Jour. Geol. Soc.

India (2022) 98:712-719

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-022-2048-4

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Groundwater Flow Modeling Study to Assess the Sustainability

of Groundwater Resource in and Around Bemetara Block,
Chhattisgarh, India
Gobinath M.1, Suvendu Kumar Sahu1, Prahlad Ram2 and D. C. Jhariya1,*
1
Department of Applied Geology, National Institute of Technology, Raipur GE Road, Raipur - 492 010, India
2
Science and Engineering Research Board, DST, Ministry of Science and Technology, Govt of India) New Delhi - 110 070, India
E-mail: gobinathkm23@gmail.com; suvendukumarsahu7@gmail.com; prahlad_ism@yahoo.co.in; dcjhariya.geo@nitrr.ac.in*

Received: 16 February 2021 / Revised form Accepted: 4 October 2021

© 2022 Geological Society of India, Bengaluru, India

ABSTRACT is very effective for this purpose. Further, it also helps to prepare a
The use of the groundwater flow model is prevalent in the field management plan for long-term sustainable use of aquifers. The
of hydrogeology. The models have been used to address a variety Groundwater model provides additional insight into the complex
of hydrogeological conditions including flow and transport of system when appropriately designed. Once, the groundwater model
contaminants for risk evaluation. In the present study, a transient figures out the behavior of the aquifer system in the past, it can predict
groundwater flow model for part of the Bemetara district of the outcome of the aquifer system in the future (Akter and Ahmed,
Chhattisgarh was developed to determine in detail the groundwater 2021).
flow in the shallow and deep aquifer. The model simulates The study area is covering part of Bemetara district, of Chhattisgarh
groundwater flow over an area of about 588 sq. km with a uniform State, covering blocks viz. Saja (7.44%), Berla (9.19%) & Bemetara
grid size of 500 m by 500 m and contains two layers, 53 rows, (83.37%). The block Saja and Bemetara have been categorized under
and 68 columns. The visual MODFLOW software was used in this semi-critical by Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) during the
study to simulate groundwater flow. The conceptual model was assessment years 2011, 2013, and 2017 with a groundwater
built by analyzing the hydrogeological data. Based on the available development of 71.94% and 71.30% respectively (CGWB, 2017). The
data observed from 2015 to 2018, which provide insights to Berla block of Bemetara district has been categorized under safe in
understand the dynamic behavior of groundwater systems and to 2011 (CGWB, 2011) and semi-critical during the assessment years
predict spatial-temporal distributions of groundwater levels in 2013 and 2017 with a groundwater development of 86.24%. The
responding to changes in the aquifer environment. 10 observatory blockwise and assessment year-wise, groundwater resource is given
wells within the study area were used for observation as well as in Table 1. This study has been attempted to investigate the aquifer
calibration purposes. With the help of hydraulic conductivities condition with the persisting stress condition and to decide the possible
and storage coefficients, the model has been calibrated with a management strategy to mitigate the forthcoming issues. The main
normalized root mean squared of 7.477 % for steady-state & objectives of the study are (1) assessment of groundwater heads, flow
transient state NRMS is 9.242 %. The model has been forecasted directions, inflow, and outflow to create groundwater flow model using
for 2190 days up to the year 2024, suggests the depletion of the collected field data, (2) to arrive at groundwater development and
water table with an average annual fall of about 50cm, which management plans for the study area, (3) to illustrate the capability of
indicates the overall projected depletion of the water table by 2024 the groundwater models as water management and planning tools for
will be 2.5-4 meters in different place of the study area. To mitigate decision-making.
this hazardous condition 15% reduction in the pumping of
groundwater and the establishment of a total of four recharge MATERIAL AND METHODS
wells has been suggested.
Overview of Study Area
INTRODUCTION The proposed modelling area covers a total area of 588sq. km
With a growing population, consumption of groundwater has which falls under 81o25'00" to 81o45'00" longitude and between
increased for various needs. And the use of advanced technologies 21°30'00" to 21°55'00" latitudes, in the Survey of India (SOI) toposheet
has led to a rising groundwater overuse, which should be controlled no. 64G/5, 6, 9, 10 & 13 (Fig.1). The model area is majority falls
by appropriate groundwater management (Farhadia et al., 2016; under Bemetara block which constitutes 83.37% of the total area, and
D’Affonseca et al., 2020; Siva Prasad et al., 2020). It is impossible to partially covered Berla (9.19%) & Saja (7.44%), blocks of Bemetara
view into the sub-surface and understand the groundwater condition districts of Chhattisgarh State. The block Bemetara is also the district
of an area directly. The best way to have a proper understanding of the headquarters of district Bemetara which is about 70km away from the
area is to drill boreholes, use them for pumping and monitoring, and state capital Raipur. The study area is drained by the Seonath river,
study the sub-surface hydrology of the aquifer and the effect of stresses the main tributaries of the Mahanadhi river.
on it (Kumar, 2013; Nayak et al., 2017). The groundwater flow model The study area has a tropical climate, with moderate to high
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JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,
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 Table 1. The blockwise and assessment year-wise, groundwater resource.
Assessment Block Name Ground Water Categorization Net Ground Water Irrigation Domestic
Year Development Availability draft (mcm)
(%) (mcm) (mcm)
2011 Bemetara 80.41 Semi Critical 8648 6482 472
2013 Bemetara 75.45 Semi-critical 11860 8461 487
2017 Bemetara 71.30 Semi-critical 10590 6950 600
2011 Berla 68.88 Safe 9184 5910 416
2013 Berla 70.77 Semi-critical 9338 6173 436
2017 Berla 86.24 Semi-critical 10188 8244 541
2011 Saja 76.75 Semi Critical 7652 5616 257
2013 Saja 80.58 Semi-critical 8442 6528 275
2017 Saja 71.94 Semi-critical 11443 7917 315

After a thorough study of the primary and secondary level data collected
followed by a literature review, detailed field investigations have been
carried out for a proper understanding of the study area.

Land Use Land Cover

Land use land cover study is mainly undertaken to see the land
pattern changes of an area for a time range. In this study, it has been
taken into consideration to see its impact on the groundwater level of
the study area. Sentinel-2 satellite Image has been used for land use
land cover distribution of the study area. The spectral bands used for
the data preparation are Band2-Blue, Band3-Green, Band4-Red,
Band8-NIR having a spatial resolution of 10m. Supervised classifi-
cation has been performed using ERDAS Imagine software and the
resultant land use land cover statistics of the study area is shown in
Fig.2, which is as follows: maximum area falls under agricultural land
which is about 89% of the total surveyed area. Settlement area about
8%, barren land is about 2%, open forest occupies about 1%, water
bodies occupied about 0.42% out of the total area (Table 2).

Table 2. Land Use Land Cover Statistics.

Class Area in % of
sq.km Occupancy
Agricultural land 523.19 89%
Settlement 48.78 8%
Barren land 9.41 2%
Scrub Land/Open Forest 4.13 1%
Major Water Bodies 2.50 0.4%
Total 588.00 100%

Local Geology
 The stratigraphy of the Chhattisgarh basin has been studied for a
Fig. 1. Location of the study area. long by various authors, but the complete succession with a map of
the entire basin was first published by Das et al. in 1992 (Mukherjee
temperatures throughout the year i.e. 45°C. Thesummer months have et al. 2014)
hot and dry winds. Winters last from November to January and are The study area comprises of Maniari, Hirri and Tarenga formations
mild, although the temperature may fall to 10°C (CGWB, 2016-17). that fall under the Raipur Group of the Chhattisgarh Supergroup.
The district and its blocks receive rainfall during the northwest Maniari shale having a thickness of 70 meters consists of purple shale,
monsoon season starting from June to September. The rainfall analysis dolomite, gypsiferous rocks. Hirri dolomite (70m) underlying Maniari
for a period of 26 years starting from 1991 to 2016 has been studied shale comprises of stromatolitic dolomite and black shale. Just bellow
using rainfall data of IMD (Indian Meteorological Department). The to Hirri dolomite, Tarenga shale (180m) is present having lithology
area receives about 1058mm of average rainfall calculated by the Table 3. Generalized geological succession of study area, (Mukherjee et al.
Isohyetal method. 2014)
Maniari Purple shale, dolomite,
Data Collection
Shale gypsum
Data collection is indispensable in groundwater model
development. In this study, the primary data have been collected from Proterozoic Chhattisgarh Raipur Hirri Stromatolitic dolomite
Supergroup Group Dolomite and black shale
various sources viz. Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), India
Meteorological Department (IMD), United States Geological Survey Tarenga Dolomitic shale, Shale-
(USGS), and also through detailed filed investigations. These data Shale chert beds, purple
include hydrological, hydrogeological, rainfall, and satellite data. shale, limestone

JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.98, MAY 2022 713

 Formation followed by Hirri Formation which consists mainly of shale
and limestone. The groundwater occurs in the secondary porosity in
the form of joints, fractures, caverns.
The depth of borewells drilled in the study area varies from 92.20
mbgl to 274.25 mbgl. The discharge varies from 3.5 lps to 16.0 lps
and the maximum drawdown was 19.4 m at Chorbati while the least is
1.34 m at Jhal. The depth ranges of potential zones encountered during
exploratory drilling vary from 11.90 to 131.0 mbgl. The static water
level varies between 2.73 and 18.07mbgl (CGWB, 2011). Groundwater
sources for the study area are mentioned in Table.4 and Fig.4. In the
study area, groundwater is mainly consumed by agriculture (6950.02
Ham) and domestic use (600.24 Ham) (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 2. Land use Land Cover distribution in the study area. 
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dŽƚĂůŶŶƵĂů ŶŶƵĂů dŽƚĂůdžƚƌĂĐƚŝŽŶ
'ƌŽƵŶĚtĂƚĞƌ džƚƌĂĐƚĂďůĞ ;,ĂŵͿ
;,ĂŵͿZĞĐŚĂƌŐĞ 'ƌŽƵŶĚtĂƚĞƌ
ZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞ;,ĂŵͿ

Fig. 4. Groundwater resource for the study area

^ĞĐƚŽƌǁŝƐĞdžƚƌĂĐƚŝŽŶŽĨ'ƌŽƵŶĚtĂƚĞƌ;,ĂŵͿ
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;,ĂŵͿ͕
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/ƌƌŝŐĂƚŝŽŶhƐĞ;,ĂŵͿ /ŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĂůhƐĞ;,ĂŵͿ ŽŵĞƐƚŝĐhƐĞ;,ĂŵͿ


Fig. 5. Sector-wise extraction of Groundwater.

Model Conceptualization
Fig. 3. Geological map of study area. The conceptual model has been created from the detailed analysis
of lithotype, stratigraphy, geological features, water table, and its
dolomitic shale, shale-chert beds, purple shale, limestone (Table 3) fluctuation. Quaternary shale and limestone of the Maniyari Formation
(Fig. 3) (CGWB, 2014). is the major water-bearing horizon. Based upon the information the
model is conceptualized as a two-layer model, a topsoil layer having a
Hydrogeology thickness that varies from 1 to 1.5 meters and a bottom layer having a
The study area comprises the semi-consolidated formation of thickness that varies from 85 to 100 meters.
Chhattisgarh Supergroup, predominantly by gypsiferous Maniari The study area is delineated based on geological features. The

Table 4. The groundwater recharge from various sources, discharge, and extraction for various purposes are given below (CGWB, 2017).
Assessment Recharge Recharge Recharge Recharge Total Total Annual Irrigation Industrial Domestic Total
Unit Name from from from from Annual Natural Extractable Use Use Use Extrac-
Rainfall- Other Rainfall- Other Ground Discharges Ground (Ham) (Ham) (Ham) tion
Monsoon Sources- Non- Sources- Water (Ham) Water (Ham)
Monsoon Monsoon Non- (Ham) Resource
Monsoon Recharge (Ham)
Bemetara 4095.32 4045.96 0.00 3625.31 11766.59 1176.66 10589.93 6950.02 0.00 600.24 7550.26
Berla 4642.56 2811.40 0.00 3865.98 11319.94 1131.99 10187.95 8244.40 42.79 498.53 8785.72
Saja 4422.96 4248.27 0.00 4042.71 12713.94 1271.39 11442.55 7917.22 1.80 312.93 8231.95

714 JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.98, MAY 2022

 


Fig. 6. Discretization of Study area. Fig. 7. Cross-sectional view along with AB & XY.

south & east sides are bounded by the Seonath river, the western side specific yield (Sy). Hydraulic conductivity (K) is varying between 8
is by Karuanala and the northern side is by Hanpnala. These rivers are to 12 m/day. Specific yield ranges from 0.01 to 0.025, the thickness is
considered as constant head boundaries (Fig.6) and the northwestern varying between 70m to 85m, storativity is 3.0 õ 10-5 to 3.7 õ 10-4 and
side has been assigned specified flux boundary. transmissivity is 69- 1500 m2/day (CGWB 2016-17).
The model grid of the study area was discretized into 1870 active
cells with 68 columns, 53 rows, and vertically by 2 layers and having Groundwater Abstraction and Recharge
north-south 28 km & east-west 34 km length, shown in cross-section In Bemetara area main cause of groundwater extraction is for
AB and XY respectively (Fig.7). agriculture and domestic use. The gradual population growth of 139352
in census 2001, 215624 in census 2011, and the projected growth rate
Initial Groundwater Head of 241485 by the year 2020 at 12.16 % per decade. By looking into
There are 10 key wells were established to study the behavior of the population and agricultural water supply the average rate of
the aquifers in the study area. Out of the total of 10 wells, 7 wells discharge of groundwater is about 8280m3/day. Rainfall is the main
were established in Pink shale, 2 in dolomite and black shale, 1 in source of groundwater recharge. Mean rainfall in the Bemetara area
shale and dolomite. The water levels were monitored during May, for 26 years (1991-2016) is 1058 mm and 15 to 20% infiltration
August and November from the year 2015 to 2018. The water level of capacity as per the Groundwater Resources Estimation Committee
key wells ranges from 2.0 to 15.30 mbgl (Table 5) and based on that report of the Government of India (GEC 1997).
water level hydrograph has been plotted (Fig. 8).
Model Description
Aquifer Characteristics Constructed model is an anisotropic and heterogeneous three-
The aquifer parameters used for the model development are dimensional groundwater flow model with the application of equivalent
hydraulic conductivity (K), transmissivity (T), storativity (S), and porous media (EPM) approach with constant density described by

Table 5. Water level data of different wells.

Block_ Site_Name Structure Longitude Latitude RL Depth 2015_ 2015_ 2016_ 2016_ 2017_ 2017_ 2018_ 2018_
Name (m) (m) Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post
(mbgl) (mbgl) (mbgl) (mbgl) (mbgl) (mbgl) (mbgl) (mbgl)
Bemetara Baba Mohtara Dug Well 81.58917 21.71167 278 11.50 7.48 1.50 3.55 2.30 7.51 2.49 6.90 1.52
Bemetara Bahera Dug Well 81.48278 21.76250 294 8.85 3.66 2.18 4.50 2.04 4.02 2.13 4.32 1.14
Bemetara Baiji Dug Well 81.51417 21.76250 293 11.70 3.02 0.05 4.16 0.20 5.00 1.02 1.20 1.02
Bemetara Bijabhat Dug Well 81.55389 21.66083 274 14.00 9.27 2.44 11.90 3.36 12.78 5.62 5.28 1.33
Bemetara Bitkuli Dug Well 81.66750 21.77944 263 8.80 5.65 1.64 7.65 4.92 7.30 2.52 7.05 1.32
Berla Jeora Dug Well 81.62278 21.64389 268 10.50 7.77 0.84 5.80 2.10 5.80 1.81 8.50 1.58
Bemetara Khilora Dug Well 81.53000 21.69472 278 10.80 10.25 2.07 8.89 3.75 10.80 5.43 6.75 3.5
Bemetara Khurmuri Dug Well 81.61389 21.71167 280 14.00 13.50 2.73 14.00 3.67 2.09 2.53 8.85 1.79
Bemetara Bemetara New Dug Well 81.53750 21.71167 287 12.68 11.09 2.40 9.57 12.68 12.60 2.02
Bemetara Pendri Dug Well 81.62194 21.71167 273 12.00 4.30 1.42

JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.98, MAY 2022 715

 
Fig. 8. Hydrograph of the Study Area (2015-2018).

partial differential equation (McDonald et al., 1988; Brown et al.,

1998).

Where, Kxx, Kyy, Kzz =Hydraulic conductivity along x, y, z axes.

h = Head. Q= Volumetric flux per unit volume. SS= Specific storage
co-efficient,
For simulation three-dimensional finite-difference MODFLOW
has been used and Visual MODFLOW has been used for giving the
input data and process the model to get output.

Model Calibration
Model calibration can simply attain by matching or reducing the
difference between the computed value and the observed field value
by changing the aquifer parameters and stress value within the
permissible limit (Vetrimurugan et al., 2017). Here two steps of (a)
calibration have been followed. The first one is the trial-and-error
method and then the second by the PEST (Parameter Estimation)
method (Doherty et al., 1994). The primary special distribution of
hydraulic conductivity was 12m/day obtained from the available data
and the corresponding value was distributed in 3 zones based on
lithology. Different hydraulic conductivity values were adopted during
trial-and-error calibration. After trial-and-error calibration, the PEST
was used for improvisation of the model calibration. Calibration was
adopted for the year 2015-2018. Similarly, like the parameter hydraulic
conductivity, here storage co-efficient has been used with trial-and-
error calibration. Calibration targets are arbitrary defined as: for steady-
state, normalized root mean squared (NRMS) is 7.477%, absolute
residual means (ARM) is 1.842m, root mean squared (RMS) is 2.101m
& for transient state NRMS is 9.242%, ARM is 2.36m, RMS is 2.67m
(Fig. 9). Combined hydrograph of computed and observed groundwater
head also given in Fig. 10. PEST and trial-and-error were used for the
calibration of the transient model.
(b)
Sensitivity Analysis
During model calibration sensitivity analysis has been performed Fig. 9. Calibration: a Comparison of observed and computed
by changing different parameters such as hydraulic conductivity, groundwater head in steady-state. b Comparison of observed and
recharge, and specific yield one by one to match the observed computed groundwater head in the transient state.

716 JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.98, MAY 2022

 (a) Baba Mohtara (b) Bahera

(d) Bemetara
(c)Baiji

(e) Bijabhat (f) Bitkuli

(g) Jeora (h) Khilora

(i)Khurmuri (j) Kathiya

Fig. 10. Combined hydrograph of computed and observed groundwater head of all wells.

JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.98, MAY 2022 717

 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The developed flow models have given an idea about the present
and transient groundwater flow direction, water budget, water table
changing pattern with reference to applied stress. The water table is
higher in the northwest part and sequentially lower down towards the
east side, hence the groundwater is flowing from northwest to east.
The water table following the general topographic trend (Fig. 11) will
deplete near about 2.5-4 meters from 2018 to 2024 with the persisting
stress condition (Fig. 12). Flow budget is not balanced by total inflow
with total outflow. The total outflow is higher than the total inflow in
this aquifer system.

PREDICTION & ASSESSMENT

Scenario 1 (with persisting pumping rate)
Due to intensive farming in the study area and domestic use about
8280m3/day of groundwater extraction has been noticed in the study
area. For this reason, the water table in Bemetara, Babamohatara,
and Khilora area is going down. If this situation will persist then the
water table of these areas will deplete about 2.5-4 meters in 6 years
from 2018 to 2024 (Fig.12).

Scenario 2 (with 15% less pumping rate)

The second scenario is all about the preparation of a management
 plan to lessen the water table depletion by reducing the pumping
Fig. 11. Groundwater flow direction. rate, establishing a recharge structure, and changing the irrigation
pattern. By numerous trials and runs by keeping the parameters
constant, the convincing step for the safeguard of the study area is to
head value with the computed value. Sensitivity analysis has been reduce the extraction rate 15% of the present rate i.e. to minimize the
performed to determine the input parameters that have much more extraction to 7041 m3/day. This type of method has been used by many
influence on the output result (Sathe and Mahanta, 2019; Senthilkumar researchers for the safeguard of the aquifer (Yehia et al. 2013; Rejani
and Elango, 2004). It helps to understand the response of the et al.2007; Sahoo and Jha, 2017). Along with this, there is a need to
aquifer system to different parameter conditions. Here hydraulic establish four recharge well in the Bemetara, Khilora, and Babamoha-
conductivity is the most sensitive parameter for the aquifer. By tara area with an average rate of 110m3/day to 20-25meter screen depth
changing the hydraulic conductivity value 8m/day for different spatial (Table 6), then there is very little fluctuation in water table and aquifer
distributions, it matches the computed value with real-time aquifer will sustain for more period. The transient flow model with the
conditions. prescribed suggestion along with different duration is shown in Fig.13.

Fig. 12. Transient water table with persisting pumping rate Fig. 13.Transient water table with a suggested strategy.

718 JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.98, MAY 2022

 Table 6. Proposed Recharge wells in the study area Board 7, 82.
D’Affonseca, F.M., Finkel, M. and Cirpka, O.A. (2020) Combining implicit
Sl. Location Latitude longitude Recharge Screen
geological modeling, field surveys, and hydrogeological modeling to
No. rate depth
describe groundwater flow in a karst aquifer. Hydrogeol.
(m3/day) (in mbgl)
Jour., v.28, pp.2779–2802. doi:10.1007/s10040-020-02220-z.
1 Bemetara 21°43'22" 81°31'11" 80 22-25 Doherty, J., Brebber, L. and Whyte, P. (1994) PEST: Model-independent
2 Bemetara 21°42'10" 81°28'58" 125 25-28 parameter estimation. User’s manual. Watermark Computing, Corinda,
3 Khilora 21°46'26" 81°28'44" 110 24-28 Australia.
4 Babamohatara 21°43'08" 81°34'27" 128 19-24 GEC. (1997) Groundwater Resources Estimation Committee report of the
groundwater resources estimation methodology. Government of India, New
Delhi, pp.107.
CONCLUSION Kumar R. and Harender R.A. (2013) Mitigation of groundwater depletion
hazards in India. Curr. Sci., v.104, pp.10-25.
The developed model for the Bemetara area has shown the
McDonald, M.G. and Harbaugh, A.W. (1988) A modular three-dimensional
present scenario of the aquifer and its response to the persisting
finite-difference ground-water flow model.USGS 6A, pp.89.
stress condition. The model has been calibrated with a fair level of Nayak, P.C., Vijaya Kumar, S.V. and Rao, P.R.S. (2017) Recharge source
accuracy and based on the simulation following observations are identification using isotope analysis and groundwater flow modeling for
made: Puri city in India. Appl. Water Sci., v.7, pp.3583–3598. doi:10.1007/
a. This study shows the flow direction i.e. from north-west to east s13201-016-0497-x.
direction and the water budget is not balanced with higher outflow Rejani, R., Jha, M.K., Panda, S.N. &Mull, R. (2007) Simulation Modelling
with present stress condition. for Efficient Groundwater Management in Balasore Coastal Basin, India.
b. It is alarming for this concern area as, with the present pumping Water Resour. Manage., v.22, pp.23-50.
Sathe, S.S. and Mahanta, C. (2019) Groundwater flow and arsenic
rate of 8280m3/day, the water table will deplete nearly 2.5-4 m
contamination transport modeling for a multi aquifer terrain: Assessment
till the year 2024. and mitigation strategies. Jour. Environ. Manage., v.213, pp.166-181.
c. Lastly, the most promising management strategy for the study Saber Farhadia et al. (2016) An agent-based-nash modeling framework for
area is to reduce the pumping rate by 15% than the persisting sustainablegroundwater management: A case study. Agric. Water. Manag.,
pumping rate and four recharge wells are to be constructed, out v.177, pp.348–358.
of which two at Bemetara, one at Khilora, and one at Sahoo, S. and Jha, M.K. (2017) Numerical groundwater-flow modeling to
Babamohatara by which the water table will be maintained the evaluate potential effects of pumping and recharge: implications for
same. sustainable groundwater management in the Mahanadi delta region,
India. Hydrogeol. Jour., v.25, pp. 2489–2511. doi: 10.1007/s10040-017-
1610-4.
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