BASIC TRAINING FOR OIL

AND CHEMICAL TANKER

CARGO OPERATIONS
(BTOCTCO)

A NAMAC HANDOUT

BTOCTCO / HOUT / JUNE 2017 / REV 0

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 INDEX

Chapter Subject Page No

1. Basic Knowledge of Tankers (oil & chemicals) 03 – 42

2. Physical & Chemical Properties of Oil & Chemicals 43 – 50

3. Knowledge and Understanding of Tanker safety 51 – 56

culture and safety management

4. Hazards and Basic Knowledge of Hazard Control 57 – 69

5. Safety 70 – 77

6. Fire Safety & Fire Fighting Operations 78 – 85

7. Cargo Operations 86 – 95

8. Emergencies for Oil and Chemical Tankers 96 – 97

9. Pollution Prevention for Oil & Chemical Tankers 98 – 104

10. Case Studies on oil & NLS Ship Emergencies 105 – 107

11. APPENDIX – I 108 – 113

Tanker Terminology

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 CHAPTER – 1

BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF TANKERS (OIL & CHEMICALS)

Introduction

1. With the development of the petroleum industry, need was felt to use petroleum
products as a convenient, cheap & plentiful source for the production of chemicals. As a result,
rapid development of oil tankers & chemical tankers took place. Specialised tankers for Oil,
Chemical and Gas developed.

2. Types of Tankers.

(a) Crude oil tankers (VLCC & ULCC size)

(b) Product Tanker

(c) Chemical Tankers

(d) LPG / LNG Tankers

(e) Oil / ORE (O/O) Tankers

(f) Oil / Bulk / ORE (O/B/O) Tankers

(g) Bitumen Tankers

3. Basic Knowledge of Oil Tankers. Initially tankers built in 1860 were not real
tankers. Oil was transported from USA to UK on wooden sailing ships. With the passage of
time bigger tankers were built to meet the industry needs from a modest coastal tankers to a
VLCC or ULCC super tankers. M.T Sea Wise giant, 5,65,000 DWT built IN 1979 having
length 458m, only 12 tankers remain which are above 3,20,000 dwt. Now only two true ULCC
of around 4,30,000 dwt are left in operation. An oil tanker is also known as a petroleum tanker
which is designed for transportation of oil. There are two basic types of oil tankers are in trade,
Crude Oil tanker and Product Tankers. Oil tankers can further be classified as per the
commercial requirement and trading pattern as :-

Handy Size 20,000 – 30,000 DWT

Handy Max 30,000 – 45,000 DWT
Panamax 60,000 – 80,000 DWT
AFRAMAX Tankers 80,000 – 120,000 DWT
SUEZ MAX Tankers 120,000 – 180,000 DWT
VLCC Tankers 180,000 – 320,000 DWT
ULCC Tankers 320,000 + DWT

Panamax tanker have beam restriction of 30 m (max)

Crude tankers carry unrefined oil to refineries whereas product tankers transport finish
products and are comparatively small in size.

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4. Double Hull Tankers. After the grounding of M T Exxon Valdiz in 23rd March 1989.
Resulting heavy marine pollution in USA, tankers design was redeveloped to Double Hull. No
single hull tankers will be built on/after 6th July 1996 as per MARPOL annex I revised
regulation. All single hull tankers around the world will be phased out by 2026.

Fig 01 Early Design of Bulk Oil Carrier

Fig 02 – Typical Oil Tanker 1940 - 1960

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 V.L.CC

U.L.CC

Fig 03 – Comparative Size of Tankers

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Fig 04 – Crude Oil Tanker

Fig 05 – Product Tanker

Fig 06 – LPG Carrier

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Fig 07 – Ore/Oil Carriers (O/OShips)

Fig – 08 Ore/Bulk/Oil (OBO Ships)

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 Fig 09 Single Hull Crude Oil Tanker

Fig 10 Double Hull Tanker with SBT in

P/L

5. General Construction Design / Cargo handling Equipment on Tankers.

(a) Tanks : Means Enclosed space which is formed by the permanent structure of a
ship and designed for the carriage of liquid in bulk.

(i) Cargo Tank. Are tanks meant for carriage of cargo oil.

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(ii) Ballast Tanks. Meant for carriage of ballast. These may be
segregated ballast tanks (SBT) or clean ballast tanks (CBT)

(iii) Segregated Ballast Tanks (SBT): In order to obtain suitable draft

required for the ballast voyage, these tanks are constructed and can be
double bottom or wing tanks. They are so called because they are completely
separated from cargo tanks and have separate arrangement for pumping and
piping arrangement.

(iv) Clean Ballast Tanks. These are cargo oil tanks which are
designated to carry ballast after cleaning. The effluent when discharged
overboard will not produce visible traces of oil. It will meet the discharge criteria
of MARPOL Annex I. This type of ballast tanks are used for heavy weather
ballast.

(v) Pump Room. Main Cargo oil Pumps, Stripping pumps, educator,
ballast pumps, bilge pump and various lines, valves etc are installed and
interconnected in this room for the purpose of cargo handling, ballasting /
deballasting and tank cleaning, etc. As this space has good lot of machinery
and pipelines, valves, any leak in the system can quickly generate H/C Gas in
the bottom. Exhaust fans known as pump room blowers are installed on the top
of pump room so as to ventilate with fresh air and run on extraction mode.
As per regulation, blower should be able to make 20 changes of air in one hour.
It is imperative to ensure that blower is operational prior entry is made into
the pump room. Spare blower (if pump room is fitted with a single blower) is a
requirement of vetting inspection.

(vi) Slop Tanks. Specially designed for the collection of tank draining, tank
washings and other oily mixtures, are connected to the main cargo lines.
Additional pipeline from stripping system is fitted. These tanks are used for
containing overflow from tanks or bursting of hoses, pipeline or valve body. Also
used for recirculation of water / crude oil while carrying out tank cleaning / crude
oil washing. If slop tanks are sufficiently cleaned they can be used to
carry cargo (LOT) and generally have a capacity of approx 3 % of the total
cargo carrying capacity as per regulations.

(vii) Fore Peak and After Peak Tanks. These tanks are meant for carrying
ballast water mainly for trim correction. Collision bulkhead is constructed to
dampen the damage / marine pollution in case of head-on collision.

(viii) Deep Tanks. Are usually provided for carriage of fuel oil. Some
tankers have pump room (Forward). If so fitted it will have fuel oil transfer pump,
bilge / ballast p/p and educator.

(ix) Fresh Water Tanks. Use for carriage of fresh water for on board
crew use. (Drinking and accommodation use).

(x) Cofferdam. This is the name given to empty / void space between
double transverse bulkheads and it provides a space between oil tanks and
other compartments. Rules require that a cofferdam be fitted at each end of the
cargo area.

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Typical Tanker Arrangement

6. Various lines that may be present on board tankers

(a) Pump Room Piping

(b) Tank Cleaning / crude oil washing lines

(c) Deck Lines - Cargo

(d) Bottom Lines - Cargo

(e) Cargo - Drop Lines

(f) Cargo – Cross Over Line

(g) I.G. Lines – Main and Branch

(h) Cargo Heating Lines

(i) Cargo tank venting lines, etc.

(j) Cargo Drain Lines

(k) Cargo Stripping Line (Marpol Line)

(l) Bunker Lines

(m) Fresh Water Pipe Lines

(n) Compressed Air Line

(o) Fire Main Line

(p) Steam Lines

(q) Hydraulic Lines

7. Piping Arrangement for Cargo Loading and Un loading .

(a) The Direct Line System. It consists of longitudinal lines in the centre tanks
branching to suction bell mouth in the centre and wing oil tanks. Drop valve is installed
on this system. It enables faster loading / unloading rates. See Fig 11.

(b) Ring Main System. This system provides for handling of several different grades
of cargo simultaneously. Main pipe lines in the tanks are laid in a ring format. Additional
Cross-over and isolating valves are fitted to minimise the risk of cargo mixing up. (see
Fig 12)

(c) Free Flow System. Mostly fitted on large ships. Flow of oil from a ship‘s
tank can be improved if it does not have to pass through pipelines, but can flow through
valves in the bulkhead called rectangular gate valve when opened up directly to the
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pumps. If handled properly, main cargo pump can strip the tank effectively. (See Fig
13)

Fig 11 – Direct Line System

Fig 12 – Ring Main System

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 Fig 13 – Free Flow System

8. Basic Knowledge of Chemical Tankers. A chemical tanker is a type of tanker ship

designed to transport chemicals in bulk. As defined in MARPOL Annex II, chemical
tanker means a ship constructed or adapted for carrying in bulk any liquid product listed in
chapter 17 of the International Bulk Chemical Code. As well as industrial chemicals and clean
petroleum products, such ships also often carry other types of sensitive cargo which require a
high standard of tank cleaning, such as palm oil, vegetable oils, tallow, caustic soda,
and methanol.

(a) Types of Chemical Tankers. Chemical tankers transport on a single voyage

a variety of cargoes with different hazards & properties. They are designed to carry a
large number of segregated products of wide range of different cargoes.

(b) Parcel Chemical Tankers. Multiple small cargo tanks typically up to

40,000 dwt. These tankers have individual pump and a dedicated pipe line and carry
small parcels of high grade chemicals. Cargo tanks are mostly stainless steel, allowing
maximum flexibility to carry cargoes that need to safe guard their quality.

(c) Product / Chemical Tankers. These tankers are mostly coated rather than
stainless steel and are less sophisticated pump & pipe line arrangement. Ships are of
similar size to parcel tankers but with fewer cargo tanks and carry less difficult
chemicals. Ships also trade extensively with clean oil products.

9. Specialised Chemical Carriers. These ships are:-

(a) Often on dedicated trade,

(b) Usually carrying a single grade of cargo in coated or stainless steel tanks. Ships
are small to medium size.

(c) Acid, molten sulphur, molten phosphorous, methanol, fruit juice, palm oil or wine
etc carried as a single cargo.
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10. Arrangement of Chemical Tankers.

(a) Chemical tankers built after 1st July 1986 are to comply with the international
bulk chemical code (IBC CODE).

(b) Chemical tankers constructed before 1st July 1986 should comply with the
requirements of (BCH Code). BCH code is for the construction and equipment of ships
carrying dangerous chemicals in bulk the predecessor of the IBC Code.

11. IMO Ship Type. In general, ships carrying chemicals in bulk are classed into three
types:-

(a) Type 1. Type 1 ship is a chemical tanker intended to transport Chapter 17

of the IBC Code products with very severe environmental and safety hazards which
require maximum preventive measures to preclude an escape of such cargo.

(b) Type 2. Type 2 ship is a chemical tanker intended to transport Chapter 17

of the IBC Code products with appreciably severe environmental and safety hazards
which require significant preventive measures to preclude an escape of such cargo.

(c) Type 3. Type 3 ship is a chemical tanker intended to transport Chapter 17

of the IBC Code products with sufficiently severe environmental and safety hazards
which require a moderate degree of containment to increase survival capability in a
damaged condition. Most chemical tankers are IMO 2 and 3 rated, since the volume
of IMO 1 cargoes is very limited.

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 Fig 14(a) – Tank Section of a Product / chemical Tanker with
Deepwell Pumps

Note : IBC Code requirements for:

Ship Type 1 each tank capacity not more than 1250 m 3
Ship Type 2 each tank capacity not more than 3000 m 3
Sip Type 3 each tank capacity not regulated

Fig 14(b) of Chemical Tankers

12. Tank Configurations. As per IBC Code, Cargo tank location, should be at the following
distance in board :-

(a) Type 1 Ship. From the side shell plating, not less than the transverse extent of
damage specified in 2.5.1.1.2, (B/5 or 11.5m whichever is less), and from the moulded
line of the bottom shell plating at centerline, not less than the vertical extent of damage
specified in 2.5.1.2.3, (B/15 or 6 m whichever is less), and nowhere less than 760 mm
from the shell plating. This requirement does not apply to the tanks for diluted slops
arising from tank washing.

(b) Type 2 Ships. From the moulded line of the bottom shell plating at
centerline, not less than the vertical extent of damage specified in 2.5.1.2.3, (B/15 or

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 6 m whichever is less), and nowhere less than 760 mm from the shell plating. This
requirement does not apply to the tanks for diluted slops arising from tank washing.

(c) Type 3 Ships. No requirement

13. Parcel Tankers & Manifold Arrangement. Manifolds can be any where between
30 to 54.

14. Chemical Tanker Arrangement. Following arrangements are made in a Chemical

tankers:-

(a) Cargo containment system

(b) Cargo loading system

(c) Cargo unloading system

(d) Segregated ballast system

(e) Cargo heating system

(f) Stripping system

(g) Tank washing and slop-retaining system.

(h) Inert gas system

(i) Vent line systems.

(j) Manifold arrangements

15. Some tanker may have special feature-such as.

(a) Small additional cargo tanks located on deck

(b) Slop tanks are tanks designated or used for tank washings and cargo residues.

(c) Cargo tanks may also be used as slop tanks and vice versa.

(d) Cargo tanks may also be used for ballast.

16. Coating Types. Chemical tankers normally have a series of separate cargo tanks
which are either coated with specialized coatings such as phenolic epoxy or zinc paint, or
made from stainless steel. The coating or tank material also influences how quickly tanks can
be cleaned. Typically, ships with stainless steel tanks can carry a wider range of cargoes and
can clean more quickly between one cargo and another, which justifies the additional cost of
their construction. The coating or cargo tank material determines what types of cargo a
particular tank can carry on board:-

(a) Epoxy Coated tanks for less acidic/ alkaline cargoes / veg. Oils but not
solvents.

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 (b) Zinc Silicate for more difficult cargoes like methyl alcohol and petroleum
products.
(c) Stainless Steel tanks for aggressive cargoes such as acids / alkalis – H2SO4 etc
17. Pumps and Eductors. A pump is a device used to move fluids or substances which
can flow, including water, oil, sludge etc. External power source is used to impart energy to the
fluid. This raises the fluid to another level, against pressure and against friction.
18. Types of Pumps.
(a) Positive Displacement Pumps. Pumps used to transport or pressurize gases
are called compressors, blowers, or fans. Pumps in which displacement is
accomplished mechanically are called positive displacement pumps
(i) Reciprocal Pumps.
(aa) Piston Pumps. Piston pumps and plunger pumps use a
mechanism (typically rotational) to create a reciprocating motion along
an axis, which then builds pressure in a cylinder or working barrel to
force gas or fluid through the pump. The pressure in the chamber
actuates the valves at both the suction and discharge points.
(aaa) Single Action.

Fig 15 Single Action Piston Pump

(aab) Double Action

Fig 16 Double Action Piston Pump

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(ii) Rotating Pumps. Centrifugal pumps are a sub-class of dynamic
axisymmetric work-absorbing turbomachinery. Centrifugal pumps are used to
transport fluids by the conversion of rotational kinetic energy to the
hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow. The rotational energy typically comes
from an engine or electric motor.

(aa) Single rotor

Fig 17 Single rotor Rotating Pumps

(ab) Multi rotor

Fig 18 Multi Rotor Rotating Pumps

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 (aaa) Gear pumps

Fig 19 Multi Rotor Rotating Gear Pumps

(aab) Screw pumps

Fig 20 Multi Rotor Rotating Screw Pumps

(b) Kinetic Pumps. Kinetic pumps impart kinetic energy to the fluid by means of
a rapidly rotating impeller.

(i) Special Pumps

(aa) The Ejector Pump. The ejector system (also known as

the eductor system) is specialist technique used to control pore water
pressure in low permeability soils such as very silty sands, silts, or
clays with permeable fabric. That creates a low pressure inside

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 the eductor which will cause air molecules to flow into the eductor via
the suction inlet.

Fig 21 The Ejector Pump

(ii) Centrifugal Pumps. Centrifugal pumps are the primary pump type in the
class of pumps called "kinetic" pumps and are distinctly different than
"positive displacement" pumps. All centrifugal pumps include a shaft-
driven impeller that rotates (usually at 1750 or 3500 RPM) inside a casing.
Centrifugal pumps are a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-
absorbing turbomachinery. ... The fluid enters the pump impeller along or
near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially
outward into a diffuser or volute chamber (casing), from where it exits.

(aa) Axial Flow

(aaa) Single Suction - Single stage pumps

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 (aab) Single Suction - Multi stage pumps

(ab) Diagonal Flow. Mixed flow centrifugal pumps borrow characteristics

from both radial flow and axial flow pumps. As liquid flows through the
imperller of a mixed flow pump, the impeller blades push the liquid out
away from the pump shaft and to the pump suction at an angle greater
than 90 degrees. The impeller of a typical mixed flow pumps and the flow
through a mixed flow pump are shown below.

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 (ac) Radial Flow

Centrifugal Pump

19. On tanker is used mainly as main cargo oil pump (COP) on oil tankers to handle bulk of
liquids at higher capacity. It does not require much maintenance if handled well. Ingress of
small amount of air in the pumping system will effect pump efficiency. Care should be taken
while installing new mechanical seal.

Fig 22 Centrifugal Pump

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 Fig 23 Reciprocating Pump

Fig 24 Gear Pump

20. Reciprocating Pump. Reciprocating Pump along with gear, screw and rotary vane
type pumps are positive displacement type. Reciprocating p/p is used for stripping the cargo.
Ensure that pump runs slow, full length of the stroke without any jerking movement. Gear,
screw, and rotary vane type pumps are best suited for viscous cargoes. Rated capacity of
these pumps is less but very effective. See Fig No 23.

Centrifugal type pumps can be started with discharge valve shut in order to built required
pressure.

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Positive displacement type pumps must never be started by keeping discharge valve shut as it
builds pressure with its first stroke. If done so, pump will damage resulting in causing marine
pollution & injury to person in the vicinity.

It is imperative to carry out routine maintenance as per makers recommendations so as to

keep them in good working order.

21. Submersible Pump. Chemical tankers will use pump, deep well pump and
submersible pumps. (Framo pump)

Deep well pumps are specialized submersible pumps used to force liquids upward from a
pumping element below the liquid level of a cargo tank. Motor is located on top of the tank and
the drive shaft drives the pump located in the bilge well. It is used in product / chemical / gas
carriers. Each cargo tank will have its independent pump.

Submersible pump is designed specially for being submersed within a tank, well or other
container that contains fluid. It is a mechanical pump having a hermetically sealed motor
coupled to the body of the pump. See figures 25(a) and 25(b).

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Fig 25(a) Submerged Cargo Pumps of a Chemical Carrier

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Fig 25(b) Submerged Pump and Electrical Motor Assembly Chemical Carrier

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22. Eductors. Eductors work on bernoullis principle or venturi effect, which states that,
as the speed of a moving fluid increases, the pressure in the fluid decreases. For its efficient
operation, it is important to maintain a continuous supply of high pressure fluid (Drive fluid).
Fluid under high pressure is converted into high velocity jet at the throat of the convergent /
divergent nozzle which creates a low pressure at that point. Low pressure draws the suction
fluid in to the nozzle where it mixes with the drive fluid and gets discharged. Since no
mechanical or moving parts, it is trouble free. It is mainly used for stripping purposes.

Eductors are placed in pump room and drive fluid is supplied by c.o.p. and ballast pump as the
case may be. Discharge of a cargo educator goes to slop tank, where as that of a ballast
educator goes overboard.

Fig 26 Eductors

23. Valves. A valve is a device used to control or regulate the flow of fluid (Liquid or
gases) through a pipe line. There are different types of valves used in the various systems. It
is imperative to ensure that pipeline valves are maintained in good working condition to avoid
contamination & loss of cargo from commercial & environmental point of view

(a) Butterfly valve (See Fig No 27)

(b) Gate (Slulce) valve (See Fig No 28)

(c) Globe valve (See Fig No 29)

(d) Cock (Two / three way)

(e) Angle valve (See Fig 30)

(f) Non return valve

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Fig 27 Butterfly Valve

Fig 28 Gate (Slulce) Valve

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Fig 29 Globe Valve

Fig 30 Angle Valve

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 Fig 31 Cock Valve

Fig 32 Non Return Valve

23. Cargo Heating Systems. Certain grades of cargo need to be heated up to reduce
their viscosity so that pumps can discharge the cargo effectively generally the cargoes are
heated to maintain a temperature of 100C more than their pour point. There are two methods
of heating cargoes.

(a) Steam Heating

(i) Submerged Heating Coils – Located Inside the cargo tanks at bottom.
In case of heating steam coils, low pressure steam is passed through the heating
coils installed in the cargo tanks. Steam after passing heat to the cargo is
returned to the boiler as condensate. It is a closed cycle system. This system
is suitable for raising cargo temperature to moderate value.

(ii) Heat Exchangers (Deck Heater) – Located on deck. Deck heater cargo is
circulated from tank to tank by the submersible pump and passed through a
deck heater to which steam is supplied. It is important to ensure that no cargo
oil enters the boiler through leaky heating coils in order to prevent boiler
explosion.
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 (b) Oil Heating (Thermal Oil) - In case of bitumen & other grades where
temperature need to be raised quite high, thermal oil is used to heat cargo.
Thermal oil in a tank is heated up at high temperature. This heated thermal oil in turn
will heat the cargo.

24. Cargo Tank Venting Systems. Following systems are placed on board tankers for
Cargo tank venting.

(a) During Cargo Loading – Mastriser or P/V Valves

(b) During Cargo Discharging – Inert Gas

(c) During Sea Passage - P/V Valves.

(d) When above three are not operational – P/V Breaker. (Non Mechanical Type)

25. Effect of Inert Gas on Flammability.

Flammable Limits. A mixture of H/C gas air cannot ignite, unless its
composition lies within a range of gas-in-air concentration, known as flammable range
(Normal value for oil tanker (1-10 % H/C)

Lower Explosable Limit (LEL) is any H/C concentration below which there is
insufficient H/C gas to support combustion (For oil tanker,it is 0-1% H/C)

Upper Flammable Limit (UEL) is any H/C concentration above which air is
insufficient to support combustion. (For oil tankers above 10 % H/C).

Flammable Range. When H\C concentration and air proportion are just sufficient to
support combustion. (Oil tankers 1-10% H/C)

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 Fig 33 Flammability Diagram

When I.G. is added to a H/C Gas – air mixture, the result is to increase the lower
flammable limit concentration.

Every point on the diagram represents a H/C gas-air-i.g. mixture, specified in terms
of its H/C and oxygen content. H/C Gas-air mixture without I.G. lie on the line AB,
the slope of which reflects the reduction in oxygen content, as H/C contents increases.
Points to the left of line AB represents H/C gas-air mixture further reduced by addition
of I.G.

Lower and upper flammability mixtures for H/C gas in air are represented by the points
C and D. As I.G. content increases, the flammable limit mixtures change as
indicated by the lines CE and DE, which finally converge at point E. Only those mixture
represented by points in the shaded area within the loop CED are capable of burning.

Changes of composition due to addition of either air or I.G. are represented by

movements along straight lines directed either towards the point A (Pureair) or towards
a point on the oxygen content axis corresponding to the composition of the added I.G.
such lines are shown for the gas mixture represented by the point F.

As I.G is added to H/C Gas-air mixture, the flammable range progressively

decreases until the oxygen content reachs a level, generally taken to be about 11%
by vol ( 8% by volume safety inerted mixture), when no mixture can burn. When an
inerted mixture, such as that represented by point F, is diluted by air its composition
moves along the line F A and therefore enters the shaded area of the flammable
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 mixtures. This happens during gas free operations that mixtures above GA Goes to
flammable range.

Those below the line GA, as re presented by point H, do not become flammable on
dilution. This can be achieved by further dilution with additional I.G. (eg purging to
remove H/C Gases)

26. Inert Gas System. Inert gas system is the most important integrated system for oil
tankers for safe operation of the ship. Inert gas is the gas which contains insufficient oxygen
(normally less then 8 %) to suppress combustion of flammable hydrocarbon gases with an I.G
System, a tank is protected from exploding by introducing inert gas into the tank to keep
oxygen content low and to reduce to safe proportions the hydrocarbon gas concentration of its
atmosphere.

27. Sources of Inert Gas. Inert gas is produced on board crude oil carriers (above 8,000
tonnes) (from Jan 1, 2016) by using either a flue gas system or by burning kerosene or diesel
in a dedicated inert gas generator. The inert gas system is used to prevent the atmosphere in
cargo tanks or bunkers from coming into the explosive range.
(a) Boiler flue gases
(b) Inert Gas Generator
(c) Nitrogen storage bank system (for Chemical / Product specialised tanker)

28. Main Components of Flue Gas System.

(a) Scrubber

(b) Scrubber seawater pump

(c) I.G. Blowers

(d) Decks seal

(e) Mechanical N/R V/V

(f) Isolating V/V

(g) P/V Breaker

(h) I. G Branch Valves

(i) Venting system

(j) Alarms /cut outs /sensors

(k) Fixed o2 analyser

(l) Pressure regulating V/V

(m) Recirculation v/v

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29. International Regulations for I.G System.
All crude tankers more than 20,000 dwt & all product tankers more than 30,000 dwt
must be fitted with I.G system
1ST July 2016, tankers 8000 dwt carrying cargo of flash point less than 60 0C be fitted
with IG plant.

Scrubber capacity should be such that it should cool down the gases to s.w. temp +
50C.
Capacity of blowers should be 125% the capacity of cargo oil pumps.
There should be more than two safety devices fitted on I.G system to ensure H/C gases
do not enter to safe zone i.e. accommodation, gallery & eng room.

30. Functions of Main Components I.G.S.

(a) Scrubbers. Flue gases are passed through a tortuous path in to which copious
quantity of sea water are fed or sprayed continuously. The gases, having been cleaned
and cooled are then passed through demisters to ensure cool and dry I.G. to the tanks.

(b) I.G. Blowers. Generally two nos blowers are fitted to ensure delivery of
sufficient I.G. to tanks to maintain positive pressure in the tank.

(c) Deck Seal. Wet type, semi dry type and dry type seals are fitted. Its function is
like non-mechanical non-return v/v. In simple words deck seal will not permit H/C gases
from tanks to enter into safe zone (Accommodation and engine room). Deck seals will
have 2 numbers sea water pumps – one always in operation and the other one on
stand by on auto mode.

(d) P/v Breakers & P/V V/VS. A Means to prevent excessive pressure or
vacuum building up in the tank or deck main. These devices are pre-set and operate as
and when required.

(e) Alarms / Cut outs / Sensors. To ensure safe operations, alarms and auto
cut offs are installed. It is important to ensure these should be operational.

31. Alarms (Audible And Visual) required to be fitted as per Reg 62 of SOLAS 74 / 88.

(i) Low / High water level in the scrubber

(ii) High inert gas temperature

(iii) Failure of I.G. blowers

(iv) High O2 content in excess of 8% by volume

(v) Power failure to automatic control systems

(vi) Low / high I.G. pressure in the main line.

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Needless to say that all safety devices must be fully functional at all times. This can only be
achieved by periodic testing / examination.

Fig 34 Inert Gas Plant

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Fig 35 I.G. System

35
Fig 36 Design of Scrubber

36
Fig 37 Pressure – Vacuum Relief Devices

37
Fig 38 Deck Seals

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32. Methods of Gas Replacement. There are 3 (three) operations, which involve
replacement of tank atmosphere:-

(a) Inerting

(b) Purging

(c) Gas freeing

33. In each of these replacement operations, one of two processes can be used

(a) Layering (Displacement). Which is a layering process

Time Bottom

Fig 39(a) Layering

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 (b) Dilution. Which is a mixing process.

Fig 39(b) - Dilution or Mixing Process

Cargo Measurement Systems

34. Measurement of liquid cargoes (Gauging System)

(a) Manual Measurement System – UTI Tapes (Hermatic or MMC)

(b) Automatic Measurement System – Radar beam, mechanical tapes, electro

hydraulic, ultra sonic tapes.
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35. Manual Measurement Using MULTI-Functional Gauge. Portable instrument
commonly used for measurement and consists of a graduated type with a sensor at the end
for measuring ullage, temperature and oil / water interface. It is normally fitted to deck valves
known as vapour cocks and satisfies closes loading . Discharging criteria.
It displays temp., ullage, inter face when selected as well as provided a different beep as
detected. See Figure 40.
36. Automatic Measurement System Using Tank Radar Gauge. It consists of a deck
mounted transmitter unit a computing unit and display unit in the control room. The transmitter
sends out intermittent radar energy pulses. Pulses are reflected back from the surface of
the cargo. These echo pulses are received at the transmitter unit and conveyed to the
computing. The computing unit converts the time interval between transmission and reception
of the radar pulse into depth / ullage and displays it on the display unit.

Fig 40 Portable Ultrasonic Multi Function Tank Guaging Unit

Fig 41 Tank Radar Guage

37. Independent Over Fill Alarms [95% High Level Alarm (HLA) and 98% High High
Level Alarm (HHLA)]. Apart from remote gauging of cargo tanks, oil tankers are required

41
to be fitted with an independent overfill alarm (Generally Float Type or Magnetic Sensor Type),
which will give an audible as well as visual alarm on deck and in CCR when any tank reaches
95% and 98% level.

38. Cargo Tank Pressure Sensing System. SOLAS regulations (II-2/59.1, effective July
1998, and subsequent SOLAS II-2/4.5.3.2.2, II-2/11.6.3.2 and IACS UI SC 140 regulations
effective July 2013), requires that a secondary means of allowing full flow of vapour, air or
inert gas is provided in the event that the primary pressure relief valve arrangement fails. This
ensures that the cargo tank is operated within its design limits and is not mechanically
damaged by over or under (vacuum) pressure. This cargo monitoring system uses pressure
transmitters connected to a central control panel to detect over or under pressure conditions in
a cargo tank, and triggers an alarm to prevent damage in case of primary pressure release
valve failure.

Fig 42 Cargo Tank Pressure Sensing System

42
 CHAPTER – 2

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF OIL & CHEMICALS

1. Basic Physics.

(a) States of Aggregation. One of the three or more fundamental forms,

conditions, or states of matter that are commonly considered to include the solid, liquid,
and gaseous forms. Most substances can exist in either the solid, liquid or vapour state.
In changing from solid to liquid (Fusion) or from liquid to vapour (vaporisation), heat
must be given to the substance. Similarly in changing from vapour to liquid
(condensation) or from liquid to solid (solidification), the substance may give up heat.

(b) Liquid Density. Density is the mass per unit volume. This means that
the density of any solid, liquid or gas can be found by dividing its mass in kilograms by
its volume in cubic metres.

(c) Vapour Density. The vapour density is expressed relative to density of air.
This is very important factor to control the dispersion of cargo vapour released to the air
during loading and accumulating in the enclosed spaces. Vapour density may be lighter
/ heavier than air. Most of the H/C and chemical cargo vapours are heavier than air
which when released into atmosphere will tend to settle down.

(d) Vapour Pressure. When a petroleum mixture is transferred to a gas free tank
or container, it commences to vaporise. It liberates gas into the ullage spaces.

There is also tendency for this gas to dissolve in the liquid, and equilibrium is ultimately
reached with a certain amount of gas evenly distributed throughout the space. The
pressure exerted by this gas is called equilibrium vapour

(e) Pressure of the liquid. It is usually referred as vapour pressure.

(f) Viscosity. The resistance of a liquid to flow is called its viscosity. It is

measured in various units. For smooth cargo operation, cargo may require to be heated
up, for reduction of viscosity for easy pumping in / out of cargo.

Viscous liquids like shampoo and syrup flow slowly and so does HFO and residues.

Centrifugal and deep well pumps are acceptable for the majority of chemical cargoes
but molasses and other high viscosity products require screw pumps.

(g) Latent Heat. The heat given to or given up by the substance in changing state
is called latent heat.

(h) Pour Point. The pour point is the lowest temperature at which the liquid will
flow.

2. Thixotrophic Properties. A thixotropic fluid is a fluid which takes a finite time to attain
equilibrium viscosity when introduced to a step change in shear rate. Some thixotropic

43
fluids return to a gel state almost instantly, such as ketchup, and are called pseudo
plastic fluids. Cargoes showing a temporary reduction in viscosity when stirred or shaken, can
be pumped at temperatures well below its pour point, but at a very restricted rates.

Generally Cargo is heated to a temperature 100C above its pour point.

3. Atoms and Molecules. Atom consists of three fundamental or subatomic particles.

Protons & Neutrons are in the nucleus and electrons in the outer circular orbit.

(a) Molecule. Is electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by
a chemical bond.

(b) Proton carries positive charge & mass.

(c) Electron carries negative charge and have negligible mass.

(d) Neutron carries no charge and has mass only.

(e) Charged Particle Body. A negatively charged body has an excess of

electrons, whereas a positively charged body has a shortage of electrons.

Similarly charged bodies repel each other and positively charged bodies attract each
other.

This has significance because certain substances are negatively charged and a static
discharge can release energy and cause a spark.

4. Basic Chemistry, Chemical Elements and Groups.

(a) Atomic Number. Number of protons or electrons in an atom of an element is

called atomic number of that element. i.e. Hydrogen has 1 proton and 1 electron. Its
atomic number is 1

(b) Atomic Weight. Atomic weight of an element is the sum of the masses of
protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom of that element.

(c) Periodic Table. The periodic table is the most important chemistry
reference. It arranges all the known elements in an informative way the elements are
arranged left to right (period) and top to bottom in order of increasing atomic number.
This order generally coincides with increasing atomic (group) mass.

The different rows of elements are called periods. This periodic number of an
element signifies the highest energy level an electron in that element occupies (In
state).

Elements that lie in the same column on the periodic table (Called A group) have
identical valence. Electron configurations and consequently behave in a similar fashion
chemically. For instance, all the group 18 elements are inert gases.

44
 Fig 43 Periodic Table

5. Crude Oil. Impurities like water, sand salts, sediments and dissolved gases, when
removed the petroleum remaining after removal of products such as methane is termed as
fuel. It is now ready to be transported by tankers or may go for refining. In the refining process,
termed distillation, crude oil is split into number of fractions. Each fraction will have a range of
physical properties. Lighter the product, expensive it is, because of the cost involved in
distillation.

6. Chemistry of Crude Oil.

(a) Crude Oil is a mixture of large number of different hydrocarbon molecules

existing in gaseous, liquid or solid states. The molecules are termed ―light‖ or ―heavy‖
according to the number of carbon atoms forming the molecule.

Heavy molecules such as asphalt and bitumen tend to be solid under normal
atmospheric conditions.

Very light gaseous molecules such as methane are extracted at the well head.

45
7. Methane (Industrial Gas)

Propane (Industrial + domestic gas Gas C1To C4 - gases

Butane (Domestic Gas)

Motor spirit (Petrol)

Paraffin\Gas oil Liquid C5 To C22 – Liquids
Diesel oil
Heavy fuel oil

Grease
Wax C22 to above – solid.
Bitumen

8. Crude Oil Is of Two Types.

(a) Light Crude Oil. Crude oil is considered "light" if it has short hydrocarbon
chains: Light crude oil is liquid petroleum that has a low density and flows freely at room
temperature. It has a low viscosity, low specific gravity and high API gravity due to the
presence of a high proportion of light hydrocarbon fractions. It generally has a
low wax content. an API gravity of 34 or higher is "light". Light crude oil receives a
higher price than heavy crude oil on commodity markets because it produces a higher
percentage of gasoline and diesel fuel when converted into products by an oil refinery.
Depending on sulphur content the light crude oil is of following types.

(i) Sweet crude oil – H2S is removed from oil. Sweet crude gets its name
if it contains less than 0.5% sulfur . E.g.
Agbami Crude API – 47.2° Sulphur -0.044%, Chevron , Nigeria offshore
,
Bintulu Condensate API - 69.3 Sulphur -0.03% Malaysia Bintulu

(ii) Sour crude oil - H2S is still present in oil. When the total sulfur level in
the oil is more than 0.5% the oil is called "sour". E.g.
Arab Extra Light API - 39.4 Sulphur - 1.09% Saudi Arabia

Doroud Crude API - 34° , Sulphur 2.5% Iran Kharg Island ,

(b) Heavy Crude Oil. Heavy crude oil (or extra heavy crude oil) is highly-
viscous oil that cannot easily flow to production wells under normal reservoir conditions.
It is referred to as "heavy" because its density or specific gravity is higher than that of
light crude oil. Crude oil is considered "heavy" if it has long hydrocarbon chains, : An
API gravity between 31-33 is "medium", and 30 or below is "heavy". Depending on
sulphur content the Heavy crude oil is of following types.

(i) Sweet crude oil – H2S is removed from oil ,

Clair Crude API - 23.7° Sulphur 0.44% United Kingdom Sullom Voe

46
 (ii) Sour crude oil – H2S is still present in oil ,eg
Alba (U.K.) API - 19.4° , Sulphur -1.24% Chevron, United Kingdom , offshore

METHANE CH4

ETHANE C2H6

PROPANE C3H8

BUTANE C4H10

Fig 44 Chemistry of Crude Oil

47
9. Aromatic Hydrocarbon. Benzene C6 H6 was recognised as the first aromatic
hydrocarbon others are toluene and xylene.

10. Alcohol. OH Group bonded to a carbon atom makes the molecule an alcohol

11. H/C Density Relative to Air

(a) Propane 1.55

(b) Butane 2.0

(c) Pentane 2.5

(d) Methane 0.55

(e) Ethane 1.01

12. Chemicals

(a) Acid. Acids in solution have a pH below 7.0, releases hydroxyl ions in water,
and turn litmus paper red. Acids are divided into two main classes: (1) Strong acids
and (2) Weak acid. Strong acids are are very corrosive and cause severe skin burns,
examples are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and sulphuric Acid. An acid is a
substance whose water solution :-

(i) Turns blue litmus red

(ii) Neutralise base

(iii) Reactive with active metal with evolution hydrogen

(iv) Has sour taste

Weak acids are acid, that dissociates incompletely, releasing only some of its
hydrogen atoms into the solution. Thus, it is less capable than a strong acid at donating
protons. These acids have higher pKa than strong acids, which release all of their
hydrogen atoms when dissolved in water. A weak acid is an acid that doesn't produce
many hydrogen ions when in aqueous solution. Weak acids have relatively low pH
values and are used to neutralize strong bases. Weak acids are much more common
than strong acids. They are found in daily life in vinegar (acetic acid) and lemon juice
(citric acid), for example. Examples of weak acids are acetic acid (vinegar),
lactic acid, citric acid, and phosphoric acid.

(b) Base. A base is a substance that can accept a hydrogen ion (H+) from another
substance. A chemical can accept a proton if it has a negative charge, or if the molecule
has an electronegative atom like oxygen, nitrogen, or chlorine that is rich in electrons.
Like acids, some bases are strong and others are weak. Which in water solution

(i) Turns red litmus blue

(ii) Neutralise acids

48
 (iii) Tastes bitter

(iv) Feels soapy

(c) Alkaline Solutions. An alkali is any substance that produces OH- ions in water.
Compare this with the definition of an acid. OH- ions are called hydroxide ions.
An alkali has a pH of more than 7. See examples of alkalis and properties and uses
of alkalis.

13. Ph Value. A measure of acidity or alkalinity of water soluble substances

(pH stands for 'potential of Hydrogen'). A pH value is a number from 1 to 14, with 7 as the
middle (neutral) point. Values below 7 indicate acidity which increases as the number
decreases, 1 being the most acidic. The experimental determination of ph offers valuable
information as to the immediate acidity. Ph value of a neutral solution is 7. Acidic solutions
have ph lower than 7 and alkaline solutions higher than 7 (max 14)

14. Ph Scale. Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe a chemical property of
chemicals. A substance that is neither acidic nor basic is neutral. The pH scale measures how
acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.

15. Chemical Reaction. The process of conversion of reactants into products is

known as chemical reaction. It involves breaking of bonds. New bonds are formed during the
course of chemical reaction. This results into formation of products.

16. Catalysts and Inhibitors. Catalysts is the substance which accelerates the rate
of chemical reaction without itself undergoing any chemical change.

17. Inhibitors. When added to the cargo, has the effect of slowing down or stopping a
chemical change i.e. polymerisation, oxidation, corrosion.

Polymerisation & Decomposition

18. Polymers are large molecules which are made up of many molecular units called
monomers. Polymers are formed from low molecular weight compound by a process called
polymerisation. Cargoes which are self reactive, may undergo decomposition or
polymerisation reaction. Decomposition is a process where by a complex compound breaks
up into simpler compounds.

Physical Properties of Oil and Chemicals Carried In Bulk

19. Toxicity. The ability of a substance to cause damage to living tissues, impairment
of the central nervous system, illness or in extreme cases death – when

(a) Inhaled

(b) Ingested

(c) Absorbed through the skin

49
20. Reactivity. The accidental mixing of one chemical product with another inside a cargo
tank or pipe may result in a vigorous chemical reaction. It may generate significant heat or
produce gas and can be very hazardous to personnel and property.

21. Corrosivity. Corrosivity is the etching or attack on metals on the surface and can
rapidly destroy human tissues and cause damage which may be irrepairable. Acids, alkalis
and anihydrides etc.

22. Volatility. The ability of a substance to give off vapours or vaporise (i.e. those which
has lower boiling point) is called volatility. Petrolium substance having flash point below 60 0C
are termed as volatile.

23. Flash Point. The lowest temperature at which a liquid give off sufficient vapour to form
a flammable mixture with air near the surface of the liquid. There are two methods in Lab to
determine the flash point – the closed cup (CC) or by open method in the Open Cup (OC).

24. Boiling Point. It is the temperature at which vapour pressure of the liquid will
become equivalent to the surrounding atmosphere and liquid will change – over completely in
to vapour / gas and temperature remains the same. It means boiling point of a liquid depends
on the pressure exerted on the liquid by surrounding atmosphere.

25. Flammability. When a petroleum is ignited it is the gas progressively given off by
the liquid which burns as a visible flame. The quantity of gas available to be given off by a
petroleum liquid depends upon its volatility.

26. Flammable Range. A mixture of H/C Gas and air cannot be ignited and burn
unless its composition lies within a range of gas in air concentrations known as flammable
range for oils flammable range generally taken as 1 to 10% H/C.

27. Lower Flammable / Explosive (LFL / LEL) Limit. When an inflammable gas
(vapour) is mixed with air, an explosive mixture may develop. At very low vapour concentration
no explosion take place. And when vapour concentration is increased, there will be explosion
at a certain critical vapour / air ratio. This is called lower explosive limit. In other words it is the
lower concentration at which gas (vapour) can still just be brought to explosion.

28. Upper Flammable / Explosive Limit (UFL / UEL). At very high vapour
concentration (too rich mixture) the quantity of oxygen will be too small to maintain the
combustion. Consequently, there is also an upper explosive limit (UEL), it is the highest
concentration of which a gas / vapour can still just be brought to explosion. If there is too little
oxygen the mixture petroleum gases / air cannot burn too. The concentration of a H/C Gas in
air above which there is insufficient air to support combustion is named as upper flammable
limit (UFL). In practice, LEL & UEL of oil cargoes carried in tankers can be taken, for general
purposes, to be 1 % and 10% H//C by volume respectively. The lowest temperature to which a
solid, liquid or gas requires to be raised to cause self sustained combustion without initiation
by a spark, flame or other source of ignition.

29. Spontaneous Combustion. Some fibrous materials when moist with water, or
soaked by oils or chemicals, are liable to ignite without the application of heat, due to the
gradual build-up of heat by oxidation. For this reason, cotton waste, jute, canvas, bedding or
similar absorbent materials in bulk, bales or bundles should not be stowed in close proximity to
oil, point etc. If such materials should become damp or contaminated, they should be either
dried, and cleaned or destroyed.
50
 CHAPTER – 3

KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF TANKER SAFETY

CULTURE AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT

1. Tanker Safety Culture and Management.

(a) Human Error & Accidents.

It has been established that most of the accidents occur at any work place is due to
human error. In order to minimise such episodes, IMO has realised and understood that
seafarers training must be completed and upgraded from time to time. In this direction
STCW convention is amended from 78 to 95 to 2010.

―The actions of people account for 96% of all injuries‖.

―80 – 90 % of accidents are due to human error‖

―50 – 90% of accidents according to statics are due to human failings. (Klez – 1990)

We seem to have passed the ERA where the need was further engineering safety
guards - what we have to do is to capture the human factor.

2. Implementing an Effective Safety Culture. By definition, safety culture is the

attitude, beliefs, perceptions and values that employees share in relation to safety in the
workplace. Safety culture is a part of organizational culture, and has been described by the
phrase "the way we do things around here". Studies have found that workplace related
disasters are a result of a breakdown in an organization‘s policies and procedures that were
established to deal with safety, and that the breakdown flows from inadequate attention being
paid to safety issues.

In an effective safety culture, safety and accidents / pollution prevention are always the
highest priority. For a safety culture to be truly effective, it is important to every one in the
company, ashore and on board to have clear understanding and appreciation of the concept of
safety culture. Administration should ensure implementation is done in proper manner.

3. Developing an Effective Safety Culture. Developing an Effective Safety

Culture implements a simple philosophy, namely that working safely is a cultural issue.
An effective safety culture will eventually lead to the desired goal of zero incidents in the work
place.

Lack of Control. Inadequate controls & standards and non-compliance standards.

Basic Causes. Basic and personal factors.
Immediate Causes. Substandard sets & conditions.
Incidents. Contact with enemy or substance
Accident (Loss). People, property, process, production

4. Key Components of Safety Culture. "A ‗good‘ safety culture might reflect and be
promoted by four factors

51
 (a) Senior management commitment to safety

(b) Realistic and flexible customs and practices for handling both well-defined and
ill-defined hazards

(c) Continuous organisational learning through practices such as feedback systems,

monitoring, and analysis.

(d) Care and concern for hazards shared across the workforce.

'SAFETY MANAGEMENT' CULTURAL/SOCIAL FACTORS

FACTORS
Delegation of safety activities (more general) Empowerment of
the workforce
Conduct of safety audits Good relations between
management and workers
Monitoring of unsafe worker behaviors Encouragement of a long-term
commitment of the work force
Safety training - initial and continuing Low turnover and longer seniority
Good housekeeping Active role of top management

5. Signs of An Awesome Safety Culture

(a) There is visible leadership commitment at all levels of the organization.

Leadership commitment (or lack thereof) to safety will always show. What is
organization‘s leaders value is, typically what is getting done. In great safety cultures,
Leadership proves their commitment to safety through their actions and how they
empower others throughout the organization to win with their safety initiatives.

(b) All employees throughout the organization exhibit a working knowledge of

health and safety topics.
When there is a value for something, it‘s worth the time and energy it takes a person to
excel at it. In great safety cultures, all employees throughout the organization have
invested in a working knowledge of health and safety topics. In other words — they‘re
competent in safety. They know their roles and responsibilities. They know their stuff.

(c) There is a clear definition of the desired culture the organization wishes to
achieve.
The creation of movement towards the safety culture what the organization wishes to
achieve? There is a setting up a goal. Writing it down. Measure where it is. Develop
a plan to make it happen. It‘s a simple strategy, but not simplistic. It is to make
sure that there develops a plan that includes a clear definition of what is a desired
safety culture looks and feels like.

(d) There is a lack of competing priorities – safety comes in first every time!
Who wins the showdown between production and safety at organization? Does safety
win every time or only when it‘s the easy and convenient option? Safety needs to
win every time or developed a toxic culture. It‘s that simple.

(e) There is visible evidence of a financial investment in health and safety.

52
Safety slogans are great, but creating a winning safety culture requires resources.
Improvements need to be made. Problems need to be solved. If funding a safety project
is a constant battle and there is no evidence of a financial investment in safety, There
may have a safety culture issue.

(f) Opportunities for improvement are identified and resolved before a

problem occurs.
Proactive organizations identify issues before they become costly problems and
injuries. Is it passively reacting to every injury? Or is it proactively finding risk
factors and putting control measures in place? Safety leaders that are ahead of the
curve identify and resolve issues before a more serious problem occurs down the road.

(g) There is regular, facility-wide communication on health and safety topics.

Communication, communication, communication. An internal safety communication
process increases awareness of safety topics and transfers knowledge to empower
your people to be successful.

(h) A fair and just discipline system is in place for all employees.
We live in a sowing and reaping world. There are actions and there are the
consequences. Instituting a fair and just discipline system for safety behaviors is a
necessary step to follow through on claim that safety is important to everybody.

(i) There is meaningful involvement in health and safety from everyone in the
organization.
Safety is everyone‘s job, and everyone needs to do their job well. From the facility
manager to the safety manager to the supervisor to the worker on the floor, it takes a
team effort to win at safety. Everyone needs to play a meaningful role in the safety
process.

(j) Managers spend an adequate amount of time out on the shop floor, where
the people are.
Great safety leaders spend time out where the people are. It‘s where the real work gets
done — the shop floor. That‘s where it can find problems. It‘s where a person can talk
to operators and get their feedback. It‘s where a person will be seen (and respected)
as the safety leader. A person has administrative duties,. But the great ones get out
there and get their hands dirty.

(k) Participation rates are at an all-time high, indicating that employees are
highly motivated and marketing of health and safety initiatives is effective.
Safety success tends to breed more success. Safety culture is the vehicle that drives
this phenomenon. When participation rates are at an all-time high, It has been able to
build buzz and positive momentum for future efforts. Keeps it going.

(l) Employees are actively engaged in health and safety initiatives, producing
tangible results for the company.
Are the employees engaged in health and safety initiatives? Or are they dismissive,
leaving for wondering if it is getting through at all? Engaged employees are more
productive, giving a tangible results and feedback.

(m) Employees report high job satisfaction due to the company’s commitment
to their health and well-being.

53
(n) Employee retention and engagement is a focus point for organizations around
the world, and rightfully so. With the skills and talent gap growing wider and wider as
Baby Boomers retire, engaging your workforce through excellence in health and safety
builds culture. Do this right and you‘ll find yourself with highly satisfied employees and
the safety culture you were striving toward.

(o) Safety is the first item on the agenda of every meeting.

is safety at the top in the agenda sheet? If not, It can be guessed what the safety
culture is like in an organization. Either put safety first or send a loud and clear
message to everyone at the meeting that Organisation don‘t truly care.

(p) Employees feel comfortable reporting safety issues to their supervisors.

Does the employees feel comfortable reporting a safety issue to supervisors? Or do
they feel like they will be ignored or (even worse) punished for coming forward? This
is a huge indication of the culture you‘re molding. Employees should feel encouraged
and met with praise when they report safety issues.

(q) Regular, detailed audits of the company’s health and safety program are
conducted by an external auditor.
Great safety leaders are confident enough to be audited by an external auditor. It‘s one
thing to do, an internal audit (and pat yourself on the back). It‘s another thing to bring in,
an outsider to do an external audit (and meet the challenge head on).

(r) Rewards and recognition of good behaviors are regularly given and serve
to motivate continued health and safety performance.
Positive safety behaviors should be awarded and these awards should motivate
continued health and safety performance. A leader knows what employees value but
don‘t get nearly enough? Recognition of a job well done. Recognize and reward
positive behaviors. The word will get out.

(s) Safety is a condition of employment.

Can a Manager really afford an employee who thinks they are above the rules when it
comes to safety? Lives are on the line. Safety should be a condition of employment. If
the organization values safety above all else, then safety can be made a
fundamental value. Any employee who doesn‘t share this value should be asked to
leave and go work somewhere else.

(t) Managers and supervisors respond positively to safety issues that are
raised.
Good managers and supervisors understand that when employees raise a safety issue,
it‘s another opportunity for improvement. This opportunity mindset allows them to
respond positively to the employee that raised the issue and escalate the issue far
enough to get a solution put in place.

(u) Safety is viewed as an investment, not a cost.

Companies that perform well in safety also perform well in business. Knowing the true
value of safety, organizations with a great safety culture view safety as an investment,
not a costly and dreaded expenditure.

(v) A high standard exists for accurate and detailed reporting of injuries and
illnesses – nothing is swept under the rug!

54
 This is a big one. Nothing should be swept under the rug. In great safety cultures,
transparency and integrity is the only way to conduct business. This is about living in
reality and confronting the challenges that exist in your workplace.

(w) There is a concrete definition of what success looks like for an Employees
health and safety program.
How it will be known that Goal is achieved. It will be known because there has
been a set of measureable goals and it is known exactly what success looks like.

(x) The organization has the willpower to make major changes when
necessary.
Quick fixes and easy solutions are great. But organization‘s willpower will be tested
when it is required / need to make a major move. In great safety cultures, good
intentions are backed by the willpower to endure major changes, expensive
investments and hard decisions.

(y) Safety issues are dealt within a timely and efficient manner.
A functioning safety process deals with issues in a timely and efficient manner. Hazards
are identified and controls are put in place within a reasonable time period. Knowing
injury risks exist and not doing anything about them is a sure sign the organization has
become complacent and culture is rapidly deteriorating.

(z) All employees throughout the organization are empowered with the necessary
resources and authority to find and fix problems as they see them. Organizations safety
process should have clearly defined roles and responsibilities. In order for the people
throughout the organization to successfully accomplish their role in the process, they
will need resources and authority to make decisions.

6. Root Cause Analysis of Accidents Points Towards a Lack of Management

Control. Poor safety culture is caused by poor management by not ensuring that work
morale and commitment, communication, crew qualifications, training, procedures,
equipment and other resources are sufficient and efficient.

7. T.M.S.A. Tanker management and self assessment (TMSA) is a tool to help vessel
operator‘s to assess, measure and improve their management systems. This provides a
standard frame work to assess a ship operator‘s management system.

8. Elements of T.M.S.A.

(a) Recruitment and management of shore-based personnel.

(b) Recruitment and management of ships personnel.

(c) Ship board operations – moorings, cargo, ballasting and de-ballasting.

(d) Navigational Safety.

(e) Reliability and maintenance standards.

(f) Safety Management.

(g) Environmental Management

55
 (h) Emergency Preparedness and contingency planning.

(i) Incident investigation and analysis.

(j) Measurement, analysis and improvement.

(k) Management of change

(l) Leadership and accountability.

9. S.I.R.E. Inspection

Ship inspection report (S.I.R.E) is a safety initiative initiated by oil companies international
marine forum (OCIMF) launched in 1993 to significantly address concerns about sub-standard
shipping.

Under this programme (Tanker vetting inspection) ship is inspected by a S.I.R.E. inspectors in
depth. Inspection report is uploaded in to a data base. Concerned parties can view the report
for safety purposes.

The purpose is to focus on the importance of meeting satisfactory tanker quality and safety
standards.

10. Preparing for a Vetting Inspection. Following detailed preparation needs to be

made by senior officers with the involvement of entire ship staff.

(a) All relevant documents for safe operations.

(b) All international / National certificates

(c) Crew well trained.

(d) Preparation to calibrate / demonstrate safety instruments.

(e) Preparation to demonstrate proper operation of I.G. system, OWS, ODMCS,

Em. generator, ventilation system shut down, fuel oil cut off v/vs, steering gear.

(f) Fire safety systems in proper order

The list is endless and may vary from above for oil majors.

56
 CHAPTER – 4

HAZARDS AND BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF HAZARD CONTROL

1. Health Hazards. Following health hazards are experienced while handling petroleum
product:-

(a) Skin. A Skin Contact with liquid petroleum. It can cause dermatitis and irritation
to eyes. Heavier oils can cause serious skin disorders on prolonged contact. Avoid
direct contact by wearing PPE.

(b) Ingestion. Risk of swallowing significant quantity of liquid petroleum is very

slight. Petroleum has low oral toxicity but when swallowed it causes acute discomfort
and nausea. It may enter into lungs during vomiting and cause serious problems.

(c) Inhalation (Breathing) of Petroleum Vapour. Inhalation vapours will

produce narcosis. The symptoms include headache, and eye irritation, with
diminished responsibility and dizziness. High concentration may lead to paralysis,
insensibility and death.

(d) Dangers of inert Gas. Lack of oxygen in tank may make the tank safe for
fire & explosion hazards, but is not safe for entry to humans. Toxic effect of inert gas –
CO, CO2 NO, NO2. Also lack of oxygen will cause asphyxiation.

If someone is suffering from I.G inhalation, following Do‘s and Don‘ts to be

exercised.

(i) Do not attend the victim alone, unless absolutely safe.

(ii) Do not become victim your self.

(iii) Do not attempt to do more than necessary.

(iv) Do inform master & crew and summon for help.

(v) Do commence rescue operations without delay, but not without

supervision.

(e) Toxicity. Toxicity is the degree to which a substance or mixture of

substances can harm humans / living beings. Toxicity can be caused by (1) Petrolium
Liquid. (2) Petrolium Gas.

Apart from H/C Gases present in the tank space, toxic gases such as CO, CO2, NO2, SO2 may
also be present which comes from I.G. systems H2S and benzene may also be present in the
tank.

57
2. Effect of Toxic Gases.

(a) Chronic Effect is accumulative effect of prolonged exposures to relatively low

concentrations of vapour over a long period of time

(b) Acute Effect is single exposure of short duration to relatively high

concentrations of vapour.

(c) Dangers of H/C Gases. Small quantities cause symptoms of diminished

responsibility and dizziness accompanied by headache and eye irritation. Large
quantities of inhalation can be fatal.

(d) Prevention. Vapour are vented through venting system under controlled
conditions. Tank openings are kept shut during cargo operations and it is called closed
loading system.

So it is important to keep all doors / vents shut to the accommodation to prevent entry of
gases during all cargo operations.

3. Threshed Limit Value (TLV). It is defined as maximum allowable concentration in

air of toxic substances typically for inhalation or skin exposure and is measured in parts per
million (PPM).

Three Types of TLV

(a) TLV – TWA. (Time weighted Average). Concentration of a substance to which

a person can be exposed for a normal 8 hour working day and 40 hrs a week, without
having adverse effects.

(b) TLV – STEL (Short Term Exposure Limit). Sport exposure for a duration of 15
minutes, that cannot be repeated more than 4 times per day with at least 60 minutes
between exposure limits.

(c) TLV-C (Ceiling Limit). Absolute exposure limit that should not be exceeded
at any time.

(d) OEL (Occupational Exposure Limit ). An occupational exposure limit is an

upper limit on the acceptable concentration of a hazardous substance in workplace air for
a particular material or class of materials. It is typically set by competent national authorities
and enforced by legislation to protect occupational safety and health. Information
regarding TLV of various H/C Gases are provided on board ships.

4. Petroleum Vapours. Not everyone reacts in the same way to these vapours and
some people may have more tolerance. At higher concentration everyone is effected

5. Hydrogen Sulphide.

(a) H2S has very low odour threshold and its smells like a rotten egg.

(b) It is very toxic, corrosive and flammable gas

(c) It dulls the sense of smell.

58
 (d) It is colourless and heavier than air.

(e) It is present in sour crude oil. It may be found in naptha, fuel oil, bunker fuel oil,
gas oil and bitumens.

6. Typical Effects of Exposure to H2S.

0.1 – 0.5 ppm – First detectable by smell

10 PPM – May cause some nausea, eye irritation

20 ppm – Eye and respiratory tract irritation. Strong smell.

50 – 100 ppm – Sense of smell starts to break down. Prolonged exposure at 100 ppm
may become serious. Death may occur 4 – 48 hrs exposure.

150 ppm – Loss of sense of smell in 2 – 5 minutes

350 PPM – Could be fatal 30 minutes inhalation

700 ppm – Unconsciousness in five minutes. Breathing will stop & death will result if not
rescued promptly.

+ 700 ppm – Immediately fatal

7. New Recommendation States Lowering TWA to 1.0 PPM, and S.T.E.L. to 5.0

(a) Benzene – Aromatic H/C. It is colourless liquid with a sweet odour.

Benzene is a strongly toxic substance that is found diluted in oils and in high
concentration products such as motor gasoline and other white oils. Benzene
presents an inhalation hazard. It has poor warning qualities, as its odour threshold
is well above the TLV – TWA. Chronic exposure of concentration of benzene
vapours may cause leukaemia. Short exposure of benzene vapours concentration in
excess of 1000 ppm may lead to unconsciousness and even death. Benzene can also
be absorbed through skin and is toxic if ingested. TLV of benzene is 1 ppm.

(b) Carbon Monoxide (CO). It is poisonous colourless, odourless and tasteless

gas. CO is harmful when inhaled because it deprives the heart, brain and other vital
organs of the human body of oxygen.

(c) Mercaptans. They are colourless, odourless gases generated naturally by the
degradation of natural organisms. Their smell is like rotting cabbage. Mercaptans may
occur on ships where sea water has remained beneath an oil cargo or where oil
residues are left in tanks that contain water.

8. Environmental Hazards. Pollution is inconvenience or damage, caused by human

activities, animals and plants to our environment as a whole, by spreading H/C and chemical
compounds to air water or land.

59
Marine Pollution may be caused by accidental and intentional due to unloading of cargo
in to sea because of following :-

(a) Collision & grounding stranding

(b) Lightning operations

(c) Tank washing line flushing

(d) De-ballasting

(e) Overflow from tanks

(f) Leaking hoses, pipes, v/v body, p/p casing, loading arms

(g) Equipment failure

9. Effects of Oil Pollutions.

(a) Oil when released not only caused pollution of the sea / land by the oil, but also
pollutes the atmosphere due to release of toxic gases.

(b) An oil spill can pollute air, land and water.

(c) Cause irreparable damage to the environment because of poor solubility and
difficulty in cleaning up.

(d) Can harm industries like tourism and fishery.

10. The Damages to the Environment.

(a) Bio accumulating substances are liable to produce tainting of sea food

(b) Bio accumulated to significant extent substances can produce a hazard to

aquatic life or human health.

(c) Damage to living resources

(d) Hazard to human health

(e) Because of oil being lighter than water (SPGR.<1), it makes a blanket on the sea
surface interfering with the oxygen exchange between the sea and the atmosphere
(f) Blanket the sea and interfering with growth of marine life as result.

11. Reactivity Hazards. Chemical cargoes will react in a number of ways such as
(a) Self

(b) Air

(c) Water

60
 (d) Another Cargo

(e) Other Materials

12. Self Reaction. Chemicals can react within themselves to form a different
compound. Polymerisation reactions are exothermic reactions; the reaction speed is strongly
influenced by catalyst (usually metals), and can be dangerous. In order to prevent
polymerisation of monomers during transport and storage, so called inhibitors are added in
very low concentrations. Following strongly polymerizing substances must always be shipped
with inhibitors:-

(a) ISO PRENE

(b) Styrene (Vinyl Benzenes)

(c) Vinyl Toluene.

(d) A-Methyl styrene.

Precautions

(i) Obtain inhibition / stabilizing certificate

(ii) Note down temp for carriage, temp rage of additive

(iii) Do not load cargo with a temperature higher than the working temperature
of the inhibitor in the adjacent tank.

(iv) Do not inert tanks if the additive is oxygen dependent

(v) Blank off steam heating coils

13. Reaction With Air. Some chemicals react with oxygen in the air to form peroxides.
Organic peroxides once formed are thermally unstable and they are liable
to exothermic self accelerating decomposition.

Vegetable, animal oil and greases are slowly oxidized in air by the action of bacteria.

This process of decomposition is called putrefaction.

Examples are :

Epoxides

Benxzyldehyde

Diethly ether & other ethers

Precautions.

IBC Code requires tanks carrying such substances to be suitably inerted with a low level of
oxygen & maintained at a positive pressure during the voyage and while unloading.
61
14. Reaction with Water. Some substances like sulphuric acid and isocyanates can
combine with water or can be decomposed by water, resulting following:-

(a) Hazardous situation arises or

(b) The quality of product strongly changes or

(c) A product develops which causes corrosion of materials. (Refer MSDS)

Precautions.

(a) Tanks should be completely cleaned and dried

(b) IBC requires double valve segregation between such cargoes & water

(c) Cargo should not be carried adjacent to water tanks, ballast tanks, slop / cargo
tank carrying water washings unless tanks are empty & dry.

15. Reaction with Other Cargo. Chemical reaction can occur when two different
substances are mixed with each other or come into contact with one another resulting the
following:-

(a) If it happens, very hazardous situation may arise

(b) A strong development of heat.

(c) The setting free of toxic vapours.

(d) Fire & Explosion.

(e) The classic case of incompatibility is between an acid and an alkali which
neutralises each other to form salt & water.

16. Corrosion Hazards. Some cargoes may be corrosive to human tissues and to
the ships equipment and structure.

(a) Acids, alkalis and anhydrides are among the most commonly carried corrosive
substances.

(b) These cargoes can rapidly destroy human tisues and cause irrepairable
damage.

(c) These cargoes also corrode normal ship construction material and create safety
hazard for a ship.

17. Hydrogen Evolution. Acids in particular react with most metals, evolving hydrogen
gas which is highly flammable.

Precautions:

(a) Care should be taken to ensure that unsuitable materials are not used in the
cargo area.
62
 (b) Personnel involved should wear suitable PPE.

18. Explosion & flammability Hazards

(a) Flammability. It is the capability of a substance to ignite and to burn:-

(i) The vapour given off by the oil when mixed with air in certain proportions
will burn as a visible flame if a source of ignition is provided.

(ii) Petroleum products are classified as non-volatile and volatile.

(iii) Non-volatile products have flash point 600C or above whereas volatile
products have flash point below 600C.

(iv) Proper precaution are required to be taken to prevent fire and explosion.

(v) In fact, it is the gas which is burning and more gas is produced by burning
liquid and the process will continue till all the liquid is exhausted. Remember gas
will only burn when mixed with air in certain proportions.

(vi) Elsewhere in this docket, we have studied LEL, UEL & flammable range.

(vii) Lower Explosive / Flammable Limit (LEL): The lowest concentration at

which a gas (Vapour) and air mixture cannot explode.

(b) Flammable Range. A mixture of H/C Gas air cannot be ignited and burn
unless its composition lies within a range of gas in air concentrations known as
flammable range. For petroleum products LEL is considered as 0-1% H/C, UEL 10 %
H/C and above, and flammable range 1 – 10% H/C.

19. Source of Ignition Including Electrostatic Hazards. The source of ignition on a

tanker can be:-
(a) Direct Heat

(b) Mechanical Sparks

(c) Chemical Energy

(d) Electrical Energy

(e) Electrostatic Discharge

The best safeguard to take against fire & explosion hazards is to remove all source of ignition.
20. Static Electricity. Static electricity presents fire & explosion hazards during handling
of petroleum and other tanker operations such as :-

(a) Cargo loading & discharging

(b) Tank cleaning and crude oil washing (COW)

(c) Sampling dipping, ullaging Cargo tank heating etc.

63
21. Stages of potential static Electricity hazard

(a) Charge separation

(b) Charge accumulation; and

(c) Electrostatic discharge.

22. Charge Separation. When two dissimilar materials come in to contact, & then
separate, charge separation occurs at the interface. The charges can be separated by many
processes. For example.

(a) Flow of liquid through pipes.

(b) Turbulence & splashing in the early stages of loading oil into empty tank.

(c) Movement of a fixed / portable tank cleaning machine.

23. Charge Accumulation. Charge that has been separated attempt to recombine and
to neutralise each other. But if one or both, of the separated materials carrying charge is a
very poor electrical conductor, the material retains or accumulate the charge upon it.

24. Electrostatic Discharge. When the accumulated charges are widely separated a
large voltage or potential difference develops between them and the neighbouring space
becomes an electrostatic fields leading to a discharge or sparking.

Electrostatic discharge must be avoided. Antistatic fluid is added to cargo products whose
electro conductivity is below 50 ps/ meter.

25. Need for Inert Gas System (I.G.S.) To prevent fire / explosion in a tank containing
H/C gas / air mixture, it is necessary to produce & supply inert gas (having 5 % O2) to
displace the existing air in the tank Until the Resultant O2 level in the tank does not exceed
8% by volume.

26. Fire Hazards. The three essential elements for fire to commence are :-

Fire
Triangle

Oxygen

(a) Oxygen

(b) Flammable Material (Fuel)

(c) Source of ignition

64
 It is represented as a fire triangle.

27. Control of Fire Triangle and Prevention of Fire.

(a) When flammable vapour is mixed with oxygen, an explosive mixture is

produced.

(b) The ability of petroleum to generate flammable vapour causes starting a fire.

(c) The way to prevent a fire is to prevent the formation of such a triangle.

(d) The removal of any side of the fire triangle will extinguish the fire.

(e) Oxygen level in the tank can be kept under control by inerting the tank.

(f) Combustible material (Fuel) Removal is not possible on a tanker

(g) Avoid accumulation of electrical charge in a tank by earthling the tanker.

(h) Take all precautions to avoid source of ignition.

28. Vapour Leaks and Clouds. Vapour leakage from a cargo tank may cause
damage to personnel, materials and equipments. It may cause explosive atmosphere.

29. Signs of Vapour Leaks and Clouds.

(a) A pool of liquid on deck

(b) A dense white cloud

(c) Fog on the deck

(d) An unusual noise / hissing sound

(e) Persistent bubbling are signs of a possible leak

30. Precautions to be Taken in An area of Vapour Leaks and Clouds.

(a) Do not create any spark which could ignite escaping gas / liquid.

(b) Do not attempt to operate any pipe line valves.

(c) Do not enter into or near a leak or vapour cloud to turn off equipment.

(d) Transfer the product from in the leaking tank to an empty tank, if possible.

(e) Consider notifying port & local authorities, and ship‘s operators.

65
31. Basic Knowledge of Hazard Controls.

(a) Inerting. Oxygen is removed from the tanks prior loading by inerting the
tanks, to bring the oxygen content below 8 % in tank. The process of replacing tank
atmosphere with a gas lacking in oxygen (Less than 5%) so as to bring down the
oxygen content in tank to below 8% is known as inerting. This is achieved by two
methods dilution and displacement.

(i) Dilution. Takes place when the incoming inert gas is introduced at a
high velocity in to the tank. Few tanks are inerted at a time.

(ii) Displacement. Takes place when the incoming inert gas is

introduced at a low velocity in to the tank. Several tanks can be inerted at the
same time.

(b) Padding. Filling the ullage spaces of cargo tanks with a liquid, gas or vapour
to separate the cargo from air, Padding can be done by water or using nitrogen.

(c) Drying. Drying means filling the cargo tanks and associated piping or
where required the spaces surrounding the tanks with moisture free vapour having a
dew point below – 400C which will prevent the access of water or water vapour to the
cargo.

(d) Monitoring. It is necessary to monitor the effectiveness whenever these

operations are being carried out for the following:-

(i) Checking the oxygen

(ii) Checking the temperature

(iii) Checking the pressure in the tank using gas meters, UTI and fixed
gauging system.

(e) Anti-Static Measures. To prevent electrostatic hazard, as a counter

measure, all metals to be bonded together. This eliminates the risk of discharge
between the metals. Static electricity precautions are not necessary if the tanks
atmosphere has been made non-flammable by inerting them. Following precautions to
be taken :-

(i) Initial load to be slow-in branch pipe line. Not more than 1m/sec.

(ii) Continuity of the tank cleaning hoses shall not exceed 6 OHMS / meter
length.

(iii) Steaming must be done in gas free condition only (02 – 21% & LEL-0%).

(iv) Pipelines on deck shall have ―Continuity bands‖.

(v) After the 30minites waiting period, metallic equipment may be used for
dipping, ullaging and sampling, but it must be effectively bonded and securely
earthed to the ship‘s structure.

66
 (vi) Bonding and Earthing.

(aa) Bonding means the electrical connection of two objects by a

conducting cable.

(ab) Earthing or grounding means bonding an object to the earth.

(ac) Bonding wire shall be used to electrically bond the equipment to

the ship, whenever UTI or other measuring system, gas freeing fans and
portable tank cleaning machines are used.

(vii) Intrinsic Safety.

(aa) Intrinsic safety is a protection technique for safe operation of

electronic equipment in explosive atmosphere.

(ab) Intrinsic safety is to ensure that available electrical and thermal

energy in the system is always low enough that ignition of the hazardous
atmosphere cannot occur.

(ac) In normal use electrical equipment often creates internal tiny

sparks in switches, motor brushes, connector etc. Sparks can ignite
flammable substance‘s present in air.

(ad) Torch light, walky talky, electrical equipment (portable / fixed) must
be intrinsically safe and approved by the designated authorities.

(f) Ventilation. A cargo pump room contains the largest number of cargo pipe
lines. Leakage of a product will lead to generation of flammable & toxic gases. Entry to
pump room is restricted and controlled by a permit system. The Mechanical ventilation
of extraction type is provided for pump room of oil tankers and ensure that at least 20
changes of air per hour.

(i) Entry in to Confined Spaces.

(aa) A fixed or portable gas detection system may be fitted and it must
be insured that space is safe to enter.

(ab) Ensure that blower is on.

(ac) Pump rooms are fitted with a permanent arrangement for rescue by
means of a block and a harness system.

(ad) EEBDs are placed at various levels in pumproom and shall be

used for escape when gas is suspected.

(g) Cargo Segregation. Chemical cargoes may react with :-

(i) Other chemical cargoes

67
 (ii) Air

(iii) Water (Ballast, water in air)

(iv) Cargo planning is made as per compatibility chart.

(v) Incompatible cargoes are not stored in the adjacent tanks.

(vi) Cargoes which react with water are to be loaded only after the ballast
tanks below the loaded tanks are fully empty.

(vii) Cargoes which react with heat are not stored next to heated cargo or in
last pair of tanks (adjacent to engine room bulkhead)

(h) Cargo Inhibition.

Inhibitor. It is a substance added in cargo to keep it stable while carried as

there is a tendency to react with itself. Inhibitors are added to prevent the onset
of the reaction.

Manufacturers certificate, where applicable, to be provided and shall state the

quality of inhibitor, date, duration of effectiveness and any temperature limitation.

Air or contact with certain metals may promote reaction. Polymeterization type of
chain reaction or self reaction

Heat produced by the process accelerates.

(i) Importance of cargo Compatibility.

(i) Cargoes not to be allowed to, mix with other cargoes.

(ii) Leakages through bulkheads occur at times in any tanker.

(iii) There must be an empty tank, a cofferdam or a tank with cargo neutral to
both products in between.

(iv) ―Diagonal contact‖ between tanks is normally considered as sufficient

separation between relative cargoes.

(j) Atmospheric Control. For the following reasons, cargo tanks atmosphere is
required to be controlled:-

(i) Reaction with air (oxygen) and reaction with a water (saturation)

(ii) Flammability

(iii) Nitrogen as the gas is used for making the tank atmosphere inert on
chemical tankers.

(iv) No chemical cargoes accept ―Inert gas‖ from flue gase or IGG for inerting.

68
 (v) Filling tanks with nitrogen is very critical operation as the flow of nitrogen
will build up pressure in the tank.

(vi) Severe damage to tank structure have taken place due to over
pressurization of tank.

(vii) Nitrogen is a colourless, odourless liquid which can cause a person to

loose consciousness in 20 seconds and death follows rapidly.

(k) Gas Testing. Cargo tank atmosphere are checked :-

(i) Before loading.

(aa) When cargo tanks are to be loaded in inert atmosphere, the O2

content may be reduced to 0.2 %

(ab) On completion of loading

(ac) During Passage

(ad) These are done for Hydroscopic cargoes (tendency to absorb

water) to keep the atmosphere dry as they react with water in air.

(ae) On making man-entry in the tank for the purpose of inspection, cold
work and hot work.

(af) Additional precautions to be taken while doing hot work in tank.

(ag) Gas free certificate is required to carry out cold & hot work.
This certificate must be valid during repairs.
Company‘s procedure & I.S.M code safety procedures must be strictly followed
during repairs.
(l) Understanding of Information of MSDS.
(aa) Material safety data sheets (MSDS) are provided for each grade of cargo
loaded.

(ab) Each cargo tank has to have its MSDS displayed.

(ac) On chemical tankers, there are generally aboard with tank diagram for
each tank and pipe line diagram is placed for each tank. MSDS for each cargo
has to be placed on board.
(ad) MSDS gives complete details of a particular grade of cargo with physical /
chemical properties, dangers involved, first aid chemical reaction etc. Everyone
should be aware of MSDS.
It also give information:-

On corrective response actions

Chemical Designations
Health Hazards
69
 CHAPTER – 5

SAFETY

1. Function & Use of Gas-measuring Instruments. Safety measuring instruments

may be

(a) Personal

(b) Portable or

(c) Fixed type

on board tankers. Gas measurement are the only way to get correct information about the
composition of the atmosphere in a tank with the exception of ammonia and methane. Most
cargo vapours at ambient temperatures are denser than air. This can result in layering within
the cargo tank. Also it can hold local pockets of gas. Thus, whenever possible, samples
should be drawn from several position within the tank.

2. Types of Gas Detectors.

(a) Oxygen Analyser

(b) Multi gas Detector

(c) Flammable (Hydrocarban) Gas Detector

(i) Explosimeter

(ii) Tank Scope

(d) Toxic Gas Meter

3. Oxygen Analyser There are three types of O2 analyser:-

(a) Fixed. Fixed O2 Analyser is fitted in the I.G blower room. A thin tube from
blower discharge pipe is led to this instrument. It measures the general condition of the
quality of IG ie. O2 content in the IG system. It is regularly calibrated for ensuring its
proper functioning. Paramagnetic type analyser has a sample cell in which a light
weight body is suspended in a magnetic field. When sample gas is drawn through the
cell, the suspended body experiences a torque proportional to the magnetic property of
the gas. This magnetic force thus measured is the magnetic susceptibility of the
sample, i.e. its oxygen content which is then displayed. This is a portable equipment.
Electrolytic Cell Type. Oxygen diffuses through the tefnol membrane into potassium
chloride solution and activate the chemical cell. When switch is closed, current flows
round the circuit and deflects the ammeter needle. The more oxygen absorbed by the
solution, the greater the current and the needle deflection indicates the percentage of
oxygen in the atmosphere being sampled.

70
 (b) Portable. Paramagnetic Sensors. Oxygen is a strongly paramagnetic,
whereas most other gases are not. This property enables oxygen to be determined in a
wide variety of gas mixtures.

Oxygen analyser should be zero calibrated using N2 or CO2 gas. The scale of
the instrument is from 0 to 21 %.

4. Multi-Gas Detectors.
It is also called combination Gas detectors. This instrument is used for evaluating the tank
atmosphere, specifically for the presence of toxic gases. Personal gas meters are also to be
hand carried by the person entering the enclosed spaces for continuous gas monitoring of the
space. Electronic type multi gas detectors can measure upto a combination of four toxic gases
CO, H2S, H/C, % LEL, O2 etc.

5. Flammable (Hydrocarban) Gas Detector.

(a) Explosimeter. Combustible –gas detector (Explosive meter) is an

instrument used to detect combustible hydrocarbon gases, and measure the gas
concentration as a percentage of its (LEL) lower explosive limit. This instrument is used
when gas freeing of the tank for man entry.

They generally use a heated filament of a special metal to oxidize the gas catalytically and
measure the gas concentration as a percentage of its lower explosive limit (LEL). No single
instrument is suitable for all combustible vapours. The meter scale commonly reads from zero
percent to 100 percent of LEL. Instruments having a dual range a second scale indicates zero
to ten percent of the LEL.

(b) Tank Scope. Tank scope is used to measure the percentage of H/C
vapours in an inert atmosphere. The readings obtained are expressed as H/C
percentage by volume and are recorded as % vol. These instruments used to measure
percentage H/C vapours in inert gas are non-catalytic heated filament gas indicators.
The composition of the surrounding gas determines the rate of loss of heat from the
filament and hence its temperature and resistance. Explosimeter will determine heat
gained as it will burn on the filament surface.

Tank scope & Explosimeter both measures H/C gases, but tank scope show values in % vol
and explosimeter in % LEL.

6. Toxic Gas Meter. It is also called chemical absorption tubes meter. Most commonly
used is Dragger Tube Type using dragger bellow type pump and chemical tubes. In this
instrument, glass tubes which are chemically coated internally, are broken at both ends and
inserted in the pump as indicated. Different tubes are required for each type of toxic gas.
Sample is drawn through the tube by recommended number of strokes. Toxic gas discolours
the reagent and is measured as PPM. It is important to insert the correct end of the tube to the
pump as indicated by the arrow. Correct number of pump strokes to be given use the
extension hose when remote areas are to be measured.

71
7. Fixed Gas Detecting System. Every oil tanker has a fixed gas-detecting system. It
gives an automatically controlled protection against concentrations of flammable gas that are
too high and this is fundamental to the safety of the tanker.

8. General Precautions for the use of Gas Equipment.

(a) Follow maker‘s instructions

(b) Zero testing must be done in fresh air prior putting into use every time.
(c) Instruments must be calibrated as per maker‘s instructions.
(d) Calibration valid certificate from the authorised workshop must be available
onboard.
(e) Batteries to be removed when not inuse.
(f) Filters to be cleaned / renewed
(g) Hose and aspirator bulb (1 squeeze equates to about one metre of hose length)
(h) Shall be correctly used.
(i) Never carry the instruments on deck without their leather / pvc jacket.
(j) Store instruments safely to prevent damage .

Fig 45 Simplified Circuit Diagram of a Catalytic Filament Combustible Gas Indicator

72
9. Breathing Apparatus and Tank Evacuating Equipment. (SCBA, EEBD, O2
Resuscitators)

(a) SCBA. SCBA when fully charged at 30 bar and depending upon
consumption, a set of 1200 ltrs may supply air for 30 minutes and whistle warning will
be given when about 10 minutes of air is left – compartment must be evacuated. SCBA
must be on positive pressure mode when entering any space to prevent ingress of
toxic gases.

(i) Demand Type.

(ii) Positive Pressure Type

Following checks to be carried out

Check pressure gauge and ensure cylinder is fully charged.

Audible warning whistle to be tested

High pressure leakage test must be carried out (pressure drop shall not be > 10 bar in a
minute.

Face mask leakage must be carried out.

Monitor the pressure gauge while inside the space.

(b) EEBD. The emergency escape breathing device is a compressed air breathings
set of limited duration of minimum 5 - 15 minutes. It is used only for escape from a
compartment having hazardous atmosphere. EEBD must be carried into compartment
and used if presence of gas is suspected. EEBD is not meant for fighting fires / entering
oxygen deficient voids or tanks.

(c) Resuscitators.

(i) Where as SCBAs are filled with air (having only 21 % O2 ), resuscitators
have 100% O2 and the victim stands a better chance of revival, if used in time.

(ii) Participate in training and drills. Ship staff should be familiar with its use.

(iii) Instructions posted on the unit should be strictly followed.

10. Tank Evacuation / Rescue Equipment. Mucking winch is pneumatically driven hoist
which is specially designed for tank cleaning and rescue purposes. Check SWL before use.
Maintain and keep equipment near tank entrance ready for immediate use.

11. Protective Clothing and Equipment. The PPE required will very largely depending
upon the work activity and work area. PPE includes:-

(a) Safety shoes, sea boots

(b) Helmet, bump cap, gloves

(c) Overall, apron

73
 (d) Ear muffs / ear plugs

(e) Eye goggles, visors, face mask.

(f) Emergency shower and eye wash station (on chemical tankers)

(g) Anti – splash suit (Chemical Suit):- These are chemical resistant but not
gas / vapour.

(h) Gas – tight suits – they are chemical resistant and gas & vapour tight – offers
protection from fumes.

12. Precautions to be taken when entering enclosed space.

(a) Enclosed Space Definition. A space which has following characteristics:

(i) Limited openings for entry and exit

(ii) Unfavourable natural ventilation,

(iii) Is not designed for continuous worker occupancy.

This includes but not limited to cargo spaces, double bottoms, fuel tanks, ballast tanks, pump-
room, compressor rooms, cofferdams, void spaces, duct keels, inter barrier spaces, engine
crankcases, sewerage tanks.

No person should enter a tank or an enclosed space without permission from Master.

Only a tank or space declared gas-free can be entered by personnel without breathing set
and protective clothing.

A gas free tank or space may not be considered to remain gas free unless regular
measurements of the atmosphere prove so.

13. Safety Precautions When Entering Enclosed Spaces. Entry is only permitted after
an entry permit has been issued by Master / safety officer who must check the following:-

The space is well ventilated.

That the tank atmosphere is tested & found satisfactory.
O2 – 21% vol (Checked with O2 meter)
H/C Gas – Below 1% LEL (Checked with Explosimeter)
Other toxic gases – Below TLV (By multi gas detector)

14. Golden Rules For Safe Working Practices.

Permit to enter / work in an enclosed space is a must

Rescue equipment must be handy and fully operational.

Communication should be tested & in order.

74
 Stand by crew is in constant attendance outside the enclosed space and ready for
quick response when required.

PPE must be in order.

Remember – EEBD is an equipment for escape and not for rescue.

The issue of a permit does not by it self, make a job safe.

15. Precautions to be taken before and during repair & maintenance. Following to
be considered prior in a gas dangerous area:-

(a) Risk assessment shall be carried out & permit issued accordingly.

(b) The space must be properly cleaned, ventilated and gas freed.

(c) Also adjacent space should be cleaned, ventilated and gas freed.

(d) The pipe lines must be drained, isolated and blanked.

(e) Appropriate PPE must be used while working.

(f) Work space & adjacent space atmosphere to be monitored at regular intervals.

(g) If at any stage, gas concentration observed, work must be suspended, cause
identified, rectified and space atmosphere brought to safe working levels.

16. Safety Measures for Hot and Cold Work.

(a) Hot Work. Any work carried out on a ship where source of ignition is present.
This includes any work requiring the use of welding, gas-cutting, brazing, soldering,
blow torches, power driven tools, portable electrical equipment which is not intrinsically
safe.

(b) Hot work within a designated space. Normally engine room workshop is
designated to carry out hot work. If it becomes necessary to carry out work in engine
room or accommodation, proper procedures must be followed and even company‘s
permission may be required. It is preferred to carry out work without involving hot
work generated equipment / tools.

(c) Hot work outside designated spaces.

(i) Hot work carried out other than designated spaces, should be controlled
by means of permit system.

(ii) A risk assessment shall be carried out each and every time.

(iii) A written plan / checklist should be completed, discussed, understood and

agreed by all who have direct responsibilities with the work.

(iv) Preparation and safety procedures must be discussed.

75
 (v) A responsible person must be designated.

(vi) Work area must be carefully prepared and isolated.

(vii) Adjacent space must also be prepared & gas freed, if necessary.

(viii) Work area must be continuously ventilated and monitored.

(ix) Fire fighting gear to be kept stand by for use, if required.

(x) Fire watch must be maintained and monitored, even for adjacent space.

(xi) Atmosphere checks must be conducted at regular intervals to ensure it

remains gas-free.

(xii) No hot work during tank cleaning, gas freeing, purging or inerting shall be
permitted.

(xiii) Recommendation of ISGOTT and ISM code must be followed.

(xiv) No release of gases shall take place during hot work.

(xv) Hot work preparation should be sincerely made and check list to be duly
signed by the responsible person.

17. Cold Work. Work which cannot create source of ignition. Examples are:-

Working with spanners / screw drivers without the use of hammer.

Blanking / deblanking
Working on pumps,
Removing & fitting of valves, cocks, blanks, blinds.
Disconecting / connecting pipe work / hoses.
Clean up (oil spills)

(a) Preparing for cold work on pipe line / equipment:

(i) Vented to atmosphere

(ii) Drained
(iii) Washed\Purged

(b) Isolation of Pipeline / Equipment for Cold Work:

(i) Lines spaded

(ii) Lines disconnected
(iii) Valves closed
(iv) Blanked

(c) Equipment has to be free from.

(i) Oil and oily mixture

(ii) Gas
(iii) H2S
76
 (iv) Steam
(v) Pressure

18. Electrical Safety Precautions. Following electrical safety must be complied with on
tankers:-

(a) Electrical equipment used in hazardous area must be of approved type and
intrinsically safe.

(b) Electrical equipments must be periodically inspected and maintained in good

order.

(c) No alteration, modification should be made to approved equipment.

(d) All existing wires should be adequate to prevent overloading / heating.

(e) Insulation of electrical cables should be in good condition.

(f) During welding, the earthing connection should return back to the weld machine
it self.

19. First Aid with reference to MSDS.

(a) Liquid in the Eye. Do not delay. Wash eye gently, keeping eyelids wide open,
with copious amount of clean water for at least 10 minutes.

(b) Liquid on Skin. Do not delay. Highly toxic by skin obsorption. Remove
contaminated clothing and wash effected area with clean water for atleast 10 minutes.

(c) Vapour Inhaled. Remove casuality to fresh air. Check victim is breathing, if
stopped give artificial respirations at once. Give cardiac compression if the pulse is
absent. Obtain medical advice immediately.

20. Emergency shower and wash stations (On Chemical Tankers)

(a) Eye wash stations are designed to flush the eye & face area only.

(b) There are combination units available that contain both feature a shower and
eyewash.

77
 CHAPTER – 6

FIRE SAFETY & FIRE FIGHTING OPERATIONS

1. Fire Response & organisation and action taken.

(a) Fire is the single largest cause of serious causalities on ships and loss of life at
sea.

(b) Prevention is better than cure. So prevent fire at the first place.

(c) Fire on board tankers may have very serious consequences unless:-

(i) Prompt

(ii) Proper

(iii) Timely actions are taken

2. Fire Prevention.

(a) Smoking only in designated spaces.

(b) No naked lights

(c) No non-safety matches and lighter

(d) Approved electrical equipments.

(e) Approved galley equipments.

(f) No personal portable / battery equipment (phones & cameras) in cargo areas.

(g) Stopping cargo operations during lightning & thunderstorms.

(h) Spark arrestors / flame screens in good conditions and in place.

(i) Avoid funnel sparking by maintaining machinery in good order.

(j) Keeping accommodation doors & port holes closed to prevent ingress of gases.

(k) Keep accommodation a/c on closed recirculation mode.

(l) Keep tanks under positive pressure and inerted

3. Fire Detection and Protection System.

(a) Accommodation, stores and pumprooms are fitted with :-

(i) Fire / smoke / heat / flame detectors and

78
 (ii) Fixed gas detection system

This may give an early warning of fire / presence of gases.

(b) Inert gas system is a fire protection for cargo area.

4. Fire Emergency Action. Inspite of all the preventive, detection and protection
systems, Emergencies may still happen on board / terminals. Following action to be taken in
case of fire emergency:-

Be prepared, (in case of fire)

Raise alarm

Activate ESD (Emergency Shut down) Stop cargo operations

Close manifolds

Inform terminal

Disconnect Hoses

Be ready to move away from jetty

(a) Action – Ship. Fire on your ship :-

(i) Raise alarm

(ii) Fight fire to prevent spread of fire

(iii) Inform Terminal

(iv) Cease all cargo / ballast operations.

(v) Stand by to disconnect hoses or arms

(vi) Keep engines stand by to move out

(b) Fire on Another ship or Ashore.

(i) Stand by and when instructed :

(ii) Cease all cargo / ballast operations and close all valves.

(iii) Disconnect hoses or arms.

(iv) Engines on stand by and ready to unberth.

79
5. Fire Hazards associated with cargo handling and transportation of Noxious
Liquids. There is a chance of fire when handling and dealing with hazardous liquid in bulk.
One component of fire triangle is combustible material available. So to prevent the fire by
removing the chance of having enough heat / oxygen on board ships. Oxygen is controlled by
way of putting the I.G. in the system and heat is controlled by means of various safety
procedures which need to be followed.

6. Different Hazards posed by Chemicals Carried in Bulk.

(a) Some cargoes give out oxygen when on fire thereby supporting the fire.

(b) Source of ignition may be heat from a reaction within the cargo.

(c) Source of ignition may be heat from a reaction with another cargo.

(d) Chemicals miscible in fire will render normal foam useless. For such chemicals
alcohol resistant or dual purpose foam shall be used.

(e) Some chemicals are heavier than water and insoluble in water. (These may be
smothered using water)

(f) Some chemicals have a low auto-ignition temperature and there is a risk of re-
ignition.

7. Fire Fighting Agents used to Extinguish oil Fires:

Smothering
Cooling
Heat Removal Oxygen Exclution Foam
Water CO2 , Steam Sand

FIRE

Flame Inhibiting
Starving
Interfering Chemically with Removal of
Combustion Flammable
DCP, Vapourising Liquid
Material
(Halon)

8. Portable Fire Fighting Appliances on Board.

(a) Fire Extinguishers

(b) Fire Hoses nozzles & coupling and hose reels

(c) International shore connection.

(d) Foam making Equipment (Foam Applicator)

(e) Firemans outfit

80
9. Portable fire Extinguishers can be.

9 Ltrs Mechanical foam, Extinguisher

4.5 kg Dry Chemical Powder (DCP)

9 Ltrs Co2 / Water

45 Ltrs Mechanical Foam (Trolley Type)

2 kg – CO2 Extinguisher

10. Fixed Fire Fighting Appliances.

(a) Fire Detection and Alarm System

(b) CO2 system for engine room / pump room
(c) High Expansion foam system for engine / Pump room
(d) Deck foam system
(e) Fixed DCP system
(f) I.G. System (for fire protection)
(g) Main fire pumps
(h) Emergency fire pumps.

ER
Air Supply Distributing
Panel
Paint Store
Vent Cargo Hold
Main CO2 Line
Safety Valve Cable SCR

C/R

Manually
Operated
Handle
ER

Battery of CO2 Bottles Cylinder with Alarm

piston Master
Bottles
Fig 46 CO2 Flooding System

81
 Fig 47 Foam System

11. Fire Fighting Agents used to Extinguish Chemical Fires. Dry chemical power is
discharged from an extinguisher as a free flowing cloud. It is most effective in dealing with a
fire resulting :-

On the deck of a chemical tanker

In confined spaces

On burning liquids escaping from leaking pipelines and joints.

12. Fixed Fire Fighting Operations. Both E/R & P/P Room may be fitted with a

Fixed Co2 or gas smothering system. A water spray system

OR

High expansion foam (HEF) system or a similar system.

13. Fixed Co2 System. Co2 system consists of a battery of co2 cylinders, which when
released will flood the compartment and alarm is activated in the space before activation.
Separate set of cylinders are provided for engine room and pump room.

Release Procedures – Fixed Co2 Extinguishing System.

Head count must be taken prior to release.

82
 Ensure all personnel have vacated the space

All ventilation are closed

To be used in case of large fires and as a last resort

Evacuate the space upon hearing the alarm.

14. Fixed High expansion foam system. This system has a foam tank containing foam
concentrate, fire pumps and piping which when started collects the amount of foam through
proportionator and delivers foam solution to nozzles. HEF may have foam ratio 1:1000.

15. Deck foam System : (Low Expansion Foam).

It is a requirement that tankers are provided with foam system capable of delivering
foam to the entire cargo tanks, deck and any cargo tank the deck of which has been
ruptured.

The discharge rate may be upto 12000 ltrs per minute and the expansion ratio not more
than 1:12

Sufficient foam concentrate to ensure at least 20 minutes of foam generation.

Fig 48 Fix Foam System

Foam concentrate is contained within a tank and usually introduced into the system by means
of a foam pump and mixes with the water supplied at the proportionator.

The water and foam compound is termed the foam solution. At the discharge monitor or
nozzle air is entrained to expand the solution into foam.

83
The foam is delivered to cargo tank area by means of a foam line and the foam thus produced
can be used on deck using the foam monitor. Or by connecting the foam hose to foam
hydrant.

16. Portable fire fighting foam operations. Portable foam applicator :-

It consists of :-
A foam making branch pipe
An inline inductor
A supply of foam concentrate.

The inductor mixed the foam concentrate (3% AFFF) with water at the right percentage and
the branch pipe mixed the resultant foam solution with air the expansion ratio is not more than
1:12.

17. Foam Applicator Operation.

(a) Connect the fire hose to the fire hydrant

(b) Connect the fire hose to the nozzle

(c) Insert the pick up tube in to the foam concentrate.

(d) Confirm pressure in the fire line about 3.5 kg/cm2

(e) Fully open the fire hydrant, to discharge foam.

18. Fixed Dry Chemical Powder Operations:

The monitor and hand held hose requirements are that the maximum discharge rate should be
such as to allow operation by one man.

The system capacity requirements of DCP should be of sufficient quantity and stored in each
container to provide a minimum 45 seconds discharge time of all monitors and hand hose
lines attached to each powder unit.

84
 Fig 49 DCP Plant

19. Spill Containment In Relation To Fire Fighting Operations:

The spilled oil must be smothered with foam to prevent the development of fire and
evolution of gases.

A water curtain at the break of accommodation can also be made with the fire hoses to
prevent the spread of fire.

Spill containing equipment (SOPEP) should not be spark potential such as metallic scoop
and shovels etc.

20. Following gear to be kept ready on deck near manifold during Cargo Operations.
(a) Fire hoses nozzles

(b) Foam Hoses / Nozzles

(c) Foam monitors / turrets

(d) Foam applicator

(e) Foam extinguishers

(f) Semi-portable DCP / foam extinguisher (trolley type)

(g) Fire Wallet

(h) International Shore Connection

85
 CHAPTER – 7

CARGO OPERATIONS

1. Oil Tankers.

(a) Cargo Stowage. Depending upon the tanker design for a particular intended
cargo carriage, the following parameter need to be accounted for :-

(i) Loading Rate

(ii) Pumping Capacity

(iii) Piping Arrangement

(iv) Venting Capabilities

Empty Tank

Loaded Tank
Gas Freeing

Tanker
Cycle

Tank Cleaning
Discharging

C.O.W

Fig 50 A tanker Voyage Cycle

(b) The Cargo Plan. There are two method of planning stowage of a tankers:-

(i) Primary Method

(ii) Secondary Method

Information about cargoes to be handled is essential for the safety of the ship. Terminal
/ shipper will provide cargo information to the Master. MSDS to be strictly followed for safe
carriage of the cargo.
86
Stability & trimming will be taken into account while planning.

Today all tankers are provided with loadicators, stress-finders or computers. Correct data
feeding is essential to ensure safe loading and overstressing of hull.

(c) Port Operations. Exchange of Information :-

It is essential to have proper exchange of information between tanker and the

terminal.

Detailed check lists are completed by the both parties.

Confirmation of I.G. system operational status, loading rate, maximum pumping

rate, topping off rate, cargo temperature, cargo pipelines slops receipt
arrangements, cargo specifications tank venting procedures, communication
systems etc. The list is endless.

Ship / shore safety check lists to be completed and duly signed by the sip &
shore officials. Coding of items in check list to be carefully mentioned as:

A – Agreement
P – Permission
R – Re-check

(d) Pump Room Precautions.

Keep bilges dry & clean

Entry to pump room restricted to authorised persons only

Pump room fan operational

Regular inspection rounds to be conducted

Ensure no oil leaks from pump seal, joints etc.

(e) Inerting. Prior reaching the loading port, it is essential to ensure that all
cargo oil tanks are fully inerted, purged and O2 content does not exceed 8% by volume.
Tanks may be inspected by the shore authorities.

(f) Cargo Loading Operations.

Ship staff make the loading plan and concerned personnel are briefed.

Ensure flame screens and pumproom venting operational.

Keep a close watch on overside discharge for any pollution.

(g) Commencement of Loading.

Lining up

87
 Initial flow by gravity and then as per agreed loading rate.

Ensure cargo is received in the proper tank only.

(h) Completion of loading.

Ensure proper ullage tape movement prior topping off

Reduce flow rate and report readings at frequent intervals

After topping off, preferably have two valve segregation.

Shut all circuit valves on completion of the cargo.

(i) Loaded Voyage.

Ensure that cargo tanks are at positive pressure and in inerted condition.
Certain cargo may require heating and hence maintain required temperature.
Cargo monitoring during loaded passage such as :-
(i) Cargo Level

(ii) Cargo tank pressure

(iii) Cargo tank temperature

(iv) Stability, draft, Trim & list monitoring

(j) Cargo Discharge.

(i) Cargo discharge plan made by the Master and Mate and all concerned
are briefed.

(ii) Ensure IG system and pump room blowers fully operational

(iii) Line up

(iv) Check overboard sea side for any pollution

(v) Check slop tank levels.

(vi) Commencement of Discharge.

(k) Pumping and Handling Operations:

(i) Do not shut any valve of the downstream end against the flow.

(ii) During tank change over, in loading, divert the flow to a second tank
before shutting the first tank.

(iii) Centrifugal pumps are to be operated levels that do not cause cavitation.
88
 (iv) Stripping pump should run slow, with full length stroke without jerky
movements.

(l) Ballast Voyage. After unloading the discharge port, all tankers proceed to the
next loading port in ballast passage.

During ballast passage tank cleaning, purging, gas freeing & inerting of the cargo
oil tanks as required for next loading.

Ballast exchange at sea as per the ballast water regulations of the next loading
port.

(m) Tank Cleaning. Cargo tanks are cleaned for various reasons :-

(i) To change the grade of oil.

(ii) Man entry for tank inspection or survey under CSH.

(iii) For cold work and hot work.

(iv) Crude oil washing on crude tanks.

(v) Taking clean ballast.

Tanks are cleaned with tank washing machines:-

Portable washing machine. (See Fig 51)
Fixed washing machine. (See Fig 52)

89
Fig 51 – Portable Tank Cleaning Machines

90
 140 o

Fig 52 – Fixed Tank Cleaning Machines

(n) Portable and Fixed washing machines.

Portable machine is lowered to the tank through butterworth ports and secured
at top / middle / lower level with the help of rope. Sea water, the prime mover
supplied at high pressure (about 8 bar) and a jet of high pressure discharge from
nozzle is hitting the bulkheads thus cleaning the tank.

In case of fixed washing machine the machine is mounted in the tank. Like
portable machine, sea water at high pressure (About 08 to 14 bar) drives the
machine and high pressure jets cleans the tank.

The machine rotate in the horizontal plane whereas nozzle rotates in the vertical
plane.

(o) Crude Oil Washing. Research have shown that 3% crude oil remains as
ROB in the from of clingage thus VLCC will have a large quantity as constant. To
minimise this clingage, tanks on a crude oil tanker is washed with fixed washing
machines using crude oil as prime mover and a cleaning agent.

Programmable. Automatic fixed machines are used for cow.

As per rules, crude oil tankers more than 20,000 dwt must have cow system.
Also 25% of cargo oil tanks to be crude oil washed during every discharge, in rotation,
so that all COTs get washed.

91
 Precautions During COW.
Tanks must be inerted and tank atmosphere maintained at 5% O 2 .
Tanks must be debottomed (water removed)
Associated pipelines to be pressure tested at regular intervals.
Terminal must be informed while COW is done.
Pre/ During / After Low Check List Must Be Completed.

Advantages of COW.

Increased cargo out turn

Reduced sludge accumulation / Less ROB
Reduced gas freeing time.
Less pollution as very minimum oil remains in tanks after cow.
Reduced manual cleaning.
Desilting cost reduced prior dry dock or Repairs.

Disadvantages of COW

Does not eliminate water washing

Need for additional equipment
Specialized man power required
Increased stay in the discharge port
Increased work load
Increases corrosion rate inside the tank

(p) Purging & Gas Freeing of Cargo Tanks.

(i) Purging: Introduction of inert gas in to a tank which is already inerted,

with the object of :-

Further reducing the O2 content

Further reducing the H/C content to below LEL

Thus improving the quality of I.G in the tank so that if fresh air is introduced into the
tank gas freeing can take place.

Before gas freeing can commence tanks shall be purged with I.G to bring down the H/C
gas content to below 1 % by vol.

(ii) Gas Freeing. It is the forced introduction of fresh air into a tank to
bring back the O2 content in a tank to 21% for man entry.

2. Chemical Tankers.

(a) Cargo Planning. Once cargo name is confirmed, collect full information from

CHRIS code
Tank cleaning soft ware
MSDS data

92
 Cargo must be listed in certificate of fitness. A full data of cargo must be
available to the ship.

(b) Emergency Procedure in Chemical Tankers. Emergency procedure

given on data sheet and all crew should be familiar with the emergency procedures
such as :-

Application of first aid

Use of SCBA / EEBD

PPE
All types of reaction have to be considered:-

Properties of cargo and hazards posed. Charters to be contacted, in case of

doubt or unavailability of any data.

Company must review the stowage plan made by the ship.

(c) Filling Limitation of Cargo.

(i) Thermal Expansion. While preparing stowage plan, due allowance must
be made for cargo expansion due to increase in temperature during the voyage
either from climatic conditions or cargo heating.

(ii) Load Density. Cargo tanks are designed to take a certain amount of
load. Hence, specific gravity of cargo plays a very important role in the final
loading condition of the tank.

(iii) Edible Oils and FOSFA List.

NIOP is the National Institute of Oil seed Products in north America.

FOSFA is the Federation of Oil, Seeds and Fats Association in Europe.
Both have their main concern to protect the health of the consumers. Cargo may get
contaminated during transportation. Loading edible oils in to cargo tanks which have
carried certain hazardous cargoes previously is not permitted.

(d) Load Plan. Plan should contain:-

Emergency procedures,

Means of communication,

Frequency of contact with shore staff

(e) Start of Flow. Loading should commence at slow rate. All tanks to be
checked to:-

Ensure that cargo is being loaded in the correct tank.

And there is no leakage from the lines, in to pump room, cofferdam or into sea.

93
 (f) Sampling. Extreme care required for gauging and sampling of chemical
cargoes. Sampling my be taken by closed sampling, manifold sampling or pump stack
sampling.

(g) Chemical Cargo Unloading.

(i) A discharge plan to be prepared prior arrival port.

(ii) All concerned must be familiar with the discharging operations.

(iii) Ship / shore safety check list to be completed.

(iv) All concerned should wear PPE.

(v) Incompatible cargoes are not to be discharged at same time.

(vi) All fire fighting & pollution prevention equipments must be kept stand by.

3. Types of Pumps. Chemical tankers are fitted with :-

(a) Centrifugal Pump. These are either submerged pumps integral with hydraulic
motors or of extended shaft with deck mounted electric motors, called deep well pumps.

(b) Screw Pumps. Most suitable for viscous cargo.

(c) Piston pumps (reciprocating type)

Generally all cargo tanks are integral units with no physical connection with other cargo
tanks.

Chemical tankers have only ballast pump rooms.

When discharging in non-inert atmosphere, the vacuum end of P/V value is in
operation, the secondary protection is via alarm which is set at 10% below the setting of
vacuum valve.
If the alarm is activated for any tank, the discharging of the tank must stop.

4. Coconut & Vegetable Oils. Discharging requires squeezing in the tank.

These cargoes have hazards associated with the production of carbon – monoxide
(CO).

These hazards are heightened during heating and final stages of discharging when CO
levels reach to 3000 ppm.

8 Hrs safe exposure limit for CO is 30 ppm although short term ( 15 minutes) exposure
is up to 200 ppm.

It is important to monitor CO level continuously when crew are in tank.

5. Tank Cleaning & Gas Freeing. Rules & Regulations:-

Tank cleaning is carried out in various stages.

94
 Tank cleaning plan & level of tank cleaning is confirmed by charterers before ship
arrives in load port.
Effectiveness is checked by wall wash test after cleaning is complete.
The test verifies the quantity of chlorides and H/C in PPM.
Other tests are appearance test, colour test and permanganate fade test.
Tank Cleaning may involve the following.
Seawater wash hot / ambient
Fresh water wash hot / ambient.
Chemical Recirculation.
Fresh water rinsing.
DI iwater (De-ionized / demineralised) spraying used to flush out the chlorides from tank
bulk heads prior sensitive cargoes.
Mopping & drying of tank.
Stages of Tank Cleaning.
Pre cleaning with sea water
Main wash with sea water
Tank cleaning chemical wash
Rinsing with sea water
Flushing with fresh water
Steaming tanks and pipelines.
Draining tank sump
Drying tank with ventilation
Inspection / Testing
Gas Freeing.

Purpose of gas freeing is to replace cargo vapours, inert gas or any other gases with air.

Gas freeing may be done by fixed / portable fans driven by air, steam, water or hydraulic fluid.

Tank atmosphere is checked by measuring the O2 content and ppm values of cargo vapour or
of toxic constituents of inert gas.

Cargo tank is gas free only when O2 content is 21% by volume, H/C less than 1% of LEL and
toxicity less than 50% OEL.

6. Slops and Slop Disposal.

Slops are tank washings or any residue / water mixtures from pump room bilges. E/R
bilges or slop tanks.

Modern chemical tankers are fitted with tanks for storage of slops. Cargo tanks may
also be used to contain slop.

Slop discharging to sea is prohibited ashore.

Cargo record book must have entries of slop handling.

95
 CHAPTER – 8

EMERGENCIES FOR OIL AND CHEMICAL TANKERS

1. Basic knowledge of Emergency Procedures, Including Emergency Shut Down.

(a) Muster List. Ship‘s muster list provide instructions to each member the actions
that needs to be taken in case of emergency, such as:

M/E failure
Steering gear failure.
Collision / grounding / stranding
Dangerous structural defect
Accommodation / E.R./ deck / Galley fire
Fire in non cargo area
Oil spill / chemical spill
Vapour leaks & clouds
Marine pollution due to tank over- flow / pipe / valve rupture

(b) Emergency Organisation Structure.

Bridge Team
Emergency Team
Support / Back up team
E//R Team
Special Team
Medical / Logistic Team

(i) Command Centre: It is control of the response to the emergency with the
master / senior officer onboard in charge.

(ii) Emergency Team: Under the charge of senior officer and should assess
the emergency and report to the command centre on the situation, advising what
action should be taken to tackle emergency.

(iii) Back up Party: Under charge of senior officer, should stand-by to

assist emergency team as instructed by the command centre. Also to provide
back up services, e.g. equipment, stores, medical services etc.

(iv) E/R Team: It is under the command of Ch. Engr. / Senior Engineer on
board and it should provide emergency assistance as required by the command
centre.

(v) Medical Team: Its prime responsibility will be to evacuate causality and
provide first aid, required to co-ordinate & transport the causality, as instructed
by the command centre.

(c) Planning & Preparedness for Emergency. An emergency can occur at any
time and in any situation

96
 Effective action is only possible, if pre-planned and practical procedures have
been developed and frequently exercised.

Every one on board must be familiar with his duties.

Regular drills must be conducted in realistic situation.

(i) Initial Action.

If emergency occur in port, all cargo operations must be suspended and

terminal informed immediately.

Activation of emergency shut down (ESD) and raising the alarm must be
the first priority.

Locate & access the incidents and possible danger.

Organise man power & equipment.

(ii) Emergency Shut Down (ESD). It is also called emergency stop switch
(ESS). Upon activation shuts down of cargo pumps and in some cases includes
closing of values. Do not hesitate to use in case of emergency.

(d) Emergency Alarms.

All personnel on board should be able to identify different alarm signals.

Every one on board should be familiar with the emergency plan and act
accordingly when the alarm is raised.

Apart from ship‘s emergency signals all personnel must be familiar with shore
emergency signal posted on the notice board.

The ship‘s muster list and emergency instructions specify details of the
emergency alarm signals.

General alarm continuous ringing of bell / whistle.

(e) Fire Alarm. Sound one or more blasts on the ship‘s whistle. Each blast not
less than ten seconds supplemented by continuous sounding of the general alarm.

(f) Emergency Actions. Emergency actions would largely depend upon the
type of emergency but in all cases initial actions will remain the same.

In port, all cargo operations to be suspended and inform the terminal.

Activation of ESD and raising the alarm will be the top priority.

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 CHAPTER – 9

POLLUTION PREVENTION FOR OIL AND CHEMICAL TANKERS

1. Basic Knowledge of the Effects of Oil and Chemical Pollution on Human and
Marine Life. Following Pollutants are polluting the marine industry :-

(a) Oil

(b) Chemical

(c) Dangerous Cargo

(d) Sewage

(e) Garbage

(f) Smoke / Air

(g) Noise

(h) Paint

(i) Ballast water

(j) Thermal

All above pollution can pollute air, soil (land), water

An oil spill not only causes pollution, but also pollutes the atmosphere by the release of
the toxic gases.

Pollution causes serious harm to human health.

It causes harm to tourist and fishing industry.

It is damaging to the living resources and marine life.

It makes a blanket on the sea surface (oil being lighter than water).

Interfering with the oxygen exchange between the sea and atmosphere.

2. Causes of Marine Pollution. (Accidental & unintentional)

Grounding / collision / stranding

Lightening Operations

C.O.W. / Tank washing & line flushing

98
 Deballasting

Overflow / oil leaks from tanks / pipes.

Equipment failure

3. Basic Knowledge of Ship Board Procedures to Prevent Pollution.

(a) Pollution Prevention in Tankers.

Moorings to be checked frequently. High & Low tides & loading / discharging
pattern may cause mooring ropes to break.

All pipes, joint, blind flanges, v/vs to kept in good condition.

Reception trays to be kept empty & plugged to contain spillage if any.

Loading plan to be strictly followed for avoidance of any overflow / leaks.

Sea valves not in use should be closed or blanked off.

All scuppers on deck to be closed. Check continuously pump room & deck
pipeline for any leaks.

Continuous tank level monitoring to prevent overflow

Liaising with terminal

SOPEP gear to be kept stand by at all times.

Compliance with ship / shore safety check lists.

(b) Laws / Regulations / Polices and Procedure. International maritime

organisation (IMO) is the responsible body for controlling marine pollution and it
achieves this by adopting the convention for pollution prevention from ships called.

(i) MARPOL 73/78.

(ii) SOLAS 74/88

(iii) AFS CONVENTION (International Convention On The Control Of Harmful

Anti-Fouling Systems On Ships, 2001)

(iv) The BWM Convention (will enter into force on 8th September 2017).

(v) Flag state Rules and Regulations.

(vi) National rules and regulations [Eg. OPA – 90 (Oil Pollution Act 1990)].

(vii) Company‘s policies and procedures as per Safety Management System

(ISM Code).

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Following rules and regulations from MARPOL controls the discharges of pollutants to
environment

Annex I of MARPOLS deals with control of pollution by oil. Some important regulations
are as given below:-

Reg. 18 – Segregated ballast tanks (SBT)

Reg. 19 - Double hull oil tankers delivered after 6 July 1996.

Reg. 23 – 25 – Accident oil out flow / damage assumptions / hypothetical out flow.

Reg. 29 – Slop tanks – capacity 1.5 to 3% of total cargo carrying capacity.

Reg. 31 - ODMCS (Oil Discharging Monitoring and Control System)

ODMCS. As per Annex I Reg. 31, required to be fitted to control and monitor the
discharge of tank wash (only – water mixture). Reg. No 34 criteria to be met for
discharging to sea. Oil residue to be retained on board and delivered ashore. All entries
to be made in Oil Record Book Part II. This book to be retained at least for 3 years on
board.

Reg. No 34 : (From Cargo Space) Control of Discharge of Oil (Criteria for Discharge of
Wash Water At Sea)

Tanker not in the special area

Tanker not in the special area & more than 50 nmiles from nearest land.
Tanker has to be enroute.
Instantaneous rate of discharge (IRD) not more than 30 Ltrs / Nautical Mile.
Total quantity of oil discharged not be more than 1/30,000 of last cargo quantity.
Tanker have operational ODMCS and slop tank arrangement.

ODMCS Main Components: (See Fig 53)

An oil content meter able to analyse the relative content of oil in the water
stream, expressed in PPM.
A flow meter able to measure the flow rate of only water through the discharge
pipe.
A computing unit able to calculate the oil discharge rate in litres per nautical mile
and total quantity, together with date and time identification.
An overboard valve control system able to stop the discharge when permissible
limits has been reached.

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 Fig 53 Oil Content Monitoring & Control System Arrangement

(c) Load On Top (LOT). If oily water cannot be discharged at sea then

Option I – Shall be discharged to shore reception facilities and slop receipt

certificate shall be obtained.

OR

Option II – Load On top (LOT) can be carried out

Reg No 36:– Oil record book Part II, to record, relevant cargo / Ballast
operations, whenever carried out.

Reg No 37: Shipboard oil pollution emergency plan (SOPEP). Ship must have
approved SOPEP and all concerned should be familiar with it.

101
(d) Special Area of Annex I

Amendments adopted Entry into force of the More stringent

Special Areas
to the MARPOL Annex amendments measures in effect from
MARPOL Annex l: OIL
Mediterranean sea 2 Nov 1973 2 Oct 1983 2 Oct 1983
Baltic Sea 2 Nov 1973 2 Oct 1983 2 Oct 1983
Black Sea 2 Nov 1973 2 Oct 1983 2 Oct 1983
Red Sea 2 Nov 1973 2 Oct 1983 *
1 Aug 2008 (Resolution
“Gulfs” area 2 Nov 1973 2 Oct 1983
MEPC.168(56))
1 Dec 1987
Gulf of Aden 1 Apr 1989 *
(Resolution MEPC.29(25))
16 Nov 1990 (Resolution
Antarctic area 17 Mar 1992 17 Mar 1992
MEPC.42(30))
North West 25 Sept 1997 (Resolution 1 Aug 1999 (Resolution
1 Feb 1999
European waters MEPC.75(40)) MEPC.77(41))
Oman area of the 15 Oct 2004 (Resolution
1 Jan 2007 *
Arabian sea MEPC.117(52))
Southern South 13 Oct 2006 (Resolution 1 Aug 2008 (Resolution
1 Mar 2008
African waters MEPC.154(55)) MEPC.167(56))

(e) Annex II of MARPOL: Cargo Category for Noxious Liquid Substances (NLS)
Revised Annex II pollution by noxious liquid substances in bulk was adopted in October
2004.

Reg 6 have four categories of NLS, X,Y, Z and OS. Depending upon the severity of
hazards to marine resources or human health.

Stripping Requirement for Chemical Tankers: Stripping performance

requirements apply to all tankers holding chemical carrier code Co F.

Every ship constructed on or after 1st January 2007 shall be provided with a
pumping and piping arrangement to ensure that each tank certified for carriage of
substances in category X,Y or Z does not retain a quantity of residue in excess of
75 litres in the tank and its associated piping.

Annex II Special Area.

MARPOL Annex ll: Noxious Liquid Substances

30 Oct 2006
Antarctic area (Resolution 1 Jul 1994 1 Jul 1994
MEPC.57(33))

Reg 14: Procedures and arrangement (P & A manual) manual

Every tanker designed to carry NLS have to carry P & A manual
approved by the administration.

Reg. 15: Cargo record book shall be provided to record relevant cargo / ballast
operations. Book to be kept in board for 3 years.
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(f) Annex VI of MARPOL Prevention of Air Pollution:-

Reg. 15 – Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)

Regulation Dealing with emission of VOC from tankers during loading.

Require vessel to have VOC management plan to minimise emissions.
Require vessel to be fitted with (VEC) vapour Emission Control to regulate
vapour (Ship-shore) while loading.

(g) SOPEP and SMPEP and Measures to be taken in the Event of Spillage:

All possible efforts must be made to prevent oil spills, by safe and careful
operations, but in the unfortunate event of an oil spill it is necessary to act
promptly and in an organised way to prevent spill reaching the sea or to keep
damage to the minimum.

As per annex I – oil tankers shall carry ship board oil pollution emergency plan
(SOPEP) – Reg. 37

As per Annex II – Chemical Tankers shall carry a ship board marine pollution
emergency plan (SMPEP) Reg 37

Fig 54 Reporting Format

SOPEP / SMPEP contains detailed plan and procedures to be followed by ship‘s

master in case of an incident.

When, how whom, what to report

Action to take to mitigate spill / damage
List of equipment to be carried
Record of Drills & training
Contact details of coastal state and local contacts.

(h) SOPEP Equipments (Oil Spill Response Equipments):-

Air Driven Pump (Wilden) 1 or 2

Saw dust 100kg.
Rags 50 kg.
Oil Spill Dispersant Liquid 6
Buckets 6
Brooms 10
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 Scoops 4
Absorbent Roll As required
Absorbent Pad As required
Scupper Plug 1 each type
Storage / Garbage bags 100
Protective clothing 6
Mops 6
Drip trays / save alls fitted
Drums for disposal of oily material 10
Barrel spill responses kit 1

(i) General Procedures for All Operational Oil Spills.

Sound emergency alarm and activate pollution prevention team.

Cease all cargo operations / inform shore

Stop or reduce out flow and try to prevent oil going overboard.

Locate source of spill and evaluate cause.

Take corrective action.

Start on board clean up /manually / portable pumps)

Inform all parties as per notification.

Request shore assistance, if required for clean up.

Keep proper records

Replenish SOPEP equipments as soon as possible.

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 CHAPTER – 10

CASE STUDY – 1 (OIL TANKER)

1. Fire and Explosion During Offloading Operations On An Oil Tanker

(a) Incident Summary. At 0845 on September 16, 1990, the tanker vessel ―M.T.
ABC‖ caught fire and exploded during offloading operations at the Total Oil Company
refinery on the Xxx river near Bay City, Michigan. A wake from a passing bulk carrier
apparently caused the parting of the M.T. ABC‘s transfer hose, grounding cable, and all
but one of its mooring lines. Residual gasoline in the broken transfer hose was believed
to have been ignited by a spark on the dock. The M.T. ABC‘s stern swung around into
the Xxx River and grounded perpendicular to the direction of the river flow. The
grounding resulted in a crack in the vessel‘s hull from the manifold on the starboard
side to 75 feet aft of the manifold on the port side.

Area was evacuated and vessel traffic was halted. The pier fire was extinguished
in an attempt to save the last mooring line while the fire onboard the vessel remained
out of control. A shore company from Houston, Texas, was contracted to fight the fire
due to the lack of locally available trained personnel and equipment. At 1315 on
September 17, the shore personnel extinguished the blaze by applying foam. Carbon
black accumulations falling from the overhead re-ignited the fore at 2300. This second
blaze was cooled with water and extinguished with foam on September 18. The shore
personnel also applied foam inside the vessel‘s cargo tanks to prevent re-ignition of the
vessel.

River flow data were obtained to predict the oil movement Shock waves from the
explosion may have contributed to the deaths of several fish that were recovered from
around the vessel. Neither pollution nor shoreline contamination was observed during
the final survey of the area on October 22.

(b) Behavior of Oil. Automotive gasoline is a very lightweight, refined product

with an API gravity of 60 to 63. No spill of product into the Xxx River was reported until
first light on September 17 when fuel up to three inches thick was observed in the water
immediately surrounding the vessel. Some of the spilled product was held against the
hull of the vessel by the wind until the starboard side submerged, releasing an
additional 100 barrels of the fuel. Since the gasoline was not release rapidly, little
environmental damage resulted from the incident.

(c) Countermeasures and Mitigation. On September 16, containment boom

was deployed around the vessel as precaution against further spillage. The boom
remained in place until the vessel was re-floated on October 16 and moved to the north
side of the river. No product was observed leaking from the vessel as it was relocated.
Vacuum trucks were used to recover the gasoline and water mixture Approximately 262
barrels were recovered by September 28. Small amounts of carbon residue that
impacted the shoreline were manually raked from beaches in the area. On September
19, gasoline odours were reported in the sewers of a residential community near the
incident site. Combustible gas detector were set up to monitor the sewer outfall.

105
 On September 27, approximately 770 barrels of product were offloaded from the M.T.
ABC to a lightering barge. Gas freeing operations began on October 5, due to the
explosion threat posed by some isolated pockets of product remaining in the #6
starboard cargo tank Offloaded product was replaced with water to reduce the
structural stress to the damaged vessel. Since trace concentrations of benzene,
toluence, ethyl benzene, and ethylene isomers were found in water samples near the
M.T. ABC, water at a nearby water treatment plant was treated with ozone as a
precaution.

(d) Other Special Interest Issue. The fire-fighting foam that was used on the fire
was water soluble and moderately toxic. Contaminated water from the fire-fighting
operation was collected and brought to a Bay City Wastewater.

Sample Questions for Discussion with Course Participants

Q1. What is/are main cause of fire and explosion on board MT ABC?

Q2. In your opinion what could be the essential precautions / good practices that
might not have been followed led to this eventuality? Where are these precautions /
good practices captured?

Q3. What other damages occurred on board and in the river Xxx near Bay City area,
Michigan?

Q4. Discuss the actions that would have prevented fire and explosion on board MT
ABC?

Q5. Discuss the lessons learnt from this case.

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2. Case Study 2 – (Chemical Tanker).
Time Event
4th April
Following personnel entered 3S COT for squeegee the remaining cargo of
Tallow. The tank‘s atmosphere had been checked. Enclosed space entry permit
issued. Gases were measured as O2: 20.9%; HC: 0% LEL; CO: 0 ppm; H 2S:
0 ppm:
1. AB
2. AB
3. AB
4. Pump man
5. OS
6. DTSM

What Happened?
While squeegeering the cargo of Tallow (US packer Inedible Tallow) in 3S COT.
DTSM & AB collapsed and become unconscious.

Incident:
Both of the above mentioned crew members were among the 6 persons who
went down to squeeze the cargo. While halfway through the squeezing, these
men felt little uneasy and decided to come up. At 0305LT DTSM came up and
within 5 minutes AB also came up.

After coming up on deck both collapsed and became unconscious.

By that time vessel has already informed terminal and agents had called for
medical help from shore.

At 0325 both the men were transferred to the Hospital by two ambulances.
Before they were taken to the hospital, they were administered First Aid in the
form of Oxygen and I. V. Fluids by the medical staff inside the ambulance.

Both returned to the vessel and both signed off being unfit for duty for 3 weeks.

Sample Questions for discussion with course participants

Q1. What could be the main cause(s) of collapsing of DTSM and AB?

Q2. In your opinion what could be the essential precautions / good practices that might not
have been followed led to this eventuality? Where are these precautions/good practices
captured?

Q3. What should be the immediate action to be taken in such cases? From where will you
get the information for taking such action?

Note: The questions mentioned above are sample questions and are for reference. The
lecturers, instructors are free to modify, and more questions as per the skill, level of
knowledge and experience of the participants.

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 APPENDIX – I

TANKER TERMINOLOGY

1. Antistatic Additive. A substance added to a petroleum product to raise its

electrical conductivity above 50 Pico siemens / metre (ps / m) to prevent accumulation of static
electricity.

2. Approved Equipment. Equipment of a design, that has been tested and approved by
an appropriate authority, such as government or classification society. The authority should
have certified the equipment as safe for use in a specified hazardous atmosphere.

3. Auto-ignition. The ignition of a combustible material without initiation by a spark or

flame, when the material has been raised to a temperature at whichself-sustaining combustion
occurs.

4. Bonding. The connection together of metal parts to ensure electrical continuity.

5. Cathodic Protection. The prevention of corrosion by electrochemical techniques. On

tankers it may be applied either externally to the hull or internally to the surfaces of tanks. At
terminals, it is frequently applied to steel piles and fender panels.

6. Clingage. Oil remaining on the walls of a pipe or on the surfaces of tank interiors after
the bulk of the oil has been removed.

7. Cold Work. Work which cannot create a source of ignition.

8. Combination Carrier. A ship which is designed to carry either petroleum cargoes or

dry bulk cargoes.

9. Combustible (also referred to as "Flammable"). Capable of being ignited and of

burning. For the purposes of these guidance notes the terms "combustible" and flammable"
are synonymous.

10. Combustible Gas Indicator (Explosimeter). An instrument for measuring the

composition of hydrocarbon gas/air mixture, usually giving the result as a percentage of the
lower flammable limit.

11. Dangerous Area. An area on a tanker which for the purposes of the installation and
use of electrical equipment is regarded as dangerous.

12. Dry Chemical Powder. A flame-inhibiting powder used in fire fighting

13. Earthing (also referred to as "Grounding"). The electrical connection of equipment to

the main body of the earth to ensure that it is at earth potential. On board ship the connection
is made to the main metallic structure of the ship which is at earth potential because of the
conductivity of the sea.

14. Entry Permit. A document issued by a responsible person permitting entry to a space
or compartment during a specific time interval.
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15. Explosimeter (See "Combustible Gas Indicator‖)

16. Explosion-Proof ("Flame-Proof"). Electrical equipment is defined and certified as

explosion-proof (flame-proof) when it is enclosed in a case which is capable of withstanding
the explosion within it of a hydrocarbon gas / air mixture or other specified flammable gas
mixture. It must also prevent the ignition of such a mixture outside the case either by spark or
flame from the internal explosion. The equipment must operate at such an external
temperature that a surrounding flammable atmosphere will not be ignited thereby.

17. Explosive Range (See ―Flammable range").

18. Flame Arrester. A permeable matrix of metal, ceramic or other heat-resisting

materials, which can cool a deflagration, flame and any following combustion products below
the temperature required for the ignition of the unreacted flammable gas on the other side of
the arrester.

19. Flame Screen. A portable or fitted device incorporating one or more corrosion
resistant wire woven fabrics of very small mesh used for preventing sparks from entering a
tank or vent opening or, for a short time, preventing the passage of flame. (Not to be confused
with flame arrester.)

20. Flammable. (also referred to as "Combustible"). Capable of being ignited and of

burning. For the purposes of these guidance notes the terms "Flammable and "combustible"
are synonymous.

21. Flammable Range. (also referred to as "Explosive range"). The range of hydrocarbon
gas concentrations in air between the lower and upper flammable (explosive) limits. Mixtures
within this range are capable of being ignited and of burning.

22. Flashlight. (also referred to as "Torch"). A battery-operated hand lamp. An approved

flashlight is one, which is approved by a competent authority for use in a flammable
atmosphere.

23. Flashpoint. The lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient gas to form a
flammable gas mixture near the surface of the liquid. It is measured in the laboratory in
standard apparatus using a prescribed procedure.

24. Foam (also referred to as "Froth"). An aerated solution which is used for fire
prevention and firefighting.

25. Foam Concentrate (also referred to as "Foam compound"). The full strength liquid
received from the supplier, which is diluted and processed to produce foam.

26. Foam Solution. The mixture produced by diluting foam concentrate with water before
processing to make foam.

27. Free Fall. The unrestricted fall of liquid into a tank.

28. Froth. (See "Foam")

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29. Gas-Free. A tank, compartment or container is gas-free when sufficient fresh air has
been introduced into it to lower the level of any flammable, toxic, or inert gas to that required
for a specific purpose, e.g. hot work, entry, etc.

30. Gas-Free Certificate. A certificate issued by an authorised responsible person

confirming that at the time of testing a tank, compartment or container it was gas-free for a
specific purpose.

31. Grounding. (See "Earthing")

32. Halon. A halogenated hydrocarbon used in fire fighting which inhibits flame
propagation.

33. Hazardous Area. An area on shores which for the purpose of the installation and use
of electrical equipment is regarded as dangerous. Such hazardous areas are graded into
hazardous zones depending upon the probability of the presence of a flammable gas mixture.

34. Hazardous Zone. (See "Hazardous area")

35. Hot work. Work involving sources of ignition or temperature sufficiently highs to cause
the ignition of a flammable gas mixture. This includes any work requiring the use of welding,
burning or soldering equipment, blow torches, some power-driven tools, portable electrical
equipment which is not intrinsically safe or contained within an approved explosion-proof
housing, sandblasting equipment, or internal combustion engines.

36. Hot Work Permit. A document issued by a responsible person permitting specific hot
work to be done during a specific time interval in a defined area.

37. Hydrocarbon Gas. A gas composed entirely of hydrocarbons.

38. Inert Condition. A condition in which the oxygen content throughout the atmosphere
of a tank has been reduced to 8% or less by volume by addition of inert gas.

39. Inert Gas. A gas or a mixture of gases, such as flue gas, containing insufficient oxygen
to support the combustion of hydrocarbons.

40. Inert Gas Distribution System. All piping, valves and associated fittings to distribute
inert gas from the gas plant to cargo tanks, to vent gases to atmosphere and to protect tanks
against excessive pressure or vacuum.

41. Inert Gas Plant. All equipment specially fitted to supply, cool, clean, dry, pressurize,
monitor and control delivery of inert gas to cargo tank systems.

42. Inert Gas System (IGS). An inert gas plant and inert gas distribution system together
with means for preventing back flow of cargo gases to the machinery spaces, fixed and
portable measuring instrument and control devices.

43. Inerting. The introduction of inert gas into a tank with the object of attaining the inert
condition.

110
44. Insulation Flange. A flanged joint incorporation an insulating gasket, sleeves and
washers to prevent electrical continuity pipelines, hose strings or loading arms.

45. Interface Detector. An electrical instrument for detecting the boundary between oil
and water.

46. Intrinsically Safe. An electrical circuit or part of a circuit is intrinsically safe if any
spark or thermal effect produced normally (i.e. by braking or closing the circuit) or accidentally
(e.g. by short circuit or each fault) is incapable, under prescribed test conditions, of igniting a
prescribed gas mixture.

47. Loading Overall. The loading of cargo or ballast "over the top" through an open-ended
pipe or by means of an open-ended hose entering a tank through a hatch or other deck
opening, resulting in the free fall of liquid.

48. Lower Flammable Limit (LFL). The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air below,
which there is insufficient hydrocarbon to support and propagate combustion. Also referred
to as lower explosive limit (LEL).

49. Capacity Mooring Winch Brake Design. The percentage of the breaking strength
(when new) of the mooring rope or wire it carries, at which the winch brake is designed to
yield. May be expressed as percentage or in tonnes.

50. Mooring Winch Design Heaving Capacity. The power of a mooring winch to heave
in or put a load on its mooring rope or wire. Usually expressed in tonnes.

51. Naked Lights. Open flames or fires, lighted cigarettes, cigar, pipes or similar smoking
materials, any other unconfined sources of ignition, electrical and other equipment liable to
cause sparking while in use, and unprotected light bulbs.

52. Non-Volatile Petroleum. Petroleum having a flash point of 60 degree Celsius (140
degree F) or above as determined by the closed-cup method of test.

53. OBO Oil / Ore. (See "Combination Carrier")

54. Oxygen Analyser / Meter. An instrument for determining the percentage of oxygen in
a sample of the atmosphere drawn from a tank, pipes or compartment.

55. Packaged Cargo. Petroleum or other cargo in drums, packages or other containers.

56. Petroleum. Crude oil and liquid hydrocarbon products derived from it.

57. Petroleum Gas. A gas evolved from petroleum. The main constituents of petroleum
gases are hydrocarbons, but they may also contain other substances, such as hydrogen
sulphide or lead alkyls, as minor constituents.

58. Pour Point. The lowest temperature at which a petroleum oil will remain fluid.

59. Pressure Surge. A sudden increase in the pressure of the liquid in a pipeline, brought
about by an abrupt change in flow velocity.

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60. Pressure / Vacuum Relief Valve (P/V Valve). A device, which provides for the flow of
the small volumes of vapour, air or inert gas mixtures caused by thermal variations in a cargo
tank.

61. Purging. The introduction of inert gas into a tank already in the inert condition with the
object of :-

62. Further reducing the existing oxygen content; or

63. Reducing the existing hydrocarbon gas content to a level below which combustion
cannot be supported if air is subsequently introduced into the tank.

64. Pyrophoric Iron Sulphide. Iron sulphide capable of a rapid exothermic oxidation with
incandescence when exposed to air, which is capable of igniting flammable hydrocarbon gas /
air mixtures.

65. Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP). The vapour pressure of a liquid determined in a
standard manner in the Reid apparatus at a temperature of 100 degree F (37.8-degree c) and
with a ratio of gas to liquid volume of 4:1

66. Responsible Officer (or person). A person appointed by the employer or the master
of the ship and empowered to take all decisions relating to his specific task, having the
necessary knowledge and experience for the purpose.

67. Resuscitator. Equipment to assist or restore the breathing of a man overcomes by

gas or lack of oxygen.

68. Self-Stowing Mooring Winch. A mooring winch fitted with a drum on which a wire or
rope is made fast and automatically stowed.

69. Sour Crude Oil. A crude oil containing appreciable amounts of hydrogen sulphide or
mercaptans.

70. Spontaneous Combustion. The ignition of material brought about by a heat

producing (exothermic) chemical reaction with the material itself without exposure to an
external source of ignition.

71. Static Accumulator Oil. An oil with an electrical conductivity less than 50 Pico
Siemens/metre (ps/m), so that it is capable of retaining a significant electrostatic change.

72. Static Electricity. The electricity produced on dissimilar materials through physical
contact and separation.

73. Static Non-Accumulator Oil. An oil with an electrical conductivity greater than 50 Pico
Siemens/metre (ps/m), which renders it incapable of retaining a significant electrostatic
charge.

74. Stripping. The final operation in pumping bulk liquid from a tank or pipeline.

112
75. Tanker. A ship designed to carry liquid petroleum cargo in bulk, including a
combination carrier when being used for this purpose.

76. Tension Winch. (automated or self-tensioning mooring system). A mooring winch

fitted with a device, which may be set to maintain the tension on a mooring line automatically.

77. Terminal. A place where tankers are berthed or moored for the purpose of loading or
discharging petroleum cargo.

78. Terminal Representative. The person designated by the terminal to take

responsibility for an operation or duty.

79. Threshold Limit Value (TLV). The time-weighted average concentration of a

substance to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed, for a normal 8-hour
workday or 40-hour workweek, day after day, without adverse effect.

80. Topping Off. The operation of completing the loading of a tank to a required ullage.

81. Topping Up. The introduction of inert gas into a tank, which is already in, the inert
condition with the object of raising the tank, pressure to prevent any ingress of air.

82. Torch. (See "Flashlight")

83. Toxic. Poisonous to human life.

84. True Vapour Pressure (TVP). The true vapour pressure of a liquid is the absolute
pressure exerted by the gas produced by evaporation from a liquid when gas and liquid are in
equilibrium at the prevailing temperature and the gas / liquid is effectively zero.

85. Ullage. The depth of the spaces above the liquid in a tank.

86. Upper Flammable Limit (UFL). The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air above,
which there is insufficient air to support and propagate combustion. Also referred to as upper
explosive limit (UEL)

87. Vapour. A gas below its critical temperature.

88. Vapour Seal System. Special fitted equipment, which enables the measuring, and
sampling of cargoes contained in inerted tanks without reducing the inert gas pressure.

89. Volatile Petroleum. Petroleum having a flash point below 60 degrees C (140 degree
F) as determined by the closed-cup method of testing.

90. Water Fog. A suspension in the atmosphere of very fine droplets of water usually
delivered at a high pressure through a fog nozzle for use in fire fighting.

91. Water Spray. A suspension in the atmosphere of water divided into coarse drops by
delivery through a special nozzle for use in fire fighting.

92. Work Permit. A document issued by a responsible person permitting specific work to
be done during a specified period in a defined area.

113