Physics (PHI 101) Part 3:

Modern Physics
COURSE OBJECTIVES
Upon successful completion of this course,
students will have a good understanding of
Laser Physics and will be acquainted with
basic principle and working of some of the
laser systems.

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma

Department of Physics
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM)
Dhanbad 826004, JH, India.
Email: prashant@iitism.ac.in
Phone: 0326-223-5918 (O)
LASER AND LASER SYSTEM Mob.: +91-9471191339

For 1st Year BTech (Common)

 LASER AND LASER SYSTEM

Laser is acronym (short form) of “LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED EMISSION

OF RADIATION”.

LASER is an acronym (short form) for:

L : Light

A : Amplification (by)

S : Stimulated

E : Emission (of)

R : Radiation

Term coined by Gordon Gould.

Lase means to absorb energy in one form and to emit a new form of light energy
which is more useful.

Normally, it is well known that absorption occurs due to incidence of photons on

an atom. This leads atom to an excited state. After 10 -8 sec atom comes to the ground
state, resulting in a photon. Such emission is called as spontaneous emission.

In 1916, Einstein concluded that there is another emission which is under the
influence of electromagnetic field produced by photons. But this emission was not
practically observed. This idea was completely developed after the discovery of MASER,
extended for visible region. The full form of MASER is “Microwave Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation”.

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 1 of 27

Brief History of LASER’s

1. 1900: Max Planks- Light is electromaganetic radiation.

2. 1917: Sir Albert Einstein created the foundations for the laser giving theory of
stimulated emission.

3. 1951: Charles H Townes, Alexander Prokhorov, Nikolai G Basov, Joseph Weber

- The invention of the MASER (Microwave Amplification of Stimulated Emission of
Radiation) at Columbia University, Lebedev Laboratories, Moscow and University of
Maryland.
4. 1958: Schawlow, A.L. and Townes, C.H. - Proposed the realization of masers for
light and infrared at Columbia University.
5. 1960:Townes, C.H- Patented and Nobel(1964)
6. 1960: Maiman, T.H. - Realization of first working LASER based on Ruby at Hughes
Research Laboratories.
7. 1961: Javan, A., Bennet, W.R. and Herriot, D.R. - First gas laser: Helium- Neon (He-
Ne laser) at Bell Laboratories.
8. 1961: Fox, A.G., Li, T. - Theory of optical resonators at Bell Laboratories.
9. 1962: Hall,R. - First Semiconductor laser (Gallium-Arsenide laser) at General Electric
Labs.
10. 1962: McClung,F.J and Hellwarth, R.W. - Giant pulse generation / Q-Switching.
11. 1962: Johnson, L.F., Boyd, G.D., Nassau, K and Sodden, R.R. - Continuous wave
solid-state laser.

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 2 of 27

12. 1964: Geusic, J.E., Markos, H.M., Van Uiteit, L.G. - Development of first working
Nd:YAG LASER at Bell Labs.
13. 1964: Patel, C.K.N. - Development of CO2 LASER at Bell Labs.
14. 1964: Bridges, W. - Development of Argon Ion LASER a Hughes Labs.
15. 1965: Pimentel, G. and Kasper, J. V. V. - First chemical LASER at University of
California, Berkley.
16. 1965: Bloembergen, N. - Wave propagation in nonlinear media.
17. 1966: Silfvast, W., Fowles, G. and Hopkins - First metal vapor LASER - Zn/Cd - at
University of Utah.
18. 1966: Walter, W.T., Solomon, N., Piltch, M and Gould, G. - Metal vapor laser.
19. 1966: Sorokin, P. and Lankard, J. - Demonstration of first Dye Laser action at IBM
Labs.
20. 1966: AVCO Research Laboratory, USA. - First Gas Dynamic Laser based on CO2
21. 1970: Nikolai Basov's Group - First Excimer LASER at Lebedev Labs, Moscow
based on Xenon (Xe) only.
22. 1974: Ewing, J.J. and Brau, C. - First rare gas halide excimer at Avco Everet Labs.
23. 1977: John M J Madey's Group - First free electron laser at Stanford University.
24. 1977: McDermott, W.E., Pehelkin, N.R,. Benard, D.J and Bousek, R.R. - Chemical
Oxygen Iodine Laser (COIL).
25. 1980: Geoffrey Pert's Group - First report of X-ray lasing action, Hull University, UK.
26. 1984: Dennis Matthew's Group - First reported demonstration of a "laboratory" X-
ray laser from Lawrence Livermore Labs.
27. 1999: Herbelin,J.M., Henshaw, T.L., Rafferty, B.D., Anderson, B.T., Tate, R.F.,
Madden, T.J., Mankey II, G.C and Hager, G.D. - All Gas-Phase Chemical Iodine
Laser (AGIL).
28. 2001: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory - Solid State Heat Capacity Laser
(SSHCL).

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 3 of 27

Properties of Laser Light

Some of the interesting and important properties of Laser’s are

Monochromatic (emit only one wave length).
Coherence (all in same phase-improve focusing).
Polarized (in one plane-easy to pass through media).
Collimated (in one direction & non spreading).
High energy (Intensity measured by Watt J/s).

Important Applications of Lasers:

Due to the above discussed unique properties, some of the interesting, fascinating and
important properties of Laser’s are
They are used in common consumer devices such as DVD players, laser printers,
and barcode scanners.
They are used in medicine for laser surgery and various skin treatments.
And in industry for cutting and welding materials.
They are used in military and law enforcement devices for marking targets and
measuring range and speed.
Laser lighting displays use laser light as an entertainment medium (in DJ).

Laser Vs. Light

Laser Light
Simulated emission. Spontaneous emission.
Monochromatic. Polychromatic.
Highly energized. Poorly energized.
Parallelism Highly divergence.
Coherence Not coherent.
Can be sharply focussed. Can not be sharply focussed.

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Interaction of Light with Matter and the Einstein Coefficients

Light as electromagnetic waves, emitting radiant energy in tiny package called

‘quanta’/photon. Each photon has a characteristic frequency and its energy is proportional
to its frequency.

If we talk about Light matter interaction with Laser’s prospective, there are three
basic ways a photon and an atom can interact. When a photon (light beam) travels
through a medium (material/atoms), three major different processes (absorption,
spontaneous emission and stimulated emission) are likely to occur.

In 1916-17 Einstein postulated on thermodynamic grounds that probability for

spontaneous emission) is related to the probability of stimulated emission (B) and relation
between them is calculated from quantum mechanics. Einstein coefficients are
mathematical quantities which are a measure of the probability of absorption or emission
of light by an atom or molecule. The Einstein “A” coefficient is related to the rate of
spontaneous emission of light and the Einstein “B” coefficients are related to the
absorption and stimulated emission of light.

1. Absorption

There are quantized discrete energy states in atoms. Due to incident photons,
electron transition occurs in higher energy states. This process is called as "Absorption".

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 5 of 27

 Ground State Atom Excited State Atom

The rate of occurring absorption is proportional to energy density, i.e. the probability of
occurring absorption from state 1 to state 2:

P12 ()

P12 = B12() (1)

Where, ()  Energy density of the incident photon.

B12  Einstein’s absorption coefficient.

2. Spontaneous Emission

If an electron (atom) is in an excited state, its time in such state is very small (~10-
8 – 10-9 sec). If there is no external interference in emission of photon to come/ bring back
the excited electron (atom) to the ground state, then the emitted photons have random
phase and random direction of propagation, in addition random frequency and random
state of polarization. Such emissions are called as spontaneous emission.

Excited State Atom Ground State Atom

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 6 of 27

Spontaneous emission does not depend upon energy density and is proportional to A21,
i.e., the probability of occurring spontaneous emission from State 2 to State 1 = A21.

i.e.; P21 = A21 (2)

Where, A21  Einstein’s coefficient for Spontaneous emission.

3. Stimulated Emission

If emission occurs under the influence of electromagnetic field of incident photon,

then additional emitted photon will have same direction of propagation, some frequency,
same energy and same state of polarization to that of incident photon. Such emission of
photon is called as "Stimulated Emission".

Excited State Atom Ground State Atom

The probability of occurrence of stimulated emission is proportional to energy density –

i.e., P21 ()

P21 = B21() (3)

Where, ()  Energy density of the incident photon.

B21  Einstein’s coefficient for stimulated emission.

So, total probability of emission of photon will be:

P21(total) = A21 + B21() (4)

NOTE: The constants B12, A21 and B21 are called as Einstein’s coefficients.

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 7 of 27

Relation between Transition Probabilities for the Two Emissions
(Stimulated and Spontaneous Emission): The Einstein's Coefficients

If N1 is number of electrons (atoms) going from ground state to excited state and
N2 is number of electrons (atoms) coming from excited state to ground state, then, in case
of thermodynamical equilibrium condition:

N1P12 = N2 P21(total)

Where,

P12  Probability of occurrence of absorption from State 1 (ground state) to State 2 (Higher energy
state/excited state).

P21  Total probability of emission of photon (Spontaneous + Stimulated).

 N1 B12() = N2 {A21 + B21()}

= N2 A21 + N2 B21()

 () [N1 B12  N2 B21] = N2 A21

N2 A21
 () =
[N1 B12  N2 B21]

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 8 of 27

 N2 A21
 () = N1 B12
N2B21 [N B  1]
2 21

A21
 () = N1 B12 (5)
B21 [  1]
N2 B21

As per Einstein’s Theory, in thermal equilibrium,

B12 = B21

and also if we take,

A21 = A = Coefficient of Einstein’s Spontaneous Emission of Radiation.

B21 = B = Coefficient of Einstein’s Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

A
 () = N1 (6)
B [N  1]
2

As per kinetic theory of gases, the number of electrons (atoms) going from ground state
to excited state is given by:

N1 = e−E1/KT

And the number of electrons (atoms) coming from excited state to ground state is given
by:

N2 = e−E2/KT

Let us find out,

N1 e−E1/KT
=
N2 e−E2/KT

N1
= e(E2−E1)/KT
N2

N1
 = eh/KT (7)
N2

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 9 of 27

Where, h = E2 ~ E1 = Energy during the emission from energy state E2 to E1.

Therefore, equation (6) becomes,

A
 () =
B [eh/KT  1]

A
 = eh/KT 1 (8)
B ()

Now, we have two possibilities,

Case 1: When h >>> KT

 A >> B

 NSp >> NSt (9)

In this case Spontaneous Emission will be larger than Stimulated Emission. This is the
condition of “In-coherent Sources”, i.e., the photon emitted in this case have random
phase.

Case 2: When h <<< KT

 A << B

 NSp << NSt (10)

In this case Stimulated Emission will be larger than Spontaneous Emission, which is
essential condition for getting “Lasing Action”, i.e., the photons emitted in this case will
have some phase, same frequency, and same direction of a propagation with same state
of polarization under the influence of electromagnetic field of incident photon.

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 10 of 27

Requirements for Lasing Action: Population Inversion

In general under the condition of thermal equilibrium (particularly at Room

Temperature), number of electrons (atoms) in ground state (lowest energy state) is higher
than (larger than) the number of electrons (atoms) in excited state (higher energy state).
In this case, spontaneous emission and absorption occurs. There is no Stimulated
Emission, i.e., no Lasing Action.

However, if by some means, number of electrons (atoms) in excited state becomes

larger than the number of electrons (atoms) in ground state then it is called as situation
of “Population Inversion”. The method using which the population inversion is achieved
are called as methods of achieving population inversion.

Methods of Achieving Population Inversion:

1. OPTICAL PUMPING
Light Source or Flash Discharge lamp is used for the purpose.
2. ELECTRON EXCITATION

Instead of optical pumping, one can use high energy electrons to excite the gaseous
atoms. When high energy electrons are allowed to strike on gaseous atoms, they
transfer their energy to gaseous atoms as a result of which excited gaseous atoms
are obtained.

Electric discharge is used  Due to applied electric field  Gas atoms get ionized.

3. INELASTIC ATOM - ATOM COLLISION

Suppose we have two types of gaseous atoms A & B. When electric discharge is
passed through the gas, high voltage electrons are produced. These electrons collide
with gaseous atoms (say with atom of Gas A).

The atom of gas A will be excited,

A + e  A*

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 11 of 27

 This exited atom will collide with atom of gas B,

A* + B  A + B*

So, B* will be an excited atom, which remains in excited state for a long time and
represents the state of population inversion leading to Laser Transition.

Explain, why conventional optical sources are incoherent while Laser sources is
coherent in nature?

The light emitted from conventional light sources (like Na- Lamp) are said to be
incoherent because the radiation emitted from different atoms do not bear definite phase
relationship with each other.

In case of Normal optical sources (conventional optical sources),

T = 103 K

 = 6 × 1014 sec-1

h = 6.6 × 10-34 JS

KB= 1.38 × 10-23 J/K

Let us find out h,

h = 6.6 × 10-34 × 6 × 1014

= 39.6 × 10-20

h = 3.96 × 10-19 J

Now, let us find KBT,

KBT = 1.38 × 10-23 × 1000

KBT = 1.38 × 10-20

Thus, h > KBT  NSp > NSt

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 12 of 27

In this way, normal optical sources are incoherent because number of spontaneous
emission are greater than number of stimulated emission.

In microwave region,

 = 1010 see-1

h = 6.6 × 10-34 × 1010

= 6.6 ×10-24 J

and, KBT = 1.38 × 10-20

so in this case, h < KBT  NSp < NSt

So, Sources in Microwave Region are coherent in Nature.

Laser Oscillations

Let the material of length 'L' in which population inversion has taken place between two
plane mirrors. Laser beam is bounced bach & forth. Let the reflection coefficients between
mirrors M1 & M2 are R1 & R2, respectively. Laser beam gets amplified in each step.
However, there will be some losses in each reflection. We can obtain a threshold condition
for Lasing Action.

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 13 of 27

Einstein’s Coefficients and the Rate Equations

A Two Level System

Energy Level Diagram of a Two Level System

Let N1 & N2 are the populations per unit volume in level 1 and level 2 respectively, such
that,

N1 + N2 = N

and N1  N2 = ∆N

The excited electrons (atoms) undergo transitions to the lower level by spontaneous and
stimulated emissions. Besides the radiative transitions, electrons (atoms) can also
undergo non-radiative transitions by imparting their excess energy to the surrounding
atoms as in the case of gas or to the lattice as in the case of a solids.

We represent the probability of spontaneous transition by 1⁄Sp (~ ASp), where Sp

is the spontaneous emission decay time. Similarly, the probability of non-radiative

transition is represented by 1⁄nr, where nr is the life time of non-radiative process.

The overall (total) decay time ‘’ is given by:

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 14 of 27

 1 1 1
= + (11)
 Sp nr

The rate of change of the population of the upper level is given by

dN2
= Total Absorptive Process – Total Emissive Process
dt

= Total Absorptive Process – (Lasing Process + Non Lasing Process)

= Total Absorptive Process – (Stimulated Emission + Spontaneous

Emission + Non Radiative Process)

{Where, Non Lasing Process  Spontaneous Emission + Non Radiative Process}

dN2 N2
 = B12().N1 – {B21().N2 + } (12)
dt 
N2
{Here,
 = Spontaneous Emission + Non Radiative Process}

dN2 N2
 = B12().N1 – B21().N2 –
dt 
N2
= B12() . (N1 – N2) –

{∵ under thermal equilibrium B12 ≈ B21}

dN2 N2
 = B12() . ∆N – (13)
dt 
{∵ ∆N = N1 – N2}

B12 and B21, are the Einstein's Coefficients. The last term accounts for the spontaneous
and non- radiative transitions.

dN2
In the steady state, =0
dt

N2
 B12() . ∆N =


Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 15 of 27

 N2
 ∆N . B12() =

N − ∆N
 ∆N . B12() =
2

{∵ N  ∆N = N1 + N2  (N1  N2) = 2N2}

1 N
 ∆N . {B12() + }=
2 2
N
 ∆N = (14)
1 + 2 B12()

This relation shows that the population difference between the two levels in a steady state
depends on the decay time of the upper level and the density of the incident radiation (i.e.
spectral energy density).

B12() is the probability per unit time that the electrons (atoms) are excited to the
upper level and called is as “Pumping Rate”.

From equation (14);

N
∆N = (15)
1+2

Where,  = B12()  Pumping Rate

From equation (15) it is clear that whatever is the value of , ∆N is always positive and
hence population inversion is not possible. Because, for ∆N to be positive,

∆N > O  N1  N2 > 0

 N1 > N2

Thus population inversion is not possible in case two level system.

If   ∞,  ∆N  0

i.e. N1 = N2  N1 + N2 = N

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 16 of 27

  2 N2 = N

N
 N2 =
2

N
 N2 = N1 = for   ∞
2

Therefore, a two level system is not suitable for optical pumping.

A Three Level System

Energy Level Diagram of a Three Level System

Let, in a three level system; N1 N2 & N3 are the number of electrons (atoms) available in
state 1, state 2 & state 3, respectively, per unit volume.

dN3
1. = N1.B13() – N3.B31() – N3.A31 – N3.P32 = 0 (16)
dt
{∵ under thermal equilibrium B13 ≈ B31}

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 17 of 27

 where,
a. The first term represents the number of electrons (atoms) arriving at the level
3 per unit time per unit volume due to induced absorption.
b. The second term represents the number of Stimulated Emissions.
c. The third term represents the number of Spontaneous Emissions.
d. The fourth term represents the transitions to the level 2 due to radiative and
non-radiative processes.
e. P32 represents the probability of transition due to radiative and non-radiative
process.

dN2
2. = B12().N1 + P32.N3 – B21().N2 – A21.N2 = 0
dt
{∵ under thermal equilibrium B12 ≈ B21}

dN2
= N3.P32 – N2.A21 + B12().N1 – B21().N2= 0 (17)
dt

Here, the last two terms represent the induced transitions between levels 1 and levels 2
due to presence of Laser transition.

dN1
3. = N3.B31() + N3.A31 + N2.B21() +N2.A21  N1.B13() – N1.B12() = 0
dt
(18)
{∵ under thermal equilibrium B13 ≈ B31}

4. N = N1 + N2 + N3 (19)

From equation (16), (17) and (18), we find that:

dN1 dN2 dN3

+ + =0 (20)
dt dt dt

Which is consistent with equation (19).

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 18 of 27

Components of Laser

The essential component of any laser are

1. An Active Medium

2. A Pumping Agent

3. An Optical Cavity

1. Active Medium:

An active medium is a medium, which when excited, reaches the state of

population inversion and promotes stimulated emissions leading to light amplification. The
atoms causing lasing action are called as Active Centers. The medium hosting the active
centers is called as Active Medium.

2. Pump:

Pumping is the process of supplying energy to the Laser Medium with a view to
transfer it into the state of population invasion. It supplies continuous energy to achieve
and maintain the condition of population inversion.

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 19 of 27

 There are number of techniques to achieve pumping:

a. Optical Pumping: Light Sousse / flash discharge lamp.

b. Electric Discharge: Electric field  Ionization.
c. Direct conversion of Electrical Energy to Light Energy.

3. Optical Resonant Cavity:

Laser is a light source and it is analogous to an electronic oscillator. An electronic

oscillator is basically an amplifier supplied with a positive feedback. In laser the active
medium is the amplifying medium. It is converted into an oscillator through the feedback
mechanism of an optical resonator. A pair of optically plane parallel mirrors makes an
optical resonant cavity. It is also known as Febry-Perot Resonator. One of these mirrors
is fully reflecting. The other minor is partially reflecting such that more than 90% of incident
light is reflected back and only a small fraction (10%) is transmitted through it. The
photons emitted along the optical (optic) axis of the resonant cavity travel through the
medium and trigger stimulated emission. They are reflected by the end mirror and reverse
their path. This way, the photons are thus fed back into the medium and travel towards
the opposite end mirrors causing more stimulated emissions. Substantial light
amplification takes place because the light beam is reflected several times at the mirrors
and gains strength in each passage.

Ultimately, when the amplification balances the losses in the cavity, the laser beam
comes out from the front mirror.

In absence of any of these three Laser Components, no lasing action will take
place.

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 20 of 27

Types of Lasers:

There are varieties of Lasers. Lasers can be divided into groups according to different
criteria:

a. The state of matter of the active medium: solid, liquid, gas, or plasma.
b. The spectral range of the laser wavelength: visible, Infra-Red (IR), etc.
c. The excitation (pumping) method of the active medium: Optical pumping, electric
pumping, etc.
d. The characteristics of the radiation emitted from the laser.
e. The number of energy levels which participate in the lasing process.

Classification by Active Medium

a. Gas lasers (atoms, ions, molecules)

b. Solid-state lasers
c. Semiconductor lasers
i. Diode lasers
ii. Unipolar (quantum cascade) lasers
d. Dye lasers (liquid)
e. X-ray lasers
f. Free electron lasers

In this course we have two lasers: 1. Ruby Laser: Example of a solid state laser, 2. He-
Ne Laser: Example of a Gas Laser.

1. Ruby Laser

Key things to remember:

Invented in 1960 by Theodore Maiman in USA.

It is a Solid State Laser.
Solid State laser is one in which the active centers are fixed in a crystal or Glassy
material.

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 21 of 27

 Non-conducting electronically.
Also known as Doped Insulator Laser.
Ruby Laser Rod - Synthetic Ruby crystal (Al2O3 crystal) loped with Cr3+ ions by
0.05 weight percentage.
It is an example of a Three Level Laser.
Cr3+ ions are the actual ‘Active Center’ of Ruby Lasers which have set of three
energy levels suitable for Lasing action.
Al and O atoms are inert in this case.
Cr3+ ions gives pink color to this Ruby Rod, hence the name "Ruby".
Does not operates continuously, pulse operation.

Construction

Ruby laser consist of a Ruby rod in cylindrical form of length nearly 4 cm and diameter
o.5 cm. Both ends of this Ruby rod are parallel to each other and also perpendicular (⊥)
to the axis of Rod. One end of Rod is fully silvered (100% reflective). Other end of rod is

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partially silvered so that it is 90% reflective and 10%. transmittive. Laser Rod (Ruby Rod)
is surrounded by helical photographic flash lamp filled with Xenon gas, popularly known
as Xenon-Flash Lamp. Whenever activated by the power supply, the xenon flash lamp
produces flashes of white light.

Working

A Ruby Laser uses a three-level pumping scheme. Hence it is also called as a

“Three-Level Laser”.

The energy levels of Cr3+ ions in the Ruby crystal lattice is shown above. There
are two wide energy bands E3 & E'3 and a pair of closely spaced levels at E2. When the
flash lamp is activated, the xenon discharge generates an intense burst of white light for
a few millisecond. The Cr3+ ions absorbs this energy and are excited to the energy bands
E3 & E'3 by absorbing green & blue components of white light.

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 23 of 27

 The energy levels in these E3 & E'3 bands have a very small life time (10-9 -10-10
Sec). Hence the excited Cr3+ ions rapidly lose some of the energy by collision to the
crystal lattice and undergo non-radiative transitions. The quickly drop to the level E2. The
E2 level is a metastable state having life time of 10-5 -10-6 Sec.

Therefore, Cr3+ ions accumulate at E2 levels. When more than half of the Cr3+ ions
population accumulates at E2 level, the state of population inversion is established
between E2 & E1 Levels. In this condition a photon emitted spontaneously by Cr3+ ions
initiates a chain of stimulated emissions by other Cr3+ ions in the metastable state.

Red photons of wavelength 6943 Å, travelling along the axis of Ruby Rod are
repeatedly reflected at the end mirrors and light amplification takes place. A strong
intense beam of Red Light (6943 Å) emerges out from the front - end mirror. Here, green
and blue components of light play the role of pumping agents and are responsible for
causing population inversion. Ruby Laser does not operates continuously due to pulse
(flash) nature of Xenon Flash Lamp, results into pulse operation.

2. Helium Neon (He-Ne) Laser

Key things to remember:

First Gas Laser.

Four – Level Laser system.
Invented in 1961 by Ali Javan, william R. Bennett and Donold R. Herriott.

Construction

He-Ne Laser consist of long discharge tube filled with a mixture of He & Ne gas in
the ratio (10:1 or 85%:15% or 90%:10%). Ne-atoms acts as active centers and have
energy levels suitable for Laser transitions (Laser Action), while He-atom helps in exciting
Ne - atoms. The pressure of this glass discharge tube is maintained at about 1mm

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 24 of 27

mercury. Electrodes, connected to a high voltage power supply are provided in the
discharge tube to produce discharge in the gas.

OR

Two mirrors are arranged/attached externally on the axis of the tube to form Fabry
Perot optical resonator. The distance between two mirrors can be adjusted for optimal

distance m⁄2 such that the resonator supports the standing wave pattern. Here m is an
integral number of half-wavelength - of Laser light.

Working:

He- Ne Laser employs a four-level pumping scheme. An electric discharge is

produced in the gas (He-Ne mixture) by the electrodes connected to high frequency high

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 25 of 27

power electric source (10 kV power). The electrons from the discharge collide with the
He-atoms and pumps the He-atoms to metastable state. The electrons from the discharge
collides with the gas mixture and ionize the gas.

The electrons and ions produced in the process of discharge are accelerated
towards the anode and cathode, respectively. The energetic electrons excite He-atoms
with through collisions and pumps it to the metastable state at energy 20.61 eV above its
ground state. Some of the excited He-atoms transfer their energy to the ground state of
the Ne-atoms by collision with the 0.05 eV of additional energy being provided by the
kinetic energy through collision of atoms. Thus, in this way, He-atom helps in achieving
population inversion in the Ne-atoms.

When an excited Ne-atom passes spontaneously from the metastable state at

20.66 eV to an excited state at 18.70 eV, it emits a 6328 Å photon. This photon travels
through the gas mixture and if it is moving parallel to the axis of tube, is reflected back
and forth by the mirror ends, until it stimulates an excited Ne-atom and cause it to emit a
fresh 6328 Å photon in phase with the stimulating photon. This stimulated transition from

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 26 of 27

20.66 eV to 18.70 eV is the Laser -Transition. This process is continued and a beam of
coherent radiation builds up in the tube. When this beam becomes sufficiently intense, a
portion of it escapes through the partially silvered end. From this 18.70 eV level, the Ne-
atom passes spontaneously to a lower metastable state emitting incoherent light and
finally to the ground state through collision with tube wall. This results in radiation less
transition. He-Ne Laser operates continuously.

Prof. Prashant Kr. Sharma, IIT (ISM) Dhanbad Page 27 of 27