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Research in ultrahigh magnetic field physics

Article  in  Physics-Uspekhi · April 2011

DOI: 10.3367/UFNe.0181.201104n.0441

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April 2011 Conferences and symposia 421

59. Chumakov G D et al., in Proc. of the Xth IEEE Intern. Pulsed Power 2. MC-1 cascade generator
Conf., Albuquerque, NM, USA, 1995 A group of researchers at VNIIEF headed by A I Pavlovskii
60. Andreev N F et al. Kvantovaya Elektron. 34 381 (2004) [Quantum
proposed and realized a number of concepts supplementing
Electron. 34 381 (2004)]
61. Arbuzov V I et al. Opt. Zh. 70 (5) 68 (2003) [J. Opt. Technol. 70 361 and developing the magnetic cumulation idea and solved the
(2003)] problem of the reproducible generation of UHMFs.
62. Voronich I N et al. Kvantovaya Elektron. 35 140 (2005) [Quantum First, it was proposed to make the shells of the MC-1
Electron. 35 140 (2005)] generator from a material with a controllable electrical
63. Kryukov P G Kvantovaya Elektron. 31 95 (2001) [Quantum Electron. conduction. Such a material in the initial state is either
31 95 (2001)] completely nonconducting or conducts current only in one
64. Piskarskas A, Stabinis A, Yankauskas A Usp. Fiz. Nauk 150 127
direction. At the required instant, a shock wave is passed
(1986) [Sov. Phys. Usp. 29 869 (1986)]
65. Andreev N F et al. Pis'ma Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 79 178 (2004) [JETP through the material, making it conducting in all directions.
Lett. 79 144 (2004)] For example, such a material can be produced from closely
packed parallel isolated copper wires glued with an epoxy
compound.
PACS numbers: 07.55.Db, 64.30. ± t, 74.25. ± q Second, unique solenoids of the initial magnetic field in
DOI: 10.3367/UFNe.0181.201104n.0441 the MC-1 generator were constructed in the form of a cylinder
made of a composite material with the internal layer contain-
Research in ultrahigh magnetic ing wires forming a multiple ( 500 entry wires), multilayer
field physics (7±13 winding layers) solenoid (Fig. 1). This made it possible
to reliably obtain high magnetic fluxes and use the solenoid as
a liner: after the passage of a shock wave from an explosive
G V Boriskov, A I Bykov, M I Dolotenko,
charge, the wires are connected up to form a continuous
N I Egorov, Yu B Kudasov, V V Platonov, conducting cylinder capturing and compressing the magnetic
V D Selemir, O M Tatsenko flux [3].
Third, because the high initial magnetic flux in the wire
1. Introduction solenoid provided UHMF generation in large volumes, the
The history of the achievements of the All-Russian Research X-ray diffraction analysis of the longitudinal cross section of
Institute of Experimental Physics (VNIIEF in Russ. abbr.) in the MC-1 generator showed that the magnetic field strength is
the field of ultrahigh magnetic field (UHMF) generation and mainly restricted by the instability of the matter±field inter-
applications in fundamental physical studies begins in 1952, face during the deceleration of the shell by the pressure of the
when Andrey D Sakharov put forward the idea of magnetic strengthened magnetic field [4].
cumulation as one of the possible methods for achieving a Fourth, the cascade principle of magnetic field strength-
controlled thermonuclear reaction [1]. He also proposed two ening was proposed, which removed this restriction, stopped
types of magnetocumulative generators of UHMFs (MC-1) the development of instabilities, and provided the reproduci-
and energy (MC-2) [1, 2]. In the first of them, a special device ble generation of multimegagauss magnetic fields [5, 6]. One
produces the initial axial magnetic field flux in the cavity of a or two cylindrical cascade shells made of the same composite
cylindrical metal shell (liner). A converging detonation wave are located coaxially to the shell solenoid. In the initial state,
is initiated in a circular explosive charge surrounding the liner the cascade shells easily transmit the amplified magnetic field
so that it arrives at the external boundary of the liner at the flux inside, but each time the internal boundary of the liner
instant of time when the initial magnetic field in the liner can lose its stability, the liner is replaced by a new one, which
achieves a maximum. Under the action of pressure of the compresses the magnetic flux when conduction appears in the
detonation products, the liner collapses to the center, cascade material after the impact of one cascades with the
compressing the initial magnetic flux. If the compression is other.
rapid enough, the magnetic flux in the cavity is preserved, and The MC-1 cascade ten-megagauss magnetic field gen-
the magnetic field strength on the liner axis increases inversely erator was developed for many years of research work and
proportionally to the squared radius of the liner, achieving a then produced in batches (see Fig. 1) [7, 8]. The basic
few megagausses. The chemical energy of the explosive is
transformed into the magnetic field energy through the
Solenoid Reverse outlet
kinetic energy of the liner.
Extensive attempts made in many countries to reproduce
UHMFs by the explosive compression of a magnetic flux
revealed unexplainable difficulties in obtaining magnetic
fields exceeding 3 MG, which resulted in the termination of
work in this field.

G V Boriskov, A I Bykov, M I Dolotenko, N I Egorov, Yu B Kudasov,

V V Platonov, V D Selemir, O M Tatsenko Federal State Unitary
Enterprise `Russian Federal Nuclear Center Ð All-Russian Research
Institute of Experimental Physics', Sarov, Nizhny Novgorod region,
Russian Federation. E-mail: selemir@vniief.ru

Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk 181 (4) 441 ± 447 (2011) Figure 1. Appearance of the MC-1 cascade generator prepared for an
DOI: 10.3367/UFNr.0181.201104n.0441 explosion experiment. The inset shows a part of the cross section of the
Translated by M Sapozhnikov; edited by A Radzig solenoid shell of the MC-1 generator.
422 Conferences and symposia Physics ± Uspekhi 54 (4)

parameters of the generator are as follows: the initial internal 4000

diameter of the shell is 139 mm, the explosive mass is 16 kg,
3500 Im
and the initial magnetic field is up to 250 kG. The second and
third cascades of the generator with the internal and external 3000 A
diameters of 28 and 35 mm and 12 and 17 mm, respectively, 2500
can be made of a wire composite or a composite based on a
finely divided metal powder and a polymer binder [9]. 2000
This generator makes up a rather simple and compara- 1500 B
A
tively inexpensive device intended for explosion experiments,
1000
which was adjusted to a device made in large numbers (by C

Admittance, Oÿ1 cmÿ1

now a few hundred such generators has been manufactured) 500
with limiting, record parameters. Relatively large UHMF 0
volumes make it possible to study simultaneously several
samples even at cryogenic temperatures, while the cylindrical 6000
geometry and `transparency' of the magnetic field allow
5000 B
studying matter under extreme conditions applying various C
methods, including optical. This generator was used in 4000
various investigations, in particular, in the international
experiments Dirac in the USA, and Kapitza at the Scientific 3000
A
and Technical Center of High Energy Density Physics of 2000
Directed Radiation Fluxes at VNIIEF [10, 11].
In the `large' MC-1 generator, with approximately 1000 Re
doubled explosive charge dimensions (the explosive mass
was increased approximately eightfold) and built at 0 100 200 300 400 500
VNIIEF, a single-cascade gasdynamic liner-acceleration Magnetic éeld, T
system with a steel striker is utilized and magnetic field
Figure 2. Admittance of YBa2 Cu3 O7ÿx at a frequency of 94 GHz (the grey
strengths of about 20 MG were detected in several experi-
and dark curves are measured by the signal transmission and refection
ments, while in one experiment a record-high magnetic field methods, respectively).
strength of about 28 MG was achieved (the field energy
density was  3 MJ cmÿ3 !) [12]. Experiments with large
generators showed that these experiments are much more predominantly in the viscous flow motion regime. The
complicated and expensive and their cost should be justified disappearance of the imaginary part of the conduction and
by the scientific importance of the studies performed using flattening out of its real part (point C) correspond to the
them. second critical field Bc2 …8  3 K† ˆ 340  40 T.
The study of semiconductors in UHMFs makes it possible
3. Solid state physics in ultrahigh magnetic fields to determine the energy band diagram in the range from a few
Ultrahigh magnetic fields can be efficiently used for solid- dozen to a few hundred meV. Semiconductor samples with
state physics studies. Some results obtained by the authors low carrier mobility or a high concentration of defects or
with the help of UHMFs produced by the MC-1 generator impurities can also be investigated. As a rule, it has been
were presented in reviews [13, 14]. possible to determine in such experiments the effective
Ultrahigh magnetic fields attracted considerable interest electron mass in the conduction band, the Luttinger para-
at once after the discovery of high-temperature superconduc- meters in the valence band, and g factors for electrons and
tivity because high critical temperatures should correspond to holes. All these quantities are functions of the electron energy,
high critical magnetic fields Bc , which are the fundamental which can be determined only in UHMFs. (In weak magnetic
characteristic of the superconducting state. Of interest are fields, it is possible to measure the values of these functions
also phase transitions between different states of the super- corresponding to the band edges because the electron
conducting phase itself (for example, the `vortex glass±vortex cyclotron energy is much smaller than the band width.)
lattice' transition). Our first experiments showed that the The cyclotron resonance in a cubic high-energy-gap GaN
critical field in YBa2 Cu3 O7ÿx at 4.2 K exceeds 200 T [15]. The semiconductor was measured in joint experiments with a
later-developed contactless high-frequency methods for group led by M von Ortenberg of Humboldt University of
measuring the admittance were applied for precision mea- Berlin. This semiconductor is promising for applications in
surements of the conduction of YBa2 Cu3 O7ÿx films in radiation sources. However, its electronic properties in this
UHMFs when the crystallographic c-axis was oriented phase are poorly studied because of the absence of high-purity
perpendicular to the magnetic field vector. These measure- samples and low carrier mobility. Three resonance peaks were
ments were performed in a joint Russian±American series of revealed in magnetic fields of 90, 270, and 410 T, which gave
experiments at VNIIEF and Los Alamos National Labora- the effective masses and dispersion of electronic states [17].
tory [16]. One can see from Fig. 2 that the imaginary part of In quantum-well InGaAs/GaAs heterostructures, the
the film conduction dominated at low temperatures in weak fundamental cyclotron resonance of holes and interband
fields, i.e., vortices were located at the pinning centers. In the magnetoabsorption were studied. These heterostructures
field  75 T (point A), the real part of the conduction began were grown at the Institute of Microstructure Physics,
to rapidly increase, while its imaginary part began to Russian Academy of Sciences (Nizhny Novgorod). When
decrease. This is caused by lattice melting. In fields above transmission is measured at a wavelength of 0.87 mm, which
210 T, only a small part of the pinning vortices remains (the exactly corresponds to the GaAs band gap (quantum energy
conduction has the imaginary part), and the sample is found of 1.425 eV), the sample becomes transparent only in the field
April 2011 Conferences and symposia 423

of 50 T. For the same reason, the sample becomes transparent

40
at 0.83 mm in the field of 150 T, although the calculation 70

Amplitude, rel. units

30
taking exciton effects into account gives 100 T [18]. In
60 20
stronger magnetic fields, absorption bands in the range from

Amplitude, rel. units

10
230 to 350 T were observed. They are caused by transitions 50 0
from the two upper (spin-split) Landau levels in the first hole ÿ10
40
subband to the two lower Landau levels in the first electron ÿ20
subband, and by similar transitions between second subbands 30 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
(shifted by approximately 50 T to the region of the lower Time, mm
20
magnetic fields), taking exciton effects into account. The
same transitions between the first subbands at l ˆ 0:87 mm 10
are responsible for the transmission minimum at 150 T and a
singularity observed at 210 T. The cyclotron absorption line
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
observed in these experiments in the magnetic field B  80 T
Time, mm
can be related to the intersubband cyclotron resonance,
namely, to the transition from the 3a1 upper Landau level of Figure 3. Output signal of an inductive sensor with an FeSi powder at the
holes in the quantum well in the first hole subband to the initial temperature of 4.2 K (solid curve) and the scaled signal of an
inductive field sensor (dashed curve). The inset displays a signal purified
4a3 level belonging to the third subband.
from the background / qB=qt; the arrows show the integration interval
Among the family of low-energy-gap semiconductors, for determining the magnetic moment jump.
iron monosilicide (FeSi) is distinguished by its unusual
properties. For example, the sum rule violation in FeSi is
broadly discussed in optical spectroscopy: metallization with a magnetic field directed along the tetragonal ‰001Š axis. The
increasing temperature occurs much earlier than would be broad susceptibility maxima at Bc  280 and 50 T are related
expected from band calculations, etc. Because the Zeeman to the crossover of the energy levels of Yb3‡ and Pr3‡ ions.
splitting in UHMFs is comparable to the band gap in the Calculations of the isothermal and adiabatic magnetization
spectrum of the s, p, and d electrons in FeSi, equal to 0.11 eV, of YbPO4 made it possible to determine a change in the
those fields exceeding 100 T can drastically restructure the sample temperature during experiments. The sample is first
electronic spectrum and, therefore, can be used as a powerful heated by approximately 25 K and then is cooled by
tool for studying the electronic structure of low-energy-gap approximately 20 K in the region of the crossover fields. The
semiconductors. sign of the `elementary' magnetocaloric effect is determined
The induction method with the use of compensation coils by the sign of the derivative qM=qT jHˆconst .
proved to be very convenient for studying the magnetization Ultrahigh magnetic fields can induce a change in the
in experiments with the MC-1 [19]. The induced signal is valence in some compounds containing Ce, Sm, Eu, Tm,
proportional to the differential magnetization multiplied by and Yb rare-earth ions. Such a behavior of these compounds
the magnetic field growth rate, which achieves a record-high is caused by the location of the 4f level near the Fermi level. In
value in the MC-1 generator ( 106 T sÿ1 ), thus providing the particular, the mixed-valence state appears in EuNi2 Si2 and
high sensitivity of sensors in the entire measurement range. In EuNi2 Ge2 solutions. The 4f 6 Eu3‡ ion in EuNi2 Si2 is
pulsed magnetic fields, diamagnetic currents are induced nonmagnetic, whereas the magnetic moment of the 4f 7 Eu2‡
along with magnetization, which allows the conduction to ion in EuNi2 Ge2 amounts to 7 mB . In EuNi2 …Si1ÿx Gex †2
be measured as well. For this purpose, samples of two types compounds, the valence transition is induced from the
are used: in the form of a pure FeSi powder (a single crystal mostly trivalent-ion state to the mostly bivalent-ion state,
was ground in a porcelain mortar to obtain granules which is accompanied by a jump in the magnetic moment.
 100 mm in size), and in the form of a mixture of a single- The fields of magnetoinduced valence transitions were
crystal powder with polymerized polymethyl methacrylate experimentally determined for these compounds in the range
(single-crystal FeSi granules in a dielectric matrix). of Ge concentrations up to x ˆ 0:5. The critical filed Bc
A sharp peak (Fig. 3) observed in both samples in the linearly grows with decreasing concentration in the entire
magnetic field of 355  20 T at 4.2 K points to the transition concentration range [23].
to the conducting phase [19]. The calculated jump in the The study of the Faraday effect in Tb3 Ga5 O12 terbium
magnetic moment is …0:95  0:2† mB per Fe atom, which gallate garnet (the energy spectrum of its magnetic subsystem
suggests that saturation is achieved due to a single transition has been thoroughly investigated in static fields) in UHMFs,
rather than due to the two successive phase transitions which increase in the MC-1 generator at a rate of 107 ±
predicted in some theoretical papers. 108 T sÿ1 , was performed to determine the value of the
The main subjects of studies in magnetics were spin magnetocaloric effect, which is important from the methodi-
reorientation processes in ultrahigh magnetic fields. Spin- cal point of view. It was shown that the sample temperature
flip and spin-flop transitions in MnF2 , KMnF3 , and FeBO3 during the adiabatic magnetization in a field of 75 T reached
antiferromagnetics and the step magnetization curve of a 35 K and no unexpected increase in the temperature occurred
multisublattice Ho0:7 Y2:3 Fe5 O12 magnet were studied in in pulsed magnetic fields [23].
Ref. [20]. A magnetic field can distort the electronic structure
of the ground state, resulting in induced band magnetism. 4. Isentropic compression of matter
The level crossover in the paramagnetic YbPO4 , TmPO4 , by the ultrahigh magnetic field pressure
ErVO4 , and PrVO4 zircons was studied by the induction The investigation of the behavior of materials, first and
method at 4.2 K in magnetic fields of up to 400 T [21, 22]. foremost their equations of state, at ultrahigh pressures is
Figure 4 depicts the experimental and theoretical depen- one of the interesting problems of high energy density physics
dences of the magnetic susceptibility dM=dH for YbPO4 for [24, 25]. Of special interest here is the low-temperature region,
424 Conferences and symposia Physics ± Uspekhi 54 (4)

2.0 0.02
a b
YbPO4 [001] PrVO4 [001]
1.6 ì experiment ì experiment

ì calculation, y ˆ 0 ì calculation,
1.2
ì calculation, y ˆ 5 yˆ0
dM= dH, rel. units

dM= dH, rel. units

0.8
0.01

0.4

ÿ0.4
0

ÿ0.8
0 100 200 300 400 0 50 100 150
Magnetic éeld, T Magnetic éeld, T

Figure 4. Dependences of the differential susceptibility dM=dH for YbPO4 (a) and PrVO4 (b) for a magnetic field oriented near the tetragonal ‰001Š axis
(y is the reorientation angle).

which is important not only, for example, for understanding temperature superconductivity of its metal phase [34], the
the structure and evolution of giant planets, but also for temperature maximum in the melting curve [35±37], and the
verifying fundamental theoretical concepts. existence of a two-component superfluid and superconduct-
High and ultrahigh pressures are produced by two basic ing liquid [38].
methods, static and dynamic, which supplement each other. The method that we apply is based on a compression
In statics, the regime of isothermal compression is realized, as device containing an MC-1 magnetocumulative generator [7],
a rule, at comparatively low temperatures (T < 1000 K) [26]; a cylindrical compression chamber [39], and a cryogenic
the equations of state are studied at static pressures below device [40] (Fig. 5). The compression chamber is formed by
1.5 Mbar to avoid the destruction of samples. (In addition, a thick-walled copper compressing tube and massive end
the growth of pressure is limited by the strength of the anvil caps. The standard sample and sample under study are
material.) On the other hand, the temperature can reach a few located coaxially under the compressing tube (at the center).
dozen thousand degrees in the dynamic shock-wave regime, The cryogenic device, containing a liquid helium vessel and an
but in this case the `cold' pressure does not exceed even evacuated cryoduct, is destined for preliminary cooling the
0.5 Mbar (see, for example, Ref. [27]). Another dynamic gas under study to the solid state (T0  5 K). Under the action
method is the isentropic compression of matter in a chamber of the excess pressure produced in the helium vessel, helium
whose external surface is subjected to the action of a uniform, rises upward through the cryoduct and gradually cools the
gradually increasing external pressure [28]. The thermal compression chamber together with its content. During the
component of the total pressure, unlike that in the shock- discharge of a high-power capacitor bank to the generator
wave method, will be considerably smaller as in the static solenoid in its cavity, in the gap between the solenoid and
method, than the cold component, and at a low initial compressing tube, an initial magnetic flux is produced. The
temperature of a material under study its isentrope will be magnetic field in the gap is increased up to a few megagausses
close to the zero isotherm. At present, the characteristics of during the operation of the MC-1 generator and exerts a
substances in the region of low temperatures and ultrahigh uniform magnetic pressure B 2 =8p on the external surface of
(multimegabar) pressures can be efficiently determined only the compression chamber. As a result, the chamber tube
by the isentropic compression method. The properties of collapses without the generation of shock waves and
materials in this region are studied at VNIIEF by the method compresses (for  15 ms) the materials inside it up to a few
of isentropic compression by ultrahigh magnetic field pressure megabars.
[29, 30]. The experimental results obtained by this method are An important and substantial part of the studies is the
mainly related to the construction of zero isotherms of the numerical simulation of processes proceeding in the com-
hydrogen isotopes Ð protium and deuterium. (Notice, by the pression device with the help of applied program packages
way, that researchers at VNIIEF were among the first to developed at VNIIEF [41±43]. One of the main goals of
study hydrogen at ultrahigh pressures [31±33].) simulations is to determine the compression chamber
Interest in studying the thermodynamic and kinetic geometry and initial dimensions and the initial field of the
properties of hydrogen is not accidental and is caused by MC-1 generator that would provide minimal pressure
the wide abundance of hydrogen in the Universe and its gradients in the working region of the compression
practical importance as one of the basic elements for future chamber. The results of calculations were also used in the
energy production. In addition, a number of unusual, exotic development of the X-ray diffraction method for measuring
properties of hydrogen have been predicted: the high- the dimensions [44]. Finally, the calculated results are also
April 2011 Conferences and symposia 425

1 ì experiment [54, 55]

7 a
ì approximating curve
2 ì extrapolation of results
4 3 6 obtained with anvils [56]
5
ì data of Refs [31, 33]
5 (calculated pressures [33])
ì semiphenomenological

P, Mbar
4 isotherm [57]

2 H2
7
r0 ˆ 0.088 g cmÿ1
1

6 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
r=r0

7 ì experiment [54, 55] b

ì approximating curve
6 ì extrapolation of results
obtained with anvils [56]
ì semiphenomenological
5
isotherm [57]
P, Mbar

2
D2
Figure 5. Schematic of the compression device: (1) cryogenic vessel with a
1 r0 ˆ 0.202 g cmÿ1
compression chamber filled with the material under study; (2) cryoduct;
(3) second cascade of the MC-1 generator; (4) solenoid of the initial field of
the generator (first cascade); (5) circular explosive charge; (6) liquid helium 0
vessel, and (7) container with the gas under study. 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
r=r0

Figure 6. Pressure±compression diagrams for protium (a) and deuter-

employed to analyze experimental data and estimate the ium (b).
gradient correction in measurements of pressure in the
sample under study.
The density r and pressure P of a compressed material are By utilizing the compression devices and measurement
determined in the following way. The central part of an methods described above, researchers at VNIIEF performed
experimental device is illuminated by a bremsstrahlung pulse experiments [54, 55] to obtain the zero isotherms for protium
from a BIM-234 betatron [45, 46] and the image is recorded and deuterium in the pressure range from 1 to 5 Mbar. The
on an X-ray film. The X-ray pattern is recorded when experimental data obtained for H2 and D2 are presented in
pressure in the compression chamber reaches ultrahigh the Pÿr=r0 plane in Fig. 6. The solid curve shows the
values. The sizes and, hence, compressibilities of the sample approximation of experimental data. The zero isotherm
under study and standard sample are determined from the obtained in experiments with diamond anvils [56] and
processed images in X-ray patterns. The sample density extrapolated to the megabar region is illustrated by the
during X-ray pattern recording can be easily obtained from dashed curve. The dotted curve was proposed in Ref. [57]
the known compressibility and initial density r0 of the for the molecular and atomic phases of protium and
sample. Pressure in the measurement standard can be deuterium. The data obtained in Refs [54, 55] reveal no
determined from its density with the aid of its known dramatic deviations in the behavior of the zero isotherms.
isentrope. Then, taking into account small calculation Some scatter of points in the diagram at pressures exceeding
corrections, pressure in the sample under study can also be 4 Mbar may be caused by a polymorphic transformation in
determined. The best material for the standard is aluminium, the lattice or even by the lattice melting produced by pressure
for which the most comprehensive statistical data covering [35]. One can see that the points [54, 55] agree within the
the required pressure range have been gathered and processed measurement error with the zero isotherm [56], although they
[47±53]. To determine accurately enough the dimensions of lie somewhat higher at pressures above 1 Mbar. They are also
compressed samples from an X-ray pattern, a thin layer of a consistent with the semiphenomenological isotherm [57]
highly dense material should be placed on the boundaries based on experiments [31±33] on the quasi-isentropic com-
between the samples and between samples and the compres- pression of initially gaseous protium 1 (Fig. 6a). However,
sing tube. We utilized an alloy containing 95% tungsten. 1 The states of the matter obtained in Refs [31±33] correspond to the
Thus, we find from the X-ray pattern a point at the Pÿr plane calculated temperatures exceeding 2000 K [33]. Recent experiments with
for the material under study. By changing the X-ray recording diamond anvils [36, 37] demonstrate a turn in the melting curve of protium
time from experiment to experiment, we obtain a set of points near T ˆ 1000 K, and therefore results [31±33] are related to the dense
corresponding to the `cold' isentrope of the material. heated matter rather than to the `cold' matter.
426 Conferences and symposia Physics ± Uspekhi 54 (4)

according to Ref. [57], in the pressure region from 3 to 4 Mbar 13. Zvezdin A K et al. Usp. Fiz. Nauk 168 1141 (1998) [Phys. Usp. 41
the crystal should undergo a transition from the molecular to 1037 (1998)]
the atomic phase with a considerable density jump ( 14%). 14. Zvezdin A K et al. Usp. Fiz. Nauk 172 1303 (2002) [Phys. Usp. 45
(According to Ref. [56], the transition pressure exceeds 1183 (2002)]
6 Mbar and the density jump will be a few times smaller.) To 15. Pavlovskii A I et al. Physica C 162 ± 164 1659 (1989)
determine reliably the run of the zero isotherm in this pressure 16. Bykov A I et al. Sverkhprovodimost Fiz. Khim. Tekh. 8 (1) 37 (1995)
17. Puhlmann N et al. Physica B 294 ± 295 447 (2001)
range, it is necessary to perform additional experiments with
18. Gavrilenko V I, in Proc. of the 14th Intern. Symp. ``Nanostructures:
the improved accuracy of measuring the sample size. Notice
Physics and Technology'', St. Petersburg, Russia, 2006, p. 166
also that the compression curve of the static lattice of protium
19. Kudasov Yu B et al. Pis'ma Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 68 326 (1998) [JETP
and deuterium constructed in Ref. [55] based on experimental Lett. 68 350 (1998)]
results is consistent with ab initio calculations [58±62]. 20. Zvezdin A K et al., in Itinerant Electron Magnetism: Fluctuation
Finally, it should be emphasized that the investigation Effects (Eds D Wagner, W Brauneck, A Solontsov) (Dordrecht:
method described above can also be used to construct the Kluwer Acad. Publ., 1998) p. 285
`cold' compression curves for many other materials consisting 21. Kirste A et al. Physica B 336 335 (2003)
of elements with small atomic numbers, such as helium, 22. Kazei Z A et al. Physica B 346 ± 347 241 (2004)
lithium, graphite, water, and hydrides of light metals. 23. Levitin R Z et al. Fiz. Tverd. Tela 44 2013 (2002) [Phys. Solid State
44 2107 (2002)]
5. Conclusion 24. Zel'dovich Ya B, Raizer Yu P Fizika Udarnykh Voln i Vysokotem-
The idea of the magnetic cumulation of energy proposed by peraturnykh Gidrodinamicheskikh Yavlenii (Physics of Shock Waves
Andrey D Sakharov was developed for many years at and High-Temperature Hydrodynamic Phenomena) (Moscow:
VNIIEF to the level of a physical method for obtaining Nauka, 1966) [Translated into English (Mineola, NY: Dover
ultrahigh magnetic fields, based on the deep understanding Publ., 2002)]
of underlying physical processes. The designs of cascade 25. Fortov V E Ekstremal'nye Sostoyaniya Veshchestva (Extreme States
generators of ultrahigh magnetic fields in the 10- and of Matter) (Moscow: Fizmatlit, 2009); Extreme States of Matter on
Earth and in the Universe (Berlin: Springer, 2011)
20-MG ranges have been worked out. The developed method
26. Jayaraman A Rev. Mod. Phys. 55 65 (1983)
has been introduced into scientific studies and has been used
27. Trunin R F et al. Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 76 (7) 90 (2006) [Tech. Phys. 51 907
for systematic fundamental investigations in the fields of solid
(2006)]
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