difficult conditions.
They have resilience How is this possible? We note that such people are likely to
have the following strengths which help them to face their problems and go ahead
with their life:

Health and Well
Being
• Self-monitoring or examining own behaviour in relation to self and others.
• Self-acceptance, self-esteem and confidence in self.
• Effective communication skills.
• Positive attitude: coping with failure and learn from mistakes.
Notes
• Purpose in life or finding meaning in what they do.
• Set realistic goals and try to achieve them to the best of their ability and skills.
• Flexibility or changing according to the demands of the situation.
• Belief that setbacks are temporary and short-lived and not going to last for ever.
• Relate to others and have deep relationships with others.
17.4 DEVELOPING POSITIVE EMOTIONS

In a previous lesson we learnt about the importance of emotions in everyday life.
Here we will learn about the role of positive emotions in health and well-being.
Negative emotions are important for survival yet often they create disturbance and
interrupt the natural flow of life. Positive emotions are desirable to sustain life
activities. Would you not like to be loving than hateful, joyful than fearful, and
caring for others than neglecting them? Positive emotions make us feel good, soothe
us and provide a sense of comfort. For example, when we appreciate the behaviour
of another person, we in turn feel happier, relaxed and have a sense of fulfilment.
Fig. 17.1: Positive Emotions
A. Positive emotions affect us in two important ways- they ‘broaden’ our thinking,
physical and social resources, and help ‘building’ reserves to draw upon at times of
stress and strain. Over time the influence of positive emotions helps because -

Secondary Course
Health and Well
Being
• Attention and thinking are broadened and deepened which in turn builds our
coping strategies.
• Positive emotions repair the negative effects of negative emotions.
• Enhances mental health and well-being: we show alertness, enthusiasm,
Notes determination and energy.
• Helps build personal resources for interaction with others: we make new friends,
we share and bond with them.
• Build optimism, tranquility and resilience.
• People who show positive emotions are more likely to feel loved.
• Happy people are more effective and successful in their work.
Activity 5
List the positive emotions you have felt in the last few days and state how they
have helped you in evaluating the situation. Also make a list of possible positive
emotions. Some examples are: accepting, admirable, beautiful, cheerful,
cherish, jovial, sharing, patient, self-reliant, good natured and active.
B. Ways to Promote Positive Emotions

The ways by which we can enhance positive emotions are:
• Do relaxation exercises such as meditation and yoga.
• Find positive meaning in life – reframe negative events and view in a positive
light.
• Find happiness and satisfaction in daily life activities.
• Pursue realistic goals so that you get a sense of achievement.
• Undertake activities which you love doing.
• Focus beyond self and help others as this makes you a happier person.
• Show gratitude – when you show gratitude towards others your identity and
awareness will be broadened.
• Nurture your spiritual self – people who have a faith system in place are happier.
When you join a community/group you are part of a shared belief system which
gives you a sense of belonging and provides help in times of stress and strain.
Activity 6
Positive Emotions - The above mentioned effects of positive emotions are
important for our health and well being, but can we make them a part of our
life? Yes, we can if we develop a positive outlook towards our life. Recall any
incident where you failed to achieve your goal. Now read the following
statements and try to review negative incidents in a positive light:

Health and Well
Being
• Each setback teaches me something. What can I learn from this situation?
Reframe negative events and view in a positive light
• Sometimes things do not work out, that does not mean that I am not capable
of achieving anything.
Notes
• I am going to remember what I have achieved and what I can do. I will
acknowledge my losses and failures but not keep brooding over them. I
will remember the 90 % of the achievements rather than the 10 % I have
not been able to achieve.

1. Explain the term self-actualization. Name people who have achieved this stage.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Identify two strengths of a self-actualized person.
_______________________________________________________________
3. Explain how positive emotions influence our happiness and well-being.
_______________________________________________________________
Quiz 2
Fill in the blanks:
1. The three components of happiness are …………… …………., ……………
…………, and …………… ………………. .
2. Happiness depends upon ……………………… and …………………..
characteristics.
3. Happy people have high self ………….., good …………….. relations and are
…………………… .
4. ………………. ……………………. refers to the development of the individual
with all his or her potential.
5. Positive emotions influence our …………….. and …………… ……………. .
6. Positive emotions help ………….. and ………………. Our resources and coping
strategies.

• Health, well being and happiness are interrelated concepts that include physical,
mental, social and spiritual dimensions.

Secondary Course
Health and Well
Being
• Adopting a balanced lifestyle includes good diet, adequate exercise, sleep and
recreation and a it ensures health and well being.
• Self-actualization is a process through which a person achieves the level he/she
is capable of.
Notes
• Positive emotions can be enhanced through a balanced routine, realistic goals,
helping others and working towards self actualization.
• Happiness is an emotion but also refers to good living and well-being.
• Need satisfaction provides fulfilment yet we must set realistic desires and goals.
• Happy people are physically and mentally healthy, accept themselves, are
confident, resilient and have good relations with others.
• Self actualization is a process through which we achieve what we are capable of
doing. We have to continually work towards achieving self-actualization.
• Self actualized people monitor their behaviour, accept self, others and nature,
have effective communication skills, a positive attitude, purpose in life, set
realistic goals, and believe setbacks are temporary in nature.
• Positive emotions influence our health and well-being. Positive emotions help
broaden our resources and build coping strategies.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Define happiness and well-being. Explain the significance of leading a balanced
life style to achieve happiness and well being.
2. With examples explain the characteristics of self actualized persons.
3. Discuss the ways of developing positive emotions.

17.1
1. Happiness, energy, peace with oneself, contentment, etc.
2. Nutrition, exercise, sleep, recreation, etc.
17.2
1. Happiness is an emotions and also refers to living a good life, experiencing well
being and enjoying good quality of life. Material resources, cognitive competence,
subjective competence.

Health and Well
Being
2. When we desire too many things we are likely to be dissatisfied when these
desires are not fulfilled and that reads to unhappiness.
3. Mental and physicl health, resilience, confidence, openness to experiences,
personal control, good personal relations.
17.3 Notes
1. The development of the individual upto his/her full potential. Mother Teresa,
Mahatma Gandhi
2. Self monitoring, self acceptance, effective communication skills, positive
attitudes, etc. (any two)
3. Broaden our thinking, physical and social resources, help build reserves to draw
upon at stresful and strenuous times.
Quiz 1
1. True 2. True 3. False
4. True 5. False
Quiz 2
1. material resources, cognitive competence, subjective competence
2. situational, personal
3. esteem, personal, optimistic
4. self actualization
5. health, well being
6. broaden, build
Web Sites
1. There are various tests of happiness available on the Internet. One important
site is ‘Authentic Happiness’ of Positive Psychology Center, University of
Pennsylvania, and connected with Seligman’s ongoing research activities. The
site also lists various exercises that you can undertake to remain happy. http://
www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu
2. The website of Tal Ben Shahar contains articles on happiness and provides tips
on how to maintain happiness. He tells us how we can keep a balance between
work and life. http://www.talbenshahar.com/
3. This web site presents the rankings of the worlds happiest countries:
http://thehappinessshow.com/HappiestCountries.htm

Secondary Course
Health and Well
Being

Notes

Mental Disorders and their Treatment MODULE - V
Health and Well
Being
18 Notes
MENTAL DISORDERS AND

THEIR TREATMENT
You might have seen some persons displaying different kinds of behaviours at home,
school or at public places, for example, checking school bag frequently, roaming on
the road in a totally unhygienic condition, or having sweating, increased heart
palpitation and upset stomach before an examination. Such kinds of behaviours seem
unusual and undesirable to us. It makes us think as to why this person is displaying
these kinds of behaviours. In psychology these behaviours are labeled as mental
disorders. These develop gradually. There are many factors which lead to mental
disorders, including heredity, personality weaknesses, low stress tolerance, childhood
experiences, stressful situations and inability to cope.
The situations, which the individual perceives difficult to deal with or cope with, are
called stressors. Stress imposes certain demands on the individual which he or she
finds excessive and difficult to deal with. Consistent failure in meeting these demands
of the stressors creates mental stress in the individual. Thus, in this lesson you will
study the nature and sources of stress as a source of disturbed mental health, various
kinds of conflicts and frustrations which result from ineffective coping with the
stressors, different kinds of mental disorders and their treatment process.
OBJECTIVES
• discuss the nature of stress as a source of disturbed mental health;
• describe the different types of conflicts and frustrations;
• list the main types of mental disorders;
• describe the therapeutic process; and
• explain the process of coping with stress.

MODULE - V Mental Disorders
Psychologyand their Treatment
Secondary Course
Health and Well
Being
18.1 STRESS AS A SOURCE OF DISTURBED MENTAL
HEALTH
In today’s world stress is a very common human experience characterized by a host
Notes of physiological and psychological responses. The traditional definition of stress
focuses more on the physiological response of the body. Hans Selye coined the term
‘stress’ defined it as a non-specific response of the body to any demand on it. The
definition of Hans Seyle has a physiological basis and it gives more importance to
the activities of hormones which are secreted by adrenal and other glands.
Selye conceptualized two categories of stress: a) Eustress, i.e. moderate and desirable
stress such as when playing a competitive sport b) Distress which is bad, excessive,
irrational or undesirable stress.
The recent approach to stress focuses on the role of appraisal or interpretation of
the situation in relation to the coping resources available to the individual. The
interdependent processes of appraisal and coping determine the relationship between
a person’s environment and his or her adaptation. Adaptation is the process through
which people manage their environment to maintain an optimum level of physical,
psychological and social wellbeing.
18.1.1 Stressors
Till now you have come to understand the meaning of stress. It is also important to
know which objects or events create stress in the individual. Any event or object in
the environment that has potential to induce stress in the individual is called a stressor
e.g. too many assignments, disaster created by earth quake etc. Stressors cam be
broadly organized under the following categories:
(i) Major Life Events and Changes: Under this category any event in one’s life is
considered which has significant and enduring impact on the individual e.g.
marriage, retirement or divorce.
(ii) Daily Hassles: Hassles are those irritating, frustrating and distressing demands
that the individual encounters in everyday life e.g., misplacing or losing items,
having deadlines, getting caught in traffic jams, waiting in lines.
(iii)Chronic Role Strain: Such as in a difficult marriage, dealing with a disabled
child or living in poverty.
(iv)Traumas: These are unexpected, horrifying or deeply disturbing incidents which
create a significant impact on life e.g. nuclear attack, bomb-blast or death of a
loved one.
18.1.2 Common Responses to Stressors
Our responses to stressors can vary widely, ranging from minor sensation to severe
behavioural changes. These responses are grouped under the following categories

Health and Well
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(1) Behavioural Responses
(i) Alcohol/ drug abuse (ii) Fear/Phobia
(iii) Sleep disturbances (iv) Increased nicotine/caffeine intake
(v) Restlessness (vi) Loss of appetite/over-eating
(viii) Irritability (viii) Aggression Notes
(ix) Impaired speech/ voice tremor (x) Poor time management
(xi) Compulsive behaviour (xii) Low productivity
(xiii) Withdrawal from relationship (xiv) Increased absenteeism
(xv) Frequent crying (xvi) Untidy appearance
(2) Emotional Responses
(i) Anxiety (ii) Depression
(iii) Anger (iv) Guilt
(v) Hurt (vi) Jealousy
(vii) Shame/embarrassment (viii) Suicidal feeling
(3) Cognitive Responses
(i) Negative self-concept (ii) Self-assurance
(iii) Low frustration statements (iv) Pessimistic view about self and
others
(v) Cognitive distortion
(4) Interpersonal Responses
(i) Passive/aggressive relationship (ii) Lying
(iii) Competitiveness (iv) Flattering behaviour
(v) Withdrawn (vi) Suspiciousness
(vii) Manipulative tendencies (viii) Gossiping
(5) Biological Responses
(i) Use of drugs (ii) Diarrhea/constipation
(iii) Frequent urination (iv) Allergies/ skin rash
(v) High blood pressure (vi) Chronic fatigue/exhaustion
(vii) Dry skin (viii) Cancer

(ix) Diabetes (x) Asthma
(xi) Frequent Flu/common cold (xii) Lowered immune system
(xiii) Poor appetite
(6) Imagery: Images of
(i) Helplessness (ii) Isolation/ being alone
(iii) Losing control (iv) Accidents/injury

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(v) Failure (vi) Humiliation/Embarrassment
(vii) Dying/suicide (viii) Physical/ Sexual abuse
(ix) Poor self-image
Notes
1. What do you understand by the term stress?
_______________________________________________________________
2. What are the broad categories of stressors?
______________________________________________________________
3. What are the common behavioural responses to stressors?
_______________________________________________________________
18.2 TYPES OF CONFLICTS AND FRUSTRATIONS

You should know that an individual becomes stressed when he or she faces obstacles
in reaching the goals. This often creates conflict and frustration in the individual. A
conflict becomes more stressful because of the intensity of frustration it involves.
The individual generally lands in conflict when he or she faces a mutually
incompatible situation. There are three types of conflict which the individual faces
depending on the nature of goals and situation. These are
a. Approach-approach conflict
b. Avoidance-avoidance conflict
c. Approach-Avoidance conflict
a. Approach-approach conflict: This type of conflict occurs when the individual
has to choose between two or more desirable goals. In this kind of conflict both
the goals are desirable, for example choosing between two marriage invitations
on the same evening.
b. Avoidance-avoidance conflict: This kind of conflict occurs when an individual
has to choose between two or more undesirable goals. This kind of conflict is
often called “caught between the devil and the deep blue sea”. For example a
youth with little educational qualification has to choose either unemployment or
a low paid disagreeable job. This kind of conflict can create serious adjustment
problems because even the resolution of the conflict may bring frustration rather
than relief.
c. Approach-avoidance conflict: In this kind of conflict the individual has a strong
tendency to both approach and to avoid the same goal. For example a young man
may want to marry because of social and security reasons, while at the same

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time he fears the responsibilities and loss of personal freedom he feels getting
married will involve. This kind of conflict is generally resolved by accepting
some negative and positive features of the goal.
Approach-avoidance conflict is sometimes referred to as “mixed-blessing” conflicts
because of the involvement of multiple alternatives. Notes
Frustration: Frustration as an experiential state which may result from either a)
blocking of needs and motives by some external forces which create hindrance and
prevent the attainment of needs or b) by the absence of a desired goal.
Hindrances or obstacles can be both physical and social and create frustration in the
individual. These include accidents, unhealthy interpersonal relationships, and death
of loved ones. Personal characteristics such as physical handicaps, inadequate
competencies, and lack of self-discipline can also be sources of frustration. Some of
the common frustrations which often cause special difficulty include delay in getting
the desired outcome, lack of resources, failure, losses, and loneliness and
mindlessness.

1. Explain the term conflict. Discuss various types of conflicts.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Explain the term frustration.
_______________________________________________________________
18.3 TYPES OF MENTAL DISORDERS

While coping with the demands of stressors the individual generally follows problem-
focused or emotion-focused coping strategies. In problem-focused coping the
individual uses his/her intellectual resources to deal with stressful situation and often
reach an effective solution. In the case of emotion-focused coping the individual
displays emotional behaviour in dealing with the stressful situation e.g. crying.
However, if the individual fails to deal with stressors he/she may turn to defense
oriented coping strategies which if repeated very frequently can create various kinds
of mental disorders. Defense-oriented behaviour does not deal with the situation,
but uses methods to justify own actions.
Like physical ailments there are various types of mental disorders. The list of these
disorders ranges from minor anxiety to severe kinds of disorders such as
schizophrenia. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of mental disorders
published by American Psychiatric Association mentions various types of mental
disorders. The branch of psychology which deals with these disorders is called
abnormal psychology.

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A. Disorders of Childhood
It may be quite surprising to you that children can also develop some psychological
disorders. DSM-IV-TR deals with various kinds of childhood disorders usually first
diagnosed during infancy, childhood, or adolescence. Some of them are Attention-
Notes deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) where the child has problems in paying attention
or is extremely over-active and Autistic disorder are where the child is withdrawn,
doesnot smile and has delayed language development.
B. Anxiety Disorders
You might have experienced fear and apprehension in your life. However, if somebody
persistently becomes fearful, apprehensive, and anxious without any appropriate
reason you may call this person as having anxiety disorders. There are different
kinds of anxiety disorders in which the feeling of anxiety manifest in different forms.
Some of these disorders are phobia or extreme and irrational fear of something and
obsessive-compulsive disorder where the person has repetitive thoughts or has to do
actions repeatedly
C. Mood Disorders
The person who suffers from a mood disorder experiences these emotions for a long
period of time in a restricted way, remains fixed at one emotion or fluctuates on the
ranges of these emotions. For example a person can be sad for days together or he/
she can be sad one day and happy the other day regardless of the situation. Thus
depending on the behavioural symptoms of the person mood disorders are of two
types- (i) depression and (ii) bipolar disorder. We will now try to understand the
meaning and symptoms of these two disorders.
Depression is a mental state characterized by sadness, loss of interest and pleasure
in routine activities, disturbances in sleep or loss of sleep, poor appetite (weight
loss) or increased appetite (weight gain), being lethargic, feeling of guilt,
worthlessness, helplessness, and hopelessness, difficulty in concentration, and
negative thinking about self and others. If a person has these feeling for at least two
weeks he or she may be called a depressive person and for his/her treatment immediate
clinical intervention is required. Bipolar disorder is characterized by alternating phases
of depression and excitement or mania.
D. Psychosomatic and Somatoform Disorders

Diseases which are very common nowadays such as high or low blood pressure,
diabetes, hypertension are physical illnesses but these are due to psychological causes
like stress and anxiety. Hence psychosomatic disorders are those psychological
problems which have physical symptoms but psychological causes. In the term
psychosomatic the meaning of psyche is mind and of somatic is body. Contrary to
this somatoform disorders are those disorders which are characterized by physical

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symptoms that do not have any known, identifiable biological causes. For example
a person may complain for stomach pain but for this stomach pain there is no problem
with the particular organ (stomach) of the body.
E. Dissociative Disorders
Notes
You must have seen many movies in which the hero of the movie, after a traumatic
event, is unable to recall his previous identity, the past events and the people around
him. In clinical psychology such kind of problems are called dissociative disorders
in which the personality of the individual becomes dissociated or separated from the
rest of the world.
One of the categories of dissociative disorder is dissociative amnesia in which the
person is unable to recall important personal information usually after some stressful
episode. The other category is dissociative fugue in which apart from the memory
loss the person also assumes a new identity. Another is depersonalization disorder
in which the person suddenly feels changed or different in a strange way. The person
feels that he has left his body or his movements have suddenly become mechanical
or dreamlike. However, the most serious dissociative disorder is multiple personality
disorder or dissociative identity disorder in which several distinct personalities emerge
in the same individual at different time.
F. Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders

You may have seen some individuals on roadside in very dirty clothes, eating the
unhygienic food spillover around the garbage and talking and behaving strangely.
They have very poor orientation about person, place and time. We often call them
mad, insane or so on. However, in the language of clinical psychology they are
called schizophrenics. Schizophrenia is a psychological disorder characterized by
disturbances in thought, emotion, and behaviour. Schizophrenics have incoherent
thinking; faulty perception, disturbances in motor activity, and flat or inappropriate
emotions. They withdraw from people and reality; often into a fantasy world of
delusions and hallucinations.
Hallucination is characterized by false sensory perceptions in the form of seeing
something which is physically not there, hearing some voices that are actually not
there. Delusions are false beliefs about reality. Such beliefs distort their relationship
with others. Schizophrenia is of many types, such as catatonic schizophrenia.
G. Personality Disorders
Personality disorders have their roots in early childhood when some children develop
inflexible and maladaptive patterns of thinking and behaving. This takes the form of
different kinds of personality disorders ranging from harmless avoidant ones to
coldblooded serial killers. The range of personality disorders has been classified in
three clusters. The first cluster is characterized by odd or eccentric behaviour; anxiety

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and apprehension is the characteristic feature of second cluster; and the third cluster
is characterized by dramatic, emotional, or erratic behaviour. Under the first cluster
paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders are included. In the second
cluster dependent, avoidant, and obsessive personality disorders are described.
Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders constitute
Notes the third cluster.

1. Identify and explain the two types of anxiety disorders.
_______________________________________________________________
2. What do you understand by depression?
_______________________________________________________________
3. What is the difference between psychosomatic and somatoform disorders?
_______________________________________________________________
4. Discuss the major symptoms of Schizophrenia.
_______________________________________________________________
5. What do you understand by the term ‘personality disorders’?
_______________________________________________________________
18.4 PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC PROCESS

In order to deal with any kind of mental disorders there is a certain psychotherapeutic
process used to help the individual. The person who designs psychotherapeutic
program is a trained individual and is known as clinical psychologist or
psychotherapist. The person who requires treatment is known as client.
Psychotherapy is often called “the talking cure” as help is provided through
interpersonal contact. medicines can only be given by a psychiatrist who is a medical
doctor with further specialization in mental disorders.
There are various kinds of psychotherapeutic approaches which are based on theories
about the causes and development of abnormal behaviours. These are psychoanalysis,
behaviour therapy, cognitive-behaviour therapy, client centered therapy etc.
Psychotherapy is a plan of intervention designed keeping in mind the nature and
severity of mental disorders.
The steps in psychotherapy include:
(i) Rapport formation: The psychotherapist builds a good and working relation with
the client so as to ensure cooperation.

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(ii) Preparation of case history: The history of the particular disorder is prepared
targeting the adjustment pattern of the client with family, friends, social and
occupational set up.
(iii)Determination of the problem: After preparing case history the psychotherapist
identifies certain key problems which require urgent attention. This is achieved Notes
through administration of clinical tests and interview.
(iv)Therapeutic Session: Depending on the nature and severity of the problem the
psychotherapist conducts session with the client with a focused treatment plan.
Progress after each session is monitored and assessed, and further interventions
are modified if necessary.
(v) Termination of Therapeutic Intervention: Once it is confirmed that the sessions
have yielded the desired outcome set by the psychotherapist then it is terminated.
The client and the family members are asked to follow the suggestions at home
and if required the client is asked to visit the psychotherapist again.

1. What is psychotherapy?
_______________________________________________________________
2. Explain the main steps in the process of psychotherapy.
_______________________________________________________________
18.5 PROCESS OF COPING WITH STRESS

As already explained in the previous section, the individual while coping with
stressors generally follows two mechanisms namely Task-oriented coping and
defense-oriented or emotion-focused coping.
Task-oriented coping are aimed at realistically coping with the adjustive demands
posed by the particular stressor. These are based on an objective appraisal of the
stressful situation on a conscious and rational level and taking a constructive course
of action. This kind of coping can fall into any of the three categories such as attack,
withdrawal, and compromise.
(i) In case of attack the individual directly confronts with the situation. He/she
assesses the feasibility of the coping resources available to him/her. He/she chooses
the most promising course of action to deal with the stressor and in the course of
dealing with it maintains flexibility and shifts approach if it does not seem to be

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working. He/she also develops new coping resources as per the situational requirement
by searching out new information, developing new competencies or improving
existing ones. An example of attack reaction would be when a student plans revision
much before a difficult exam.
Notes (ii) In the case of withdrawal reactions the individual admits defeat at the first
instance if the situation is too difficult to handle or he/she has used inappropriate
strategy. He/she may physically or psychologically leave the stressful situation. He/
she may also redirect his/her effort toward a more appropriate goal. An example of
withdrawal is when one friend rejects you repeatedly, you withdraw and try to make
friends with another person.
(iii) During compromise the individual may accept a substitute goal if he/she feels
that the original goal cannot be obtained. This kind of reaction generally occur when
the individual reassess his/her abilities and accordingly lowers his/her level of
aspiration. It also reflects the accommodative nature of the individual while coping
with the adjustive demands of the stressful situation. For example a child who does
not do well in a particular subject, but gets very high marks in other subjects, tries to
accept the fact.
Emotion-focused or defense-oriented coping is not helpful because the person is

not moving towards any solution, but only using methods to make himself/herself
feel comfortable. An example of defensive methods is rationalization, such as
reasoning that all the students have failed as the paper was very difficult. Another
example is displacement, when you ‘displace’ the anger you are feeling for a strict
teacher by scolding or hitting your younger brother.
It is important to understand that in order to deal and cope effectively with stress,
one should adopt a healthy life-style. By using positive thinking, emotions and actions,
not only can we deal with stress in a better way, we will be far happier, leathier and
more productive in our lives. You have already studied about health in lesson 17,
and you will read more details in lesson 19 and 24.

• The behaviours which are uncommon or unusual are labeled as abnormal
behaviour. The individual develops these behaviours gradually in particular
situations which he finds difficult to deal with.
• The situations which the individual perceives difficult to deal with or cope with,
are called stressors. They impose certain demands on the individual which he or
she has to fulfill. Failure in meeting those demands of the stressors may lead to
mental disorders in the individual. Genetic and biological factors are also very
important.

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• Stress is defined as a non-specific response of the body to any demand on it.
There are two categories of stress, namely good or desirable stress (eu-stress)
and bad or undesirable stress (distress).
• The recent approach to stress focuses on the role of appraisal of the situation in
relation to the coping resources available to the individual. Notes
• Behavioural, Emotional, Cognitive, Interpersonal, Biological, and Imagery
reactions are common responses to stressors.
• There are three types of conflict which the individual faces depending on the
nature of goals and situation. These are Approach-approach conflict, Avoidance-
avoidance conflict, Approach-Avoidance conflict
• Frustration as an experiential state often results from either blocking of needs
and motives by some external forces which create hindrance and prevent the
attainment of needs or by the absence of a desired goal.
• There are various categories of mental disorders. The list of these disorders ranges
from minor anxiety to severe kinds of disorders such as schizophrenia.
• In order to deal with any kind of mental disorders there is certain
psychotherapeutic process which are used to cure the individual suffering from
mental disorders. The person who gives psychotherapy is a trained individual
and is known as clinical psychologist or psychotherapist. The person who requires
treatment is known as client.
• There are various kinds of psychotherapeutic techniques which have been
developed following sound theoretical frameworks which describe the causes
and development of abnormal behaviours. These are psychoanalysis, behaviour
therapy, cognitive-behaviour therapy and client centered therapy.
• The individual, while coping with stressors, generally follows two mechanisms
namely task-oriented coping or defense-oriented coping.
• Adopting a healthy life-style with positive thoughts, feelings and actions is the
best way of coping with stress.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Define stress. Identify the major stressors in the life of a student, and the usual
responses to them.
2. Explain how conflicts and frustration lead to stress.
3. Identify any 5 mental disorders and describe their main symptoms.
4. Discuss desirable ways of coping with stress.

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18.1
Notes 1. Nonspecific response of the body to any demand on it.
2. Major life events and changes, daily hassles, chronic role strain, traumas.
3. Alcohol/drug abuse, restness, initability, aggression etc.
18.2
1. Conflict refers to the difficulty in choosing between two or more goals:
1. Approach - approach
2. Avoidance - approach
3. Avoidance - avoidance
2. Experiential state which may result from (a) blocking of goals or (b) absence of
desired goal.
18.3
1. Phobia, obsessive - compulsive disorder
2. Mental state characterised by sadness, loss of interest and pleasure, loss of sleep
etc.
3. Psychosamatic disorders are psychological disorders having physical symptoms
but psychological causes.
Somatoform disorders are characterised by physical symptoms without
identifiable biological causes
4. Incoherent thinking, faulty perception, disturbance in motor activity, flat or
inappropriate emotions.
5. Inflexible or maladaptive patterns of thinking and behaving are developed.
18.4
1. Therapy provided through interpersonal contact. Also called “Talking cure”
2. Rapport formation, preparation of case history, determinaton of the problem,
therapeutic session, terminaton of therapeutic intervention.

Mental Health and Hygiene MODULE - V
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19 Notes
MENTAL HELATH AND HYGIENE
You may be quite aware about the term ‘health’. We generally understand it in terms
of effective physical condition or functioning of the body. When we use the concept
of health with reference to mind we use the term ‘mental health’. In fact we need
both physical as well as mental health. You must be aware that body can only function
well when the condition of mind is balanced and healthy. In this lesson you will
learn about the meaning of ‘mental health’ and ‘hygiene’. You will also learn about
the behaviours and practices which indicate poor mental health as well as those
which promote good health. Finally, you will learn some effective strategies to manage
time so as to get optimum results.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the concepts of mental health and hygiene;
• distinguish mental health from mental ill-health and mental illness;
• explain behavioural symptoms of poor mental health;
• describe health behaviours which sustain good health; and
• learn strategies for time management.
19.1 CONCEPTS OF MENTAL HEALTH AND HYGIENE

Health is often used to refer to a state of physical, mental, social and spiritual well-
being of the individual. Thus, mental health is one of the components of the broad
concept of health. It is concerned with an optimum level of emotional and behavioural
adjustment of the individual. It is a state of maintaining harmony or balance between
the needs, desires, aspirations and attitudes of the individual with respect to the
prevailing conditions in the external environment.

MODULE - V Mental Health
Psychology and Hygiene
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The term mental hygiene is closely related to mental health. We use the term hygiene
to refer to keeping oneself and one’s living and working areas neat and clean in
order to prevent illness and disease. When we extend this concept to the domain of
mind it stands for the art of developing, maintaining, and promoting necessary
behavioural, emotional, and social skills to sustain good, effective and efficient mental
Notes health. One can achieve this by following some basic strategies at mental and
behavioural levels in one’s daily life. These are as follows:
A. Reality Contact: In order to maintain good and sound mental health it is important
to have a realistic appraisal of one’s own reactions, emotions, and abilities. If
you are in touch with reality you may be able to avoid a number of disappointments
and frustrations in your daily life.
B. Impulse Control: A person with healthy adjustment would have good control
over his/her behaviours and impulses. So in order to maintain good mental health
it is necessary that you should be in complete control over your impulsive
behaviours.
C. Self-Esteem: The awareness about oneself is called self-concept. It includes all
the statements about “I” or “me” expressed in terms of feelings, beliefs and
values. Thus self-concept is sum total of all that a person is aware about his or
her own self. Self-esteem is the evaluative component of self. The personal
evaluation of self could be either positive or negative. A sense of personal
adequacy or positive self-concept is essential for mental health.
D. Positive Thoughts: The quality of mental health depends on whether we direct
our thoughts in positive or negative ways. Negative thoughts generate negative
emotions such as anger, hate, jealousy, fear, and despair. The effect of such
negative emotions on our mind is unhealthy. They also harm the endocrine system.
Therefore in order to maintain good mental health, we need to develop the power
of positive thinking which generates positive emotions such as love, joy,
happiness, hope, compassion, empathy, and optimism in us. Such emotions
strengthen our capacity to cope with various life challenges.
Activity 1
Assess Your Mental Health
It may be quite interesting for you if you are asked to assess your mental
health by just responding to some statements dealing with your daily life
activities. These statements are given below. Each statement is followed by
three alternatives namely “agree”, “uncertain” and “disagree”. After reading
each statement, please decide whether you “agree”, or “disagree” with it. It
may also happen that you may not be able to decide whether you agree or
disagree with a particular statement. In that case you are free to choose the
alternative “uncertain”. In order to express your view please encircle (O) which
will best indicate your way of thinking and behaving.

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Agree Uncertain Disagree
1. I am satisfied and happy with my life. 3 2 1
2. My life is very happy. 3 2 1
3. Even when I am with the members of my 1 2 3 Notes
family, I feel lonely
4. I am confident about my abilities 3 2 1
5. I have not been able to achieve as much as 1 2 3
I want to.
6. I am not as adequate and competent as 1 2 3
others are.
7. I am very intelligent and competent. 3 2 1
8. I do not want to mix up with others. 1 2 3
9. People are generally selfish. 1 2 3
10. I have no zest for living. 1 2 3
11. I generally trust people and have no problem 3 2 1
in getting along with them.
12. I experience a sense of well-being. 3 2 1
13. I get enough love and satisfaction from my 3 2 1
family and others.
14. I am generally able to solve my 3 2 1
problems when I encounter them.
I do not remain in conflicting situation.
15. I have no goal in life. Life just drags on. 1 2 3
Key
After giving your view on each statement, add the score of all the alternatives you
have chosen. The total of all the 15 items is your mental health score.
Interpretation
Obtained Score Your Mental Health
36-45 Good
26-35 Fair
15-25 Poor

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1. What do you understand by the term health?
Notes _______________________________________________________________
2. Explain the relationship between mental health and mental hygiene.
_______________________________________________________________
3. What strategies can we adopt to maintain good mental health and hygiene?
_______________________________________________________________
19.2 MENTAL HEALTH, MENTAL ILL-HEALTH AND

MENTAL ILLNESS
In order to understand mental health in a better way you are also required to know
the meaning of mental ill-health and mental illness. Mental ill-health is defined as
the absence of the qualities of positive mental health in the individual. For example
if someone among you often displays negative feelings and attitudes about others,
you can assume that this person is displaying the characteristics of mental ill-health.
Mental illness is a broad term which includes almost all the disorders of behaviour
which are caused by faulty perception, emotion, thinking and attitude. Such
individuals have problems in making adjustment with others in the society. We will
discuss the categories of mental illness in lesson.

1. What is the difference between mental ill-health and mental illness?
_______________________________________________________________
19.3 INDICATORS/SIGNS OF POOR MENTAL HEALTH

As human beings we are required to maintain sound mental health. However, we
develop certain behaviours and habits which can lead to a poor state of mental health.
Such behaviours range from mild irritation to severe forms of anxiety and depression.
The main behaviours which indicate poor mental health are as follows:
(i) Haphazard and disorganized daily life routine.

(ii) Short-tempered and irritating behaviour.

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(iii) Anger and aggressive behaviour.
(iv) Restlessness.
(v) Increased or poor appetite and indigestion.
(vi) Irregular sleeping pattern such as insomnia, disturbed sleep, or narcolepsy Notes
(excess sleep).
(vii) Poor interpersonal relationships.
(viii)Anxiety and worry.
(ix) Negative attitude toward self and others.
(x) Withdrawing from relationships.
(xi) Irregular and abnormal physiological conditions (e.g., blood pressure, heart
palpitation, and pulse rate).
(xii) Excessive use of drugs (e.g., alcohol, tranquillizers, and hallucinogens).
(xiii)Cigarette smoking and use of tobacco in other forms.
The above may cause threat to mental health. If an individual is frequently involved
in such behaviours or remains in a particular state for a long period then it is more
likely that (s)he may develop various kinds of mental disorders.

1. Give any four signs of poor mental health.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Which behaviours of a person sustain good health?
_______________________________________________________________
19.4 BEHAVIOURS WHICH SUSTAIN GOOD HEALTH

In modern life scientific and technological advances have created many facilities for
comfort. However, if we develop dependency on them, our lifestyle becomes very
sedentary and fragile. In order to overcome the risks involved in such a life we
should observe certain precautions and engage in behaviours which promote and
sustain good health. Ayurveda, the science of Indian medicine, deals with four aspects
of lifestyle which can ensure good health in us. These include right food (Ahara),
right recreation (Vihara), right routine (Achara), and right thinking (Vichara).
Observing certain practices ensures a healthy and happy life. Let us examine each of
these aspects in some detail.

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(i) Food (Ahara): Food is the most important aspect of life. Compared to non-
vegetarian food vegetarian food is safe and invigorating for a healthy body. For
better health one must eat fresh fruits and vegetables with enough fiber content.
Oily, spicy, junk and processed food causes obesity, hypertension, heart disease,
diabetes, gastric ulcer and even cancer. Our daily food should contain green
Notes vegetables, fresh fruits, beans, honey, curd, milk, butter oil which provide enough
of vitamins, minerals, iron, antioxidants and fibers. In addition there should be a
balanced proportion of each category of food in our daily intake. We should also
maintain fixed meal times. Chewing food properly and eating in controlled manner
are good for health.
(ii) Routine (Achara): Routine consists of three kinds of activities in which an
individual indulges in. These are taking food and doing activities as per the
seasonal demands called Ritucharya. It means taking food and doing activities
in accordance with seasons. We must eat and act according to the characteristics
of seasons. Thus in summer we should take light food containing little oil but
plenty of fluids such as curd, fruit juice, rice curry and beans. During the winter
and autumn seasons sweet and salty food can be taken in larger quantity such as
milk products, vegetable soup, ghee, rice and oily food. During the spring season
light food with less content of oil should be taken such as preparation containing
gram and rice. During the rainy season food with astringent, acidic, salty and
sweet taste are taken.
Day routine (Dincharya) and night routine (Ratricharya) refer to eating and doing
activities according to the time of day and night. One should get up early in the
morning before sunrise. Drinking water should be the first act after waking. It
ensures smooth excretion of body waste, and is a sure remedy for constipation.
After excretion of feaces and cleaning of teeth, massage of the body should be
done before taking bath. Thus there should be proper time for each and every
activity in the cycle of twenty four hours.
(iii) Recreation (Vihara): Doing exercise and morning walk are the most important
components of recreation. It makes the body light and strong. It increases the
immunity, resistance power of the body and capability to work. During exercise
toxins of the body are excreted with perspiration. It increases the appetite of the
individual. The health problems such as heart disease and diabetes are also
controlled by daily exercise. Exercise delays the ageing process and prevents
impotence. It helps in purifying blood as the increased intake of oxygen and
expulsion of carbon dioxide helps removal of dead cells from the body.
Recreational activities like music also help in maintaining good health.
(iv)Thinking (Vichara): Sound and positive mental health can only be maintained
with right kind of thinking. A person who is mentally fit and healthy has self-
satisfaction, accommodative intellect, ability to accept criticism, understanding
of the emotional needs of others, and self-control. Such individuals are neither

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driven by greed or lust nor dominated by fear, anger, attachment, jealousy, guilt
or worry. On the social front an individual with positive thinking enjoys good
friendships and earns respect from everybody.
Thus an individual can maintain a sound, healthy and happy life if (s) he follows the
above health promotive behaviours. Notes
Activity 2
Briefly describe the principles of health promotion that you should follow.
Compare with the test you have taken in Section 19.1. What steps will you
adopt to promote your health.
19.5 STRATEGIES FOR TIME MANAGEMENT

You know that we have only twenty-four hours in a day to perform all the activities.
We generally fail to organize activities according to the time available. This creates
a lot of pressure, tension and frustration. This happens because we do not allot a
fixed time for any activities. This habit often results in doing inappropriate activity
at an inappropriate time. Hence it is very important to prioritize activities and organize
them according to available time. This we can do by scheduling the activities of
twenty-four hours in order of priority and importance. The structured routine is called
activity schedule. Before preparing an activity schedule we are required to make a
list of activities which are supposed to be done during the twenty-four hours.
Thereafter we should sequence these activities in terms of importance. For example
the time for study, play, and sleep should be properly arranged. In addition to activity
schedule, listing of activities in a diary and following it up can also be a good technique
of time management. In order to make it clear let us discuss the basic principles of
time management one-by-one.
Manage Your Time

Activity Strategy
I Preparing a list of work You can plan it one day in advance at night.
Try to prepare a list of work you have to
accomplish next day. Identify and list all
that you have to do.
II Prioritize the list From the list you have prepared for the day,
prioritize the work. Put the toughest task
first and keep the easiest task for the later
part of the day, when you are tired and low
on energy. Take best advantage of the hours
when you work best.

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III Identify uninterrupted periods Some tasks may require sustained attention
and uninterrupted periods. Keep such tasks
for periods when you can devote time
without any interruption.
Notes IV Flexible schedule You should be prepared to face events that
are not planned and you did not expect
them. Thus, be flexible to handle such
unexpected events.
V Time of exercise Set aside some time in your daily schedule
for exercise and yoga. Time spent on such
activities helps to maintain good mental
and physical health and results in increased
productivity.
VI Leisure time activities Set aside some time each day or work to
do some planned leisure activity. It gives
mental and physical rest and break from
the daily routine. For example, listening to
music, watching favourite programme on
television, gardening, painting, playing
favourite sports etc.
Activity 3
Managing Time
Make a time-table of your daily activities. Now list the ways you can manage
your time in a more efficient way.

• The term health refers to a state of physical, mental, social and spiritual well-
being of the individual. Mental health is one of the components of the broad
concept of health. It is concerned with an optimum level of emotional and
behavioural adjustment of the individual.
• The term mental hygiene refers to keeping oneself and one’s living and working
areas neat and clean in order to prevent illness and disease. When we extend this
concept to the domain of mind it stands for the art of developing, maintaining,
and promoting necessary behavioural, emotional, and social skills to sustain good
mental health.

Health and Well
Being
• Mental ill-health is defined as the absence of the qualities of positive mental
health in the individual. Mental illness is a broad category which includes all the
disorders of behaviour which are caused by faulty perception, emotions, thinking
and attitude.
• Ayurveda, the science of Indian medicine, deals with four aspects of lifestyle Notes
which sustain good health in us. These are food (Ahara), recreation (Vihara),
routine (Achara), and thinking (Vichara). Observing certain practices related to
them ensures a healthy and happy life.
• We generally fail to organize activities according to the time available. This
creates a lot of pressure, tension and frustration. A structured routine involves
making an activity schedule.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What are the main strategies to achieve the state of good mental hygiene?
2. Describe the indicators of poor mental health.
3. Describe any three strategies of time management.

19.1
1. State of well-being, mental health is part of health and deals with optimization
of emotional and behavioral development.
2. Mental hygiene referts to relevant behavioral, social skills for restoring mental
health.
3. Reality context, impulse control, self-esteem and positive thoughts are the main
strategies.
19.2
1. Mental ill health refers to absence of positive mental health and mental disorders
involve disorders caused by faulty psychological functioning.
19.3
1. Disorganised daily life routine, irritations, and aggressive behaviour, disturbed
sleep, anxiety, negative attitude towards others, withdrawl, abnormal
physiological conditions, excessive use of drugs and smoking.

Secondary Course
Health and Well
Being
2. ahara, vihara, achara, vichara.
Notes 2. Refer to section 19.3


Aptitude, Interest and Job Requirements MODULE - VI
Work Life and
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Concerns
20
Notes
APTITUDE, INTEREST AND JOB

REQUIREMENTS
One of the important areas of psychology is to study individual differences in various

attributes. We differ not only in physical appearance but also in our habits, feelings,
personality, thoughts, and behaviours. Some persons are very friendly, others are
shy, some are outgoing, others are reserved. Some like to watch cricket, others want
to watch some movie or listen to some music or enjoy dancing. Some want to become
doctors and some engineers/teachers/craftsmen/tailors and so on.
Thus it is clear that there are several ways in which we differ. In this lesson we are
concerned with the ways in which people differ in their aptitudes, interests and abilities
and how these determine our important decisions in life such as selection of courses
of study or choice of a job.
Effective educational, personal and vocational decisions demand knowledge of

individual differences. Psychologists use various assessment procedures to measure
psychological traits to help persons choose careers according to their aptitudes and
interests, keeping in mind the requirements of specific job.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you would be able to:
• explain the concept of aptitude and its role in making educational and vocational
choices;
• describe interest and its role in making choices;
• explain the different approaches for understanding ability; and
• describe various tests and techniques to assess psychological attributes.

MODULE - VI Aptitude, Interest and Job Requirements
Work Life and
Environmental
Concerns 20.1 APTITUDE
We often hear people remark that a particular child has a talent or gift for music, art
or painting. This is what is implied by aptitude. An aptitude therefore is a special
potential in a certain field of performance. It indicates a special ability, acquired or
innate, to learn or develop knowledge of a skill in some specific area. It involves
Notes
prediction of the probability of success of a person with training in a certain type of
work/job/vocation. The aptitude of an individual is the result of both inherent and
the environmental factors. An aptitude is more than mere potential ability. It involves
the following:
• Readiness to acquire some skill or knowledge.

• Ability to acquire those skills/knowledge.
• Ability to derive satisfaction from those activities.
So aptitude refers to a combination of characteristics that indicate an individual’s
capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or skill after learning. Knowledge of
aptitude can help us to predict an individual’s future performance. With proper training
these abilities can be enhanced. Aptitude can be assessed. Aptitude tests are available
in two forms – specialized aptitude tests and general aptitude tests. Example of
specialized aptitude tests are Mechanical Aptitude Test and Musical Aptitude Test.
Multiple aptitude tests exist in the form of Test Batteries, which measure aptitude in
several separate but homogeneous areas. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT) and
General Aptitude Tests Batteries (GATB) are well known Test Batteries.
INTEXT QUESTION 20.1

1. What do you understand by the term ‘aptitude’?
_______________________________________________________________
20.2 INTEREST
Interest may be defined as a tendency to choose one activity in preference to another,
or to seek out an activity or object. It implies preferences or likes and dislikes for
specific activity or a group of specific activities such as lawyer, physician, engineer,
musician, artist etc. Interest is generally manifested in the way one likes to spend
one’s leisure time. Interest is a preference for a particular activity. Interest provides
emotional pleasure. Hobbies are based on interests. In a broad sense interests can be
classified in two categories: Extrinsic interests and Intrinsic interests.

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If the emotional pleasure of the interest area is attached to the activity, it is intrinsic Concerns
interest. Liking an activity without any reward is intrinsic. If the emotional pleasure
is attached to some reward and praise, it implies extrinsic interest. Liking or doing
any activity for some reward or money implies extrinsic interest.
Various techniques have been developed to measure interests. They include self
ratings, interviews, questionnaires, checklists and inventories. Interest inventories Notes
have been primarily used in vocational and educational guidance. They are more
satisfactory in some ways than interviews because a large number of specific questions
representing a broad range of careers or subject areas are used. A typical interest
inventory consists of a list of activities to each of which an individual responds by
indicating whether he or she likes/dislikes or is indifferent by indicating preferences.
Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB) and Kuder Preferences Record are some
well known inventories/records for measuring interest.

1. Why do you think that intrisic interest will lead to a better match between job
and an applicant’s personality?
_______________________________________________________________
20.3 ABILITY
Ability, commonly known as intelligence, represents one of the most important
sources of individual differences. Ability is the innate capacity to act and helps in
the solution of a problem. Environment can develop abilities but cannot produce
them within the person. Abilities help to accumulate knowledge but those should
not be confused with knowledge itself. These abilities increase efficiency in the
person.
Intelligence is an important ability. A great deal of research has been done in

constructing tests and techniques to assess intelligence. There are various approaches
to conceptualize intelligence. Initially it was limited to cognitive or intellective domain
only. The contemporary view, such as given by Gardner, is that there are multiple
intelligences and people can have intelligence in cognitive, musical, kinesthetic
(bodily) interpersonal and other areas.
20.4 MENTAL AGE AND IQ

Mental ability is developmental in nature. It increases with age. Therefore,
psychologists have developed age related scales. Each scale comprises a series of

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Concerns questions which are normally answered correctly by a majority of children of that
age. For example, the five year old scale is what most five year olds could pass
comfortably (as well as all children over five), but which most four year olds could
not. Hence a child passing the five year old scale would have mental age of five. The
concept of mental age by itself it does not tell us how bright, average or dull the
child is. To establish this, we must compare the child’s mental age with his actual or
Notes chronological age. For this purpose the concept of IQ is introduced. Intelligence
Quotient (IQ) is a ratio of mental age and chronological age multiplied by 100.
Mental Age (MA)

IQ = × 100
Chronological Age (CA)
It may be noted here that where MA and CA are the same, IQ is 100 (which by
definition is average), where MA is greater than CA, IQ is over 100 or above average,
and where CA is greater than MA; IQ is below 100 or below average. However, the
concept of MA does not apply beyond 18 years, since mental ability is usually fully
developed by that time. Therefore the concept of IQ is not meaningful beyond the
age of 18 years. The current practice is to create a profile of a person in different
types of abilities and tasks instead of one single assessment score.

1. What is the difference between mental age and IQ?
_______________________________________________________________
2. What do you understand by ability?
_______________________________________________________________
20.5 IMPORTANCE AND RELATIONSHIP AMONG

APTITUDE, INTEREST AND ABILITY
It is important to make job decisions consistent with one’s abilities, aptitudes and
interests. These concepts are also related to choices of study in different grades or
different stages of education, co-curricular activities, hobbies, learning some special
skills and so on. Choice of career is a very important decision for a person. The right
career decision brings happiness and job satisfaction. Therefore job decisions need
to be made in the light of accurate, reliable and up to date information, regarding the
requirements of the job and about the individuals intelligence, aptitudes, and interests.
20.6 ANALYZING AND COMMUNICATING JOB

REQUIREMENTS
Job descriptions serve several purposes. A job description aims to inform the

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applicants about what an employer wants them to do and the knowledge and skills
Concerns
that they will need to bring to the job in terms of aptitudes, interests and abilities to
perform a job. It serves its purpose when it attracts the right applicants with right
aptitude. The job descriptions mainly provide information on the nature of work, the
salary and other benefits, work timings and holidays, as well as the kind of intelligence
level, aptitude and interest required. For example, the job of a school teacher would
require good communication skills, patience, aptitude in teaching and managing the Notes
class and certain educational qualifications. The job description would also include
details of school timings, holidays and salary. If an applicant finds that he or she has
the required qualifications, aptitude and interest, he/she could take the decision to
become a teacher.
In the next chapter you will learn more about how to decide on a carrer path.

1. What is the outcome of right career decision?
_______________________________________________________________
2. What is the purpose of job description?
_______________________________________________________________

• It is important to understand the individual’s aptitudes, interests and abilities
and to match them with job requirements.
• The knowledge of individual differences can be gained through the assessment
of aptitudes interests and abilities.
• An aptitude is a special ability in a certain field of performance. It is the result of
inherent and environmental factors.
• Aptitude tests results are useful in the educational and vocational guidance.
• Interest may be defined as a tendency to choose one activity in preference to
another.
• Intrinsic interests are real and natural interests while extrinsic interests are acquired
and outward interests.
• Interest helps in educational and vocational guidance in the selection of subject
areas or streams or courses.
• The data from interest inventories should be supplemented by ability and aptitude
tests as well as with individual’s attitude towards occupational experiences, co-
curricular activities or recreational pursuits.

Work Life and
Environmental
Concerns • Ability is commonly known as intelligence. It represents one of the most important
sources of information about an applicants suitability for a particular job.
• Job requirements include informtion about the nature of work, salary, work
conditions, timings, and also about the abilities, aptitude and interest required
for success in the job.
Notes
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. What is is an aptitude? Describe one aptitude test and indicate its use.
4. What is an interest? How does interest help in selection of proper subjects and
career?
3. Briefly discuss the concept of ability and describe the current view of intelligence.
4. Describe the role of aptitudes, interests and abilities in making educational and
vocational choices.

20.1
1. It is a special ability and helps predicting future performance.
20.2
1. It involves liking for specific activity itself.
20.3
1. Mental age refers to age related mental maturity in a normative sense whereas
IQ refers to the ratio of mental age and chronological age.
2. Innate capacity to act.
20.4
1. Happiness and job satisfaction.
2. It provides the information about nature of job, salary and working conditions
etc.

MODULE - VI The World of Organizations
Work Life and
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Concerns
22
Notes
THE WORLD OF ORGANIZATION
In today’s world an individual alone can not achieve all the desired goals because any
activity requires contributions from many persons. Therefore, people often get together
and work to achieve a common goal. For this purpose coordination and systematic approach
is needed. Such a group of people is called an ‘association’. You must have seen in your
locality where two or more people get together and start a business of their own. This is an
example of a small organization whereas large factories with thousands of employees are
examples of large organizations. Every organization has its own norms because it works as
a system. This lesson will help you to know about the key features of organizations’ and
familiarize you with the world of organizations.
OBJECTIVES
• describe organization as a system;

• explain organizational climate; and
• analyze factors influencing productivity and excellence at work.
22.1 ORGANIZATION AS A SYSTEM

An organization is a social unit which is created with a specific purpose. We can have a
better understanding of an organization if we view it as a system. The systems approach
recognizes that organizations have unique properties, capabilities and its components hold
mutual relationships. A system may be either closed or open. A closed system does not
have any interaction with the external environment. Modern organizations are more or less
open systems.

The World of Organizations MODULE - VI
Work Life and
Environmental
An open system is in constant interaction with the environment. It is characterized by a
Concerns
continuing process of input, transformation, and output. The organizations get inputs from
the environment and transform them into outputs which can be supplied to the environment.
The organization gets feedback from the environment and takes suitable steps to meet the
challenges and expectations of the environment. Let us understand these terms in detail.
Inputs: Each system takes certain kinds of inputs from its environment. These may be in Notes
the form of Human Resource (HR), Capital, Technology, Material, and Information. The
inputs received from the environment are processed within the organization to produce the
desired output.
Outputs: Outputs may be both intended as well as unintended. Intended outputs are
usually called objectives. For instance high productivity is an intended objective. An
unintended objective may be informal relations among the group members. It may however,
be stated that all unintended consequences are not undesirable.
Environment: An organization is called an open system because it is influenced by and

also influences the environment. The suppliers of inputs, customers and many other
organizations constitute the environment of a system. Through the process of feedback the
system gets connected with the environment.
Activity 1
Learning About Organization
Identify an organization in the region where you stay and describe the inputs, outputs
and type of environment in connection with that organization.
Thus it is clear that organizations do not exist in a vacuum. They are social institutions
operating in the larger society of which they are a part. The organization and the individual
both share a reciprocal relationship. For example the nature of organizations and technology
have all changed society. We are becoming used to modern amenities like computers,
internet, mobile and other electrical appliances. Thus modern technology has transformed
the life style in many ways. India has been primarily an agrarian society in the past, but with
all the advancement it is moving toward an industrial mode of life. This shift has brought
with it a change in the attitudes and values of the people. Competition and consumerism
are becoming important in the context of growing market economy.
Sub Systems of an Organization
Organizations usually have a number of parts or sub systems. The key sub systems are
described below:
i) Goal Subsystem : It comprises of the overall goals and objectives of the organization
and also the specific goals of different departments and individuals in the organization.

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Concerns ii) Technical Subsystem : This subsystem refers to the use of knowledge, facilities
equipment and technology by the people who work in the organization.
iii) Managerial Subsystem : This involves planning and co-ordination of the activities
undertaken in the organization.
iv) Structural Subsystem : People work together on well defined tasks and integrated
Notes activities in different units (like production, marketing, HR) or departments. They make
up the structural subsystems.
v) Psychological Subsystem : People live in social relationships within an organization.
This must not be viewed simply in terms of people and technology but also in terms of
coordination or structure of work tasks based on following certain rules, regulations,
norms, and values.
It may be remembered that each of the subsystems has its specific significance. For example
the goal subsystem determines what work, task, and activities should be undertaken. It is
important that these goals and objectives are in agreement with the goals of the society at
large.
22.2 ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE

Climate is the atmosphere of an organization, a relatively enduring quality of its internal
environment, which is experienced by the members and influences their performance. It
conveys the impression people have about the internal environment within which they
work. It may also be viewed as the degree to which organizational rules are reinforced by
the administrative component. It also represents the attitudes of the organizational members
toward the organization itself.
Thus organizational climate often distinguishes one organization from another. It is relatively
enduring over a period of time, and influences the behaviour of the members of an
organization. It may be noted that there may be differences in the climate of different
departments like HR, production, research and development.
In understanding organizational climate it is necessary to know how organization members

communicate and relate to each other, the amount of cooperation between the level of
satisfaction and so forth. All these factors determine the effectiveness of an organization.
An organization is likely to be more effective if there is two – way communication; employees
are cooperative and have a positive view of the organization. Such employees have higher
job satisfaction and commitment. Their productivity will also be higher. A positive
organizational climate results in making employees more satisfied and productive.
Determinants of Climate
Many factors determine the climate of an organization. At least four of these seem especially
relevant. These are:

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i) Organizational Structure: It is the frame work of authority – responsibility relationship Concerns
in an organization. It clarifies who is to supervise whom and who is responsible to
whom. It serves as the basis of interpersonal relationships between supervisors,
subordinates and coworkers. For example if the top management feels the need to
give greater emphasis to the subordinates, it will follow a decentralized structure. This
means there will be fewer layers in the hierarchy and employees would be encouraged
Notes
to participate in decision making. But if top management likes to maintain greater
consistency in decision making, it would follow a centralized structure.
ii) Technology: The nature of technology employed by an organization also influences
the organizational climate. For example routine technologies like assembly lines tend
to create rules, leading to a rigid climate where trust and creativity are low. More
dynamic and changing technologies e.g. aerospace engineering seem to lead to greater
trust and personal responsibility for task accomplishment.
iii) External Environment: External events or factors that have relevance for employees
may also affect the climate. For example when economic conditions are severe,
organizations are forced to cut down the number of employees. Those who remain
would probably perceive the climate as threatening with little warmth, support and low
motivation.
iv) Management Policies and Practices: Managers who provide their subordinates
with more autonomy and feedback contribute significantly to the creation of achievement
oriented climate leading to greater productivity.

1. What is an organization?
_______________________________________________________________
2. Give two examples of input from the environment in an organization.
_______________________________________________________________
3. Name any three subsystems of an organization.
_______________________________________________________________
22.3 INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS AT WORK

Performing a task in an organization often involves contributions by many people. It is a
social activity. Virtually any kind of work requires social interaction with several individuals.
The salesman interacts with his customers, the doctor with his patients, the supervisor with

Work Life and
Environmental
Concerns his subordinates and the teacher with students. Further, most workers are members of one
or more work groups with whom they may interact more frequently.
Interpersonal relations may be seen to form contracts. These contracts involve agreements
to interact in particular ways. We may interact with many people but may not necessarily
enter into a relationship. A relationship comes into existence only when we have certain
Notes expectations about appropriate ways of behaving.
In the work context employees build different kinds of relationships with others. These
may be a result of both the formal work role and the position in the organizational hierarchy.
People have to interact with the boss, with coworkers and the peer group.
Superior-Subordinate Relationship
Every employee has to build a relationship with the boss to seek instructions and guidance.
It is the boss who allows (or disallows) the subordinate to participate in decision making,
gives assignments, evaluates performance, determines pay increments and decides who
has to be promoted. The kind of relationship that an employee shares with the boss depends
upon the leadership style adopted by the boss. These are described in Box 22.2.
Leadership Style Nature of Relationships with Workers

Authoritarian: Management directs and uses threats and punishment to
enfore orders and get the work done by subordinates.
Involves one way downward communication.
Paternalistic: Basically authoritative but permits some participation to
subordinates. Involves two-way communication between
boss and subordinates. Rewards and threats are employed
to enforce the orders.
Consultative: Orders are issued and goals set after consultation with the
employees. Team work is encouraged to some extent.
Participative: Employees are fully involved in setting the goals and two-
way communication becomes the norm.
Generally the more the boss takes into consideration the needs and judgments of the
subordinates and the more participative his style of functioning the greater the productivity
and satisfaction of the employees and the less the absenteeism and employee turnover.
Relationship with Co-workers and Peer Group
We spend more time with our colleagues than with anyone else. The work group context
affects our experiences at the work place. Relationship with coworkers does not develop

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Environmental
according to rules and regulations as stated in formal terms. Relationship with peer group Concerns
often develops as a result of common taste, likes and dislikes. Some employees are more
interdependent on their coworkers and provide an opportunity for the employees to have
greater ease in interaction. Also coworkers provide an opportunity for the employees to
compare their beliefs with similar others. It is likely that a newcomer will first look at his/
her work group peers for appropriate ways of behaving. For example the employee may
Notes
learn from his peer group that is not appropriate to give an opinion about the company
policy even when asked by the boss. Besides, learning the unwritten rules within the
organization the peer group also provides an outlet for employees to express their emotions
which they cannot do with their supervisors. So such relationships provide job satisfaction
and increase organizational commitment.
One critical factor which helps establishing the context for the development of interpersonal
relationships and adopting the work roles is the process of organizational socialization.
Organizational Socialization
The process of organizational socialization refers to the process by which an individual

employee acquires the knowledge and skills necessary for assuming a place within the
organization. Before entering any organization we are socialized on a number of occasions
from early life by our parents and others about how to behave in particular ways as members
of society. At every stage in life we have to get accustomed to the changes faced. Just as
adjustments need to be made when people get married, have children etc. in the same way
when an individual joins a work organization he has to learn to interact and collaborate
with others, and build relationships with others. These relationships then help to have
knowledge about accepted behaviours and attitudes within the organization. Entering a
work organization serves as an important basis for adult socialization. This kind of
socialization is a continuous process and not a single event. It continues as a person shifts
from one work role to another and one environmental situation to another. It is a two-way
process where not only does the individual internalizes the values, goals and objectives of
the organization but the organization also has to adapt itself to cater to the needs of the
diverse workforce made up of women and other minority groups.
Thus both the individual and the organization adapt to each others’ needs as each has a set
of expectations that must be met. There seems to be a psychological contract between the
two. A psychological contract is not a written document but a shared understanding that
aids in the process of fulfilling mutual expectations.
Communication
The effectiveness of all interpersonal relations lies in the quality of communication. It is

through communication that we are able to exchange thoughts, feelings, emotions and
experiences to others. For the smooth functioning of any organization the members of the
organization should be able to communicate among themselves.

Work Life and
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Concerns Meaning : Communication entails the transfer of meaning between a sender and receiver.
It establishes a common frame of reference for understanding among individuals. Although
some basic form of communication occurs between all living organisims nonetheless, only
human beings have the unique capacity to transmit information with the help of symbols.
Symbols could refer to simple objects in the physical world like tables, chairs, books etc,
or they may refer to activities like eating, reading, sleeping and so forth. At an abstract
Notes
level symbols may be used to refer to concepts like intelligence, truth, worthiness, etc. The
use of language by humans represents the most evolved use of symbols. Communication
may be spoken or written. It may take place between (a) two individuals, (b) in a group,
(c) in the entire organization, and (d) with masses.
Organizational communication may entail the use of computers. Thus from the point of
view of organization both mechanical and human communication become important. The
general communication process is discussed in detail in lesson 20.
22.4 PRODUCTIVITY AND EXCELLENCE AT WORK

When organizations meet the expectations of the people every one benefits i.e. owners,
employees, customers and local communities in which they operate. Then they are
considered effective. However, when they exceed the minimum standards of effectiveness
they may be considered to have achieved excellence. Over time excellence brings reputation
– that is when an organization is regarded and recognized for superior performance. To
achieve excellence an organization must be productive and be able to transform inputs into
outputs at minimum cost. Individual behaviour in organizations is jointly determined by two
factors – the characteristics of the perceived environment and the characteristics of the
individual. The perceived environment or climate has been examined in some detail earlier.
Let us examine the role of individual characteristics and the way they influence productivity
and excellence at work, and ultimately the success or failure of an organization.
When questions about organizational output and productivity are analyzed from the
standpoint of individual employees the importance of good job performance becomes
apparent. Without superior performance at all levels of the organization, the objective of
attaining goals and thereby achieving productivity becomes very difficult. Any organization
will be able to successfully meet its objectives, only when individual employees are able to
meet their personal goals. Thus, it becomes important to identify the factors responsible
for individual performance which has repercussions for organizational productivity and
excellence in the long run.
Factors Influencing Productivity and Excellence
The important factors which influence an individual’s performance and thereby productivity
are as follows.

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i) Abilities, Aptitudes and Interests Concerns
Ability, aptitude and interest represent those individual characteristics that largely determine
an employees capacity to contribute to an organization. These attributes are relatively
stable over time, though some changes are possible through training. Concern here is not
so much with a detailed examination of the range of human attributes and their measurement
but rather with the implications of variations in such attributes as they affect productivity Notes
and excellence in organizational settings. These have been discussed in detail in lesson 20.
Employee’s abilities can affect productivity and performance in many ways. For instance
managerial success has been shown to be closely related to the level of one’s intellectual
capacities (for e.g. verbal comprehension, reasoning ability and memory). In fact, it has
been suggested that at higher levels in the organizational hierarchy intellectual abilities are
important for managerial performance. This would entail selecting and recruiting employees
with appropriate abilities and offering jobs which are sufficiently challenging. Hiring
employees of superior intellectual capacities and then placing them on a dull and routine
job would shift their performance and have an impact on productivity. Additionally
productivity is also dependent on the appropriate match of the personality traits and interests
of a person with the right job profile.
ii) Role Clarity
The degree to which an individual understands the job requirements and work objectives
the more energy will be at the disposal of goal directed activities. Moreover, role clarity is
related to increased goal commitment, involvement and productivity. These are two role
related problems which can serve to diminish productivity. In the long run they are (a) role
ambiguity and (b) role conflict. Role ambiguity exists where individual is confronted with
two sets of role demands that are incompatible. For instance an employee’s supervisor
may ask to increase the number of goods produced, but the coworkers may be emphasizing
the need to maintain the number of items produced at the current level. This has a direct
impact on organizational productivity to the extent that the goal related role prescriptions
of the employee come in conflict with other demands. Thus organizations which attempt to
integrate personal or group goals with organizational objectives help to satisfy both sets of
demands and alleviate conflicts.
iii) The Performance Environment
In order to increase productivity at work it is important for managers to understand the

nature of the performance environment where goal directed activities take place, and to be
able to modify this environment where needed. This would ensure a more suitable
atmosphere for employee effort, performance and ultimately productivity and excellence.

Work Life and
Environmental
Concerns 22.5 STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING PRODUCTIVITY
AT WORK
Four principal strategies exist for developing and enhancing productivity and excellence at
work : (1) employee selection and placement; (2) training and development (3) task design
and (4) performance appraisal and rewards. Together, such activities can contribute
Notes
substantially to improving productivity at work which ultimately is a key factor in contributing
to organizational excellence. These are explained below.
i) Employee Selection and Placement
By selecting only those with high ability and skill levels, high initial motivational levels and
then placing them on suitable jobs – organizations can improve the initial quality of at least
some of the human inputs which go on to determine excellence at work. Recruitment and
selection may also substitute for employee socialization and training. If desirable employees
can be secured through a combination of recruitment and socialization, it would ensure
organizational success.
ii) Training and Development
Training can serve to develop the capabilities not only in the present job but also future
jobs. In fact training is an investment in employees (a talent bank) that can be drawn upon
in the future. Employee training programmes may take a variety of forms including
information presentation techniques (such as lectures), case studies, role play and so forth.
iii) Task Design
The effects of task design on productivity and excellence are two-fold. In general increasing
the amount of variety, autonomy, responsibility, feedback and task identity (or completeness
of task) can improve performance. The important thing then for both individuals and
organizations is to understand the need-strength and goals for redesigning the jobs.
iv) Performance Appraisal and Rewards
Finally, a variety of methods are available to guide, direct and reward employee-behaviour.
Formal performance appraisal and appropriate use of reward system represent two such
methods.

State whether the following statements are True or False :
1. Work is a social activity.
2. All works require social interaction.

Work Life and
Environmental
3. In authoritarian relationship employees are fully involved in setting goals. Concerns
4. The process of organizational socialization is a factor in determining the development
of interpersonal relationships at work.
5. Role clarity influences productivity at work.
Notes
WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT

• An organization is a social unit which is formed with a specific purpose.
• As an open system an organization gets feedback from the environment and takes
suitable steps to meet the challenges and expectations of the environment.
• Organizations have a number of parts or sub systems such as Goal Subsystems,
Technical Subsystem, Managerial Subsystem, Structural Subsystem, Psychological
Subsystem.
• The organizational climate may be defined as a set a characteristics that describe an
organization and that distinguish one organization from another. These characteristics
are relatively enduring over a period of time, and influence the behaviour of the members
of an organization.
• Many factors determine the nature of climate prevalent in an organization. These include
organizational structure, technology, external environment and management policies
and practices.
• The effectiveness of all interpersonal relations hips rests on communication.
• To achieve excellence an organization must be productive and be able to transform
inputs into outputs at minimum cost.
• Factors influencing productivity and excellence include abilities, aptitude and interests;
role clarity and performance environment.
• Strategies for developing productivity at work are employee selection and placement,
training and development, task design, performance appraisal and work.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Describe any two subsystems of an organization.
2. List the determinants of organizational climate and explain any two determinants.
3. Write short note on any two of the following:
i. Relationship with co-workers.

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Concerns ii. Productivity and excellence at work.
iii. Strategies for developing productivity at work.

Notes
22.1
1. An organization is a social unit which is formed with a specific purpose.
2. Human Resource, Capital Technology, Material, Information (any two)
3. Goal substem, Technical subsystem, Managerial subsystem, structural subsystem,
(any three)
22.2
1) True
2) True
3) False
4) True
5) True

3. i) Refer to section 22.3
ii) Refer to section 22.4
iii) Refer to section 22.5

Environmental Stress MODULE - VI
Work Life and
Environmental
Concerns
23
Notes
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS
Our environment plays a vital role in determining our well-being. We live in an

environment and the quality of our life depends on the quality of the surrounding
environment. Today various types of pollution (e.g., water, air) are creating stress
for the people. As you know a large number of diseases come from the environment
in which we live. In this lesson we will study about the factors in our environment
which produce stress, their psychological impact and analyze some of the ways of
overcoming them.
OBJECTIVES
• explain the various models of human-environment interaction;

• state the various aspects of environmental stress;
• describe how environmental stress can be managed; and
• explain the concepts of pro-environmental behaviour and sustainable
development.
23.1 ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS

You have read about stress and its various effects in lesson 21. To recapitulate it may
be noted that stress is any physical or emotional state that causes bodily or mental
tension. In the same way environmental stress can be defined as an undesirable
transaction between the person and the environment. The demands made by
environmental factors on us constitute the sources of environmental stress. To
understand environmental stress better, let us learn about some issues linked to the
human-environment relationship.
As indicated earlier considerable part of human behaviour is influenced by our

environment. Environment has been used to include the physical world and socio-
cultural surrounding in which we live and interact with others. The field of

MODULE - VI Environmental Stress
Work Life and
Environmental
Concerns environmental psychology deals with the diverse effects of environment on behaviour.
We all wonder at times that in the relationship between human and environment
who is superior? We all have read in the newspapers about the remarkable
achievement of human beings over nature like going to the moon, cloning etc. But
does this mean that human beings are free to play with nature? What answer can one
give to the natural calamities which befall human lives?
Notes To answer these questions, let us try to understand the different ways in which the
human-environment relationship can be understood. Let us understand these views
in some detail.
a) Humans Subjugated to Nature: During the early part of history human beings
looked at the environment from a different perspective. They believed that the nature
rules human beings. The various components of nature were considered supernatural
and objects of worship. However, this view is still held in some cultures. The sun,
moon, stars, animals, birds, trees etc. all are worshipped and also considered to be
objects to be afraid of. This view did not find place in the modern scientific view in
which reality in the physical form became important and human capabilities were
highly valued. This led to another model which favoured human beings i.e. power or
control over nature.
b) Humans Control over Nature: With the advent of science and technology, nature
no longer remained a thing to be afraid of. Experiments were conducted by scientists
in the various facets of life. We all have heard about kidney transplant, open heart
surgery etc. In the same way we all see that nowadays the vegetables grown at a
specific time of the year are now available throughout the year. A field called genetic
engineering is bringing changes in the pattern of crop production and medicines.
Human life has been elevated scientifically but again it was felt that some questions
remained unanswered. Devastating earthquakes and global warming (rise in the
temperature) which have brought climatic changes and depletion of the ozone layer-
all are now matters of great concern. Nuclear power has become a constant threat to
the world. These problems lead us to think about environment differently in which a
balance between man and environment is warranted.
c) Symbiotic Relationship between Human and Nature: We all read slogans like
‘conserve oil’, ‘plant trees’ and ‘save water’ but have you ever thought why it is said
so? Do you know that many of the changes in our environment are happening due to
various acts of human beings? Human beings and nature have always shared an
interdependent relationship which means that no one is sufficient in itself. Human
beings derive a lot from nature in various forms and it also becomes a necessity that
a sense of duty towards nature is generated. People blindly exploit various natural
resources without thinking about their impact on others in present time and future.
Many natural resources (e.g. oil, coal) are unreplenishable and therefore should not
be wasted.
The imbalance created due to blind exploitation of nature is also resulting in various
forms of pollution and threats to life. You will read more about the various types of
pollution and their impact in a later section of this lesson. The quality of air, water
and eatables all are influenced by human intervention.

Work Life and
Environmental
The symbiotic relationship between human beings and nature is a balanced view
Concerns
which tells us that we must recognize our limitations and do not blindly harm
environment by our activities. It recognizes the natural interdependence of the two.

Notes
1. What is environment?
______________________________________________________________
2. What is the symbiotic relationship between human being and nature?
______________________________________________________________
23.2 POLLUTION ISSUES

Till now we studied about the various views about human-environment relationship.
We have noted that the environment has both constructive as well as destructive
effects on human life. In this section we will study about the various aspects of
environmental stress which are also known as stressors. We can categorize the various
types of pollution as air pollution, water pollution and noise pollution.
First of all let us understand pollution. Pollution is an undesirable change in the

physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air, land and water that may
harmfully affect life. It is an unfavourable alteration of the environment largely as a
result of human activities. It is caused by various pollutants which are substances
foreign to the medium such as air or water in which they are present. It causes problems
to the animal and human world. The various types of pollutions are as follows:
1. Air Pollution
2. Water Pollution
3. Noise Pollution
4. Crowding
5. Green House Effect
1. Air Pollution
Nobody can ever forget Bhopal Gas tragedy when thousands of innocent people
died due to inhaling of methyl isocynate gas which got mixed in the air - the essential
component of life. Till today its ill effects are felt as new born babies and adults
suffer from asthma, cough and defective eyesight.

Work Life and
Environmental
Concerns If you ever visit big cities like Delhi,
Air Pollution and Health
Kanpur, Mumbai, Kolkata or happen to
stay there - you will experience that your The health hazards of air pollution are
eyes, nose and throat are irritated. A well known. It is believed that 50-90%
burning sensation can be felt in the eyes. of cancer cases are due to air
You can feel the poor quality of air once pollution. Other kinds of ill health
Notes you travel from these cities to any
include epilepsy, memory
countryside area. Air pollution is defined
disturbances, visual and auditory
as an imbalance in the quality of air so as
impairments and asthama spasms.
to cause adverse effects on the living
organisms. It is caused by the excessive
presence of certain gases and suspended material particulates (SPM). The air is the
carrier of oxygen for all life forms. Gases like carbon di-oxide (CO2), Nitrous Oxide
(NO2), Suplphurdioxide (SO2) and suspended particulates including lead are the
major pollutants. These not only cause irritation but also result in diseases like
respiratory problems, cardio-vascular problems, hypertension, asthama, eye-related
and neurological problems and result in early deaths too. You must remember that
human behaviour is linked to air pollution both as a causal factor and also as an
effect.
The major sources of air pollution are increase in power consumption,

industrialization, vehicular traffic and burning of refuse, garbage, smoking and cutting
trees for building construction.
2. Water Pollution
Pollution of water refers to addition of excess undesirable substance to water that

makes it harmful to human, animal and aquatic life.
We all know about Hepatitis A and Hepatitis B. Do you know that these are water
born diseases? It has been found that all surface water and a lot of ground water in
India is unfit for direct consumption by human beings. The poor quality of water
causes various diseases like diarrhoea, intestinal worms and hepatitis. It has also
been found that ten percent of all diseases and twenty percent of the communicable
diseases in India are water-related.
You must be wondering that how does the water quality gets affected. It is largely
due to following factors : (i) domestic and human waste water, (ii) industrial waste
water, and (iii) agricultural run off.
The domestic and human waste water is often times used without proper treatment
as irrigation water. Some vegetables which are eaten raw are also washed in this
dirty water. This water and the industrial waste water are dumped into the rivers
which contaminate the river water too. The chemically treated water of the industries
pollutes the river water in such a way that it becomes polluted beyond treatment.

Work Life and
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This further affects the quality of our ground and surface water. The decreasing life
Concerns
of our rivers can be seen in the case of Yamuna in Delhi and Ganga in Kanpur.
Water is a basic necessity for life. If water pollution is not checked, then that day is
not very far when we will have to buy water even for taking bath and cooking.
3. Noise Pollution Notes

Have you ever listened to music which has been so loud that you have to raise your
voice to talk? Have you ever stood besides a railway track and talk in your normal
voice as the express train passes by at a high speed? Have you ever tried to work
while workmen dug up the road just outside your room? Do all these things allow
you to function in your normal self? Your answer will be definitely negative. Why?
It is because high sound causes noise pollution.
How will you define noise pollution? Noise pollution can be defined as the intensity,
loudness, timbre or pitch of sound which causes us physical discomfort or it may be
unwanted because of the situation. The intensity is an important dimension yet the
degree of annoyance is not necessarily
related to intensity only. Factors like Damage caused by noise level
familiarity and attitude often influence the higher than recommended level lead
degree of annoyance. People become to a number of adverse effects on
habituated to noise and experience lesser health. It can range from impaired
degree of discomfort.
eardrums, permanent hearing loss,
There are various ill effects of noise cardiac and cardiovascular changes
pollution. Let us discuss some of them: lack of concentration, deterioration
in motor and psychomotor functions
(i) Health hazards: It has been observed etc. Workers habitually exposed to
that traffic noise is related to certain noise complain of anxiety and
symptoms such as nervousness, emotional stress.
sleeplessness, undue irritability,
depression and asthma. Some studies
have also revealed that noise pollution trigers aggressive behaviour and reduces
altruism and helping behaviour. It has also been observed that noise disrupts the
harmony of interpersonal relations.
(ii) Problems in Communication : One of the easily observed effects of high level
of noise is the disruption of communication. Another effect of noise appears to
be reduction in performance and low job satisfaction. This has also been inferred
that noisy classroom reduces students’ clarity regarding tasks, attention,
motivation and reduces academic performance.
(iii)Accidents : Apart from various other things, noise has been identified as one of
the major factors causing accident.

Work Life and
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Concerns 4. Crowding
As a form of stress, crowding
We all have frequent experiences of involves subjective discomfort and
crowding. We often encounter crowding in physiological arousal. The feeling
a city bus, at railway reservation counter, of discomfort, perception of loss of
in market, in village fair etc. Sometimes control over social interaction,
crowding creates a lot of anger and distress
Notes encroachment on privacy and
particularly in situations like over crowded
bus and long queue on reservation counters. negative perception of space are
On the other hand it creates a great deal of considered as characteristic
enjoyment and pleasant experiences in features of crowding. This feeling
situations like marriage, social functions at is a state of stress which often leads
home, school, party etc. More recent to negative behavioural
researches have suggested that crowding is consequences.
related to crime and negative emotions.
Before discussing some of the effects of crowing, let us understand the meaning of
crowding. Psychologists distinguish between density and crowding. Density is the
number of persons per square kilometer. This is an objective measure of the number
of persons present at a given place. Let us illustrate this with the help of an example.
Suppose there are two situations one in an overcrowded bus and another at a marriage
party. Though the density may remain the same in both situations the behaviour and
experience would be different. Therefore, behaviour and experience of crowding
depend upon our relationship with the people involved, the duration of the experience,
the physical context and the meaning assigned to it. We are likely to feel less crowded
in a group of friends than in a group of strangers.
Let us discuss some of the effects of crowding in detail.
(i) Crime
A link between crime and crowding has been noted. The most known crimes such as
pick-pocketing and snatching tend to occur in crowded settings. We are all familiar
with increase in this sort of crime during busy rush hour on local trains and buses,
peak hours in market places etc.
(ii) Crowding in Corrective Institutions (Prisons) and Psychiatric Institutions
Over crowding in prisons has become a major problem in India as well as other parts
of the world. In recent past various cases of riots/clashes among inmates and stress
among prison officers have been reported in the different parts of India. Both these
cases seem to be related to over crowding because violent criminals require greater
personal space than non-violent individuals.
Similarly individuals with mental disorders particularly patients suffering from
schizophrenia and neurosis etc. exhibit higher sensitivity to crowding. This leads to
assaults on other patients or staff.
(iii) Effects on emotion and behaviour
It has been observed that crowding leads to increased physiological arousal and
stress. Because of this it is not surprising to find increased incidence of high blood

Work Life and
Environmental
pressure and faster heart rate in crowded situations and increased levels of physical
Concerns
illness. So anger and aggression seem to be the most likely emotional responses.
Some times crowding also leads to apathy, social withdrawal and learned helplessness.
The only thing which should be kept in mind is that various effects of crowding on
human behaviour and experience co-exist along with other features of environment.
5. Green House Effect Notes
Human beings, for quite some time now, have been indulging in anti-environmental
behaviours on a large scale. Because of this abuse of the environment, like producing
waste, burning of fossil fuel (petrol, diesel etc.) deforestation, burning of coal, forest
fires, the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) for refrigeration, etc. global warming is
taking place. The gradual increase in temperature of earth’s atmosphere and oceans
is being brought about partly as a result of various human activities. It has far reaching
consequences on the ecology and environment. These include increase in storms
and other weather extremes, melting of ice caps at the North and South Poles that
has resulted in raising the sea levels. These effects have been observed in several
parts of the world. The oceans are rising about one inch every five years. It has been
observed that three of the islands of the Republic of Maldives are now under water.
You must have learned about increase in the occurrences of Tsunami.
The change in climate (global warming) is closely related to ‘greenhouse effect’.
The effect is called ‘green house effect’ because in cold regions where sunlight is
needed for developing plants, a glass house is made which they call - Greenhouse.
The Greenhouse has a glass roof that lets in warming sunlight but prevents escape of
warm air. In the same manner the four gases released into the atmosphere (carbon
dioxide, methane, and CFC) trap the sun’s heat, that turns the earth into a vast “green
house” i.e. not letting the heat to be released. This increases the temperature of the
atmosphere. The increase in the levels of the three gases began about the middle of
the 18th century. If this trend continues, it is estimated that it will result in an average
warming of the earth’s surface air temperature by about 3.5 degrees Fahrenheit by
the year 2100. Even an average increase of l or 2 degrees can change regional climates
and disrupt agriculture world wide. This trend will cause extensive melting of polar
ice caps, resulting in raised ocean levels and flooding of huge low lying coastal
areas in many countries. The global warming, can be reversed, if human behaviour
that brought about this problem is changed. For example, the carbon dioxide emissions
are reduced, planting more trees and ban on the use of CFC for refrigeration. The
ban on CFC use by fifty nations has brought some change in the ozone layer. However,
the extent of damage to the ozone layer has been so much that it should return to its
normal thickness in fifty to one hundred years.
23.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

According to World Commission on Environment and Development which is also
popularly known as Brundtlandt Commission, sustainable development is defined
as “development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the

Work Life and
Environmental
Concerns ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. Sustainable development
means preservation of the stocks of resources including environmental resources
and exhaustible resources. The major cause of worry about the sustainability of
development is supposed to be the wasteful consumption style. The present production
technology is making large use of the non-renewable natural resources such as coal,
gas, petroleum which are also called fossil fuels. These sources of energy are the
Notes result of natural storage which is of hundred or more years old. Even the renewable
natural resources like forest animals, water etc. are being used by the human being
in such a way that very soon there will be shortage of these resources. The nature has
assimilating capacity but if the pollution levels remain very high then nature may
not be able to assimilate it. This may result in lack of clean water and clean air. If
these non-renewable natural resources deplete rapidly then our future generations
may not find anything for their use. Therefore, a little restraint needs to be practiced.
The environment is not restricted to natural boundaries which means that if people
in any part of the world follow unhealthy practices it may result in harming the
entire humanity. Hence sustainable development is a path of development in which
options of future generations are not compromised by the acts of present generation.
How can you contribute for a better environment?
1. Conserve water by avoiding unnecessary use of water.

2. Use public transport.
3. Ask for paper bags or cotton bags for carrying your things.
4. Use as less electricity as you can.
5. If you have a garden, consider composting the vegetable wastes.
6. Try to reduce the amount of material you use and buy. Reuse containers and
any other items that you can.
7. Try to obtain recycled paper.
8. Plant as many trees as you can.
9. Buy appliances that are energy efficient.
10. Save electricity by turning off unnecessary lights.
11. In your home, avoid using substances that could damage surface and ground
water such as use phosphate free detergents and do not dispose of unwanted
house hold chemicals in the drain.
It needs to be understood that because each one of us contributes to environmental
degradation, it becomes mandatory to make efforts for environmental conservation
and pollution control.

Work Life and
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One day the great Greek philosopher Plato was walking through a street of Athens.
Concerns
One of his students had a shop in the same street. On seeing the teacher passing by
he ran after him, saluted, and invited him to visit his shop.
Plato walked into the student’s shop. The student was delighted. He said to the
teacher. “Sir, Please take anything you want.”
Notes
Plato looked around and saw the attractive items and said, “I don ‘t see anything
that I need here.”
Plato’s reply can help us in distinguishing between ‘want’ and ‘need’
• A want is a wishful thing, which you desire to have. There is no end to our
desires and wants.
• A need is something without which you cannot survive, e.g. for our physical
survival we need air, food, water, clothes, house and medicine. Then we have
our professional needs. For instance, a writer needs a pen. A carpenter needs his
tools. Fortunately our needs are few but wants are unlimited.
• When we want to buy anything we should question ourselves: “Do I want this?
Or do I need this?”
• By buying things we really do not need, we not only waste money, but also
contribute to the exploitation of natural resources. Such things end as rubbish.
• Simple living means to live physically with less wants but with inward richnes
such as joy, contentment, beauty and wisdom.

1. Define pollution.
_______________________________________________________________
2. Is there any relationship between crowding, emotion and behaviour? Describe

any one emotional response to crowding.
_______________________________________________________________

• The environment has both nourishing as well as destructive effects on human
life.

Work Life and
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Concerns • We can categorize various types of stresses such as as air pollution, water
pollution, noise pollution, crowding, global warming and green house effects.
• Pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of air, land and water that may harmfully affect life.
• Pollution is caused by various pollutants which are substances foreign to the
Notes medium like air or water thus causing problem to the animal and human world.
The various pollutions are air Pollution, water pollution, noise pollution,
crowding and Green House Effect.
• Water pollution is defined as addition of excess undesirable substance to water
that makes it harmful to human, animal and aquatic life.
• Noise pollution can be defined as the intensity, loudness, timbre or pitch of sound
which causes us physical discomfort or it may be unwanted because of the
situation.
• Sustainable development means preservation of the stocks of resources including
environmental resources and exhaustible resources. The major cause of worry
about sustainability of development is supposed to be the wasteful consumption
style.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
l. Explain any one model of the human-environment relationship.
2. What is environmental stress? Explain.
3. Describe air pollution and its consequences for health.
ANSWER TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

23.1
l. Environment includes the physical world and the social and cultural set-up in
which we live and interact.
2. The symbiotic relationship considers that human and environment are
interdependent on each other.
23.2
l. Pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of air, land and water that may harmfully affect life.

Work Life and
Environmental
2. Yes, Anger/Aggression/Social withdrawal (any one of the three)
Concerns

MODULE - VII Healthy Mind
Psychology in Healthy
Secondary Body
Course
Yoga : A Way of
Life
Notes 24
HEALTHY MIND IN HEALTHY BODY
“One who is moderate in his diet, activities, exercise and duty, one whose periods of
sleep and wakefulness are moderate, Yoga drives away his ailments.”
Body and mind are two parts of a whole. If mind is happy, we do our work actively
and energetically. If the body is healthy, the mind also remains radiant, alert and
enthusiastic. The Yoga school of thought tells us how to facilitate the body - mind
functioning so that one may enjoy happiness, peace and fulfillment in life. Yoga, the
science and art of life, was discovered by our forefathers and they handed it over to
us as a priceless heritage. Its value is increasingly realized in today’s world. Human
life today is quite stressful. Yoga is a science that enlightens us regarding why we
experience stress, tension and pain. It suggests a life style which is free from stress
and pain. It makes our body and mind effective for leading a happy and healthy life.
In this lesson we will try to understand the meaning and nature of Yoga, the different
types of Yoga and some techniques to keep ourselves physically and mentally fit.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, we shall be able to:
• explain what is yoga;
• explain different types of yoga;
• describe the breathing techniques that ensure physical and mental vitality; and
• explain certain ways of concentrating and meditating.

Healthy Mind in Healthy Body MODULE - VII
Yoga : A Way of
Life
24.1 WHAT IS YOGA?
Yoga literally means ‘union’ i.e. being one with the Supreme Energy. It is communion
of individual being with the universal being. It is a passage from ignorance to self-
knowledge. Yoga is an effort towards self perfection. By helping the union of the Notes
body with the mind and mind with the soul, it creates an impressive symphony of
life.
Yoga is a science which leads to health in the body, peace in the mind, joy in the
heart and liberation of the soul. It also means the discipline of the body, mind, intellect,
emotions and will, giving poise to the soul. It transforms the inert body to the level
of vibrant mind into the union with the serenity of the higher consciousness or soul.
Yoga is of great benefit to the entire humanity. In its essence it is a passage from the
ordinary consciousness in which we are aware only of appearances into a higher,
wider and deeper consciousness.
Yoga is also considered as a discipline for happy and effective living. There are two
aspects of Yoga: outer and inner. The outer aspect of yoga (vahirang) deals with the
yama, niyama, asana and pranayama which revitalize our body and mind. The inner
aspect of yoga (Antarang) includes controlling of senses (Pratyahara), concentration
(Dharana), meditation (Dhyana) and Samadhi.
Maharshi Patanjali defines Yoga as **;ksxf'pÙko`fÙk fujks/k%** It means that Yoga is
regulation of mental processes. It is only through self regulation one can excell in
perforance. That is why Yoga is also considered as the ability to perform actions
with excellence: **;ksx% deZlqdkS'kya**. In broad terms Yoga may also be said as an
integrated individual life style. Now, after knowing the meaning of Yoga, we shall
try to know about the different types of Yoga.

1. Define Yoga according Patanjali.
______________________________________________________________
2. What are the two main aspects of Yoga?
______________________________________________________________
24.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF YOGA

Yoga has several types. Some of the main types of Yoga include the following. In
general all systems of Yoga are meant for facilitating harmony, peace of mind, and
self-regulation.

Secondary Body
Course
Yoga : A Way of
Life
(i) Hatha Yoga - This kind of Yoga aims at controlling the functioning of the body
and helps channeling the flow of energy (Prana).
(ii) Raja Yoga - It is meant for restraining the fluctuations in the consciousness
(Citta).
Notes (iii)Karma Yoga - This is the path of selfless action (Anasakta karma) without
expectation of rewards. In Karma Yoga, you learn to do all actions in relaxation.
(iv)Bhakti Yoga - This refers to the path of devotion and surrender to God. The
person forgets his own self and existence and merges with the identity of God or
higher consciousness. Bhakri takes many forms of relationship (e.g. friend,
servant, beloved).
(v) Gyan Yoga - This form of yoga emphasizes on removal of ignorance and seeking
of spiritual knowledge. People form wrong impressions about themselves and
continue with masks that lead to egotism and conflicts of various kinds.
There are some other types of Yoga. Every practice of yoga requires some preparation
and control over our food habits and other aspects of life, which will be discussed in
a subsequent section.

1. What is Karma Yoga?
______________________________________________________________
2. Explain the meaning of Raj Yoga.
______________________________________________________________
24.3 YOGA TO KEEP FIT

The practice of yoga involves attending to the functioning at different levels of
existence. Techniques to gain mastery over body, prana, and mind – diet, yogasanas,
at body level, breathing practices and Pranayamas at Prana level and meditation at
mental level have been developed. By following these practices one can remain fit,
active and energetic without any medicine.
1. Diet
Yoga places great importance on diet because the kind and quantity of food that we
eat determines our temperament. It is said that having right kind of food purifies the
mind and soul ¼vkgkj'kq)kslRo'kqf)%½

Yoga : A Way of
Life
When the food is pure, the mind becomes pure. When the mind becomes pure,
memory becomes firm. And when a man is in possession of firm memory, one is
able to perform various tasks in competent ways.
Gita speaks about three types of food – Sattwik, Rajasik and Tamasik. Sattwik food
is recommended because it is nourishing and warm. It does not trouble the digestive Notes
system. It gets assimilated in our body easily. Rajasik food is oily and spicy. It is
hard to digest. Tamasik food is dry and stale. It is harmful for the system. Milk and
sprouts are examples of Sattwik food. Spices and oils are Rajasik food. Left-overs
and junk food are Tamasik food. According to Yoga, Sattwik food makes our mind
benevolent, Rajasik food makes us restless, and Tamasik food makes us lazy and
dull.
Besides food, proper rest and sleep are also necessary to keep oneself fit. Rest, fresh
air and proper exercise are the needs of our body. Do you know why we need exercise?
Without exercise body loses its elasticity. It becomes heavy, accumulates fat and
toxins and gets rapidly worn out.
2. Yoga Asanas
You must have heard about various Asanas. They are body postures that make our
body muscles supple and improve the blood circulation in the body. They tone up
the activities of brain, glands, nerves, tissues and cells. If practiced regularly, Asanas
can protect us against cold, fever, headache and stomach disorders. The Asanas are
designed to bring the body into a condition where the healing forces of nature are
able to do that work. Here, we are going to learn about some of the Yogic postures
that help us keep fit.
Precautions while Performing Asanas

• Asanas should be performed preferably early in the morning in a well – ventilated
room.
• Bowels must be cleared before starting the Asanas. It is not desirable to have
bath immediately after the Asanas.
• Asanas must be performed on a musk spread on hard ground. Clothing should
be as light as possible.
• Breathing should be normal while performing the Asanas.
• Do not eat immediately after Asanas.
• It is advisable that the asanas should be done after learning the proper methods
of doing the asanas by a Yoga-teacher.
• Shavasan should be the last Asana, so that you get enough rest.
Let us learn about some of the main Asanas.

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Paschimottan Asana (Stretching back and legs posture)
Technique - Sit on the floor with both legs stretched straight in front of you and take
a few deep breaths. Exhale and extend the hands to catch the toes, keep spine and
the legs straight. Extend the spine and keep the trunk close to the extended legs, Pull
Notes the trunk forward and touch the forehead to the knees and gradually rest the elbows
on the floor, After you have gained flexibility, you will be able to have grip of the
soles of your feet, resting the chin on the knee. Stay in this pose for 30 seconds to
one minute according to your capacity and revert back to the starting position.
Benefits - This Asana tones the abdominal organs and kidneys and rejuvenates the
whole spine and improves digestion. A good stay in this Asana will message the
heart, spinal column and the abdominal organs. This Asana is strongly recommended
for those suffering from high blood pressure. It also strengthens knees, improves the
function of pancreas and corrects the functioning of regenerative system.
Sarvang Asana (Shoulder – Stand Posture)
Technique - Lie down with your back on the floor. Keep the palms down near the
body. Bring the heels and toes together and keep them loose, and look towards the
ceiling. Make your legs straight with toes stretched. Inhale and start lifting both legs
towards the ceiling, Lift your back so that the weight of your body rests on the neck,
give support to your lifted body by placing the palms on the back. Your elbows will
be bent and will remain on the floor, let the hands help in pushing up the body so that
it is balanced perpendicular on the neck. When the body has been raised to a maximum
point, stay there and breathe normally. Stay in this position for 3 minutes in the
beginning increasing the capacity upto ten to fifteen minutes. Then come down with
caution after folding your legs from the knee slowly landing them on the floor. Raise
your head and entire body to the resting position and breath normally.
Benefits - This Asana activates all parts and organs of the body. Because of the
inversion, the gravity pull will enhance circulation of blood. It provides energy, inner
strength and vitality. The greatest benefit of this Asana is that it nourishes and activates
the thyroid and parathyroid glands. It also provides blood supply to the brain, improves
lung functioning, throat and larynx functioning, enhances memory capacity and
concentration and strengthens leg muscles.
Shavasana (Complete Relaxation Posture)
Technique - Lie down with your back on the floor keeping your feet a little apart
forming a 30 degree angle. Keep your arms straight on either side, fingers a little
curled up, Breath normally and close your eyes after an intent gaze on the roof. Start
relaxing your feet, waist, chest, neck, arms, and head one by one with complete
concentration. If relaxation is proper, your breathing will become slow and shallow
with a feeling of bliss and sleepiness; stay for ten to fifteen minutes and then roll
your body to the right and stay there for a minute before you get up.

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Benefits - This asana is very beneficial. Its immediate effect is complete relaxation
of all the muscles, nerves and nervous system, the brain and all the organs of the
body. Persons suffering from insomnia, nervousness, tension, axiety, acidity, high
and low blood pressure and heart troubles benefit from this asana.
Shalabh Asana (Locust Posture) Notes
Technique - Lie full length on the floor on the stomach, with the face touching the
floor. Keep arms stretched on each side of the body and close to the hips. Now raise
the legs, upward as high as possible, taking the support of the fisted hands by pressing
them downward to the floor. Keep your chest and head on the floor and breathe
normally. Stay in this pose for 10 to 15 seconds in the beginning and gradually
increase the period according to your capacity.
Benefit - This Asana helps digestion and relieves gastric troubles and flatulence. It
relieves pain in the sacral and lumber regions. Persons suffering from slipped discs
are also benefitted. The bladder and prostate gland too benefit from this Asana.
Ushtra Asana (Camel Asana)
Technique - Kneel on the floor and keep your thighs and feet together. The toes
should point backward and rest on the floor. Then bend backwards by lowering the
head and hands, touch the heels with the palms of the hands, with your head looking
up and backwards. Keep the thighs straight and the back arched. Feel more stretch in
the chest, abdomen, neck, throat, shoulders and waist. Stay in the pose for 30 seconds
or more according to the capacity.
Benefits - The posture improves the problems with shoulders. It corrects any
deformity in the legs. The heart is massaged making it healthier. The chest is developed
and abdominal organs and the back are toned.
Dhanurasana (Bow posture)
Technique – Lie on the stomach. Bend the knees while keeping them together. Take
the ankles in the hands and rest the chin on the ground. Inhale as in complete Yogic
breathing, then raise the legs, head and upper parts of the body while arching the
back. Remain in this position as long as possible, breath regularly and direct attention
to the lower part of the spinal column (pelvic region). Now, relax the body gradually
and return to the original position. Repeat the exercise two or three times, then
relax.
Benefits – This Asana loosens up the spinal column. It also tones up the abdominal
organs. The exercise stimulates the endocrine glands and is excellent for women
suffering from irregular or faulty menstruation. It also prevents fat from forming
around the stomach and hips.

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Halasana (The Plough Posture)
Technique - Lie on the back with the arms stretched by the side of the body, palms
flat on the ground. Inhale through normal breathing, exhale and slowly raise the legs
stretched vertically. Supporting oneself by the arms flat on the ground, gently lower
Notes the legs behind the head until the tips of the feet are touching the ground. Remain in
this position for a few seconds and breath normally. Now return to the starting
position.
Benefits - This Asana is extremely beneficial for the spinal column. The whole
region receives an abundant supply of blood which revitalizes the nerves and muscles
of the back. Exhaustion and fatigue quickly disappear. The position also has a
regenerating effect on the glandular system, and clears up menstrual disorders. Regular
practice may prevent fat forming around the stomach, hips and waist.
Bhujang Asana (The Cobra position)
Technique – Lie on the stomach, with palms on the ground underneath the shoulders.
Inhale in yogic breathing. Supporting oneself-lightly on the arms, slowly raise the
head and trunk, leaning backwards as far as possible without raising the abdominal
region from the ground. Hold this position for a few seconds, then exhale slowly and
gradually return to the starting position.
Benefits – During the practice of this Asana, the muscles of the back are activated,
exerting pressure on the vertebrae from the neck to the lower part of the spinal
column, and provoking a copious supply of blood to this region, thus toning it up.
This Asana may correct slightly slipped discs. It also soothes backaches, has a
beneficial effect on kidney (adrenal glands) and stimulates digestion.

1. How do Yogic postures help us attain health?
_______________________________________________________________
2. What are the benefits of performing Pashchimottan asana?
_______________________________________________________________
3. How many asanas have you learnt in this lesson? Name any three.
_______________________________________________________________

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24.4 PRANAYAM
Yoga says that Prana is not merely breath but it is a form of cosmic energy. It is the
life-giving principle which is everywhere. By breathing exercises it is possible to
enhance the circulation of Prana in the body.
Notes
Activity 1
An Exercise in Concentration
Concentration is focusing our mind on a particular object-internal or external.
Internal could be your heartbeat. External could be a candle flame.
Try this simple exercise in concentration. Look at the second needle of your
watch or a clock on the front-wall. Remain aware of your breathing
simultaneously. See how long it takes before your mind begins to wander.
Very few people can focus their concentration for even a short period of time.
Like any other skill, concentration improves with practice.
Unfortunately, most of us do not know how to breath, though we breath every moment
in our life. Only babies know how to breath in a natural way. In natural breathing,
when we inhale the navel and lower abdomen bulge out a little, and when we exhale,
the navel and the lower abdomen sink down a little. It is called abdominal breathing.
In order to enjoy good health, a person needs at least 60 deep breaths in a day.
Shallow breathing is directly or indirectly responsible for a number of physical and
mental diseases ranging from common cold to nervous disorders. To function properly,
our brain requires oxygen three times more than the rest of the body. If it does not
get its share, it extracts it from the total supply to the body. That is why many
intellectuals tend to have a poor physique and bad health.
Deep breathing not only refreshes the whole system but also cleanses it. We should
learn deep breathing. We must re-educate ourselves in the ways of living in the light
of Yoga system. The functioning of our mind is closely related to breathing. When
we are calm, our breathing is deep and slow. When we are excited and agitated, our
breathing is shallow and fast. Vice versa is also true. When we deliberately slow
down our breathing rate and consciously take deep breaths, then our perturbed mind
becomes quiet and is at peace.
Normally, we breath between 13 to 15 times per minute. It has been observed that
the animals like tortoise breath 5 to 8 times per minute and live much longer than
human beings. It is also observed that people with addictions like cigarette and liquor
have greater breathing rates and their longevity is limited. When we run fast our
breathing rate increases temporarily but with the exercise, our muscle tone and
circulation increases. That, in turn, slows down and deepens our natural breathing
and increases our longevity.

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Activity 2
Observing your breath
Sit on a chair or on the floor, with your back and neck straight and your body
relaxed. Take air in and let it out (inhalation and exhalation) as if you were on
Notes the seashore observing the ocean waves. With each intake of breath, feel that
you are breathing in fresh energy and vitality with the oxygen. With each out
take of breath, feel that you are breathing out tiredness, fatigue, negativity and
toxins as you expel carbon dioxide. Feel the fresh, vitalizing energy permeating
your body and mind as you continue with the exercise.
Sit quietly with your mind peaceful and calm.
Some more exercises in Pranayama are as follows:

1. Pooraka : Taking air in slowly and consciously – deep inhaling.
2. Rechaka : Giving air out slowly and consciously – deep exhaling.
3. Kumbhaka : After inhalation you keep the breath in for a few seconds or
after exhaling you stop for a few seconds before inhaling. This
should be done under proper guidance.
4. Kapalbhati : You exhale fast and inhalation is automatic. This clears the
sinuses and provides a gentle massage to abdominal muscles.
5. Bhasrika : This is brisk breathing. Inhaling and exhaling is quick and fast.
6. Sheetali : Here we give a tune like shape to our tongue and slowly inhale
through our mouth and slowly exhale through the nose. In
summer this Pranayam makes our body cool.
7. Seetkari : Here our upper teeth line and lower teeth line touch each other.
We inhale slowly through mouth and the air massages our gums
gently. In the same way we exhale through mouth pushing air
out gently through the passages between the teeth.
8. Nadi Shuddhi: Here we take air in from left nostril and give it out through
right nostril (Anulom-Vilom). Then again we inhale from the
right nostril and exhale from the left nostril. This is one cycle.
One should do at least five cycles at a time three or four times
during a day. This purifies our body. Simple deep breathing
also helps a lot in gaining enough oxygen supply for your brain
and the rest of your body.

1. What is prana?
_______________________________________________________________

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2. What are the effects of deep breathing?
_______________________________________________________________
3. List any four exercises of Pranayama?
_______________________________________________________________ Notes
24.5 MEDITATION
We have seen the place of exercise, eating, sleeping habits, Asanas, and pranayama
in life. This is preparation for meditation. Yoga compares the mind with a lake.
When agitated and restless, the lake can not reflect the sky. Only when it is calm and
undisturbed, it can mirror the sky. In the same way, a calm and poised mind can
reflect the universal energy. The final aim of meditation is to gain the vision of truth,
to realize the oneness with all life and to enjoy peace and bliss.
Activity 3
An exercise in meditation
Sit straight with your back, neck and head in one line. Let the body relax.
Observe your breath for about two to three minutes.
Later, imagine that there is a white lotus at the place where your eye brows
meet, or at your heart. Internally feel the tender touch of the bud, see it blooming
gently, opening up its petals and smell the lovely fragrance. Be with it as long
as possible.
You can see a white flame instead of a bud. See it between your brows or at
your heart. Mentally, feel its glow and warmth. Remain in this experience as
long as possible.
For meditation, relax your body, sit comfortably in padmasana or sukhasana (squatting
posture), keep your spine neck and head in a straight line. Let your chest spread out
a little. First concentrate on your breath and breathe deeply. Exhale fully and inhale
deeply a few times. Let the mind follow the breath and listen to its sound. Just listen
to that and you will be able to hear the humming musical note within you. This is a
part of cosmic vibration. By concentrating on this inner vibration, you will be in
tune with the cosmic sound. Then all the ripples of thoughts and emotions will quieten.
The lake of your mind will become still and you will experience peace and bliss. In
this state of silence you will forget all differences and become one with all life.

1. What is the final aim of meditation?
_______________________________________________________________

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2. What posture do we adopt in meditation?
_______________________________________________________________
3. What are the benefits of meditation?
Notes _______________________________________________________________

• Yoga is a system of physical, mental and spiritual training for a healthy and
happy life.
• Yoga teaches us what the good habits of eating, drinking, sleep, exercises, work,
thinking and relaxing are.
• Being moderate in eating, exercise and enjoyment is necessary if we want to
lead a healthy life. Asanas and meditation help develop mind and sharp intellect.
• Yoga is also defined as excellence in action.
• Yoga helps us in our studies, in improving our health and relationship with the
world.
• Yoga teaches us about asanas which are beneficial to maintain our physical and
mental health and prepare the ground for spiritual development.
• Yoga also teaches us how to breathe properly. Breathing exercises are to control
our breath and bring us physical poise and mental peace.
• Meditation is for gaining the vision of truth, to realize the oneness with all life
and to enjoy peace and bliss.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Enlist the various Yoga types given in your text book.
2. Define Gyan Yoga.
3. What is the goal of meditation?

24.1
1. Study of consciousness and its operations.

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2. Yoga is control of thought waves arising in the ocean of mind.
3. Outer and Inner.
24.2
1. Self-less (detached) action without expectation of reward. Notes
2. Emancipations through spiritual knowledge.
24.3
1. Asanas make our body muscles supple and improve blood circulation.
2. Takes the abdominal organs and kidneys.
3. Eight – (i) Savang Asana (ii) Halasana (iii) Shalabh Asana
24.4
1. Prana is the cosmic energy.
2. Deep breathing refreshes and cleanses the whole system.
3. (i) Poorka (ii) Rechaka (iii) Anulom-Vilom (iv) Kapalbhati
24.5
1. The final aim of meditation is to gain the vision of Truth.
2. Padma-asana or Sukha-asana.
3. In meditation we come in tune with cosmic sound then all the ripples of thoughts
and emotions are quitened.

MODULE - VII Self-Development
Psychology and
Secondary Yoga
Course
Yoga : A Way of
Life
Notes 25
SELF-DEVELOPMENT AND YOGA
In the last lesson we have tried to understand the meaning, nature and various types
of Yoga along with the practices which help us achieve physical and mental health.
Indeed Yoga makes our life enjoyable. There is no domain of life where Yoga is not
relevant. It changes our attitude towards life. It awakens our creativity and enriches
our relationships with others. In the light of Yoga nothing remains simply mundane
but everything gets a touch of the sublime. We develop self control and grow morally.
In this way, self does not remain an attribute related to personal functioning only. It
goes beyond that and relates to the social world that we inhabit. Our notion or idea
of self influences our interactions with the social world and is also influenced by
that. We long and strive for success. Success is the result of tireless striving towards
the goal with a positive attitude, and confidence in oneself and others. This is self-
development. In this lesson, we are going to understand how Yoga contributes to
self-development and relevance of Yoga for competence.
OBJECTIVES
• explain how yoga helps you in the different walks of life;

• describe how it shapes attitudes, thinking and behaviour;
• explain the relevance of yoga for competence; and
• discuss the eightfold path of yoga for progressive self-development.
25.1 SELF-DEVELOPMENT THROUGH YOGA

Most of us would agree that human beings have a self. Ordinarily we use the word
‘Self’ in the sense of ego but the term ‘self’ does not mean merely the ego. According
to Indian thought the ego in us is the actor, knower and experiencer. That which
performs all the functions of body and mind, is generally known ‘I’ or ‘Ego’, but it is

Self-Development and Yoga MODULE - VII
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only the reflection of the absolute called Brahman or pure consciousness. It is said
that the ego is the image of that divine spark within us, which gives it vitality and
makes it do all works mental as well as physical. It is treated as a distinct entity with
its own qualities and functions. As people grow, they develop their own concept of
self-which determines how they relate to others and perform various activities. We
perceive others as persons, relate to them and develop friendship and other kinds of Notes
close relationships. Our self concept, however, does not remain constant, rather it
changes during the different stages of life. Now let us see how the development of
self occurs during the different stages of life.
Infancy: Children of different age groups respond differently to the images they
see. Infants are found to have a visual self recognition by the age of two years but
clear self awareness is not found even in the third year of age. During childhood the
idea of self remains concrete.
Childhood and Adolescence: During early childhood children start defining
themselves on the basis of certain psychological attributes. They start thinking about
attitudes. During adolescence representations of the self become much more subtle.
They realize that they are not the same kind of person with everyone and in every
situation. Identity provides a stable sense of who a person is and what one’s values
and ideals are. Many adolescents experience identity confusion. They fail to have a
coherent and enduring sense of self. They have difficulty in committing to roles,
values and occupational choices. Some adolescents establish their identities after
considerable soul searching and introspection. Others commit early without much
effort. This forecloses the process of identity development.
Early Adulthood: This stage of development is characterized by the challenge of
intimacy v/s isolation. Intimacy refers to the establishment of a committed relationship
which is enduring. It includes both romantic as well as friendly relationships. In the
course of development one needs to redefine his or her role as father / mother, uncle
/ aunt.
Middle Age: During this stage of life people become concerned with relating to the
next generation and one’s contribution to society. During this period a person faces
crisis of engaging with generative activities. In fact midlife crisis has become a
popular phrase. It brings an interruption in the normal rhythm of life. For some, the
changes are gradual and for others quite drastic in nature.
Old Age: In view of social mobility and disintegration of traditional family ties,
many aged people lack social support and suffer from poor self concept. However,
those who look back upon their life with a sense of satisfaction that they have lived
it well, experience a sense of integrity. Others may have regrets and despair.
Thus we find that the notion of self assumes different forms and undergoes continuous
change during one’s life course. It reflects the changes in the experiential world of
people. However, the views of self held are not merely representations of the

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expectations of others. They also work as a powerful force which directs behavior
and shapes interactions in social situations. Self undergoes transformation and many
elements are included and excluded in one’s self structure. People often strive for an
ideal self. They are expected to contribute to healthy development of society to
which they belong.
Notes
All famous persons across the globe have contributed to the welfare of society. They
are known for their integrity. Well integrated people contribute not only to their
personal growth but also to the growth and development of society.
In the first stage infants have difficulty in differentiating self from others. They cry
when others cry and laugh when others laugh. After one year they gradually develop
a sense of self as characterized by egocentric thinking. They help the other person in
the ways that they themselves would want to be helped. Then comes third stage
during which children show situation specific empathy. Finally, when they reach the
fourth stage they come to relate their expression of distress to others when others are
also in distress. In fact in the fourth stage only appropriate exhibition of empathy is
demonstrated, that is, others get emotional support from those who show appropriate
empathic reaction.
Children can learn helping behavior by imitating significant others (e.g. parents,
siblings, teachers). Opportunities for responsibility taking, reinforcing desirable
behavior as and when it occurs strengthens the development of pro social behavior.
Yoga in the development of ‘Self’ can play a very important role. Through yogic
asanas, pranayama and meditation the body, mind, vital force and intellect are properly
nurtured which results in healthy development. It enhances self esteem, self
confidence and self respect. Yoga is actually a systematic and properly regulated
way of life. Let us see how yoga is useful in involving our selves in day-to-day
activities like studies, relationships with other members of society, success at work
place and maintenance of our health. Our attitudes, thinking and behavior also reflect
our sense of self. We will study in the next section how yoga is helpful in shaping
our attitudes, thinking and behavior.

Fill in the Blanks
1. Visual self concept is found in ______________.
2. During early childhood children start defining themselves on the basis of
_________.
3. During middle age a person faces crisis of ________________.
4. _________ can play a very important role in the development of self.

Yoga : A Way of
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25.2 APPLICATIONS OF YOGA IN DIFFERENT WALKS
OF LIFE
a) Studies: The main hurdle in preparing for our studies is that we study for hours
together and still retain hardly anything because our mind wanders and does not Notes
remain fixed on the task of learning the lesson.
In the practice of Yoga, when we learn to perform Asana and Pranayama, our
breathing becomes long and deep. We focus our attention on a particular spot.
When this focused mind is applied to studies, it grasps the ideas and concepts
better. It can retain the learning material more effectively. In other words, Yoga
improves our learning and memory. When we appear for examination, our mind
is cool and composed. So an unexpected question does not disturb us.
Even if we study very hard sometimes we do not get the expected results and our
mind gets clouded by anxiety and depression. Regular practice of Yoga – frees
us from depression. Yoga teaches us how to involve our self in doing our best
and leave the rest in the hands of the Lord.
b) Relationships: Our relationships with persons around brings to us both joy and
pain. We are constantly seeking fulfillment through friends, family members
and colleagues at our work-places. When we practice yoga, co-operation takes
the place of competition. Instead of making constant and unreasonable demands
from others, we learn to give selfless love to others. While making friends, we
learn to give greater importance to the inner qualities than to outer appearances.
The sage Patanjali gives important advice regarding our reactions in relationships.
He says, ‘Make friendship with those who are awake to the higher values of life
and try to put them into practice. There is less likelihood of misunderstanding in
their company. For those who are in misery, we must have compassion. We should
not be self-centered. We should feel happy in the progress and prosperity of
others. There should be no shadow of envy or rivalry in our minds. Towards the
wicked, we should have indifference. It is not worth spending your precious
energy – mental or emotional on their bad deeds’. Being intolerant towards others
and getting irritated unnecessarily spoils our mind. We can be aware of our
reactions towards others and develop a habit of giving a positive response to
even a negative situation, that is, emotional balance. This can be achieved only
by practicing yoga regularly.
c) Work : Work or employment should be seen as a joyous opportunity for self
expression and growth. What do we see in the offices? Boredom, clock watching,
politics, fights between workers and management! Our work should be seen in
terms of what we can give to it rather than what we get from it. Good posture,
deep breathing and gentle stretching will help you to keep relaxed at the work-

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place. Pausing for a moment and watching your breath immediately makes you
relaxed. It is good to be creative in your work. Try to find new ways of doing
things. Learn to enjoy even the routine work. Gita says that the art of doing work
in an excellent way without expecting fruit is Yoga.
Notes d) Health: Why do we fall ill? Usually it happens because of some kind of imbalance
in our physical and mental systems. Conflicts create blockages in the flow of
life-force or Prana leading to diseases. Illness, depression, sulkiness all are the
symptoms of negativity and obstructions in the flow of life-force. Through
pranayama and meditation, we gradually free ourselves from the negativity and
re-experience our natural state of vibrant health and energy.
Usually, the life-force or Pranic energy flows in the body where it is needed
without our conscious control or even awareness on our part. It is possible through
the use of will and Yogic techniques to direct the life-force wherever we want. It
is possible to energize the whole system, heal the injured or diseased area or
even heal others. Will is the master switch that draws the Pranic energy into the
body and directs it to flow wherever it is needed. The connection between human
will and life- force is the key to healing.

1. How does Yoga help us is our studies?
_______________________________________________________________
2. How should one perceive work?
_______________________________________________________________
25.3 HOW YOGA SHAPES OUR ATTITUDES, THINKING

AND BEHAVIOR
Everybody feels that he or she should become a happy and successful person. Our
happiness and success depends on the pattern of our attitude, thinking and behavior.
Yoga assures us that our dream can be fulfilled provided we acquire certain healthy
attitudes and habits of thinking and living. The ancient wisdom can be turned into
some practical hints for joyous and effective living. Some of them are as follows.
a) Let us not complain about our environment: Some people may not be happy
with their parents, their financial status, or social status. They may not be happy
about their physique, looks and brain. They always look at others, envy them

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and feel sad! They think, if only "I had a mother like that", ‘or’ "Had I been in
the place of that scholar or that champion!". It is not healthy to complain about
what we have; it is good to think of how we can make the best of it. Many great
persons in the world fought against physical disabilities and adverse circumstances
and became successful. Notes
Everyone of us is gifted in some way or the other. Let us find out our own gift. It
may not be academic intelligence, it may be social or other type of intelligence.
We may not be good with books but we may be very good with machines, which
is equally valuable. We may have a potential to become a singer, a painter or a
stage-actor. Let us have a goal and take steps to move towards it. Yogic techniques
make our body, mind and intellect strong. We become competent to take decisions.
b) Let us train the body first: Yogasanas shake off our lethargy and idleness.
They bring fresh vigor to our body. They free us from tensions and diseases, so
that we can focus our attention totally on our goal.
How do we train the body? Let us take care of our food. Let us avoid eating very
less or eating unnecessarily. Select the food that agrees with us and brings harmony
to our body. Digestion of food, its assimilation in the body and excretion of
unwanted stuff, must be regular. Rest and proper sleep is also necessary to keep
our body fit.
c) Let us train our mind: Self-education is very important in Yoga. If we train our
mind to become strong, it will be strong. If we let it be weak like a pampered
child, it will become weak and brittle. It would collapse at the smallest shock.
Let us avoid self-pity because it makes us weak. Let us avoid all kinds of negative
thoughts like envy, jealousy and narrow-mindedness. Some students do not
exchange notes because they feel that somebody would ‘steal’ their knowledge!
They forget that the more we give, the more our knowledge grows! Also, let us
give up the ideas of dependence. There is no person or thing in the world without
whom or without which it is impossible for us to live. Nothing is indispensable.
There are persons, communities and nations who have rebuilt life from ashes.
Japan is one of the living examples, why can’t we?
d) Let us train our intellect: If we don’t give challenging work to our intellect, it
gets rusted, it loses its capacity to do mighty things. In fact we do not use our
brain to the fullest extent. If the brain does not get enough exercise, it gets tired
easily.
Seeing dreams and exerting all our energies to fulfill them makes our intellect
strong. Let us teach our intellect by taking wise decisions and staying firm with
our decisions.

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Match the Columns:
Notes A B
1. One way of becoming happy is a) thinking habits and character
2. Eating unnecessarily b) make your mind brittle
3. Negative thoughts c) not complaining about your
environment
4. There is strong relationship between d) causes accumulation of fat on body
25.4 YOGA FOR MOTIVATION AND EXCELLENCE:

IN ACTION
A poet has said:
Heights that great men reached and kept were not achieved in a single flight.
They, when their companions slept strove upward in the night.
We, in our respective field, can make a resolution to ourselves that whatever we do,
it will be of excellent quality. May it be teaching or typing, plumbing or fitting. Yoga
can train the body and intellect for development of self to achieve excellence and
competence in action.
One of the definitions of Yoga given in Gita is ;ksx%deZlq dkS'kye~- Yoga is excellence
in action. Excellence in action does not come without motivation.
Why do we work? There are two reasons: One is visible. You work because you get
money. The second is invisible. You work because you enjoy work, it increases your
self-respect, people appreciate you, you are proud that you are given responsibility
and try your best to rise to the occasion.
When we read the life stories of great men and women, we realize that they kept a
lofty goal as the pole star of their life and strove hard to reach it. They had no place
for laziness in their life. They could not afford to get entangled in clumsy and
demanding relationships. With singleness of purpose, they ultimately achieved their
goal. This is Yoga. This harnesses all your energies in a particular direction, keeping
your instruments i.e. body, mind and intellect ready and sharp for the work undertaken.
Great men see great dreams and make great effort to realize them.

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Life

State whether the following statements are True or False:
1. According to Gita Yoga is excellence in action. Notes
2. Great men and women could be great without any goal in life.
3. Yoga harnesses our energies in a particular direction.
25.5 PATANJALI ON MIND: ITS NATURE, FUNCTIONS

AND STATES
Yoga was compiled in a concise form by Sage Patanjali. This compilation is called
Yoga Sutra. It tells us about the nature of human mind and its functions. It analyses
the causes of turbulence and suggests the ways of overcoming them. It enlightens us
on how to reach the state of oneness with energy or Supreme Consciousness that
pervades the entire universe. According to Yoga Sutra mind comprises of four faculties
namely Manas, Buddhi, Ahankar and Chitta. These are called Antahkaran. Manas
or mind makes Sankalpa (I will do this) and Vikalp (What, if this does not work?)
Buddhi or intellect makes decision in the light of previous knowledge and wisdom.
Ahamkar or ego is the centre around which all emotions, memories and thoughts are
organized. Chitta is that consciousness on which the waves and ripples of various
reactions are generated. Vikalpa and Chitta or consciousness is seen as the birth
place of all mental reactions.
Ever-changing States of Mind

Our mind is found in the following states:
1) Kshipt: Most of the time our mind is thrown out to some object of interest in the
process of experiencing the world. Such totally outgoing mind is called Kshipt
(Literally-thrown out).
2) Vikshipt: Our consciousness or awareness sometimes goes outward and with
effort, it turns inside, but again it goes out. So, in Vikshipt state our mind plays
‘in and out’.
3) Moodha: When we are not alert, and our awareness appears to be non-
functioning. This state is Moodha. A person out of his mind, in coma or in a fit
has Moodha state of mind.
4) Ekagra: While practicing Yoga, you learn to concentrate your awareness on a
particular object. Here the state of consciousness is Ekagra which is very useful
for day-to-day functioning and for higher goals. When mind becomes Ekagra, it
is a major achievement. Yoga helps in achieving this state of mind.

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Relatively Steady States of Mind
Besides the ever changing states of consciousness, there are some relatively steady
and regular states as well.
Notes 1) Jagriti: Full awareness with conscience (Vivek).

2) Swapna: A state of dream where some people play wish fulfillment game.
3) Sushupti: Deep and dreamless sleep.
4) Tureeya: This is the state of deep meditation in which a person becomes oblivious
of space and time. Suppose he or she sits for meditation and enters Tureeya level
of consciousness. During this state a person’s consciousness becomes one with
the Divine or universal consciousness.

1. Who is the author of Yoga Sutra?
_______________________________________________________________
2. What are the different states of mind?
_______________________________________________________________
25.6 THE EIGHT-FOLD PATH OF YOGA

Patanjali has given a detailed account of the eight-fold path of Yoga.
There are eight steps that you have to follow if you want to lead life with health and
well being. These steps are called eight fold path of Yoga. These are referred to as
the limbs of Yoga.
Following are the eight steps of Yoga with their brief descriptions.
1. Yama: In general, Yama is exercising restraint on our lower animal like instincts.
For instance, overcoming greed, lust, anger and envy and never acting based on
these impulses. Yamas are five rules of behavior which purify one’s mind and
behavior. They also have social relevance. vfgalk lR; vLrs; czãp;Z vifjxzgk%
;ek% ¼iratfy ;ksxlw= 2-30½
(i) Ahimsa: It involves not hurting anyone including animals, plants and the so
called non-living being like things that you use. It means non-violence in
thought, word and deed. You must learn to respect everyone and everything
around you.

Yoga : A Way of
Life
(ii) Satya (Truth): To speak truth, we should mean what we say. Our words
should be gentle and free from deception. They should be uttered with the
desire to do good to others. We see many types of deception in society like
corruption and adulteration and malpractices in medicine causing deaths of
innocent people, selling the secrets of our country to enemy countries – all
these are forms of untrue behavior. It is socially harmful and dangerous to Notes
one’s integrity.
(iii)Asteya (Not stealing). Some times there is temptation to grab money which
does not belong to us. There is tendency in some people to take bribe. They
take money for what they are already being paid. Some people steal credit
and happiness of others. All this is theft. To keep away from all these
temptations is non stealing.
(iv)Brahmacharya (Restraint on sex related activities): As there are temptations
of money, there are temptations of indulging in unethical sex. In fact this
energy can be fruitfully used for one’s personality development i.e.
development of one’s physical prowess and mental faculties. This is
Brahmacharya. In this way you channelize your energy for individually
satisfying and socially useful purposes.
Marriage and householder’s life can be equally pure if its sanctity is taken
care of. Husband and wife should be loyal to each other. Thoughtless sex can
invite incurable diseases like AIDS. So, Sage Patanjali very rightly emphasized
on the importance of Brahmacharya.
(v) Aparigraha: Aparigraha also means not to store more than what you need,
because by doing that you may be depriving those who are in genuine need
of the object.
Now we will discuss Niyamas
2. Niyama: Niyamas are mainly for purifying the body and mind. They are practiced
on individual basis.
(i) Shauch : keeping your body and mind clean. Taking a bath everyday, cleaning
teeth and drinking pure water. It covers activities like healthy food including
grains, fresh green vegetables provide all the necessary ingredients like starch,
fats, vitamins, salts and minerals give stamina and strength to your body. So
Yoga advises us to eat healthy food. It also expects you to be regular in your
toilet habits so that your body is free of toxins (harmful substances).
Shauch also means purity of mind. Our sages have recognized six enemies
that make our minds impure. These include Kama – excessive desire, Krodha
– anger, Lobha –greed, Moha – temptation, Mada – ego and Matsar – jealousy.
Shauch means keeping away from these six enemies and filling one’s mind
with noble thoughts.

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(ii) Santosh: It means contentment. You should do your best in every undertaking
and be happy with that. There are certain factors which are beyond your
control so if you achieve the expected success, that is fine and if you do not
achieve the expected success that also fine. Joy is lies doing the work itself.
Notes (iii)Tapa: The literal meaning of Tapa is penance. When our exams approach
we generally give up seeing movies and T.V. We do not waste time in chatting
with friends. To achieve a goal we have to make sincere effort, and give up
certain pleasures. This is Tapa. While treading the path of Yoga, we have to
control our desires and concentrate our mind.
(iv) Swadhyaya: It literally means self-study. Here it means studying the
principles related to Yoga. If we do not understand it all by our selves, we
may seek the guidance of experts. Swadhyaya not only means reading
literature related to Yoga but also contemplating on the principles of Yoga.
(v) Ishwar Pranidhan : It means being in constant contact with God by chanting
or by keeping in mind all the time that our actions are in the worship of the
Lord. Lord is the witness of everything we see, do and experience.
3. Asana: Patatanjali defines Asana as that posture in which we can sit comfortable
for the Yogic practices, with our head, neck and back in a straight line. Since
Yoga is vitally related to our nervous system, our spinal cord should be in the
right position. Squatting on a mat or sitting on your knees is usually prescribed
for yogic practice (Sukhasan, Sahajasan or Vajrasan). The yogic tradition
gives us 84 Asanas to keep our body and nerves supple. As we take care of our
vehicles and instruments, so we must take care of the body. We must give it
proper exercise. Hence, there is a need to do Asanas. They build our resistance
to diseases and keep us fit.
4. Pranayama: Pranayama is getting control on
our Pranic energy through the regulation of
breathing. Inhaling air is called Poorak in
Yoga. Exhaling air out is called Rechak.
Stopping for a few seconds before exhalation
is called internal Kumbhak. Kumbhak should
not be done for more than five seconds.
Pranayama should be done under expert
guidance. Otherwise, instead of being useful,
it can become harmful. Fig. 25.1: Pranayama
Along with air we also take in the vital energy from the atmosphere which is
called Prana or the life-force, breathing rhythmically improves your blood
circulation and circulation of Pranic or vital energy in the body. It is a systematic,
scientific process of managing our vital force and an art of utilizing it fully for an
allround development of our personality.
5. Pratyahara: It literally means withdrawing. In Pratyahara we withdraw the senses
from their external objects and turn them inward. We have five main senses

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which are sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste. In Yoga we train our sense
organs to remain quiet. Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayam and Pratyahara are called
external aids to Yoga. For the next steps, you have to go still deeper. So they are
called as internal aids.
6. Dharana: Dharana is focusing of mind on a particular object. The object may be Notes
a part of our body like the midpoint of our eye-brows or it may be outside our
body like a flame of a candle or moon or an image of the Lord or a saint. Our
attention should be focused on either an internal or external object. This practice
improves concentration which helps in studies and
professional life.
7. Dhyana: When one learns to maintain Dharana or
attention on a single object for a relatively longer
period, that steady contemplation is called Dhyana
or meditation. In Dhyana, we are aware of being a
witness to what is happening in our minds. But we
are not emotionally or intellectually involved in
those happenings. This is also called Meditation. It
is the best medication for all mental agitations.
8. Samadhi: In Samadhi, the mind is so deeply
absorbed in the object of contemplation that it loses
itself in the object and has no awareness of itself. Fig. 25.2: Dhyan
Only when one comes out of Smadhi he/she realizes
that it was a state of Samadhi where sense of time and space was totally absent.
In Samadhi the individual consciousness is absorbed with pure consciousness.
A person who progresses along this eight-fold path of Yoga successfully and
becomes an evolved person. He or she is free from anger, lust and other vices. S/
he becomes a lover of the entire humanity. S/he does his/her own duty with great
excellence but is not at all proud of his/her achievements. S/he becomes an
instrument in the hands of the Lord. This eight fold path is not for a chosen few.
Everybody can tread on it.

Match the following :
1. Satya (a) Restrain on sex-deisre
2. Asteya (b) Non-violence
3. Aparigraha (c) Truth
4. Ahimsa (d) Non-hoarding
5. Brahmcharya (e) Non-stealing

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Patanjali defines Yoga as that state of consciousness where there are no ripples of
Notes thoughts or emotions. In this state our mind becomes one with the universal mind.
Patanjali compiled all knowledge of Yoga in concise form. In 196 Sutras, he explained
the nature of mental faculties and eight-fold path of Yoga.
The eight-fold Path is as follows :
1) Yamas : Attitudes and rules for Yogic life in social context.
2) Niyamas : Attitudes and rules for individual purity.
3) Asana : Right posture to keep the body fit and mind alert.
4) Pranayama: Controlling the in going and out going pranic energy through
breathing.
5) Pratyahara : Shutting down the sense from outside and withdrawing inside.
6) Dharana : Concentration on a particular object.
7) Dhyan : Staying there for a long time.
8) Samadhi : Being one with the object of meditation.
This is the process of purification. In pure consciousness God cosmic consciousness
is reflected. When this happens there is great change in one’s life. In this state one
enjoys supreme joy and becomes an epitome of all divine qualities like love,
compassion etc.
By practicing yoga every one can gain mastery over the body and mind. Then, nothing
remains impossible for him/her.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Which are the relatively steady states of mind?
2. Explain how yoga shapes our behaviour.
3. Describe Niyama.

25.1
1. infancy

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2. psychological attributes
3. generative activities
4. Yoga
25.2 Notes
1. Yoga improves learning and memory.
2. as a joyous opportunity.
25.3
1. c 2. d
3. b 4. a
25.4
1. True 2. False 3. True
25.5
1. Maharshi Patanjali
2. Manah, buddhi, ahankar, chitta
3. changing and steady
25.6
1. c 2. e 3. d
4. b 5. a

MODULE - VII Nurturing the WholePsychology
Being: An Indian Perspective
Secondary Course
Yoga : A Way of
Life
Notes 26
NURTURING THE WHOLE BEING: AN
INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
‘Every one has in him something divine, something his own, a chance of perfection
and strength in however small a sphere which God offers him to take or refuse.
The task is to find it, develop it and use it. The chief aim of education should be
to help the growing soul, to draw out that in itself is the best and make it perfect
for a noble use.’
– Sri Aurobindo
Everybody is attracted towards an impressive "personality". Being a positive and effective

person is considered to be the best asset an individual can have. Hence personality and its
development constitute a major concern for psychology. While "personality" is universally
accepted in popular circles, the concept of personality has been approached by psychologists
in different ways. Also, personality does not refer to the whole of our existence the physical,
social and spiritual. This issue has received attention from the Indian sages from ancient
times. Bhagvad Gita provides comprehensive models of highly developed human potential.
It emphasizes Tri Guna view whereas Upanishads laid down panch kosha theory . Similar
to panch kosha theory of the Upnishads Sri Aurobindo has given a comprehensive system
of one’s being based on his studies on consciousness. In this lesson we will introduce you
to some aspects of personality development from these wholistic Indian perspectives.
OBJECTIVES
• define personality in view of the wholistic Indian perspective;

• to familiarize with the concepts of trigunas and panch koshas; and
• to understand the ways in which the different aspects of existential life can be
enhanced.

Nurturing the Whole Being: An Indian Perspective MODULE - VII
Yoga : A Way of
Life
26.1 WHOLISTIC PERSONALITY: AN INDIAN VIEW
The term personality generally refers to the kind of person an individual is. It comes from
the Latin word ‘persona’ a mask worn in Greek and Roman theaters by actors to enable
each actor to play several roles. It also means that the external appearance of a person Notes
comprising the characteristics that are accessible to other persons.
The Indian thinkers visualized human existence in terms of an integrated structure having
spiritual as well as material aspects. In Upanishads the self, the atman or the consciousness
is considered as the real core of personality. Consciousness is the eternal and immutable
aspect of existence. Thus personality can not be taken as physical appearance (body)
only. It extends to the different levels of existence incorporating the physical, social and
spiritual levels. Let us try to learn about this model of personality in some detail.

1. Describe the Indian concept of personality.
_______________________________________________________________
26.2 THEORY OF TRIGUNAS

This theory proposes that entire existence in nature is made up of combination of three
Gunas namely Sattwa, Rajas and Tamas. Sattwa represents light, Rajas represents
dynamism and Tamas represents lethargy or inertia. Human beings too are mixtures or
combinations of these three qualities. Geeta describes how different people under the
influence of different Gunas behave in diverse ways. Human development is examined
with reference to movement from Tamas to Rajas and then to Sattwa. The highest stage is
a state of being above these three gunas. Let us study about three Gunas and personalities
related to them .
Sattwik: This kind of person functions moderately in eating, sleeping and performing
various activities. He or she meditates regularly, and does all his or her work as worship of
the Lord. People love this person and this person also loves and helps people. He or she
radiates the light of knowledge. Guru Nanak Dev, Hazrat Nizamuddin, Kabir, Meera,
Purandar Das, and Thyagaraj are some of the examples of such evolved persons.
Rajasik: This type of person is very active, dynamic and addicted to work. If he or she
does not have work to do, he or she will feel restless. This kind of a person likes to eat
spicy food. He or she is fond of entertainment, sitting at one place and observing silence is
difficult for him or her. Such persons are often found in the business world.

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Tamasik: This type of person does not like to work. He or she gets up late in the morning.
They are failures in their lives. Nobody likes them because they are dirty, idle and lethargic.
People usually keep themselves away from such persons.
The three qualities mentioned above are not exclusive. Each and every person is a
Notes combination of these three gunas in different degrees. In some, Sattwik is predominant, in
some Rajasik is and in some Tamasik. However all the three are present in each of us to
some extent. Personality development involves achieving and maintaining the right proportion
of these three qualities. It should be noted that Rajasik is necessary to some extent but
Tamasik should be tried to be kept at the minimum.
Now we come to another way of looking at our existence which sees human beings
consisting of five levels. Let us examine them in detail and also the ways in which life
develops along with them.
26.3 THEORY OF PANCH KOSHAS (FIVE SHEATHS OF

HUMAN EXISTENCE)
Taittiriya Upanishad gives the concept of Panch Koshas and their development. It says
that starting from Annamaya Kosha and reaching the Anandamaya Kosh, our existence
has 5 layers or sheaths called Koshas.The gross body that we see is Annamaya Kosha.
The subtler body made of pranic energy is called as Pranamaya Kosha or vital sheath.
The third kosha is Manomaya Kosha or
mental sheath comprised of one’s feelings and
emotions. The fourth one is Vijnanamaya
Kosha. It is comprised of imagination,
memory, knowledge, insight and
understanding. The fifth is Anandmaya
Kosha or sheath of bliss. Its characteristics
are creativity, joy and bliss. Let us examine
these sheaths in detail.
1) Annamaya Kosha : The Food Sheath
The physical body, the outer most part of our

existence is termed as the Annamaya Kosha
or Food Sheath. It has emerged from the
essence of food assimilated by the father and Fig. 26.1: Panch Koshas:
nourished in the womb by the food taken by Framework of personality
the mother. It continues to exist because of
food consumed and ultimately, after death, goes back to fertilize the earth and becomes
food. The substance of the physical structure, rising from food, existing in food and going

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back to become food, is naturally and most appropriately termed the food sheath.
The food we eat gets transformed into muscles, veins, nerves, blood and bones. If proper
exercise and proper diet is given the Annamaya Kosha develops well. The signs of healthy
development are fitness, agility, stamina and endurance. A person having these qualities
can easily master motor skills and has good eye hand co-ordination. Food taken is Notes
transformed into various nutritous elements and makes us grow physically.
2) Pranamaya Kosha: The Vital Sheath
The Pancha-Pranas, which are corresponding to the five physiological systems described
in Ayurveda, represent the Vital Sheath. These activities which support the body take
place as a result of the air that we breath in. Hence it is termed the Vital Sheath. The five
Pranas comprising this sheath include the following:
i) Prana (The Faculty of Perception): It controls the perceptions of the five fold
stimuli received from the external environment through the five sense organs.
ii) Apana (The Faculty of Excretion): All things thrown out of body or rejected by the
body such as septum, perspiration, urine, faeces, etc. are expressions of Apana.
iii) Samana (The Faculty of Digestion): Digests the food collected in the stomach.
iv) Vyana (The Faculty of Circulation): The power by which the nutrients resulting
from the digested food are properly coveyed to the various limbs of the body through
the blood stream.
v) Udana (The Faculty of Thinking): The capacity in an individual to raise his thoughts
from their present level so as to conceive a possibility of or appreciate a new principle
or idea-the capacity of self-education.
These five faculties gradually weaken as people advance in age.
The Vital Sheath controls and regulates the Food Sheath. When the pranas do not
function properly, the physical body is affected. The signs of healthy development of
Pranamaya Kosha are enthusiasm, ability to use voice effectively, suppleness of body,
perserverance, leadership, discipline, honesty and nobility.
3) Manomaya Kosha: The Mental Sheath
The mind regulates the Pranamaya Kosha or Vital Sheath. For example, when the mind is
upset due to some shock, the functions of pranas and the body are affected. Mind interprets
the impressions of sense organs. It stores good and bad memories of the past. It is possible
to increase the strength of mind by regular prayer, making resolutions and keeping them
up. There is a deep relationship between mind, intellect and body.

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4) Vijnanmaya Kosha: The Intellectual Sheath
The mind (Manas) is that which receives the external stimuli through sense organs and
communicates the responses to the organs of action. Though the stimuli received through
the five sense organs are distinct and different from one another, an integrated experience
Notes of them is brought about by the mind. The intellect (Buddhi) is the discriminating and
discerning process which examines and judges the stimuli received. It also communicates
to the mind its decision about the type of responses to be executed. The mind associates
the impressions with pleasantness or unpleasantness based on memory. The intellect
however, with its capacity to think, takes a rational decision which may not be liked by the
mind but is ultimately beneficial to the person.
The mind is the storehouse of all memories and knowledge. This storehouse of experience
is the guiding factor in man’s actions. The mind can also be described as the seat of
emotions and the intellect is to examine the areas in which they operate. The mind has the
capacity to travel only to the ‘realms known’ but the intellect, besides remaining in the
realms known, can further penetrate into the ‘realms unknown’ to investigate, contemplate
and comprehend new discoveries.
5) Anandamaya Kosha: The Blissful sheath
This is the innermost of the five sheaths and consists of Vasanas or desires. They exist in
the subconscious, the way we exist during the state of deep-sleep. It is considered blissful,
because, whatever be the condition in which we are in our waking and dream states, once
we reach, all of us experience relatively the same undisturbed peace and bliss due to the
cessation of agitation experienced by us when we are awake or dreaming. The Bliss
Sheath controls the intellectual Sheath, since the intellect functions under the control and
guidance of one’s vasanas.
When all the other Koshas are well developed we experience harmony between the inner
self and the outer world. This harmony gives us a sense of joy and bliss. The five sheaths
are like the layers of clothes worn by a person which are totally different from the wearer.
So too, the Atman or the real self is distinct and separate from the five outer layers.

1. What is the concept of panch koshas?
_______________________________________________________________
2. What are the three gunas?
_______________________________________________________________

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26.4 DEVELOPMENT OF KOSHAS
Personality development moves from annamaya kosha to the pure consciousness gradually
removing all the five covers that mask it. Regular eating habits, right kind of food, all types
of exercises and games, jogging, running, walking and Asanas facilitate the development of Notes
Annamaya Kosha. Pranayam and breathing exercises improve the quality of Pranamaya
Kosha. For the development of Manomaya Kosha study of good literature including poems,
novels, essays and articles is useful. All the activities that challenge one’s intellect develop
Vijnanamaya Kosha. These activities include debates, problem-solving, study-techniques,
small research projects, evaluation and appreciation of books and interviewing eminent
persons. All these activities make you go beyond your tiny self and give you an opportunity
to idenfity with your fellow beings-your community members, your country and the whole
world. This facilitates the development of Anandamaya Kosha. Even in your contemplation
you can extend your consciousness to reach the earth, the sun, the stars, the galaxies and
the universe. This way we gradually build the relationship between individual self or individual
consciousness and universal self or universal consiousness.
26.5 SRI AUROBINDO ON LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Sri Aurobindo says that two systems are simultaneously active in the organization of the
being and its parts: a concentric system and a vertical system. The concentric system is like
a series of rings or sheaths. The outer most circle is comprised of awareness of physical
body, awareness of vital (pranic) body or sheath and awareness of mental sheath. They
are interconnected. The inner circle is composed of inner mind which is in touch with the
universal mind or Supreme Energy. The innermost core is called Psychic being which is a
spark of the Divine (Supreme Energy) present in all of us and in every thing. It is also called
Atman.
The vertical system is like a staircase consisting of various levels, planes of consciousness
ranging from the lowest – the inconscient to the highest – Sat Chit Anand. In simple words,
from unicellular being, humans have climbed innumerable rungs of the ladder of evolution.
We have an evolved body and mind. But our evolution is not complete. Our consciousness
has to climb several rungs to reach still higher levels and the highest level of consciousness
which is endowed with amazing experience of goodness, freedom and knowledge.

1. How can we facilitate the development of Anandamaya Kosha?
_______________________________________________________________

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Life
2. According to Sri Aurobindo, what is the innermost circle of consciousness called?
_______________________________________________________________
Notes WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

• Human existence and its development is a major concern of psychology.
• Bhagwad Gita and Upanishads give us profiles of highly developed life ways.
Upanishads also give as the constituents of human potential. They are called Koshas.
• Atman, the divine spark of life, lives in the human body with five coverings on it. The
coverings or sheaths are called Koshas. Annamaya, Pranamaya, Manomaya,
Vijananmaya and Anandmaya are the five Koshas.
• The food we eat gets transformed into muscles, veins, nerves, blood and bones. If
proper exercise and proper diet is given the Annamaya Kosha develops well. The
signs of healthy development are fitness, agility, stamina and endurance. A person
having these qualities can easily master motor skills and has good eye hand coordination.
Wiring, fitting, welding, knitting are motor skills that involve eyehand co-ordination.
Indian psychology says that the body is an effective instrument in the worship of
God. Our duty and work itself is the worship and one is supposed to do it with total
devotion.
• Sri Aurobindo’s perspective gives us a concentric and a vertical model of our being.
The development according to this is more or less similar to the development of Panch
Koshas.
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. Explain any one Kosha in detail.
2. Describe the ways for development of the five Koshas.

26.1
1. Personality is not mere external appearance. It includes the whole existence that includes
physical, social and spiritual parts of life. An individual’s true self or nature is considered
as pure consciousness or Atman.

Yoga : A Way of
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26.2
1. Panch Koshas include the following: Annamayakosha, Pranamaya Kosha, Manomaya
Kosha, Vigarammaya Kosha, Anandmaya Kosha.
2. Sativik, Passik, Tamsik
Notes
26.3
1. Regular eating habits, exercise, night food and Yoga
2. Psychic being or Atman.

MODULE - VII Controlling and Disciplining
Psychology Secondary theCourse
Mind
Yoga : A Way of
Life
Notes 27
CONTROLLING AND DISCIPLINING
THE MIND
At present we are living in the age of technology, industrialization and urbanization.

The world is becoming very competitive. The Indian society has become very complex
and fast moving. All these cause stress and strain resulting in many diseases like
high blood pressure, insomnia, diabetes and heart attack. The remedy to deal with
the stress and strain does not lie in taking drugs or alcohol. These are not solutions
but may affect adversely. All this happens mainly because we are not in control of
our faculties. We let the circumstances and outside world control ourselves. The
solution of the problems lies in developing the ability of control to and regulate the
mind or one-self. In this lesson we will discuss some techniques which will help us
in attaining a peaceful mind and a healthy life.
OBJECTIVES
• state the importance of control and discipline of the mind;

• explain some techniques and methods of mind control; and
• learn about the benefits of various method of mind-control.
27.1 IMPORTANCE OF CONTROLLING AND

REGULATING THE MIND
For healthy development of the individual and society self-control and discipline
are very important. Without it the negative feelings like possessiveness, arrogance,
aggressiveness, anger, hatred and intolerance etc. take precedence.

Controlling and Disciplining the Mind MODULE - VII
Yoga : A Way of
Life
The key question is: How to achieve control of ourselves? The answer lies in leading
a disciplined life. We have to regulate our dietary habits and other aspects of life
style. The Indian system of Yoga was developed for this purpose. Yoga as a way of
life is necessary for healthy development of an individual. It is a profound physical,
emotional and cognitive experience. There should be a balance between body, mind,
intellect and emotions. Modern education lays more emphasis on the body and Notes
intellect. Its neglect of emotional aspects seem to result in lack of discipline, restraint,
tolerance and character.
The control of mind is not a problem for religious or spiritual aspirants only but
people in all walks of life need to control mind if they are to succeed in their vocation.
No progress in the lives of the individual or the community can ever be done without
proper mind-control and regulation. A peaceful and tranquil mind can achieve
anything in life. Every human being wants to lead a happy and healthy life and it is
possible only with a life without problems.
Interestingly the mind is controlled by the mind itself. The difficulties which we
experience in controlling the mind are created by our own mind. Mind cannot be
controlled by artificial external means or interventions for any length of time. It
needs patient, intelligent, systematic hard work following certain practices of
meditation. The mind has to be gradually and systematically brought under control.
Let us discuss some of these practices in detail.
Now we will try to discuss some tested disciplines, methods and technique of
controlling and disciplining the mind.

Fill in the blank
(a) Self-control and discipline are very important for ……………. of individual
and society.
(b) A …………… mind can achieve anything in life.
(c) Yoga is a profound physical and ……………… experience.
27.2 JEEVAN VIGYAN

Jeevan Vigyan is a harmonious practical method to inculcate human values. It teaches
us the positive values to enable us to control our mind.
Human behaviour can be disciplined only if our thoughts and mind are disciplined.

Mind
Yoga : A Way of
Life
According to psychology the control of behaviour is partly regulated by the nervous
system and endocrine glands. They keep undergoing changes and they can be
consciously changed. The changes can also brought by bhavshuddhi or purifying the
emotions. The source of all emotions is body. The chemicals are produced in the
gross body. If we learn to control our thoughts, purification of behaviour will follow.
Notes
Jeevan Vigyan is a plan to build a wholesome personality. It can be instrumental in
fulfilling the dream of a new society and a new life style. We have to learn that we
are interdependent beings and relate to nature as well as other fellow beings. Education
is meant to develop the awareness of interdependence. Jeevan Vigyan is a method of
controlling our emotions. Our emotions have to be refined otherwise they may create
problems. The anger and rage of a single boy/girl can result in disintegration of the
whole family. Jeevan Vigyan trains our brains to regulate emotions and behaviours.
It is often said that modern education helps the development of knowledge and
intellect. It considerably neglects our attitudes, inner consciousness and spirituality.
Jeevan Vigyan provides for a balanced development of both the hemispheres of the
brain. It teaches control of our senses and reflex – actions. It is possible to get rid of
negative thoughts by cultivating positive thinking. Jeevan Vigyan is a way of
developing a balanced personality of an individual and provides a solution to build
a healthy society.

Tick the right answer
1. Jeevan Vigyan teaches us

a. Positive values
b. Negative values
c. Only social values
d. Impractical methods
2. The main objective of Jeevan Vigyan is-
a. to develop a harmony between the individual and the society
b. to develop the emotional competence
c. to make us insensitive
d. teaching us to be self-dependent.

Yoga : A Way of
Life
3. Modern education helps in developing
a. only emotional functions
b. spirituality
c. consciousness Notes
d. only cognitive functions
27.3 PREKSHA DHYANA

Dhyana or meditation is an important component of Jeevan Vigyan. It is a particular
technique of controlling and disciplining the mind. Its objective is to attain change
in attitudes and behaviours and develop an integrated and balanced personality. The
different aspects of preksha include – Shwas Preksha (perception of breathing), Sharer
Preksha (perception of body), and Chaitanya Kendra Prekshna (perception of psychic
centres) When a person starts practicing dhyana or meditation one gradually
experiences a change in one’s thinking and feeling. He/she feels that anger and fear
are no longer disturbing and person’s behaviour changes. One becomes a more
righteous person. Preksha dhyana brings poise to the mind and it looks controlled
and disciplined.
Preksha Dhyana involves developing self awareness by relaxation. Today eminent

doctors of various fields have realized the importance of relaxation as a therapy, for
both healing and maintaining good physical and mental health. In Preksha Dhyana
total relaxation is achieved by following stages meditations as given below:
1. Kayotsarg – It involves having the condition of perfectly motionless state of

body. Unless body is relaxed mind can not be relaxed.
2. Mental Concentration– Here auto suggestion is used. By mastering this
technique one will achieve mental stability in due course.
3. Awareness of the body and realizations of the non-material self. It is not a
passive state. Both mind and spirit are very active in it. It is seeing, knowing and
realizing. It leads to realization of spiritual self and attainment of wisdom.

Tick the correct answer –
1. Preksha is a technique of (concentration, meditation, relaxation)

Mind
Yoga : A Way of
Life
2. Fill in the blank
a. Kayotsarg is a ……………… state of body.
b. Antosuggestion is basic to the technique of …………… .
Notes c. Awareness leads to ……………. of spiritual self and attainment of ………….
27.4 ART OF LIVING

The basic tenets of Art of Living and the Science of Living (Jeevan Vigyan) are the
same: Let our body, mind and soul be in total harmony. A hundred years ago Sri
Paramhansa Yogananda introduced the concept of Art of Living. The essence of his
teachings is that to lead a more integrated humane and spiritual life we need discipline
and control of mind. It gives certain practical methods for the uniform development
of mind and soul. These include taking balanced diet, regular exercise, practice of
meditation, studying religious literature and leading a pious life.
More recently Art of Living has been revived and refined by Sri Sri Ravi Shanker
with the goal of creating an atmosphere of love and peace for entire humanity. For
the purpose Sri Ravi Shanker has introduced a technique of Sudarshan Kryia. He
says, unless we have a stress-free mind and a violence – free society we cannot
achieve world peace. Art of living helps individuals get rid of stress and experience
inner peace. The training includes stress-elimination programmes such no Prayanam
(breathing techniques), meditation and yoga.
The degree to which stress unduly influences our lives is generally under estimated,
often the mind clings to anger, guilt or regret about the past, or is plagued by anxiety
and worry about the future. This oscillation of the mind between the past and the
future causes tension and stress for us and for the people around us and leads to
reduced effectiveness in action. Breath is the link between body and mind and thus
works as a key to handle negative emotions and facilitate the use of true potntil at
work at home and at leisure. For example, when you are angry, the breath is short
and fast, when sad, the out-breath is long and heavy. So, we can learn to skillfully
use the breath to change the way we feel, hence release negative emotions (e.g.
stress, anger, anxiety, depression and worry) and leaving the mind happy, relaxed
and energized.
Sudarshan Kriya: Just as there are rhythms in nature – day and night, season after
season, similarly, there are rhythms in the body, mind and emotions. When these
rhythms get disturbed, say due to overwork, food habits or busy lifestyle, we feel
stress, discomfort or get an illness. To get rid of such disturbances Sudarshan Kriya
is used. Its cleansing power harmonises the whole system. Sudarshan Kriya
incorporates specific natural rhythms of the breath which harmonises the body, mind

Yoga : A Way of
Life
and emotional stress, fatigue and negative emotion as anger, frustration and
depression. Leaving you calm yet energized, focused yet relaxed. Actually it
transforms the individual both physically, mentally and emotionally.
We need to do a cleansing process within ourselves. In sleep we get rid of fatigue,

but the deeper stress remains in the body. Sudarshan Kriya cleanses the system from Notes
the inside. The breath has a great secret to offer. Thus by controlling breath through
Sudarshan Kriya we can control and discipline the mind easily. In addition Satsang,
observing silence, meditation and service may help.

Write True or False
a. Sudarshan Kriya is pranayam.
b. Sudarshan Kriya is a breath cleansing process.
c. Art of living is a movement for world peace.
d. Art of living has been introduced by Swami Ram Dev.
27.5 TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION

Maharshi Mahesh Yogi has propounded (developed) a simple system of meditation
called Transcendental Meditation (TM). Meditation in general, helps in regulating
thoughts and establishing a sense of peace in the mind of the particener. There are
many types of meditation in India. Some people meditate using OM, some focus on
Jyoti, some by worship an idol. Concentration is involved in all these meditations
which make them strenuous. It is said that meditation is like floating on the surface
of a pond, contemplation is like swimming on the surface and TM is like diving
deep into the pond-from the outer surface to deep inside the water.
TM does not involve concentration or contemplation. Using this method the mind
experiences subtler (finer) state of thought and eventually transcends (goes beyond)
all thoughts. In TM the mind experiences a kind of freshness where all mental and
physical tensions are removed. The qualities of energy, positivity and creativity then
manifest (appear) in the mind or consciousness.
TM moves our mind from the surface of life to the depth of our Being. By this
method the conscious mind takes a dive into the deeper levels of consciousness and
this makes the surface value of the mind more powerful. The thought waves become
more powerful. When the thought force is powerful, the whole life becomes powerful.

Mind
Yoga : A Way of
Life
Human life is just a play of the mind. If the mind is weak, life is weak,
accomplishments are week and problems and tragedies increase. If the mind is strong,
thoughts force is strong, accomplishments are greater and tragedies do not occur.
TM ensures the connection of the outer life with the inner value of Being. This
Notes makes all the avenues of outer life to become positive and worthwhile. In other
words, through TM the outer conscious mind can get access to the inner glories of
life. We are able to experience the innermost core of personality – that field which is
the source of all wisdom, all peace, all happiness and all creativity.
In TM the mind experiences subtler states of thought and eventually transcends all
thoughts. Our existence is rejuvenated and all mental and physical tensions are
removed. The mind becomes peaceful, disciplined and controlled.
27.6 VIPASSANA
It is a technique to bring peace and tranquility to the human mind. One has to keep
on observing the truth that manifests itself and the Low of Nature starts revealing
itself. While starting this exploration of truths within you have to abstain from every
type of violence, sexual misconduct, speaking lies, and taking any type of intoxicants.
If you are generating such defilement it becomes impossible to go to the deeper
levels of mind.
To practice this technique you sit with your eyes closed without any vocal or physical
action. Now start experiencing the breath coming in and breath going out. The breath
comes in the breath goes out naturally. Start observing it. This is the reality, a very
gross reality, but reality pertaining to your own mind and matter which has started
manifesting itself. It is not breathing exercise, you are not to control your breath.
Controlling, disciplining and regulating the breath is other technique called
‘Pranayama’. But ‘Vipassana’ is quite different from ‘Pranayama’. In Vipassana you
observe the breath as it is – natural and normal breath. The exercise is to experience
the reality which manifests itself within the framework of the body, not a breathing
exercise.
Let anything happen, you never try to interfere with the natural flow of breath. Let
Nature play its own role. Your role is to observe. Just observe objectively.
After sometime the mind calms down, becomes more subtle and more sensitive.
You develop your faculty of awareness. Now you are able to feel the touch of the
breath. The barriers of conscious and unconscious mind are broken by this technique
of observation.

Yoga : A Way of
Life
The word “Vipassana” means to observe the reality as it is in its true nature, not just
as it appears to be, not just as it seems to be, but as it is in its true nature.
In this lesson we have familiarized with the different systems of disciplining and
controlling the mind. Though Pranayama or Dhyana we not only learn to control our
breath but also our senses and mind. Meditation teaches us to concentrate, relax, Notes
feel and receive the essence of real and universal life. All this leads to a feeling of
peace tranquility, mental harmony and spiritual realization.

Fill in the blanks:
a) TM is that technique which brings our mind from the __________ to the depth
of our being
b) In TM the thought waves become more ______________
c) Vipassana is quite different from _____________

• For a healthy growth of the individual and society self control and discipline are
very important.
• Jeevan Vigyan provides for a balanced development of cognitive and emotional
functions. It teaches control over senses and reflex actions. It is possible to get
rid of negative thoughts by cultivating positive thinking through Jeevan Vigyan.
Preksha Dhyana is a very practical technique to bring out the desired result of
jeevan Vigyan.
• Transcendental Meditation is that technique which brings our mind from the
surface of life to the depth of our being. By this method the conscious mind
takes a dive into the deeper level of consciousness, which get activated and this
make the surface value of the mind more powerful.
• Paramhans Yogananda gave the concept of Art of Living; which has been revived
by Sri Sri Ravi Shanker thought of Living foundation in 1981 and introduced
Sudarshan Kriya which as a unique and wonderful breathing technique. It
eliminates stress, fatigue and negative emotions.
• Vipassana is a technique of self observation, i.e. observing things as they really
are not just as they seem to be. This is what the Buddha taught through the
technique of self observation. Vipassana is a natural and normal breathing which
is observed without any special effort, and in return it brings peace and tranquility
to human mind.

Mind
Yoga : A Way of
Life
TERMINAL QUESTIONS
1. How are Jeevan Vigyan and Art of Living related disciplines?
Notes 2. How can we control our emotions?
3. Define Vipassana.
27.1
(a) healthy development
(b) peaceful and tranquil
(c) cognitive
27.2
1. (a)
2. (a)
3. (d)
27.3
a. perfectly motionless
b. relaxation
c. realization
27.4
a. False
b. True
c. True
d. False
27.5
a. Surface
b. Powerful

Yoga : A Way of
Life
c. Pranayam
d. Rigveda

An Introduction To Psychology: Module

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An Introduction to Psychology MODULE - I

• explain the nature of psychology and its definition;

1.1 NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS DEFINITION

PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE 1

In the western world, the formal beginning of psychology as an independent discipline

Psychologists study a variety of human experiences which are mainly personal or

Psychology as the study of mental processes tries to investigate the activities

(C) Study of behaviour

The range of behaviours studied in psychology is very broad. It includes simple

2 PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.1

1.2 SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE 3

4 PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.2

PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE 5

Abnormal Psychology: This branch of psychology tries to describe, assess, predict

Cognitive Psychology: It deals with acquisition, storage, transformation and

Clinical and Counseling Psychology: Clinical psychology is primarily concerned

Educational Psychology: This field of psychology is mainly concerned with

Environmental Psychology: This field is concerned with the study of interaction

Organizational Psychology: This field is concerned with application of

6 PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE

Developmental Psychology: This field is concerned with the study of various

INTEXT QUESTIONS 1.3

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE 7

ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

8 PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE

In the last lesson we noted that the interpretation of a psychological phenomenon by

2.1 APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL

Biological Approach: This approach focuses on biological structures and

PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE 9

10 PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE

2.2 METHODS TO UNDERSTAND PSYCHOLOGICAL

PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE 11

Some Interesting Facts about Observational Method

Observation is also divided into participant and non-participant types depending

12 PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE

Experimentation: In the case of experiment the experimenter studies the effect of

PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE 13

14 PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.2

2.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOLS

PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE 15

16 PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE

INTEXT QUESTIONS 2.3

PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE 17

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

18 PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE

ANSWERS TO INEXT QUSTIONS

PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE 19

20 PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE

Fig. 3.1 Distribution of height of a large sample of persons

Individual differences occur due to interaction of genetic and environmental factors.

The environment is responsible as how we are reared, the kind of atmosphere at

PSYCHOLOGY SECONDARY COURSE 21

INTEXT QUESTIONS 3.1

3.2 ASSESSING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES