Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Identifying key locations for shallow geothermal use in Vienna

Carolin Tissen a, *, Kathrin Menberg a, Susanne A. Benz b, Peter Bayer c, Cornelia Steiner d,
Gregor Go€ tzl d, Philipp Blum a
a
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute of Applied Geosciences (AGW), Kaiserstraße 12, Karlsruhe, Germany
b
University of California San Diego (UCSD), School of Global Policy and Strategy (GPS), 9500 Gilman Drive, CA, 92093-0519, USA
c
Martin Luther University Halle, Faculty of Geosciences, von-Seckendorff-Platz 3, 06120, Halle/Saale, Germany
d
Geological Survey of Austria, Department of Hydrogeology and Geothermal Energy, Neulinggasse 38, 1030, Wien, Austria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Decarbonising the heating sector is crucial for reducing CO2 emissions. This is in particular true for
Received 23 April 2020 Central European cities such as Vienna, where 28% of the total CO2 emissions are caused by the energy
Received in revised form supply for buildings. One promising option for environmental friendly heat supply is the use of shallow
23 September 2020
geothermal energy. To determine whether shallow geothermal systems are a feasible option to meet the
Accepted 6 November 2020
urban heating demand, the Python tool GeoEnPy is developed and applied to a case study in Vienna. It
Available online 11 November 2020
allows the evaluation of the anthropogenic heat input into the subsurface, the theoretical sustainable
potential, the technical geothermal potential, and the heat supply rate. The overall heat flow in Vienna is
Keywords:
Geothermal potential
17.6 PJ/a, which represents 38% of the current heating demand or indeed 99% once all buildings are
Groundwater heat pump (GWHP) thermally refurbished. The technical geothermal potential can satisfy the current heating demand for
Borehole heat exchanger (BHE) 63% (BHE system) or rather 8% (GWHP system) of the city area. GeoEnPy reveals that BHE systems are
Heat supply most feasible in the eastern and southern districts of Vienna. Our findings can guide integration of
Subsurface urban heat island (SUHI) shallow geothermal use in spatial energy management focused on key locations to supply buildings with
Geographic information system (GIS) decentralised and sustainable heat from the subsurface.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction especially in city parts without a DH system and where new

buildings are planned [12].
Ambitious goals and concepts to encourage application of Closed- or open-loop geothermal systems extract the energy
renewable energy technologies and to reduce CO2 emissions, stored in the shallow subsurface. Closed-loop systems use borehole
especially in the heating sector, exist on EU- [1], country- [2] and heat exchangers (BHE) to harness heat from the ground. Open-loop
city-level [3,4]. From 1995 to 2016, Vienna’s heating sector moved systems, known as groundwater heat pumps (GWHP), extract wa-
away from fossil fuels (oil
44%, coal
99%, gas
8%) towards more ter from the aquifer, gain the thermal energy with a heat transfer
renewable energy resources (þ34%). Despite this progress, the system and re-inject the cooled water back into the aquifer [13].
building energy supply still causes 28% of CO2 emissions [5]. Thorough planning is crucial for the development of economically
Shallow geothermal systems are one of the key technologies to feasible systems that are optimised according to their hydro- and
replace fossil fuels, reduce CO2 emissions and achieve low carbon geological conditions. Numerous studies explored and estimated
cities [6e9]. They are a particularly good option for areas or districts the feasibility of geothermal use in urban areas with various ap-
with a low heat demand density, for which a connection to a district proaches [14e18]. The basic concept of linking the energy available
heating (DH) network is not economically and/or environmentally in the ground with the heat that can be used is a definition of a
efficient [10,11]. Currently, 1070 closed- and 762 open-loop geothermal potential.
geothermal systems are already installed in Vienna, and an Bayer et al. [19] define the maximum amount of energy stored in
increased contribution from geothermal sources is anticipated, the ground as theoretical potential and the amount of energy that
can be extracted by a specific geothermal system as technical po-
tential. Estimations of the geothermal potential for both, open and
closed-loop systems, were done in various ways, using energy
* Corresponding author. balance calculations, analytical or numerical models, and
E-mail address: carolin.tissen@kit.edu (C. Tissen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.11.024
0960-1481/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

geographic information systems (GIS). GIS offers a comfortable way Wienerwald consist of platy and loamy sandstone gravels and
to process, analyse and combine spatial hydro-/geological data, and therefore are less permeable and less productive. Here, the
to display the final results as easily accessible geothermal potential groundwater flow direction is parallel to the local streams. The
maps [e.g. 20,17,18,21,22]. Pleistocene terraces only have moderate to low abundancy of
Much attention was so far given to the sustainability and long- groundwater and the groundwater flow direction is from west to
term effects of geothermal energy. Intensive use or a high system east. The Miocene sediments of the Vienna Basin are composed of
density can lead to interference [23e26]. Furthermore, decreasing silts, clays and fine sands and form local, unconfined aquifers with a
ground temperatures can lead to a decrease in efficiency over time, moderate yield. The Alpine bedrock in the western part comprises
which in turn can cause conflicts amongst different geothermal the fractured aquifer of the Flysch zone and the karst aquifer of the
users [e.g. 27,28,29]. To maintain system efficiency and to avoid calcareous Alps [55,56].
overly cooling of the subsurface, some recent studies propose
coupling of solar panels and ground source heat pump (GSHP) 2.2. Input data
systems [30,31]. Another factor that enhances sustainable use is the
natural replenishment of thermally-used ground, which is sub- The data used for anthropogenic heat flux, heat flow and heat
stantially augmented by passive anthropogenic heat input into the supply rate computations include point, line, areal, as well as raster
urban subsurface [32e35]. The heat input from buildings, increased data. To unify the different data for the computation and to avoid
ground surface temperature (GST) and subsurface infrastructures, yearly or seasonal temperature bias, data were averaged over one
such as district heating (DH) pipes and sewers, was studied in year or, where possible, 10 year means (2007e2016) were applied.
several cities [e.g. 36,37,38,39]. These heat sources also lead to The maps of the district heating (DH) network, subway tem-
increased groundwater temperatures (GWT) in urban aquifers. This perature and the heating demand are confidential and the
phenomenon of urban ground and groundwater warming, which is Geological Survey of Austria (GBA) only shared them as Web
observed globally on city-scale, is called subsurface urban heat is- Feature Service (WFS) for this study. All further data bases are freely
land (SUHI) effect [e.g. 40,41,42,43,44]. Menberg et al. [45] and Benz accessible via the online open data portal of Vienna ([57],
et al. [46] developed a 1D analytical and statistical heat flux model Table D.5).
to estimate the mean annual heat flux and flow from anthropogenic Temperature data from basements, underground carparks and
heat sources. subway tunnels as well as groundwater temperature (GWT) and
Although several studies relate the anthropogenic heat input to groundwater (GW) level data are available as point features from 66
the heating demand [32e34,47,48], the majority of studies focus or rather 315 wells inside and outside of Vienna (Fig. 1). Monthly
either on geothermal potential on district- [49e51] or city-scale mean GWT and GW level data are freely available [58]. Most
[14,15,52], or on quantifying the anthropogenic heat input into monitoring wells are equipped with data loggers and record GWT
the subsurface [45,53]. Thus, so far there is little known about the and GW level data four times an hour [59]. Air temperature data in
role of enhanced heat fluxes into the urban ground for the technical basements (57 locations) and underground carparks (12 locations)
performance and the sustainable operation of geothermal systems were recorded for one annual cycle using iButtons (Figure C.15). Air
on city-scale. temperatures within subway tunnels were recorded for 38 loca-
The objective of this study is to compute, spatially resolve and tions by Wiener Linien [60].
combine the technical geothermal potential of open- and closed- Line data include sewers, subway tunnels, and DH pipes. Most of
loop systems with the annual anthropogenic heat input. By the sewage network is operated as a mixed system; that is grey
relating the technical geothermal potential to the heating demand, water and rainwater are discharged together [61]. The total length
this study identifies key locations for shallow geothermal use in is about 2500 km and the available spatial data also includes in-
Vienna. The quantity used to assess the technical potential is the formation about the vertical dimensions of the sewers. Conse-
technically feasible heat supply rate, which considers the available quently, the exact diameter and vertical position of each sewer
space for system installation, as well as site-specific hydro-/ segment is known. The total length of the subway system running
geological conditions. Furthermore, the subsurface heat fluxes from below ground is around 46 km. The district heating network is split
seven different anthropogenic heat sources are calculated and into a primary and secondary network with different pressures and
contrasted to the local heat demand to estimate the sustainable temperatures. This network has a total length of approx. 1230 km
potential. For this procedure, the Python based tool GeoEnPy is and supplies over 30% of Vienna’s households with energy for
developed and applied. heating and domestic hot water [62,63].
Areal data comprises WFSs, shapefiles and raster datasets. The
2. Materials and methods heating demand (HD) was provided as a WFS in form of hexagonal
polygons of 8657 m2 each. The assessment of the HD involves the
2.1. Study site present and future heating demand, both expressed in MWh per
year and hexagon. The heating demand of the present building
Vienna, the capital of Austria, consists of 23 districts with a total stock was determined based on the construction period, building
size of 415 km2 (Fig. 1) and is located at the easternmost extension height, building use, gross floor area and heating degree days. The
of the Alps and at the western margin of the Vienna Basin. future heating demand refers to the OIB-RL6 standards and as-
Hydrogeological areas with their distinct groundwater conditions sumes that all buildings are thermally refurbished [64]. A detailed
are oriented parallel to the river Danube, which splits the city into description of the heating demand assessment is given by Ref. [65].
an eastern and western part. From the Danube floodplains in the Daily air temperature measurements were collected and interpo-
east to the Wienerwald in the west, so from the younger to the lated by the Central Institute for Meteorology and Geodynamics
older strata, the following four hydrogeological zones can be [66]. The interpolation explicitly takes into account the topo-
distinguished: Holocene and Pleistocene gravel units, Miocene graphical characterization of the measurement location. The GBA
unconsolidated sediments of the Vienna Basin, and Alpine bedrock supplied average air temperatures from 2006 to 2016 as WFS with a
(Figure C.14). The Holocene gravel units of the Danube plain form a spatial resolution of 1 km by 1 km. By combining air temperature
continuous, porous aquifer with a high permeability and an average with an offset depending on the surface material, the ground sur-
thickness of 7e14 m [54]. The gravel units at the bed valleys of face temperature (GST) is estimated [46]. The different offsets for
2
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

Fig. 1. Location of Vienna, its 23 urban districts and measuring sites for groundwater temperature (GWT) and groundwater level (GW level).

grass, asphalt, bare soil and sand were determined by De decek et al. The digital elevation model (DEM) is available as a raster data
[67] and adapted to the land use categories described in the Urban file with a resolution of 1 m  1 m. Additional data, such as sewage
Atlas [68]. Continuous and discontinuous urban fabric make up 27% water temperature or heat loss rate of the DH system, as well as all
of Vienna’s land use, whereas 22% are covered by green urban areas input layers with their type, value, unit and source are listed in
and forest. The distribution of Vienna’s land use categories and the Table D.5.
matching temperature offsets according to De decek et al. [67] are
summarised in Table D.6.
Further areal data in the form of shapefiles are building and 2.3. Methods
tunnel footprints, surface water, hydro- and geological data, as
well as geothermal potential maps. The geothermal potential 2.3.1. Calculation of the anthropogenic heat flux and flow
maps of borehole heat exchangers (BHE) and groundwater heat The simulation of the vertical anthropogenic heat fluxes into the
pumps (GWHP) give an overview on attractive locations by unsaturated zone is based on the method described by Benz et al.
pointing out whether and for which type of use a location is [46]. The heat flux q and heat flow Q calculation is accomplished on
suitable. A detailed description of the assessment for both a regular grid with a 25 m by 25 m grid cell size, and comprises five
geothermal potential maps can be found in Go € tzl et al. [69]. About steps (Fig. 2). The spatial analysis of all five steps is implemented in
30% of the city area of Vienna are ideally suited for the use of the Python tool GeoEnPy. GeoEnPy applies Python with the site
shallow geothermal energy. Especially east of the Danube River, package ArcPy to trigger and run functions from the ArcGIS toolbox.
for example in the rapidly growing districts 21 and 22, one can It was specifically developed for this study to evaluate the average
expect high yields from thermal groundwater use. The potential annual anthropogenic heat input and shallow geothermal potential
maps for BHEs do not show an actual power potential in form of an of Vienna’s subsurface. It can be applied to other cities as long as
amount of energy per area and time unit, but rather express the basic data such as groundwater temperature, groundwater level,
potential as thermal conductivity (in W/m/K) for different depth information about surface material and building footprints are
layers. The potential map of the geothermal use of groundwater available. The first two steps prepare the input data, and steps three
displays the maximum thermal power of a single well system. to five calculate the heat flux and flow.
Within each of the 14 hydrologically homogeneous areas, the In the first step, the GWT and GW level data from 2007 to 2016
thermal potential primarily reflects the hydraulically effective are averaged and interpolated in ArcGIS using ordinary kriging. The
thickness of the aquifers. The estimated well performance to resulting raster has a resolution of 25 m  25 m (Figure C.16), which
assess the thermal power is based on the assumption of a is consistent with the size of the grid layer. In the second step, all
maximum cooling or warming of the extracted groundwater by input layers are linked to one another and combined in different
5 K and considers only the top groundwater body. compositions according to the seven individual heat sources. These
combined layers are the basis for the anthropogenic heat flux q and
3
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

Fig. 2. Workflow of the calculation of the heat flux and the heat supply rate including the anthropogenic heat flux model with its input data and anthropogenic heat sources. List of
used abbreviations: hexagon area (Ahex ¼ 8657 m2), area of the anthropogenic heat source (As), digital elevation model (DEM), district heating (DH), temperature difference (DT),
technical geothermal potential (E), ground surface temperature (GST), groundwater (GW), groundwater temperature (GWT), heating demand (H), thermal conductivity (l), land use
(LU), aquifer thickness (m), porosity (p), total heat flux (q), heat flux per heat source (qs ), heat flow (Q), heat supply rate (S) and air temperature (Tair).

heat flow Q calculation in the third step. The anthropogenic heat

g 
flux q represents the conductive heat transport from the heat Ts
TGW þ dTGW
source to the groundwater surface and is described by Fourier’s qgs g
¼ ðl þ dlÞ,
g  g (1)
dGW þ ddGW
ds
Law: jqj ¼ l,DT=Dd, where l is the thermal conductivity, DT is the
difference in temperature and Dd the distance between two points. The resulting qgs represents the average heat flux as energy per
As shown in Eq. (1), Fourier’s Law is adapted to each heat source square meter per grid cell g and heat source s. Ts is the respective
g
except for the DH system. Advective heat transport is not consid- temperature of the heat source s, TGW is the GWT, lg is the thermal
ered in this study, since there are no data available for leakage rates conductivity and dgGW as well as dgs the depth of the groundwater
of the sewage or district heating network.
table and the heat source in the specific grid cell g. In order to

4
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

account for spatial variability, Eq. (1) is evaluated for the respective Based on the input data listed in Table D.5, an DT ¼ 1K isotherm for
heat source s and within each grid cell g. In order to account for each hydrogeological unit is evaluated (Figure C.17). For simplicity,
uncertainty in terms of measurement accuracy and parameter and because the heating demand is given per hexagon, the number
uncertainty, a Monte Carlo simulation is carried out. For this, Eq. (1) of possible BHEs and GWHPs per grid cell g are summed up to
is evaluated over 1000 iterations, where dl, dTGW and ddGW reflect obtain the maximum feasible number of system installations per
the uncertainties of the thermal conductivity, GWT and GW level. hexagon h.
The anthropogenic heat flux from the DH network considers the The product of the number of BHE nhBHE , a BHE length l of 150 m
percentage of downward directed heat flux P and the heat loss rate (best practice by GBA) and the average heat extraction rate qhBHE or
L for the primary and secondary DH pipes with a diameter DDH :
qhBHEh yields the technical geothermal potential EBHE or EBHEh . In
L,P contrast, EGWHP is the product of the number of well pairs nhGWHP
qgDH ¼ (2)
DDH and the average GWHP potential qhGWHP per hexagon h.
Eq. (2) is applied for each grid cell g having an intersection with In a third step, the heat supply rates SBHE , SBHEh and SGWHP are
a DH pipe. calculated for each hexagon h:
In the fourth step, the individual heat fluxes from each heat
P g As qhBHE ,l,nhBHE ,t,COP
source are added up to obtain the total heat flux qtot ¼ qs , Ag per ShBHE ¼ ,100 (3a)
ðCOP
1Þ,Hh
grid cell. Here, As and Ag are the areas of the heat source and grid
cell, respectively.
In the last step, the heat flow Q of the entire city area of Vienna is qhGWHP ,nhGWHP ,t,COP
ShGWHP ¼ ,100 (3b)
calculated. For this, the heat flux qgs Eq. (1) and (2) are multiplied ðCOP
1Þ,Hh
with the source area. The sum of these products gives the total
The heat supply rates [%] consider an operation time t of 1800 h/
vertical ground heat flow of Vienna for the anthropogenic heat
a and coefficient of performance (COP) of 4. The heat supply rates
sources considered and expressed in PJ/a.
are evaluated for a heating demand H referring to the current
building stock in the hexagon and for a future scenario in which all
2.3.2. Calculation of the technical geothermal potential and heat building have been thermally refurbished according to the OIB-RL6
supply rate standards of Austria [64].
The following procedure for estimating the technical Furthermore, the ratio between total annual heat flow Q and
geothermal potential and the heat supply rate is in line with the heating demand H is defined as theoretical sustainable potential.
evaluation steps described by Tissen et al. [49]. However, for the
present study of Vienna, no data for domestic hot water demand is
available, so the heat supply rate S is defined as ratio of the tech- 3. Results and discussion
nical geothermal potential E to space heating demand H. The
technical geothermal potential is evaluated in several steps, before 3.1. Anthropogenic heat flux
the heat supply rates for borehole heat exchanger (SBHE , SBHEh ) and
groundwater heat pump (SGWHP ) systems are calculated in an The computed anthropogenic heat flux (AHF) q of all seven in-
additional step. dividual heat sources and the total heat flux show a significant
To calculate heat supply rates for BHE systems (SBHE , SBHEh ), the spatial variability (Figure C.18). The highest mean heat flux origi-
geothermal potential, expressed as thermal conductivity [57], first nates from underground carparks (15.38 ± 5.20 W/m2) and DH
has to be transformed into a specific standard qBHE and raised qBHEh systems (13.67 ± 1.91 W/m2). Whereas the smallest positive me-
heat extraction rate. The transformation is conducted in two dian heat flux rate is caused by elevated GST (0.11 ± 0.01 W/m2) and
different ways. On the one hand, the Swiss Norm SIA 384/6 [70] is buildings (2.58 ± 2.15 W/m2). Tunnels have a negative mean heat
employed to deduce the standard heat extraction rate qBHE for a flux (
1.13 ± 0.09 W/m2). However, these results are based on two
thermal conductivity value. On the other hand, higher heat tunnels with a length of just 2.1 km and 0.21 km, respectively, and
extraction rates qBHEh due to groundwater flow are considered and efficient ventilation systems. Hence, it is assumed that the mean
the specific heat extraction rates by VDI 4640 part 2 [71] are applied annual air temperature inside and outside of the tunnels are equal,
for the individual rock types of the aquifers. and therefore cooler than the mean GWTs. Thus, tunnels act as heat
The first step of the evaluation is a spatial analysis that yields the sinks and cool the urban underground when multi-annual mean
available space for the installation of BHE and GWHP systems. Here, temperatures are used for assessment. Seasonal patterns might
a buffer of 2 m is placed around each building, tunnel and under- differ.
ground carpark, as well as a smaller buffer of 1 m around each Benz et al. [32,46] also calculated the anthropogenic heat flux by
subsurface supply pipe [72]. The buffer zones are merged and applying Fourier’s Law in the two German cities, Karlsruhe and
subtracted from the total city area to obtain the available space for Cologne, as well as in Osaka, Japan. In the German cities the DH
geothermal system installation. system causes the highest AHF, with the mean heat flux by the DH
In a second step, this available space is filled with BHE and system in Karlsruhe being four times larger than in Vienna. One
GWHP systems considering technology-specific spacings. In case of reason for this difference is the generally low heat loss of Vienna’s
BHEs, the spacing is 10 m (best practice by GBA). In case of GWHP DH network, which is reported to be below the average heat loss
systems, the well space is defined as maximum extension of the rate of European DH networks [73]. The mean heat flux by buildings
thermal plume for a temperature reduction DT by 1 K. A detailed in Vienna is in good accordance with the results for Karlsruhe (3.61
description of the plume evaluation is given by Tissen et al. [49]. ± 3.37 W/m2), yet higher than in Cologne (0.57 ± 0.25 W/m2) and

5
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

Fig. 3. Map of the total average anthropogenic heat flux q per grid (25 m by 25 m resolution) (a) and boxplots of the total and individual anthropogenic heat flows Q (b). Mean
values are indicated by a white dot.

Osaka (0.32 ± 0.18 W/m2). In contrast, relatively high heat fluxes of

5.9e8.0 W/m2 are reported for buildings in Basel, Switzerland [33].
This wide range of heat flux values from buildings in different cities
is mainly due to differences in ground thermal conductivity,
groundwater flow velocity, insulation and temperatures in build-
ings, and whether basements are within the un- or saturated zone
[32,33,74,75].
The sum of all seven AHFs per grid cell, the total heat flux, is
displayed in Fig. 3a. In general, areas with shallower groundwater
(GW) have a higher AHF. The shallowest depth to water table is
along the Danube River and the old Danubian channel, as well as
close to small streams in the north-western parts (Fig. 1). Here the
total heat flux is above 3 W/m2. Moreover, GST also significantly
influences the total heat flux (Figure C.19). In green urban areas and
forests (Wiener Wald) the total heat flux is negative, with GWT
being higher than GST, and thus the groundwater releases heat
towards the ground surface. In contrast, regions with sealed sur-
faces and a high building density in continuous and discontinuous
urban fabrics represent areas of a high total (downward) heat flux.
The mean total heat flux per pixel is 5.22 ± 0.82 W/m2. The
mean heat flux per pixel without underground carparks, tunnels
and subway system is 1.07 ± 0.32 W/m2, which is in good accor-
dance with the mean heat flux per pixel in Karlsruhe with 1.10 ±
0.73 W/m2 [46]. A main reason for this is that the average
groundwater depth below the surface in Vienna (6.2 m) is similar to
the one given for Karlsruhe (5.4 m). In contrast, for the city of Co-
logne, where the mean water table is around 10 m below surface,
the total heat flux is only 0.39 ± 0.12 W/m2.
Locally, underground carparks and subway tunnels have the
largest anthropogenic heat impact, yet on city scale the bulk
contribution of these features is smallest. The highest heat flow
over the entire city area arises from buildings (12.65 ± 6.45 PJ/a)
and increased GST (2.41 ± 1.21 PJ/a), whereas the lowest heat flow
originates from underground carparks (0.02 ± 0.01 PJ/a) and tun- Fig. 4. Comparison of the current (unref.) and future (ref.) heating demand (HD) with
nels (
4.48 ± 0.36 TJ/a) (Fig. 3b). The high standard deviations of the total mean anthropogenic heat flow and the mean technical geothermal potentials
the total heat flow values here reflect the interplay of parameter of borehole heat exchanger with standard (BHE) and higher (BHEh) heat extraction
rate, and groundwater heat pump (GWHP) systems. Uncertainties are given as stan-
uncertainty in the calculation of the heat flows and the spatial
dard deviation, except for the heating demand for which no uncertainty is given.
variability over the study area (Figure C.18, C.19). Buildings and

6
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

sealed ground cover 14% and 82% of the area of Vienna, whereas the the ground, as a depth of 150 m is assumed for the study case of
twelve underground carparks and the two tunnels only account for Vienna. In comparison, GWHPs extract heat from typically layered
0.01% and 0.03% of Vienna’s area, respectively. Consequently, the aquifers of lower thickness and thus induce broader thermal
diffuse heat input in cities not only depends on the heat flux and its anomalies [49,78].
governing factors (such as basement depth and temperature), but Hence, the difference between theoretical and technical
on the large scale mainly on the size of the heat source. Menberg geothermal potential is just a matter of optimising the system
et al. [76] and [Benz et al. 46, 32] also identified buildings and spacing and technical method of energy extraction from the
increased GST as main contributors to the annual ground heat flow ground, while taking care of a sustainable management of this
and heat anomalies beneath Karlsruhe, Cologne and Osaka. resource. Sustainability could be achieved if the annual anthropo-
genic heat input was recycled by BHE and/or GWHP applications. In
fact, for 1.8% of the hexagons the anthropogenic heat flow is larger
3.2. Sustainable and technical geothermal potential than the technical geothermal potential, and for 14% of the hexa-
gons even larger than the heating demand of unrefurbished
The calculated anthropogenic heat flow indicates a continuous buildings.
heat input into the subsurface throughout the year. In principle, this
means that an annual amount of 17.6 ± 6.99 PJ/a can be used by
geothermal technologies to sustainably satisfy Vienna’s heating 3.3. Heat supply rate
demand. Considering a steady-state system and neglecting the
impact of increasing heat flow in case of decreasing GWT, on The comparison of the technical geothermal potential and the
average 37.7% of the current heating demand, and actually 99.5% of heating demand leads to the heat supply rate. The average BHE heat
the future heating demand (in case of thermally refurbished supply rate per district is 12%e180% before and 35%e427% after
buildings) could be supplied sustainably (Fig. 4). Differing values for refurbishment. So in 7 or rather 14 out of 23 districts the average
the sustainable potential, expressed as the ratio between available BHE potential is higher than the average heating demand before or
energy from heat flow Q to heating demand H, were reported by after refurbishment, respectively. The highest GWHP heat supply is
[Benz et al. 46, 32] for Karlsruhe (32%) and Cologne (9%) in Ger- located in the southern parts of district 10 and reaches 34% in case
many, and smaller rates between 3% and 5% in Osaka, Japan. The of unrefurbished and 83% in case of refurbished buildings (Fig. 5).
sustainable potential as it is computed here gives an indication of The BHE heat supply rate per hexagon is above 100% in 64% and
how much heat is annually recharged from the surface and could be 82% of all hexagons before and after refurbishment, respectively.
utilized theoretically. However, it includes neither the presently Looking at these rates for the hexagons on district level, reveals that
stored heat, nor the additional geothermal heat flux from below, the outer districts 14, 21 and 22 are more likely to yield a heat
which are both part of the sustainably extractable energy. The supply rate above 100% than the inner-city districts 4, 7 and 8
computed values here can therefore be considered as a lower (Fig. 5c). This spatial distribution of the BHE heat supply rates ex-
boundary of the full sustainable potential. Moreover, they are also hibits a radial pattern with increasing supply rates from the city
conservative estimates, as ground heat extraction enhances the centre towards the outer districts, illustrated by the heat supply
heat flux towards cooled ground regions. Finally, sustainable heat map in Fig. 5a. The lower heat supply rates in the inner districts
extraction rates could be also increased by recharging the ground in (1e9) are attributed to a larger gross floor area, higher population
the summer season using heat release from geothermal cooling and building density, leading to less available space for system in-
systems or waste heat. stallations. Moreover, old buildings from the “Gründerzeit” epoch
Considering the thermal energy stored in the Quaternary aquifer (19th century) in the city centre have a high heating demand. In
[48], a GWT reduction of 5 K would yield an amount of thermal contrast, in the outer districts (11, 14, 19, 21, 22, 23) with discon-
energy that is 1.2 and 3.1 times larger than the respective heating tinuous urban fabric, heating demand is lower and also more space
demands. is available for geothermal systems. Dochev and Peters [79] also
In contrast, the technical geothermal potential of all GWHP conclude in their study that the heat supply rate depends more on
systems operating for 1800 h/a is ten times smaller than the the heating demand, than on geological conditions. They also
theoretical geothermal potential. Due to the large system spacing of obtain similar values for the heat supply rate (below 75%) in central
25 me176 m, the total number of GWHP is limited and conse- areas of the city of Hamburg, Germany. In their study on the
quently, only a small fraction of the stored energy can be harnessed theoretical geothermal potential of the city of Ludwigsburg, Ger-
by GWHPs each year. In total, solely 11% and 29% of the heating many, Schiel et al. [52] also pointed out that it is more likely to meet
demand before and after refurbishment can be satisfied by GWHP the heating demand in residential areas.
systems. For 9% (unrefurbishment) and 22% (refurbishment) of all hexa-
The technical geothermal potential of BHE applications on the gons (Fig. 2), the GWHP supply is above 100%. In contrast to the
other hand shows more promising results. A higher heat extraction pronounced radial distribution of the BHE heat supply rate, the
rate (scenario BHEh) even increases the potential by further 7.6%. GWHP supply rate shows no distinct spatial distribution (Fig. 5b).
After refurbishment the geothermal potential exceeds the heating The likelihood of achieving a heat supply rate above 100% is higher
demand by a factor of two. Thus, in the current state 68% of Vienna’s in district 2, 10 and 11 in the south than in the inner and eastern
heating demand could be supplied by BHE. BHEs are assumed to be district 7, 21 and 22 (Fig. 5c). As stated above, the GWHP potential,
installed with a much higher density of systems than GWHP and and so the heat supply rate (Fig. 5c), are mainly influenced by the
thus the vertical ground heat flux can be exploited more efficiently. GWHP spacing and the number of potential GWHP systems, as well
However, in reality adjacent BHEs may interfere and thus as the hydrogeological conditions (Figure C.20). The aquifer east of
compromise the efficiency of heat extraction [47,77]. Yet, the cur- the Danube River (district 21 and 22) is the most productive aquifer
rent approach does not consider the efficiency of the geothermal with the highest yield. Given the large extension of the induced
technologies due to lack of data. Also, BHEs utilize large volumes of thermal plumes, the spacing between the systems is large here

7
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

Fig. 5. The maps display the spatial distribution of the heat supply rate referring to the heating demand of unrefurbished (unref.) buildings for borehole heat exchanger (BHE) (a)
and groundwater heat pump (GWHP) systems (b). The bar graph shows the percentage of hexagons with a heat supply rate above 100% for all 23 districts (Fig. 1) and a heating
demand referring to un- (unref.) and refurbished (ref.) buildings (c). Scenario BHEh considers partly higher heat extraction rates due to groundwater flow.

Fig. 6. Spatial distribution of the average heat supply rate per district for borehole heat exchangers (BHE) (a) and groundwater heat pumps (GWHP) (b) assuming that all buildings
are thermally refurbished (ref.). The numbers within each district refer to the sustainable geothermal potential in percent. The circles indicate areas with potential for settlement
development [81], where the district heating system (DH) is already partly expanded (orange) or no DH system (magenta) exists. Circle size represents the potential for settlement
development (smallest circle: building design of 460 housing units, largest circle: building design of 9400 housing units. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

8
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

(176 m), and therefore, fewer installations are possible leading to development potential, provide support for an easy assessment of
the lowest total supply rate of Vienna. This finding appears to feasibility and integration of geothermal system in local urban
contradict the fact that this areas have the most productive aquifer, energy planning.
yet the extension of the thermal plume increases with groundwater
flow velocity or pumping rate [78]. In future studies, the definition 4. Conclusion
of GWHP spacing based on temperature plumes has to be recon-
sidered, so that the technical geothermal potential can be increased For this study, the Python and ArcGIS based tool GeoEnPy was
and approach the theoretical geothermal potential of the aquifer. developed and applied to the city of Vienna to compute the
For this purpose more GWT, ground water level and flow velocity anthropogenic heat flux and flow into the urban subsurface, the
data are required, especially west of the Danube River, to improve technical geothermal potential for closed and open-loop systems,
spatial interpolation and the estimation of temperature plumes. In the sustainable potential, as well as the heat supply rate. Parameter
addition, a numerical heat transport model could be developed to uncertainties and spatial variability were assessed by performing
optimise the use of the groundwater. Monte Carlo simulation. With GeoEnPy the most attractive loca-
tions for BHE and GWHP systems in Vienna with respect to existing
3.4. Key locations for shallow geothermal use heating infrastructure were identified. GeoEnPy relies on basic
hydrogeological and city data, such as building stock and subsur-
Areas with a high heat supply rate as well as a high theoretical face infrastructure information, and can therefore also be applied to
sustainable potential are the key locations for shallow geothermal other cities. To extend the geospatial analysis of GeoEnPy to a
use. Here, the heating demand could be met with BHE or GWHP spatio-temporal analysis, seasonal and annual variations in heat
systems. Additionally, the extracted energy is for a large part and also cooling demands, as well as heat flow could be integrated
compensated by the anthropogenic heat input. Solely city blocks in future studies. Furthermore, the theoretical sustainable and
without district heating are considered for the identification of key technical geothermal potential could be combined to investigate
locations, so that a competition with heat supply by district heating how much of the annual heat input could be technically extracted
is avoided (Fig. 6). The DH network concentrates on the city centre, by BHE or GWHP.
so that the DH-free areas are located in the outer districts, which The suburban districts 10, 12, 22 and 23 achieve high heat
conveniently also have the highest heat supply rates before refur- supply rates and the highest sustainable potential. Hence, these
bishment. Except for district 15, all districts show an average BHE areas are the key locations for geothermal use in Vienna. In general,
heat supply rate above 100%. District 21 and 22 only have a GWHP BHE systems achieve a higher supply rate than GWHP systems and
are thus more attractive, due to the smaller spacing between the
supply rate of maximum 7%, however the southern parts of district
10 and 11 achieve a supply rate above 55%. The average sustainable individual systems. The overall annual heat flow from anthropo-
genic heat sources in these four districts is 53% of the current
potential per districts ranges between 8% and 58%. Epting et al. [80]
compared the waste heat, defined as higher GWT due to the heat heating demand. By extracting only this annually recharged ther-
input by buildings and reinjection of cooling water, to the heating mal energy, a cooling of the ground and long-term reduction in
demand of Basel, Switzerland. They concluded that for 30% of the system efficiency could be avoided. A further increase in efficiency
area the waste heat is sufficient to satisfy the heat demand. In and sustainability could be achieved by storing thermal energy in
Vienna, a sustainable potential above 100% is obtained for 15% of the subsurface, e.g. through borehole thermal energy storage
the area without a district heating system. After refurbishment or (BTES) or aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) systems and/or a
for newly constructed low-energy buildings, the heat supply rate combination with solar collectors. The illustration of the high
and sustainable potentials are even more propitious. For a heating geothermal and sustainable potentials, especially in case of closed-
demand reduced by 62%, a heat supply rate above 100% is achiev- loop systems at the urban fringe, should encourage and support
able for 97% (BHE) and 26% (GWHP) of the hexagons. Additionally, urban planners, energy agencies and public authorities to incor-
over one third of the hexagons delineate a sustainable potential porate shallow geothermal energy in future urban development.
above 100%. These vast potentials are valuable assets for Vienna’s
urban energy development plans. Data availability
The circles on the maps in Fig. 6 indicate the different potentials
of settlement development described in Vienna’s new urban Data sets related to this article can be found at https://digitales.
development plan called STEP 2025 [82]. The plan comprises 480 to wien.gv.at/site/open-data/ and are also listed in Table D.5 in the
9400 new housing units in areas all over Vienna [81]. So far no supplementary information of this article.
(magenta circles) or only short branches (orange circles) of the DH
system reach into these areas. Accordingly, shallow geothermal Author’s contribution
systems are revealed to be the ideal decentralised, renewable en-
ergy resource for these new housing units. The eastern and CT acquired and analysed the data as well as wrote the manu-
southern districts comprise the majority of the potential areas for script. SB, KM, PBl and PBa provided scientific supervision and
settlement development. Moreover, here are also the areas with the guidance for the research. Valuable revisions of the manuscript
highest BHE heat supply rate and sustainable potential. In regard to were made by SB, KM, PBl, PBa, CS and GG. CS also acquired data
the smaller system spacing in the south-western city area, district and established contact to local authorities for data interchange. All
2, 10 and 11 are the most suitable areas for GWHP systems authors read and approved the final manuscript.
(Figure C.17). In the southern part of district 10, 5850 new housing
units are planned in an area without a DH system and a high supply Declaration of competing interest
rates. The mere coincidence and winning combination of the three
high potentials, namely geothermal, sustainable and settlement The authors declare that they have no known competing

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C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

financial interests or personal relationships that could have Abbreviation

appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
AHF anthropogenic heat flux
BHE borehole heat exchangers
DEM digital elevation model
Acknowledgments DH district heating
GBA Geological Survey of Austria
The authors are grateful for data exchange with Wiener Linien, GIS geographic information system
Wien Energie, Technische Universita €t Wien and ZAMG (Zen- GSHP ground source heat pump
tralanstalt für Meteorologie und Geodynamik). The authors GW groundwater
particularly thank Bernd Kowaschitz and Thilo Lehmann from Wien GWHP groundwater heat pump
Kanal as well as Robert Lauter from Wien Energie for their infor- GWT groundwater temperature
mative conversations regarding sewage water temperature and GST ground surface temperature
heat loss rates of the local district heating network. We gratefully HD heating demand
acknowledge the provision of tunnel data by Julia Della Porta from LU land use
ASFINAG (Autobahnen-und Schnellstraßen-Finanzierungs-Aktien- SUHI subsurface urban heat island
gesellschaft). The authors thank GRACE, the Graduate School for
PhD students of the KIT-Centre Climate and Environment at the Appendix A. Figures
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) and Helmholtz Association
of German Research Centres (HGF) portfolio project “Geoenergy”
(grant number 35.14.01; POF III, LK 01) for funding this work. We
also thank the two reviewers for their comments.

Figure A.7
€ tzl et al. [69]). The striped zone indicates the area without groundwater heat pump (GWHP) installations in this study.
Hydrogeological zones of Vienna (adapted from Go

10
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

Figure A.8
Location of iButtons to measure the air temperature in basements and underground carparks.

11
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

Figure A.9
Interpolated mean groundwater (GW) level (a) and groundwater temperature (GWT) (b) data from 2007 to 2016. Black points represent the measurement sites. Mean GW levels and
GWT are 163.3 ± 19.1 m and 12.2 ± 1.0  C. Maximum GW level (262.0 m) was measured in the north-western part of Vienna and the lowest (144.2 m) at the Danube River to the west
of Vienna. The site with the highest GWT (14.5  C) is south of the Central station, the site with the lowest GWT (10.2  C) is in a forest north of Vienna. Ordinary kriging incorporating
secondary data such as a digital elevation model (DEM) yielded the most accurate results of all tested geostatistical methods by Ohmer et al. [83]. Accordingly, in this study ordinary
kriging including DEM was applied to interpolate GW level and GWT data. The interpolation of GWT and GW level data may lead to a weak prediction in areas with a low data
density, i.e. a large distance between two measurement sites. A low density of measurement sites occurs in the western city parts, in particular for the GWT. The semivariograms (c,
d) indicate that for distances larger than 14 km and 6 km for GW level and GWT measurements sites, respectively, correlation of the data is less significant.

12
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

Figure A.10
The numbers indicate the maximum plume length of the DT ¼ 1 K isotherm which defines the distance between groundwater heat pump systems. The estimation of the tem-
perature plume extension of the cooled, reinjected water bases on the analytical approach by Kinzelbach [84].

Figure A.11
Boxplots of the spatial variability and uncertainty of the individual anthropogenic heat fluxes. Mean values are indicated with a white dot. Abbreviations: ground surface tem-
perature (GST), district heating system (DH).

13
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

Figure A.12
Results of the spatial variability and uncertainty analysis. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients between the heat flux per pixel and the individual parameters (spatial variability)
and between the heat flow and the individual parameters (parameter uncertainty). Abbreviations: groundwater (GW), groundwater temperature (GWT), ground surface tem-
perature (GST), thermal (th.).

Figure A.13
Results of the spatial variability for borehole heat exchangers (BHEh) with higher heat extraction (HE) rate and groundwater heat pump (GWHP) systems. Spearman’s rank cor-
relation coefficients between the heat supply rate per hexagon and the individual parameters.

Appendix B. Tables

14
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

Table B.1
Input files and parameters with their values, units and sources applied in the Monte Carlo simulation, heat flux and heat supply rate calculation. Abbreviation: borehole heat
exchangers (BHE), district heating (DH), ground surface temperature (GST), groundwater (GW), groundwater heat pump (GWHP), groundwater temperature (GWT), heating
demand (HD).

input files and parameters value unit reference

flux evaluation: ground surface temperature (GST)

area of Vienna shapefile Stadt Wien
thermal conductivity 0e30 m raster W/mK GBA1
thermal conductivity error
0.20, 0.00, 0.20 W/mK Go€ tzl et al. [69]
digital elevation model raster m Stadt Wien

air temperature WFS C ZAMG revised by GBA, GeoPLASMA-CE1
land use shapefile GMES

GWT well data C eHYD

error of GWT measurement
0.10, 0.00, 0.10 C Benz et al. [46]
mean groundwater level well data m eHYD
error of GW level measurement
0.01, 0.00, 0.01 m Benz et al. [46]
surface water shapefile Stadt Wien
bridges shapefile Stadt Wien
flux evaluation: building
building footprints shapefile Stadt Wien

basement temperature 12.90, 15.70, 20.60 C iButton measurement
basement depth below ground 0.00, 2.50, 6.00 m Benz et al. [46]
building: thickness of the floor 0.30 m Benz et al. [46]
distance building e BHE 2.00 m VDI 4640 part 2 [72]
flux evaluation: underground carpark
undergr. carpark footprint shapefile derived from building footprint file

undergr. carpark temperatureture 12.90, 17.50, 21.80 C iButton measurement
undergr. carpark depth shapfile m iButton measurement
undergr. carpark wall thickness 0.30 m Benz et al. [46]
distance carpark e BHE 2.00 m VDI 4640 part 2 [72]
flux evaluation: tunnel
tunnel footprint shapefile Stadt Wien

tunnel temperature WFS C see air temperature
tunnel tube depth below ground 1.00, 1.50, 2.00 m asfinag [85]
tunnel diameter 5.53 m asfinag [85]
tunnel wall thickness 0.80 m asfinag [85]
distance tunnel e BHE 2.00 m VDI 4640 part 2 [72]
flux evaluation: sewage system
sewage network shapefile Wien Kanal

sewage water temperature 14.20, 18.50, 21.50 C Wien Kanal
sewage pipe depth below ground shapefile m Wien Kanal
sewage pipe diameter shapefile m Wien Kanal
pipe wall thickness 0.02, 0.10, 0.32 m Benz et al. [46], Wien Kanal
distance sewer - BHE 1.00 m VDI 4640 part 2 [72]
flux evaluation: subway system
subway network shapefile Stadt Wien

subway temperature 17.30, 19.00, 24.30 C Wiener Linien revised by GBA1
subway tube depth below ground 10.00, 20.00, 30.00 m Wiener Linien [86]
subway tube diameter 6.90, 7.00, 7.30 m Benz et al. [46]
subway tube wall thickness 1.10 m Benz et al. [46]
distance subway e BHE 1.00 m VDI 4640 part 2 [72]
flux evaluation: district heating (DH) system
DH network WFS Wien Energie revised by GBA 1
pipe diameter 0.17, 0.58, 1.00 m Schmidt [87]
heat loss primary network 84.51 W/m Wien Energie2
heat loss secondary network 21.04 W/m Wien Energie2
heat flux directed downwards 25.00, 37.50, 50.00 % Benz et al. [46]
pipe length WFS m Wien Energie revised by GBA1
distance pipe - BHE 1.00 m VDI 4640 part 2 [72]
evaluation of the heat supply rate
HD un-/refurbished buildings WFS MWh/a TU Wien revised by GBA1
coefficient of performance 4.00 Tissen et al. [49]
operation time 1800.00 h VDI 4640 part 2 [72]
heat extraction rate (HE) shapefile W/m Stadt Wien, SIA 384/6 [70]
HE high shapefile W/m Stadt Wien, Erol [88]
HE error shapefile W/m Stadt Wien,
HE high error
5.00, 0.00, 5.00 W/m deduced from therm. conduc. error
BHE length 150.00 m GBA1
BHE spacing 10.00 m GBA1
GWHP potential shapefile kW Stadt Wien
GWHP spacing shapefile m based on: Baden-Württemberg [89], Kinzelbach [84]
evaluation of the GWHP spacing
retardation 2.00 Tissen et al. [49]
vol. heat capacity 2300000.00 J/m3/K GBA1
temperature reduction 5.00 K Go€ tzl et al. [69]
aquifer thickness shapefile m GBA1
(continued on next page)

15
C. Tissen, K. Menberg, S.A. Benz et al. Renewable Energy 167 (2021) 1e19

Table B.1 (continued )

input files and parameters value unit reference

aquifer porosity 20.00 % GBA1

hydraulic conductivity shapefile m/s Umweltbundesamt GmbH [90]
Darcy velocity raster m/s Darcy Velocity Tool3
groundwater flow velocity shapefile m/s based on: Baden-Württemberg [89]
pumping rate shapefile m3/s based on: Baden-Württemberg [89]
longitudinal thermal dispersivity shapefile m based on: Baden-Württemberg [89]
transversal thermal dispersivity shapefile m based on: Baden-Württemberg [89]
1
personal correspondence with Geological Survey of Austria (GBA).
2
personal correspondence with Wien Energie.
3
http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/tools/spatial-analyst-toolbox/darcy-velocity.htm.

Table B.2
de
Land use categories according to the Urban Atlas [68], their coverage rate and add on air temperature defined by De cek et al. [67] for the ground surface temperature
estimation.

land use type surface type add on air temp. [ C] coverage

rate [%]
sand and bare soil grass asphalt min. mode max.

continuous urban fabric (S.L. > 80%) 5 10 85 3.50 3.96 4.43 6.77
discontinuous dense urban fabric (S.L. 50%e80%) 10 25 65 2.80 3.23 3.65 9.07
discontinuous medium density (S.L. 30%e50%) 10 50 40 1.85 2.23 2.60 8.38
discontinuous low density urban (S.L. 10%e30%) 10 70 20 1.09 1.43 1.76 2.48
discontinuous very low density (S.L. < 10%) 10 85 5 0.52 0.83 1.13 0.10
isolated structures 0 0 100 4.00 4.50 5.00 0.10
industrial, commercial, public 5 0 95 3.88 4.36 4.85 12.54
fast transit roads and associated 0 0 100 4.00 4.50 5.00 0.51
other roads and associated land 0 0 100 4.00 4.50 5.00 6.20
railways and associated land 90 0 10 1.75 2.03 2.30 1.61
port areas 25 0 75 3.38 3.81 4.25 0.56
mineral extraction and dump sites 100 0 0 1.50 1.75 2.00 0.33
construction sites 100 0 0 1.50 1.75 2.00 0.55
land without current use 100 0 0 1.50 1.75 2.00 0.51
green urban areas 0 100 0 0.20 0.50 0.80 7.72
sports and leisure facilities 25 50 25 1.48 1.81 2.15 3.73
agricultural areas, semi-natural 50 50 0 0.85 1.13 1.40 17.01
forests 0 100 0 0.20 0.50 0.80 18.28
water 0 0 0 none 3.55

Table B.4
Table B.3 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient r and p-value for the spatial analysis of the
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient r and p-value for the spatial analysis and the heat supply rate.
uncertainty analysis of the heat flux. Abbreviation: district heating (DH), ground
surface temperature (GST), groundwater (GW), groundwater temperature (GWT). parameter r p-value

parameter r p-value borehole heat exchanger BHE

heating demand
0.95 0.00
spatial variability gross floor area 0.94 0.00
GW depth
0.37 0.00 heat extraction 0.34 0.00
GWT 0.29 0.00 heat extraction high 0.21 0.00
th. conductivity
0.35 0.00 nr. of BHE 0.65 0.00
GST 0.67 0.00 aquifer thicknes 0.04 0.00
th. gradient 0.64 0.00 groundwater heat pump GWHP
uncertainty heating demand
0.28 0.00
basement temp. 0.77 0.00 GWHP potential
0.41 0.00
basement depth 0.36 0.00 GWHP spacing
0.50 0.00
undergr. carpark temp. 0.01 0.80 nr. of GWHP 0.60 0.00
tunnel depth
0.05 0.13 aquifer thickness
0.43 0.00
sewage water temp. 0.11 0.00
sewer wall thickness - 0.17 0.00
subway air temp. 0.03 0.31
subway tube diameter 0.02 0.62 References
subway depth 0.04 0.26
DH diameter
0.03 0.33 [1] European Union (EU), Directive (EU) 2018/2001 of the European Parliament
DH flux downwards 0.03 0.35 and of the Council - of 11 December 2018 - on the Promotion of the Use of
error GW level
0.03 0.43 Energy from Renewable Sources, 2018.
error GWT
0.06 0.05 €
[2] Erneuerbare Energie Osterreich, Positionspapier W€
armewende - ein Konzept
error th. conductivity 0.13 0.00 €
des Dachverbandes Erneuerbare Energie Osterreich, Tech. Rep, Wien, URL,

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