Seminar report

CORROSION PROTECTION METHOD FOR UNDERWATER PILES

by
A. NAGA SUSHMA CHANDRIKA
(1011901014)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

YSR ENGINEERING COLLEGE OF
YOGI VEMANA UNIVERSITY,
PRODDATUR, YSR DIST
January-2023
 Corrosion Protection Methods For Underwater piles

Seminar and comprehensive viva report

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
by
A. NAGA SUSHMA CHANDRIKA
(1011901014)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

YSR ENGINEERING COLLEGE OF
YOGI VEMANA UNIVERSITY,
PRODDATUR, YSR DIST.

EXAMINERS:
1.
2. HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT:
CONTENTS. Page no
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. WHAT IS CORROSION OF PILES? 2
3. WHAT ARE UNDERWATER PILES? 3
4. ZONES OF CORROSION OF UNDERWATER PILES. 4-5
5. CORROSION MANAGEMENT. 6-7
6. CORROSION PROTECTION METHODS FOR UNDERWATER PILES. 8-17
7. CASE STUDY FOR APPLICATION OF FRP COMPOSITES. 18-22
8. STANDARDS AND CODES. 23
9. CONCLUSION. 24
10. REFERENCE. 25
 1.INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition of Corrosion:
It is basically defined as a natural process that causes the transformation of pure metals into
undesirable substances when they react with substances like water or air. This reaction
causes damage and disintegration of the metal starting from the portion of the metal
exposed to the environment and spreading to the entire bulk of the metal.

1.2 Basic concept:

Corrosion protection of underwater piles is essential in case of steel piles. When steel piles
are used in seawater, it reacts chemically to form anodes and cathodes resulting in the flow
of electricity, which results in the corrosion of anodic areas of piles. Chemically active
surface areas of underwater steel piles act as anodes and less chemically active surfaces acts
as cathodes.

Figure 1: corrosion metal

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%

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 2.What is Corrosion of Piles?
Corrosion can be defined as the deterioration of the metal due to reaction with water and
atmospheric air or the oxidation of metals catalyzed by chemical reaction with environment.

Figure 2: corrosion of under water piles

Source : https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconstructor.org%2

On steel piling in seawater,the more chemically active surface areas(anodes) are metallically
coupled through the piling itself to the less chemically active surface areas (cathodes)
resulting the piling itself to the anodic areas. In general, the depth of pitting is related to the
ratio of the anodic sites to the area of cathodic site in contact with the elecrolyte
(seawater). The smaller the anode area relative to the cathode area, the deeper the pitting.

Figure 3: steel pipe

Source: https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2

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 3.What are Underwater Piles?
 Piles are the substructure member of the building used to transfer the loads from
the super structure to the ground.
 When a structure is built in the water, the piles are to driven in the water to
underwater strata. As the piles are always inside the water, they are subjected to
corrosion.
 To eliminate this corrosion problem is very hard, but the corrosion can be controlled
by using corrosion protection measures.

Figure 4: underwater piles

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2

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 4.Zones of Corrosion of Underwater Steel Piles
 The piles which are driven into the water strata undergo corrosion in several zones
due to the different contact with water.
 It is convenient to divide these areas into four zones, each having a characteristic
corrosion rate as shown in figure below.

Figure 5: Zones of Corrosion

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%

4.1: Atmospheric Zone

4.2: Splash Zone

4.3: Tidal Zone

4.4: Submerged Zone

4.1: Atmospheric Zone:

 Depending upon the time of wetness, temperature, pollutants, atmospheric
corrosion
is responsible for a large fraction of the total corrosion.
 Corrosion rate is least in this zone <0.1 mm/year.
 Paints and coatings are used in protecting this section.

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4.2: Splash Zone:
 The spalsh zone can be characterised by as an areated sea water environment
where exposed material are almost continually wet.
 Corrosion rate (without protection) 0.3 mm/year.

4.3: Tidal Zone:

 This zone is alternately submerged in seawater and exposed to splash zone as
the tide fluctuates.
 Corrosion rate (without corrosion) 0.1-0.3 mm/year.

4.4: Submerged Zone:

 The submerged environment zone usually characterised by well aerated water
combined with marine bio fouling organism of both the plant and animal
variety.
 Corrosion rate (without protection) 0.1-0.2 mm/year.

Figure 6:Layout of zones

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A

5
 5.Corrosion Management
Before deciding on the methods for control of corrosion to be applied, conceptual and
feasibility studies have been carried out. Typically, corrosion management can be divided
into three major phases.

Phase 1 of the program is the programmatic assessment of the project. This phase is the
planning stage for a corrosion management program to take place. It initiates the program
to be implemented on structures that are found to be under the threat of corrosion. For the
planning stage, three main requirements are sought, namely the strategy, budget and
schedule needed toovercome the problem raised from corrosion of reinforcement. This is
seen as an important partfor an effective management program as feasibility studies are
normally conducted to determine the service ability of the structure after treatment.

Figure 7: Phase 1

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url

Phase 2 of the program involves physical assessment and actual remediation. Inspectionsfor
severity of corrosion are conducted in this phase to determine what strategy or methods
are most suitable to be applied. Development of corrosion control strategy would present
option to the management program. Remedial work would be carried out once the proper
strategy has been recognized.

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 Figure 8: Phase 2

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url

Phase 3 of the program mainly deals with future monitoring of the repaired structure.
Currently and historically, most of the corrosion control programs are driven by response to
incident or urgent need, rather than systematically identifying and managing the existing
resources. This can be overcome by implementing internal or external monitoring system
using current technology practiced in oil and gas industries.

Figure 9:Corrosion Management

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F

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 6. Methods for Corrosion Protection
Protective Coating
For protection of metals from corrosion, the metal and the corrosive environment
contact is required to be cut off. The surface of metals is coated with a continuous non-
porous material inert to the corrosive atmosphere to prevent it from corrosion. The
coatings are classified into different categories –

a) Organic

b) Metallic

c) Inorganic

 Organic coating
Organic coatings are the single most widely applied method for corrosion protection of
metallic materials and are of particular importance in transport and infrastructure.
Nevertheless, despite over one hundred years of research and testing, the mechanisms of
coatings failure are still somewhat obscure.

Figure 10: organic coating

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2F

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  Metallic Coating
To understand how metallic coatings protect metals, it is important to know what corrosion
is and how it is caused. Corrosion is a natural electrochemical reaction that converts a
refined metal to a more chemically stablestate.

Figure 11: Metallic coating

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2F

 Inorganic Coating
 Anodizing Anodizing involves the electrolytic oxidation of a surface to produce a
tightly adherent oxide scale which is thicker than the naturally occurring film.
 Chromate filming A number of proprietary chromate filming treatments are available
for aluminum, magnesium, cadmium and zinc alloys.
 Phophatizing (phosphating or phosphate conversion coating).
 Nitriding .

Figure 12: Inorganic Coating

Source: https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2F

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Individual coatings are formulated to perform specific functions and must be selected
tobecome components of a total system designed for optimum results considering the
environmentand service expectations.The different types of coatings used for under water
piles are:

6.1: Inorganic Zinc Silicates Primers

Steel structures that are permanently immersed in sea water, such as jackets in the area
below the Splash Zone, are typically not coated for various reasons and protected solely by
cathodic protection systems consisting of sacrificial anodes or impressed current arrays,
which can be maintained as required by underwater contractors. Various anticorrosive
pigmented primers areavailable, some that passivate the steel but the most effective are
inorganic zinc silicate primers which essentially become anodic to the steel in a corrosion
cycle. The primary advantage of thistype of coating is that it will arrest rust creep, or
undercutting of the coatings surrounding the damaged area, and confine corrosion to the
point of the damage. These coatings also provide ahigh degree of resistance to heat and
chemical spills.

Figure 13: inorganic zinc silicate primer

Source: https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl

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6.2: High Build Epoxy Coatings
Epoxies are generally more abrasion and chemical resistant than primers and topcoats and
in this case protect not only the substrate itself, but the zinc primer as well from all of these
detrimental factors. However, one drawback with epoxy coatings is very poor resistance to
ultra violet from sunlight and most will chalk and fade rapidly. This leads to an erosion of the
coatings film thickness, reducing the barrier protection of the system.

Figure 14: high build epoxy coating

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2

6.3: Aliphatic Polyurethane Topcoats

Polyurethane finish coats are generally acknowledged as providing optimum resistance to
UV and high degrees of flexibility and chemical resistance. They also help to maintain a very
highlevel of cosmetic gloss and colour retention and can be cleaned very easily, generally
with low pH detergents and fresh water pressure washing. Although polyurethane finishes
offer no realanti corrosive or barrier protection to the substrate they do provide a high level
of protection to the integrity of the coatings system.

Figure 15: Aliphatic Polyurethane Coating

Source: https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl

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6.4: Zinc Rich Epoxy Primers
Zinc modified epoxy anticorrosives will provide a high level of service and are more tolerant
tocompromised surface preparation and ambient weather conditions provided the zinc
loading ofthe formula is sufficient. Zinc rich epoxy is also most effective in maintaining
damaged areasand breakdown of the coatings systems applied at new construction as it is
compatible withalternate methods of surface preparation such as power tool cleaning and
UHP Hydro Blasting.

Figure 16: Zinc Rich Epoxy Primers

Source: https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl

6.5:Non-Skid Deck Coatings

They are applied in very high film builds and normally without a zinc rich primer. Coatings
specifically designed with anti-slip properties normally incorporate very course aggregates
for an exaggerated profile. They are applied in very high film builds and normally without a
zinc rich primer. When primers are required they are usually epoxy types.

Figure 17: Non-Skid Deck Coatings

Source: https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F

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6.6: Cathodic Protection of Underwater Piles
Cathodic protection is the commonly used technique for the overcoming the corrosion on
piles. Cathodic protection is the process of using electrochemical reactions to prevent steel
from corrosion. It is commonly used and accepted because it prevents the corrosion on steel
which is in water. In theory and practice, the implementation of a cathodic protection system
is quite simple. Assuming you already have corroding steel in seawater, all you need is an
anode, a power supply, and engineering talent. A protective circuit is accomplished between
the anode, steel (cathode), power supply and electrolyte (seawater). This is a very simple
process for installing a cathodic protection for underwater piles. When the steel is corroded,
an anode with power supply is inserted into the water near the steel. The insertion or delivery
of anode is made in many ways depending upon the various factors. The types of anode
delivery are,

6.6.1: Pile Mounted Anode

This type of anode delivery method is used when anode can be attached to the cathode or
piles directly. Pile mounted anode are designed for efficiently for the current distribution in
and around the piling where the complexity is faced in placing the anode to the pile in remote
places. The Flat Back Pile Mounted Anode was designed specifically for H-Piles, and can
also be configured for installation on sheet piling.

Figure 18: pile mounted anode

Source: https://www.google.com

6.6.2:Disk Anode
The disk anode was designed in conjunction with the U.S. Army Construction Engineering
Research Lab for use on navigational locks and dam gates. This anode system is also suitable
for use on seawater intake structures, vessel internals, and sheet piling when shore side access
is possible.

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6.6.3:Retractable mount
For installations where it is deemed necessary to access the anode for periodic maintenance,
or when current is only required on a periodic basis, the retractable anode allows the user to
easily retrieve the anode. The above illustration is rotated by 90 degrees.

Figure 19: Rectracable mount

Source: https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2F

6.6.4:Sled Anode
Anodes mounted on the sea bed typically afford the best spread of protection on a marine
structure. Sled anodes can be designed for operation in either seawater or buried in the mud.
The Post Tension Sled was developed to insure anode operation out of the mud when resting
in silty and soft sea beds. By adjusting the height of the concrete sled, the mesh anode sled
can also be designed for operation out of the mud. The advantage of this type of sled is its
low profile, thereby limiting the potential for, damage by anchors fishing nets, etc.

Figure 20: Sled Anode

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 Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2F

6.7: Composites and the Fight against Corrosion

There are many ways to fight corrosion including the use of costly metals and coatings,
surface treatments and other specialprocedures to protect structural material. In many
situations, a better solution can be achieved by using modern compositematerials. This report
focuses on the broad range of composite materials called fibre- glass-reinforced polymer
(FRP).
FRP composites are safe and reliable solutions, able to face corrosive conditions in various
types environments and have outperformed traditional materials for many years.

Composites offer:
• High strength
• Light weight
• Durability
• Cost savings
Markets making extensive use of FRP composites include:
• Chemical
• Petroleum & Mining
• Power & Energy
• Marine
• Water & Sewage
• Industrial
With more than 50 years of field experience, FRP is now proven technology. Tanks and pipe
constructed with corrosion-resistant composites have consistently provided extended service
life over those made with metals. And FRP is now regularly used to replace expensive
stainless steel and high-nickel alloys.
FRP composites consist of engineered polymer resin and fiber reinforcement – about 95
percent of composites are reinforced with glass fiber – and can be enhanced with additives
and core materials. The combination can produce some of the strongest materials for their
weight ever developed.
FRP composites gain their strength from glass fibers set within a resin matrix. The fibers
carry the load while the resin spreads the load imposed on the composite and both impact

15
corrosion resistance. A wide variety of properties can be achieved by selecting an appropriate
combination of glass and resin. Pound for pound, glass fibers are stronger than steel. That is
because glass fibers have a high specific strength. Specific strength is a term that relates
strength to weight. To understand this concept, compare a ¼- inch diameter steel rod to a ¼-
inch diameter fiberglass composite rod.

6.8: Application of FRP Composites

Fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) have long been used for the repair and retrofit of concrete
structural elements. Their lightweight, high strength and resistance to chemicals offer obvious
benefits. In fabric form, they provide unparalleled flexibility. Moreover, as fibres can be
oriented in any direction, their use can be optimized. This makes FRP particularly suited for
emergency repairs where damage can be multi-directional and speed of strength restoration
critically important.

Figure 21: Frp repairs

Source: https://www.engineeringcivil.com/wp-content/uploads

The strength properties of FRPs collectively make up one of the primary reasons for which
civil engineers select them in the design of structures. A material’s strength is governed by its
ability to sustain a load without excessive deformation or failure. When an FRP specimen is
tested in axial tension, the applied force per unit cross-sectional area (stress) is proportional
to the ratio of change in a specimen’s length to its original length (strain). When the applied
load is removed, FRP returns to its original shape or length. In other words, FRP responds
linear-elastically to axial stress.
The response of FRP to axial compression is reliant on the relative proportion in volume of
fibres, the properties of the fibre and resin, and the interface bond strength. FRP composite

16
compression failure occurs when the fibres exhibit extreme (often sudden and dramatic)
lateral or sides-way deflection called fiber buckling.

FRP’s response to transverse tensile stress is very much dependent on the properties of the
fiber and matrix, the interaction between the fiber and matrix, and the strength of the fiber-
matrix interface. Generally, however, tensile strength in this direction is very poor. Shear
stress is induced in the plane of an area when external loads tend to cause two segments of a
body to slide over one another. The shear strength of FRP is difficult to quantify. Generally,
failure will occur within the matrix material parallel to the fiber. Among FRP’s high strength
properties, the most relevant features include excellent durability and corrosion resistance.
Furthermore, their high strength-to-weight ratio is of significant benefit; a member composed
of FRP can support larger live loads since its dead weight does not contribute significantly to
the loads that it must bear. Other features include ease of installation, versatility, antiseismic
behaviour, electromagnetic neutrality, excellent fatigue behaviour, and fire resistance.
However, like most structural materials, FRP’s have a few drawbacks that would create some
hesitancy in civil engineers to use it for all applications; high cost, brittle behaviour,
susceptibility to deformation under long-term loads, UV degradation, photo-degradation
(from exposure to light), temperature and moisture effects, lack of design codes, and most
importantly, lack of awareness.

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 Figure 22: Crosssectional loss and Breakage
Source: https://www.engineeringcivil.com/wp-content/uploads/2017

7.Case Study for Application of FRP Composites

7.1:Allen Creek Bridge
Allen Creek Bridge is located on the busy US 19 highway connecting Clearwater and St.
Petersburg, FL. The original bridge built in 1950 was supported on reinforced concrete piles
driven into Allen Creek. In 1982, the bridge was widened and this new section was supported
on 35 cm (14 in.) square prestressed piles.
The waters from Allen Creek flow east into Old Tampa Bay that in turn joins then Gulf of
Mexico to the south. The environment is very aggressive; all the reinforced concrete piles
from the original construction had been rehabilitated several times. At low tide, the water
level in the deepest portion of the creek is about 0.76 m (2.6 ft). Maximum high tide is about
1.89m (6.2 ft). This shallow depth meant that the underwater wrap could be carried out on a
ladder.
7.1.1 Preparatory work
Pile surfaces were covered with marine growth that had to be scraped off. Additionally, two
of the four corners that were not rounded but chamfered had to be ground using an air-
powered grinder. This was a difficult operation particularly for sections that were below the
water line. A quick-setting hydraulic cement was used to fill any depression, discontinuities
and provide a smooth surface. Just prior to wrapping the entire surface was pressure washed
using freshwater to remove all dust and marine algae.

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 Figure 23: Allen Creek Bridge
Source: https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fbridge

7.1.2: Instrumentation
Instrumentation was installed to allow linear polarization and corrosion potential
measurements to be made. An innovative instrumentation scheme was developed that
eliminated the need for wiring and junction boxes. This was an important consideration since
the piles were located in relatively shallow waters that were accessible on foot. Several piles
supporting the structure had been defaced and the probability of vandalism was very real.
FRP wrapping — Two different schemes using two different materials were evaluated. In
each scheme four piles were wrapped with two other instrumented piles serving as controls.
In the first scheme, cofferdam construction was used and the piles wrapped using a bi-
directional FRP in a wet lay up under dry conditions. As this was wrapped under ‘perfect’
conditions, its performance provided means for evaluating piles that were directly wrapped in
water using a new water activated resin The latter scheme was a pre-preg system developed
by Air Logistics. The pre-preg was easy to install since all the material came in labelled
hermetically sealed packets. After applying an initial epoxy layer, the packets were opened
according to the layout scheme and the FRP material applied. A shrinkage wrap was applied
at the end to allow the FRP to cure. On an average, it took between 30 minutes to 45 minutes
to wrap a pile over a 1.5 m depth depending on the number of layers of material that had to
be applied.

Figure 24: Reinforced Polymer repair

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2F

7.2: Friendship Trails Bridge

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This is the oldest of the Gandy Boulevard bridges crossing Tampa Bay. It was originally
constructed in 1956 and was slated for demolition in 1997. Thanks to community activists,
the bridge was saved, refurbished and rehabilitated. In 1999, the bridge was re-opened as a
pedestrian bridge and re-christened as the “Friendship Trails Bridge”. The 4.2 km (2.6 mile)
structure is now the longest over-water recreational trail in the world. The bridge has 275
spans supported by 254 reinforced concrete pile bents and 22 column type piers located at the
main channel crossing. Seventy seven percent of the 254 piers supporting this bridge have
needed to be repaired indicating that the environment is very aggressive.

Figure 25: Friendship Trails Bridge

Source: https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl
7.2.1: Preparatory work
All piles wrapped were 50.8 cm x 50.6 m (20 in. x 20 in.) reinforced concrete piles and
wrapped over a depth of 1.5 m that extended all the way to the underside of the pile cap. The
waters are approximately 4.88 m (16 ft) deep. This meant that ladders could no longer be
used to apply the FRP in this situation. An innovative scaffolding system was designed and
fabricated. It was lightweight, modular yet sufficiently rigid when assembled to support 4-6
people. The scaffolding was suspended from the pile cap and extended 2.74 m (9 ft) below.
Its mesh flooring provided a secure platform around the pile that allowed the wrap to be
carried out unimpeded in knee deep waters.

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 Figure 26: Mesh flooring around piles
Source: https://www.engineeringcivil.com/wp-content/uploads/2017

7.2.2: Instrumentation
Unlike the Allen Creek Bridge where vandalism was a real concern, the piles of the
Friendship Trails Bridge are located in deeper and more turbulent waters. Moreover, as the
majority of the piles supporting this bridge had been repaired and some were instrumented,
the element of novelty was absent making vandalism less likely. In view of this, an
instrumentation system developed by the Florida Department of Transportation was selected.
This required both wiring and junction boxes. The scheme uses rebar probes that are
installed at different elevations close to the reinforcing steel. Changes in the direction of the
corrosion current between these locations can indicate if the FRP is working as expected.
Reductions in the measured current compared to unwrapped controls were also expected to
provide an index of the efficacy of the FRP wrap. The drawback with this system is that it
takes time for the equilibrium state around the probe to be attained. Until this time, data may
not be meaningful.

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 Figure 27: Use of Rebar Probes
Source: https://www.engineeringcivil.com/wp-content/uploads

7.2.3:FRP wrapping
Two different FRP systems were used. One was the same pre-preg system with a water-
activated resin used in the Allen Creek Bridge. The other was Fyfe’s system that used resins
that cure in water. The pre-preg system was used to wrap four piles – two using carbon and
two using glass. The wet-layup system from Fyfe required on-site saturation of the fibres.
Two piles were wrapped with fibreglass using this system. Of the two, one was an
experimental FRP system that combined wrapping with a sacrificial cathodic protection
system. Two other unwrapped piles in a similar initial state of disrepair were used as controls
to evaluate the performance of the wrapped piles. Application was facilitated through the use
of a scaffolding system mentioned earlier.

Figure 28: FRP Wrapping

Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2F
The pre-preg system was applied as in the Allen Creek Bridge and posed no problems. The
Fyfe system was more challenging since the FRP material had to be saturated on-site. Access

22
to foundations of an adjacent bridge provided a convenient staging post for the on-site
impregnation. On an average the operation took 90 minutes to complete.

Figure 29: Wrapping of FRP material around pile

Source: https://www.engineeringcivil.com/wp-content/uploads/2017

8. STANDARDS AND CODES

There are no Indian standards codes as such for the control of corrosion. The latest editions of
the following organizations’ standards, codes, and guidelines shall be used for the design of
corrosion control systems:
• NACE International (formerly The National Association of Corrosion Engineers)
• RP0169 – Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping
Systems
• American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
• ASTM D512 – Standard Test Methods for Chloride Ion in Water
• ASTM D516 – Standard Test Method for Sulfate Ion in Water
• ASTM G51 – Standard Test Method for measuring pH of Soil for Use in Corrosion Testing

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• American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA)
• Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
• Publication FHWA-NHI-00-044 – Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes.

9. CONCLUSION
Though there is no absolute way to eliminate all corrosion on under water piles, there are
some effective measures to control them. The cathodic protection is found to be quite simple
to employ and mostly used in marine conditions. The protective coatings are used in vast and
expensive structures. The FRP composites have many advantages over conventional methods
such that they are light weight, possess high strength and chemical resistance and moreover
have incomparable flexibility.
Of the various ways of wrapping of FRP composites, transverse wrapping is found to be the
easiest as otherwise, the longitudinal pieces are awkward to handle and difficult to position.
Bi-directional material is the best option. Scaffolding measures during the application of
materials ensures safety and simplifies installation. Out of the two system of FRP application,
the pre-preg system is easier to use. On-site FRP saturation can be problematic. High winds
and high tides should be avoided during the process.

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 10. REFERENCES
 www.google.com

 www.wikipedia.com

 www.studymafia.com

 http://www.quakewrap.com/frp%20papers/
FRPApplicationinUnderwaterRepairofCorrodedPiles.pdf

 http://www.farwestcorrosion.com/fwst/anodimpr/elg04.htm

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