MODERN

ALGEBRA

This book is a part of set, not be sold separately.

 Introduction

Algebra is the branch of mathematics that deals with numbers and their relations.
The origins of algebra can be traced to the ancient Babylonians, who developed an
advanced arithmetical system with which they were able to do calculations in an
algebraic fashion. With the use of this system they were able to apply formulate and
calculate solutions for unknown values for a class of problems typically solved
today by using linear equations, quadratic equations, and indeterminate linear
equations. Algebra is used throughout of people’s daily lives from buying groceries
in the store to scientific researches. Before you dive into the world of algebra, you
need to know a few basics, and this book is dedicated to that purpose.

This book also talks about principles of sets, which form a very important part
of the logical thinking process. It is the language in which modern mathematics is
described. Set theory can be viewed as the foundation upon which nearly all of
mathematics can be built and the source from which nearly all mathematics can be
derived. The same thing is used extensively in principles of counting.
 Contents
1. Algebra ... 7-19
2. Equations ... 20-41
3. Functions ... 42-67
4. Counting Principles ... 68-89
5. Probability ... 90-105
6. Set Theory ... 106-117
7. Sequence ... 118-131
8. Practice Exercise ... 132-136
9. Answers ... 137-138
 1
Algebra
Algebra in its simplest applications is a generalized form of Arithmetic. Thus
in the first place, algebraical usage includes all the definitions and processes of
Arithmetic. Such definitions and processes are afterwards extended in such a way
as to make them of wider and more general use, so that they may be applied to
numbers and quantities which have no place in ordinary Arithmetic.
Hence, Algebra is the branch of mathematics that deals with generalized
arithmetic by using letters or symbols to represent numbers. Any statement made in
algebra is true for all numbers and not just specific cases.
Illustration: 102 – 62 = 100 – 36 = 64 is true for those numbers but
a2 – b2 = (a+b) (a–b) is true for any value that a and b can take.

ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION
An algebraic expression is a term or a combination of terms formed by using the
fundamental operations: Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Exponential, Division
etc.
a b c
Illustration: 3a–2b , 4x+3y , 2a+ 3b – 5c , + – are algebraic expressions.
2 3 2
When two or more signs, +, – appear, then the algebraic expression is separated
into several parts. Each of these parts is called a term.
Algebraic expression Term
4x + 3y 4x and 3y
2 2 2
3a + 2b – 3c 3a , 2b2 and (–3c2)
2

COEFFICIENT
The numerical factor of a term is called its coefficient
Illustration: (i) In 4x3y, 4 is the coefficient of x3y
(ii) In (–ab), – 1 is the coefficient of ab.
 MODERN ALGEBRA

VARIABLES
The literal factors of an algebraic expression are known as variables.
Illustration: (i) In 14xyz, x, y and z are the variables and 14 is a coefficient
(ii) In a term 4abc, 4 is called a numerical factor and a, b, c are called
variable factors.
LIKE AND UNLIKE TERMS
When the terms have the same variable factors, they are called like terms,
otherwise unlike terms.
Illustration: (i) 4ab, 7ab, –3ab are like terms
(ii) –7a2, 4b2, 3a2b2 are unlike terms.
MONOMIAL
If an expression contains only one term, then it is called a Monomial.
Illustration: 7x, 3a, 4z, 6abc etc are examples of monomial.
BINOMIAL
If an expression contains two terms, then it is called a Binomial.
Illustration: (2a + 3b), (7x – 3y)

TRINOMIAL
If an expression contains three terms, then it is called a Trinomial.
Illustration: (3abc – 2xyz + 3pqr), (2a + 3b – 2c)

POLYNOMIAL
An algebraic expression, in which the variables involved have only non-negative
integral powers, is called a Polynomial.
Illustration: (i) 3 – 4x + 5x2 + 6x3 is a polynomial in one variable, x only
3
(ii) 7 – 5x2 + 6x2 y + 9y – xy2 is a polynomial in two variables
4
x and y
(iii) 3x + 4y + 7z is a polynomial in three variables x, y and z
3

(iv) 9 + 3x 2 is an expression but NOT a polynomial, since it

3 3
contains a term containing x to the power , where is not
2 2
an non-negative integer.
8
ALGEBRA

Degree of a Polynomial in One Variable

In case of a polynomial in one variable, the highest power of the variable is
called the degree of the polynomial.
Illustration: (i) 7x2 – 3x + 2 is a polynomial of degree 2
(ii) 3a5 – 2a4 + 7a + 6 is a polynomial of degree 5

Degree of a Polynomial in Two or More Variables

In the case of polynomials having more than one variable, the sum of the
powers of the variables in each term is taken up and the highest sum so obtained is
called the degree of the polynomial.
Illustration: (i) 3x3 + 4x2y + 5xy2 + 7xy3 + 3 is a polynomial of degree 3 in x
(ii) 8x3 – 4x2y2 – 7xy + 3 is a polynomial of degree 4 in x an y.

Note:
(i) A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear polynomial
(ii) A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic polynomial
(iii) A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic polynomial
(iv) A polynomial of degree 4 is called a bi-quadratic polynomial
(v) A polynomial containing only one term consisting of a constant is called a
constant polynomial such as 4, –7 etc. The degree of a constant polynomial
is 0.

Addition / Subtraction of Polynomials

Whenever two or more polynomials are to be added / subtracted, we will add/
subtract the similar terms of the polynomials into a single term.
Illustration: Add (7y3 – 6y2 + 7y – 4), (3y2 – 4y + 3), (14y3 – 6y + 7).
Writing the like terms column wise and adding we get
7y³ – 6y2 + 7y – 4
3y2 – 4y + 3
14y + 0y2 – 6y + 7
3

————————
21y3 – 3y2 – 3y + 6
9
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Illustration: Subtract a3 – 3a2b + 4ab2 + 7 from 7a3 – 2a2b + 8ab2 +14

Arranging the like terms of the polynomials in vertical columns, changing the
sign of each term of the polynomial to be subtracted and adding the two polynomials
we get.
7a3 – 2a2b + 8ab² + 14
a3 – 3a2b + 4ab² + 7
6a3 + a2b + 4ab2 + 7

Multiplication of Monomials
The coefficient of the product of two monomials is equal to the product of their
coefficients and the variable part in the product is the product of variables in the
given monomials
Special Case: If a is any variable and m, n are positive integers, then
am . a n =am+n
Illustration: a2 . a3 = a2+3 = a5
Illustration: (i) 3x × 4x2 = 12x3
(ii ) 7abc × (–6 xyz) = –42 abcxyz

 –2   –2 
(iii) (–7x2 y2)   = (–7)   xy = xy
 14xy   14 

Multiplication of Two Polynomials

Multiply each term of the multiplicand by each term of the multiplier and take
the algebraic sum of the products.
Illustration: (7a + 3b) (6a – 4b)
= 7a(6a – 4b) + 3b(6a – 4b)
= 42a2 – 28ab + 18ab – 12b2
= 42a2 – 10ab – 12b2

Multiplication by the Method of Detached Coefficients

When two compound expressions contain powers of one variable only, the
labour of multiplication may be lessened by using detached coefficients, i.e. by
10
ALGEBRA

writing down the coefficients only, multiplying them together in the ordinary way,
and then inserting the successive powers of the variable at the end of the operation.
In using this method the expressions must be arranged according to ascending or
descending powers of the variable, and zero coefficients must be used to represent
terms corresponding to missing powers of that variable.
Illustration: Multiply 2x3 – 4x2 –5 by 3x2 + 4x –2
2 –4 0 –5
3 +4 – 2
6 – 12 0 – 15
+8 – 16 0 – 20
– 4 +8 0 + 10
6 – 4 – 20 – 7 – 20 +10
Here there is no term containing x in the multiplicand, and we insert zero
coefficient to represent the missing power. In the product the highest power of x is
clearly x5, and the others follow in decreasing order.
Thus the product is 6x5 – 4x4 – 20x3 – 7x2 – 20x + 10

Note:
 From the rule for distributing a product it follows that the product of
any two homogeneous expressions is itself a homogeneous expression,
the degree of which is the sum of the degrees of the two factors which
form the product.
 The method of detached coefficients may also be used to multiply two
compound expressions which are homogeneous and contain powers of
two letters.

DIVISION OF A POLYNOMIAL BY A MONOMIAL

For dividing a polynomial by a monomial, we divide each term of the polynomial
by the monomial.

36x 3 – 12x 2 – 6x + 6
Illustration:
6x 2
36x 3 12x 2 6x 6
= – – +
6x 2 6x 2 6x 2 6x 2

11
 MODERN ALGEBRA

1 1
= 6x – 2 – +
x x2
OR
(6x – 2) is quotient and (6 – 6x) is Remainder

DIVISION OF A POLYNOMIAL BY A POLYNOMIAL

The following steps are to be followed
(1) Arrange the terms of the dividend and divisor in decreasing order of their
degrees
(2) Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor to obtain
the first term of the quotient.
(3) Multiply all the terms of the divisor by the first term of the quotient and
subtract the result from the dividend.
(4) Consider any remainder if any as a new dividend and proceed as before.
(5) Repeat this process till we obtain a remainder which is either 0 or a
polynomial of degree less than that of the divisor

Note: (As in Normal Division)

Dividend = (Divisor × Quotient) + Remainder

Illustration: Divide 6x3 – 4x2 +3x+7 by 2x2 + 4x + 2

On dividing we get,
3x – 8
2x² + 4x + 2 6x³ – 4x² + 3x +7
(–) 6x³ + 12x² + 6x
– 16x² – 3x + 7
( – ) – 16x² – 32x – 16
29x + 23
Quotient : 3x – 8 Remainder : 29x + 23

12
ALGEBRA

Division by the Method of Detached Coefficients

The method of detached coefficients may be used in division when
(1) The two compound expressions contain powers of one letter only
(2) The two compound expressions are homogeneous and contain powers of
two letters only.
Illustration: Divide 2x5 + 6x4 + 9x2 – 17x + 6 by 2x3 + 4x – 3
Here the missing powers, x in the dividend and x in the divisor, must be
represented by zero coefficients.
2 0 4 –3 ) 2 6 0 9 –17 6 (1 3 –2
(–) 2 0 4 –3 . .
6 – 4 12 –17 6
(–) 6 0 12 –9 . .
–4 0 –8 6
(–) –4 0 –8 6
The quotient can be written as x² + 3x – 2 and Remainder as ‘Zero’.

REMAINDER THEOREM
If a rational integral function of x be divided by x – a, the remainder is the same
as the original expression with ‘a’ put in place of ‘x’
It can be stated - If an integral expression P (x) be divided by (x–a), the remainder
is P (a)

Note:
(i) If P (x) be divided by x + a, the remainder is P (–a)
 –b 
(ii) If P (x) were divided by ax + b, the remainder is P  a 
 

Illustration: Find the reminder when x 4 + x 3 – x 2 + x + 6 is divided by (x + 1)

and (2x – 1)
P(x) = x4 + x3 – x2 + x + 6
P(–1) = (–1)4 + (–1)3 – (–1)2 + (–1) + 6
= 1–1–1–1+6
= 7–3=4

13
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Hence the remainder is 4 when the divisor is x + 1.

4 3 2
1 1 1 1 1
For (2x – 1), P   =      –     6
2 2 2 2 2

 1  1  1   1 
=    –  6
 16   8   4   2 

1 2 48 6
=
16

13
=
16

13
Hence the reminder is . When the divisor is (2x – 1)
16

FACTOR THEOREM
If there is no remainder, it is concluded that the given expression is completely
divisible by the given divisor. It implies that the divisor is a factor of the given
expression.
Factor Theorem is stated as - If any integral expression in x vanishes when ‘a’
is substituted for x, ‘x – a’ is a factor of the expression.
Alternatively, if P(a)=0, then x–a is a factor of P(x).

Note
(i) If P (–a) = 0, then x + a is a factor of P(x)

 –a 
(ii) If P  b  = 0 then bx + a is a factor of P(x)
 
(iii) If polynomial P(x) vanishes when x = a and also x = b, then P(x) is exactly
divisible by (x–a)(x–b).
(iv) Only those values of x can make P(x) zero which are factors of the constant
term. (This is only in a restricted Domain ! Think why !)

14
ALGEBRA

Illustration: Given integral roots, P(x) = x3 – 7x2 –6x –10, x can only take values
from ± 1, ± 2, ± 5, ± 10 and no other values for making P(x) zero. The reason is that
the constant term is always the product of the roots of the equation P(x)= 0.
Illustration: If the expression x3 + 3x2 + 4x + P contains x + 3 as a factor, find P.
G(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 4x + P
As (x + 3) is a factor, so G(–3)= 0
G(–3) = (–3)3 + 3(–3)2 + 4(–3) + P
 –27 + 27–12+P = 0
 P = 12

HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR

HCF of two or more algebraical expressions is the expression of highest
dimensions, which divides, each of them without remainder.
Illustration: Find the HCF of a3 b3 , a2b4c , a² b³ c2
The highest power of a, which is a common factor is a2. The highest power of b,
which is a common factor is b3 and c is not a common factor
Hence the highest common factor is a2 b3.

LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE

LCM of two or more algebraical expressions is the expression of lowest
dimensions, which is divisible by each of them without remainder.
Illustration: Find the LCM of 6x2 (a–x)2, 8a3(a–x)2 and 12ax (a–x)5
The LCM of 6, 8, 12 is 24 and the LCM of the algebraic factors is a3 x2 (a–x)5. The
LCM is 24a3x2 (a–x)5

IMPORTANT ALGEBRAIC RESULTS

(i) (a + b)² = a2 + 2ab + b2
(ii) (a – b)² = a2 – 2ab + b2
(iii) (a + b) + (a – b)2
2
= 2( a2 + b2 )
(iv) (a + b)2 – (a – b)2 = 4ab
(v) (a + b)2 = (a – b)2 + 4ab

15
 MODERN ALGEBRA

(vi) (a – b)2 = (a + b)2 – 4ab

(vii) (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
(viii) (a + b + c + d)² = a² + b² + c² + d²
+ 2a (b + c + d) + 2b (c + d) + 2cd
(ix) (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2
(x) (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b)
= a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
(xi) (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 + 3ab (a– b)
= a3 – 3a2 b + 3ab2 – b3
3 3
(xii) a +b = (a + b)3 – 3ab (a + b)
= (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2)
3 3
(xiii) a –b = (a – b)3 + 3ab (a – b)
= (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2)
(xiv) (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b) x + ab
(xv) (x – a)(x + b) = x2 + (b – a)x – ab
(xvi) (x – a)(x – b) = x2 – (a + b)x + ab
(xvii) (x – a)(x – b)(x – c) = x³ – (a + b + c)x² + (ab + bc + ca)x – abc
(xviii) a³ + b³ + c³ – 3abc = (a + b + c) (a² + b² + c² – ab – bc – ca)

It may be shown that x – a is a factor of x6 – a6, x7 – a7 and so on. Hence in general,

x – a is a factor of xn – an when n is a whole number.
Again xn + an = (xn – an) + 2an of which xn – an is divisible by x – a and 2an is not.
Therefore xn + an is not divisible by x–a.
Thus when n is a positive integer, x – a always divides xn – an but never divides
x + an.
n

Note:
(i) x + a divides xn – an only when n is an even integer.
(ii) x + a divides xn + an only when n is an odd integer.

16
ALGEBRA

EXERCISE - 1
1. If x + y + z = 0, find the value of x3 + y3 + z3.
(1) xyz (2) 0
(3) xy + yz + zx (4) 3xyz
2. If the expressions (x + 2x + 3x + a) and (x3 + x2 + 9) leave the same remainder
3 2

when divided by x + 2, Find the value of a.

(1) 13 (2) 11
(3) 9 (4) 10
3. If (a – k) is the GCD of (a + 3a – 18) and (a2 – a – 6), find the value of k.
2

(1) 3 (2) 5
(3) 7 (4) None of these
4. For what value of p, the GCD of (a – 2a – 24) and (a2 – px – 6 is (x – 6)?
2

(1) 5 (2) 3
(3) 9 (4) 2
5. Ram have a certain number of candies to divide among 18 children equally. If
the number of children and candies are both increased by two, each children
would receive 5 candies less. How many candies does Ram originally had?
(1) 950 (2) 936
(3) 640 (4) 918
6. A park square in shape is surrounded by a gravel path 7 ft wide. It is desired
24
that the width of the path is doubled, and it was found that times more
11
gravel is required for extension as compared to the original path. Find the
length of the side of the park.
(1) 30 (2) 35
(3) 45 (4) 25

17
 MODERN ALGEBRA

7. The fees for a tour is partly fixed and partly variable which depends on the
number of peoples in the touring party. The fee is Rs 110 per person when
there are 20 people in the touring party and Rs 90 per person when there are 30
people in the party. What will be the charge per person if there are 60 people in
the touring party?
(1) 50 (2) 30
(3) 70 (4) None of these
8. A glass container in the shape of a cube is ¾th filled with oil. The container is
tilted such that the level of oil coincides with one edge each at the top and the
bottom. During the tilting 3 litres of oil pours out. What is the volume of the
glass container ?
(1) 12 (2) 16
(3) 14 (4) 10
9. Three numbers are given no, the difference of the two greater numbers is added
to the smallest number to form a new number. The average of the two greater
number and the new number is 10 more than the average of the three given
number. What is the difference between the two greater numbers?
(1) 30 (2) 20
(3) 35 (4) 25


a
 1
10. If a
a
= , find a?
a 3

1 1
(1) (2)
9 27

1 1
(3) (4)
81 729
11. The sum of the squares of the numbers formed by the first two digits and the
last two digits of a four–digit number is 841. If the number formed by the first
two digits exceeds the number formed by the last two digits, the sum of the
prime factors of the four–digit number can be?
(1) 70 (2) 64
(3) 36 (4) None of these

18
ALGEBRA

DIRECTIONS for questions 12 to 13: Answer these questions on the basis of the
information given below.
x1, x2, x3, x4 and x5 are five positive integers in ascending order. Any number from 1
to 121, both included, can be obtained by using a linear combination of these
integers with coefficients 1, 0 or – 1.
12. Find the value of x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 + 5x5.
(1) 547 (2) 537
(3) 527 (4) 517
13. If the sum of the 5 coefficients is 1, find the largest number that can be obtained.
(1) 107 (2) 113
(3) 81 (4) 121
14. If xy + x + y = 3, which of the following is true?

 x 1   x2 
(1)  0 (2)  0
 y 1   y 2

x –1 x–2
(3) y –1  0 (4) y – 2  0

19
 2
Equations

EQUATION
Any two expressions connected by the sign of equality ( = ) constitute an
equation and each of the expressions thus connected is called a side or member of
the equation.
An equation containing only one unknown quantity is said to be an equation
of the first degree or a simple equation, when the unknown quantity occurs only in
the first power.
The letter, to which a particular value or values must be given in order that an
equation maybe true is called the unknown quantity. It is usually represented by one
of the last letters of the alphabet x, y, z etc.
Any particular value of the unknown quantity, for which an equation is true, is
said to satisfy the equation, and is called a root or a solution of the equation. To
solve an equation is same as to find its root or roots.
The process of solving an equation is based upon the following axioms:
(i) If to same quantity, or equal quantities, be added on both sides, the sums
are equal. Thus, if x = –b,  x + 3 = – b + 3
(ii) If the same quantity, or equal quantities, be taken from equals, the
remainders are equal.
Thus if x = b,  x –2 = b –2
(iii) If equals were multiplied by the same quantity, or by equal quantities, the
products are equal.
Thus, if x = b,  x × 7 = b × 7
(iv) If equals be divided by the same quantity, or by equal quantities, the
quotients are equal.

x b
Thus, if x = b,  = .
4 4
EQUATIONS

Note
 From axioms (i) and (ii), we deduce an important principle (which has become
so inherent that we hardly notice it) which is of great use in solving equations.
It follows that “any term may be transposed from one side of an equation to
the other by simply changing its sign.
Let x– a = b + c
Then adding a to both sides, we have
x–a +a = b+ c+ a (by axiom i)
x = b+c+a
again, subtracting b from both sides, we have
x–a–b = b+c–b (by axiom ii)
x–a– b = c
Thus, –a, removed from the left ‘side appears as +a on the right and + b
removed from the right side, appears as –b on the left. Such removal of terms
is called Transposition
 The sign of every term of an equation may be changed without destroying the
equality.
Let x–a = b+c
then (x – a) (–1) = (b + c) (–1) (by axiom iii)
–x + a = –b – c
In solving word problems the following should be noted
 Any even number may be denoted by 2x where x is any positive whole number,
for this expression is exactly divisible by 2.
 Any odd number may be denoted by 2x + 1, for this expression divided by
2 leaves remainder 1.
 Any three consecutive natural numbers may be conveniently represented by
(x – 1), (x) and (x + 1).
 Any three consecutive even numbers maybe conveniently represented by
(x – 2), (x) and (x + 2).
 Any three consecutive odd numbers may be conveniently represented by
(x – 2), (x) and (x + 2).
 In solving problems on two digit numbers, the number is 10 (digit at ten’s)
+ (digit at unit place).

21
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Illustration: Divide 54 into two parts so that four times the greater part equals five
times the less.
Let x be the greater part, then 54–x is the lesser.
 4(x) = 5(54 – x)
 4x = 270 – 5x
 9x = 270
 x = 30
 54 – x = 54 – 30 = 24
Hence the two parts are 24 and 30.
It has a good oral approach using concept of ratio as well.
Illustration: The sum of two digits of a number is 9. If the digits are reversed the
number increases by 63. Find the number.
Let the unit’s digit be x, the ten’s digit is 9–x
The number is 10 (9 – x) + x = 90 – 10x + x = 90 – 9x.
If the digits are reversed, the unit’s digit is (9 – x) and the ten’s digit is x. The
new number is 10(x) + (9–x) = 9x+9
 9x + 9 = 90 – 9x + 63
18x = 144
144
 x = =8
18
Thus, the units digit is 8 and the tens digit is (9 – 8) = 1.
Hence the number is 18
Illustration: In 17 years a father will be twice as old as his son, whose age at the
present time is 1/3 of his father’s age. How old is the father now?
Let the son’s age be x years
Father’s age is 3x years
17 years hence son will be (x+17) years old and father will be (3x + 17) years old.
 3x + 17 = 2(x + 17)
 3x + 17 = 2x + 34
x = 34 – 17 = –17 years
Hence, father’s age is 3(17) = 51 years.

22
EQUATIONS

LINEAR EQUATION IN TWO VARIABLES

Consider the equation y – 2x = 4, which contains two unknown quantities x and
y. Here since y = 2x + 4, it is clear that for every value we choose to give x, there will
be corresponding value of y. Thus we can find as many pairs of values as we please
which satisfy the given equation. Thus when x has the values –2, –1, 0, 1, 2 we get
for y the values 0, 2, 4, 6, 8
We shall find that there is only one pair of values of x and y which satisfy the
equation y – 2x = 5 (1)
And also satisfy the equation y + 4x = 23 (2)
From (1) we have y = 2x + 5
From (2) we have y = – 4x + 23
and since the values of y in the two equations are to be the same, we must have
2x + 5 = –4x + 23
6x = 18

18
Hence, x = =3
6
If we substitute this value for x in either of the given equations, we obtain
y = 2(3) + 5 = 6 + 5 = 11
Thus x = 3, y = 11 is the only solution possible if the two equations are to be
satisfied by the same pair of values of x and y.
Alternatively, every equation, involving x and y in the first degree only, can be
represented graphically by a straight line, the conclusions arrived at are:
The graph of each of the given equations passes through an infinite number of
points, the co-ordinates of which satisfy that equation taken by itself. But two straight
lines can only intersect at one point; the co-ordinates of this point give the values
of x and y which, satisfy both the two equations.
When two or more equations are satisfied by the same values of the unknowns,
they are called SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
The method by which we get rid of an unknown quantity is called elimination.

23
 MODERN ALGEBRA

ELIMINATION BY EQUALISING COEFFICIENTS

Solve 3x + 7y = 27 (1)
5x + 2y = 16 (2)
To eliminate x we multiply eqn (1) by 5 and eqn (2) by 3, so as to make the
coefficients of x in both equations equal. This gives
15x + 35y = 135 (3)
15x + 6y = 48 (4)
Subtracting (4) from (3) 29y = 87  y = 3
To find x substitute the value of y in either of the given equations.
Thus, from (l) 3x + 21 = 27
3x = 6  x = 2
Therefore the complete solution is x = 2, y = 3

ELIMINATION BY SUBSTITUTION
Solve x + 2y = 4 (1)
2x + 3y = 7 (2)
Here we can eliminate x by substituting in (2) its value obtained from (1)
Thus x = 4 – 2y. Substituting this value of x in eqn (2), we have
2(4 – 2y) + 3y = 7
8 – 4y + 3y = 7
y = –1  y = 1
and from (1) x = 4 – 2(1) = 4 – 2 = 2 .
Therefore the complete solution is x = 2, y = 1

INTERCHANGED COEFFICIENTS
ax + by = c and bx + ay = d ;
Solve 11x + 55y = 44 (1)
55x + 11y = 22 (2)
Adding, 66x + 66y = 66 (1) + (2)
x + y = 1 (dividing throughout by 66) (3)
Subtracting, –44x + 44y = 22 (1) – (2)
–2x + 2y = 1 (dividing throughout by 22) (4)
24
EQUATIONS

Now eqns (3) and (4) can be solved either by the method of equalizing
coefficients or by the method of substitution
eqn (3) x 2 + eqn (4) gives
2x + 2y = 2
–2x + 2y = 1
—————–
3
4y = 3  y =
4
Substituting this value of y in either eqn (3) or (4) gives

3 3 1
x+ = 1  x=1– =
4 4 4

1 3
Therefore the complete solution is x = ,y=
4 4

GENERAL SOLUTION AND CONDITIONS FOR SOLVABILITY

Consider the general system of two simultaneous linear equations:
a1x + b1y = c1 (1)
a2x + b2y = c2 (2)
If we eliminate y, we get
(a1b2 – a2b1) x = c1b2 – c2b1 (3)
Similarly, if we eliminate x from the given equations, we get
(a1b2 – a2b1) y = a1c2 – a2c1
(4)
Thus, two cases arise
Case (1):
Let a1b2 – a2b1  0
Then clearly from (3) and (4)

c1b2  c2b1 ,
a1c2  a2 c1
x = y=
a1b2  a2 b1 a1b2  a2 b1

form the one and only solution of the given system of equations:

25
 MODERN ALGEBRA

a1 b1
Thus, if a1b2 – a2b  0 i.e 
a2 b2

Then the system has a unique solution.

The solution is written as

x y 1
 
b1c 2 -b2 c1 c1 a 2 -a1 c 2 a1 b 2 -a 2 b1

Case (2):
Let a1b2 – a2b1 = 0
i.e a 1b2 = a 2b1

a1 b1
i,e., a2
= b = K (say)
2

 a1 = ka2 and b1 = kb2

The given equations become
k(a2x + b2y) = c1 and a2x + b2y = c2
It is obvious that these equations can both be satisfied only if c1 = kc2.
If c1 = kc2, each solution of a2x + b2y = c2 will satisfy a1x + b1y = c1 and vice versa.
It follows that

a1 b1
(i) If = = K and c1 = Kc2, then there are infinitely many solutions of
a2 b2
the system.

a1 b1
(ii) If,
a2
= b = K and c1  Kc2 then the system has no solution.
2

c1
(iii) If c2  0 we can write c = K in place of c1 = Kc2.
2

a1 b c
Thus if = 1 = 1 then there are infinitely many solutions and
a2 b2 c2

26
EQUATIONS

a1 b c
If = 1 1
 c there will be no solutions .
a2 b2 2

Note:
If c1 and c2 are both equal to zero, the solution can be found as:
a1 b1
(i) When  , the only solution is x = y = 0 and
a2 b2

a1 b1
(ii) When = , then there are infinitely many solutions.
a2 b2

Illustration: Solve the equations 9x – 4y = 8 and 13x + 7y = 101 by the method of

elimination.
9x – 4y = 8 (1)
13x + 7y = 101 (2)
eqn (1) × 7 + eqn (2) × 4 gives
63x – 28y = 56
52x + 28y = 404
————————
115x = 460
460
 x = =4
115
Substituting the value of x in either (1) and (2) we get,
9(4) – 4y = 8

28
4y = 36 – 8 = 28 y= =7
4
Hence the solution is x = 4, y = 7
Illustration: Solve 3x – 7y = 7 and 11x +5y = 87
By the method of substitution
3x – 7y = 7 (1)
11x + 5y = 87 (2)
27
 MODERN ALGEBRA

7y  7
from eqn (1) we have x = (3)
3
Substituting the value of x from (3) in (2) we have,
77y + 77 + 15y = 261

184
 92y = 184  y= =2
92
Substituting the value of y in (1) we get, x = 7
Hence the solution is x = 7, y = 2
Illustration: Find two numbers such that if the first is added to 5 times the second,
the sum is 52 and if the second is added to 8 times the first, the sum is 65.
Let the first number be x and the second number be y.
x + 5y = 52 (1)
8x + y = 65 (2)
eqn (1) – eqn (2) x 5 gives
x + 5y = 52
40x+ 5y = 325
–———————
–39x = –273

273
 x = =7
39
Substituting the value of x in either (1) or (2) we get,
y = 65 – 8(7) = 65 – 56 = 9
Hence the numbers are 7 and 9
Illustration: A number of two digits is such that if 9 be added to it the digits will be
reversed; if the sum of the digits is 7, find the number?
Let the digit in the ten’s place be x and the digit in the unit’s place be y
The number is 10x + y.
When the digits get reversed, the digit in the ten’s place is y and the digit in the
unit’s place is x

28
EQUATIONS

The new number is 10y + x

10x + y + 9 = 10y + x
9x – 9y = –9
x – y = –1 (1)
Sum of the digits in 7
x+ y = 7 (2)
eqn (1) + eqn (2), gives
2x = 6  x = 3
eqn (2) – eqn (1) gives
2y = 8  y = 4
Hence the number is 34.
Illustration: A is 5 years older then B. 5 years ago A was twice as old as B. Find
their present ages.
Let A be x years old and B be y years old.
x–y = 5 (1)
5 years ago, A was (x – 5) years & B was (y – 5) years old
(x – 5) = 2 (y – 5)
x – 5 = 2y – 10
x – 2y = –5 (2)
eqn (1) – eqn (2) gives y = 10 years
substituting the value of y in either equation, we get, x = 5 + 10 =15 years.
Hence, A is 15 years old and B is 10 years old.

QUADRATIC FUNCTION
Consider f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c are real numbers and a  0. Such types
of functions are called quadratic functions. When we plot a quadratic function on a
graph it forms a parabola.
(a) f(x) = 2x2 + 1

x –2 –1 0 1 2
f(x) 9 3 1 3 9

29
 MODERN ALGEBRA

QUADRATIC EQUATION
An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, are real numbers is called a
quadratic equation. The degree of a quadratic equation is 2.

Note:
(i) Every quadratic equation has two roots (i.e two values of the unknown
variable).
Thus if (x – 1) (x – 2) = 0, then the roots are x = 1 or 2.
(ii) The roots of a quadratic equation are also called the zeros of the quadratic
polynomial ax2 + bx + c

SOLUTION OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS BY FACTORISATION

Quadratic equations can, by suitable transformation and reduction, be expressed
in the standard term ax2 + bx + c = 0. If the left – hand side can be easily factorized,
then by equating to zero either of these factors, we get a solution of the quadratic
equation.

SOLUTION BY QUADRATIC FORMULA

Consider the quadratic equation ax2+ bx + c = 0 where a, b, c  R and a  0
multiplying by 4a we get
4a2x2 + 4abx + 4ac = 0
4a2x2 + 4abx = –4ac
Adding b2 on both sides so that the left-hand side becomes a perfect square,
we have,
4a2x2 + 4abx + b2 = b2 – 4ac
(2ax + b)2 = b2 – 4ac

( 2ax + b ) =  b 2 -4ac

–b ± b2 – 4ac
x =
2a
–b + b2 – 4ac –b – b2 – 4ac
Hence the roots are and
2a 2a

30
EQUATIONS

Illustration: Solve x2 + 2x – 1 = 0
On comparing the given equation x2 + 2x – 1 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0, we get,
a = 1, b = 2, c = –1

b  b 2  4ac 2  2 2  4(1)( 1)

x = =
2a 2

2  8 2  2 2
= =
2 2

= 1  2
Hence thus the roots of the equations are 1  2 , 1  2

NATURE OF THE ROOTS

Examining the nature of the roots means to see what type of roots the equation
has, that is, whether they are real or imaginary, rational or irrational, equal or unequal.
The nature of the roots depends entirely on the value of the expression b2 – 4ac,
which is called the discriminant (or ) of the equation. Thus
(1) The roots are real and unequal if b2 – 4ac is positive. Further
(i) The roots are unequal and rational if b2 – 4ac is a perfect square,
(ii) The roots are unequal and irrational if b2 – 4ac is not a perfect square.
(2) The roots are imaginary or unreal if b2 – 4ac is negative.
(3) The roots are real and equal if b2 – 4ac = 0

Sum and Product of the Roots

If the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx +c =0 are  and , then we have

b  b 2  4ac b  b 2  4ac
 ; 
2a 2a

–b+ b 2 –4ac  –b– b 2 –4ac  b coefficientof x

α+β= +   =– =–
2a  2a  a coefficientof x2
 

31
 MODERN ALGEBRA

 –b+ b2 –4ac  –b– b2 –4ac  c constant term

αβ =    = =–
 2a  2a  coefficientof x2
   a

VALUES OF THE SYMMETRIC EXPRESSIONS OF THE ROOTS

If , , be the roots of a given quadratic equation and we wish to find the value
of the function of  and , we can do so by proceeding as,
(i) Write the values of  + and   from the given equation
(ii) Express the given function in term of + and  .
(iii) Substitute the values of + and   from (i)

Important Identities

1 1 
1.  
  
2. 2 + 2 = ( +)2 – 2
3. ( –)2 = ( +)2 – 4

4. 2 – 2 = ( +) ( –) = ( +) (α+β) 2 – 4αβ

1 1  2  2
5.   2 2
 2 2 
6. 3 + 3 = (+)3 – 3( +)
7. 4 + 4 = (2 +2 )2 – 222

FORMATION OF EQUATIONS
Suppose we have to write the equation whose roots are and 
As x = , x = , are the roots of the equation,
so (x –  ) = 0 and (x –  ) = 0
(x –) (x –) = 0
2
x – (+ ) x + = 0
i.e. x2 – (Sum of roots) x + Product of roots = 0.

32
EQUATIONS

SIGN OF QUADRATIC EXPRESSION

Let f(x) = ax2 + bx + c or y = ax2 + bx + c
Where a, b, c,  R and a  0, for some values of x, f (x) may be positive, negative
or zero. This gives the following cases:
(1) a > 0 and D < 0 so f(x) > 0 for all x  R
i.e., f(x) is positive for all values of x.

a<0

x-axis
(2) a < 0 and D < 0 so f(x) < 0 for all x  R x-axis

i.e. f(x) is negative for all values of x.

(3) a > 0 and D = 0 so f(x)  0 for all x  R

i.e. f(x) is positive for all values of x except
at vertex where f(x) = 0.

x-axis
(4) a < 0 and D = 0 so f(x)  0 for all x  R
i.e. f(x) is negative for all values of x except
at vertex where f(x) = 0.

33
 MODERN ALGEBRA

(5) a > 0 and D > 0

Let f(x) = 0 have two real roots  and 
(<)
then
f(x) > 0 for all x  (–, ) (< )
and f(x) < 0 for all x  (, )

(6) a < 0 and D > 0

Let f(x) = 0 have two real roots  and 
(<)
then
f(x) < 0 for all x  (–, ) (, )
and f(x) > 0 for all x  (, )

f(x) = 2x2 + 1
For the above equation b2 – 4ac = – 8 (which is negative)
f(x)

Therefore we can say that the roots of the equation 2x2 + 1 are imaginary or
unreal, which we can plot in the above graph.
In the above graph the parabola does not intersect or touches the x-axis, from
that we can conclude that there is no real root.
(b) f(x) = x2 – 6x + 8

34
EQUATIONS

x –2 –1 0 1 2
f(x) 3 0 –1 0 3

f(x)

For the above equation b2 – 4ac = 4 (which is positive)

Therefore we can say that the roots of the equation x2 – 6x + 8 are unequal and
rational. Which we can confirm from the above graph.
In the above graph the parabola intersects the x-axis, at x = 2 and x = 4. From this
we can conclude that the roots of the equation are 2 , 4.

Note :
If the parabola of a quadratic equation intersects the x-axis at two points then
the equation has two unequal and rational roots.
(c) f(x) = x2 – 4x + 4

x 0 1 2 3 4
f(x) 4 1 0 1 4

f(x)

35
 MODERN ALGEBRA

For the above equation b2 – 4ac = 0

Therefore we can say that the roots of the equation x2 – 4x + 4 are equal and real.
Which we can plot in the above graph.
In the above graph the parabola touches the x-axis, at x = 2 from this we can
conclude that the root of the equation is 2.

Note :
If the parabola of a quadratic equation touches the x-axis then the equation
has two equal and real roots.

GENERALISATION
An equation of n degree is a0 xn + a1 xn–1 + a2 xn–2 + a3 xn–3 + ...... an–1 x1 + an = 0
In the factorised from it will look like a0(x–1) (x –2) (x – 3) ..... (x – n) = 0
where 1, 2, 3 ...... n will be the n roots of this equation.
Multiplying it, we will get a0 [xn + (– 1 – 2 – 3 – ..... n) xn–1 + (1 2 + 13 +
2 3 + ........)xn–2 + (–123 – 124 – 234– ....) xn–3 + .........] = 0
Comparing the two equations, we get
a1
= – sum of the roots
a0
a2
= sum of pairwise product of the roots
a0
a3
= – sum of triplet wise product of the roots
a0
and so on.
a
till n represent product of all the roots (without the sign)
ac
(Think ! should it be positive or negative).

Illustration: Form a quadratic equation whose one of the root is 4 + 2 and

coeficients are rational.
Any quadratic equation is of the form
x2 – (Sum of roots) x + Product of roots = 0

36
EQUATIONS

For rational coefficients, if one of the roots is irrational, the other one must be
its conjugate and hence the roots of the quadratic equations are 4 + 2 and 4 – 2

Sum of roots = 4 + 2 + 4 – 2=8

Product of roots = (4 + 2 ) (4 – 2 ) = 16 – 2 = 14.

The required equation is: x2 – 8x + 14 = 0
x + 4 x – 4 10
Illustration:  
x –4 x4 3
 3 [(x + 4)2 + (x – 4)2 ] = 10(x2– 16)
 3[2(x2 + 42)] = 10 (x2 –16)
 6x2 + 96 = 10x2– 160  4x2 = 256
Hence the roots are x = – 8, x = 8.
Illustration: Examine the nature of the roots of the equation –3x2 – 2x + 6 = 0.
A = b2 – 4ac = (–2)2 – 4(–3)(6)
= 4 + 72
= 76 (> 0 and not a perfect square)
Hence the roots are real, unequal and irrational conjugates.
Illustration: If 4x2 – Px + 9 = 0 has equal roots, find P.
For the roots to be equal, b2–4ac = 0
 P2 – 4 × 4 × 9 = 0

 P = 42  32

 P = ± 12

37
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Illustration: A man cannot afford to spend more than Rs 180 a day for paying
laborers, after some time he finds that he has to pay each laborer Rs 10.50 a day
more, and so he is obliged to dismiss four of them. Find how many laborers he
employed at first.
Let the number of laborers be x and let each earn Rs y/day.
xy = 180
Also (x – 4) (y + 10.5) = 180
xy + 10.5x – 4y – 42 = 180

 180 
180 + 6x – 4   – 42 = 180
 x 

6x2 – 720 – 42x = 0

x2 – 7x – 120 = 0
x2 – 15x + 8x – 120 = 0 (To explain the working of how to
x(x – 15) + 8(x – 15) = 0 find roots using factorisation)
(x – 15) (x + 8) = 0
x = –8 (not possible) or 15
Hence number of laborers employed at first is 15.

38
EQUATIONS

EXERCISE - 2
1. Find the value of x, if 3 = 9 × 3– 1/x
x

(1) 3 (2) 1
(3) 7 (4) 5
2. Find the value of x, if (a – b)x + (a + b)y = a2 – 2ab – b2 ; (a + b)(x + y) = a2 + b2
(1) a (2) a + b
(3) –a (4) None of these
3. Find the value of x, if 3 x2 + 11x + 6 3 = 0

–2 2
(1) –3 3, (2) –3 3,
3 3

–2 2
(3) 3 3, (4) 3 3,
3 3
4. Find the value of p so that the sum of the roots of the equation 2x2 – (3p + 1) x
– p + 7 = 0 is equal to the product of the roots.
5 7
(1) (2)
2 2
3
(3) (4) None of these7
2
5. Find the value of a and b for which the following system of equations
(a – b)x + ay = 7;
(a + b)x + 2ay = a + 11 has infinite many solutions.
(1) a = 5, b = 3 (2) a = 3, b = 1
(3) a = 3, b = 7 (4) None of these
6. For what values of p does the equation (p + 5)x2 – (2p + 3)x + p – 1 = 0 has no real
roots.
29 –29
(1) p < (2) p >
4 4
29 27
(3) p > (4) p >
4 4

39
 MODERN ALGEBRA

7. There are three numbers, the difference of whose difference is 5, their sum is 44,
and continued product is 1950, find any of the numbers.
(1) 25 (2) 3
(3) 50 (4) None of these
8. A farmer wishing to purchase a number of goat, found that, if they cost him Rs
42 a head, he would not have money enough by Rs 28; but if they cost him Rs
40 a head, he would then have Rs 40 more than he required. Find the number of
goat and the money, which he had.
(1) 32 goats, Rs. 1200 (2) 34 goats, Rs. 1400
(3) 34 goats, Rs. 1350 (4) 36 goats, Rs. 1400
9. X and Y began to play with equal sums, and when Y has lost 5/11th of what he
had to begin with, X has gained Rs 6 more than half of what Y has been left with.
What had they at first?
(1) Rs. 26 each (2) Rs. 28 each
(3) Rs. 24 each (4) Rs. 22 each
10. If 15 kg of tea and 17 kgs of coffee together cost Rs 183 and 25 kgs of tea and 13
kgs of coffee together cost Rs 213, Find the price of tea per kilogram.
(1) Rs 5.40/kg (2) Rs 6/kg
(3) Rs 7.40/kg (4) Rs 5.40/kg
11. A rectangle is of the same area as another which is 6 meters longer and 4 meters
narrower; it is also of the same area as a third, which is 8 meters longer and 5
meters narrower. What is its length?
(1) 20m (2) 24m
(3) 16m (4) None of these
12. The difference between the ages of a man and his son is 25 years now. If the
product of the numbers denoting their ages, ten years back, be 150, find the
present age of the father?
(1) 30 years (2) 40 years
(3) 45 years (4) 35 years
13. Find the number, which exceeds 12 by as much as thirty-nine times its reciprocal
falls short of 4.
(1) 3 or 13 (2) 4 or 14
(3) 5 or 15 (4) 2 or 12

40
EQUATIONS

14. What is the number of positive integer pairs (x, y) satisfying 4x – 17y = 1;
x  1000
(1) 52 (2) 50
(3) 58 (4) 56
15. What is the number of positive integer pairs (x, y) satisfying 4x + 17y = 1000;
(1) 13 (2) 14
(3) 15 (4) 68
a+3 a+2
16. For the equation 2 = 4 – 48, the value of ‘a’ will be
(1) –3/2 (2) –3
(3) –2 (4) 1
17. If f(x) = (x + 2) and g(x) = (4x + 5), and h(x) is defined as h(x) = f(x) . g(x),
then sum of roots of h (x) will be
(1) 3/4 (2) 13/4
(3) –13/4 (4) –3/4
18. Ms. Deepika Sharma wanted to purchase pencils and erasers for charity. Each
pencils will set her back by Rs.3.50 and each eraser costs her Rs.1.40. If she has
Rs.111.30 with her and she doesn't wish to keep any of it, in how many ways
she can spend it on the pencil and erasers if she buys a minimum of 1 of each?
(1) 14
(2) 15
(3) 16
(4) She will not be able to spend all the money!
19. If P = 22/3 + 21/3 then which of the following is true?
(1) p3 – 6p – 6 = 0 (2) p3 – 6p + 6 = 0
(3) p3 + 6p – 6 = 0 (4) p3 + 6p + 6 = 0

1
20. Find the maximum value of the expression 2
x + 5x + 10
(1) 15/2 (2) 1
(3) 4/15 (4) Infinite

41
 3
Functions

In mathematics, a function is a relation, such that each element of a set (the

domain) is associated with a unique element of another (possibly the same) set (the
codomain). The concept of a function is fundamental to virtually every branch of
mathematics and every quantitative science.
The terms function, mapping, map and transformation are usually used
synonymously.

CORRESPONDENCE
Correspondence is an alternate term for a relation between two sets. Let A & B
be any two non empty sets. Let f denote some rule, which associates each element
of A to some element of B. Then f is a correspondence or a mapping from A to B and
is denoted by
f: A  B. A “Correspondence” is usually denoted by letter f, g, h etc.

TYPES OF CORRESPONDENCEMV
(i) one to one correspondence:
If to one element of set A, there corresponds one and only one element of set B,
then the correspondence from A to B is called a one-to-one correspondence.
A B

2 4

4 8
6 12

Y = 2X
(ii) many to one correspondence:
If to one or more elements of set A, there corresponds only one element of set
B, then the correspondence from A and B is called many-to-one correspondence.
FUNCTIONS

A B

2 4
–2
–4 16
4
6 36
–6
2
Y=X
(iii) one to many correspondence:
If to one element of set A, there corresponds one or more elements of set B,
then the correspondence from A to B is called many-to-one correspondence.
A B

4 2
–2
16 4
–4
36 6
–6
Y= X
For example in real life, we can observe the relationship between company and
its employees. For one company, we have many employees.
(iv) many-many correspondence:
If a correspondence is both one-to-many as well as many-to-one then it is
called many to many correspondence.
A B

0 2

2 2

0
2
2 2
Y +X =2

FUNCTION AS A CORRESPONDENCE
If ‘f’ denotes a rule of correspondence by which to every element x of the set A
there corresponds one and only one element y of the set B, then the correspondence
f is said to be a function from set A to set B. We also denote it as y = f(x).

43
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Two types of correspondence qualify as function. They are :

One-One Function: The mapping f: A  B is called one - one, if to one element
of set A there is assigned one and only one element of set B.
Many-One Function: The mapping f: A  B is called many-one, if to one or
more elements of set A there corresponds only one element of the set B.

FUNCTION AS A SET OF ORDERED PAIRS

A function is a set of ordered pairs such that none of the two pairs have the
same First component.
Illustration: Let the relation be y = 3x+5 and A = {0, 1, 2}, B = {5, 8, 11}. Then the
ordered pairs ((0, 5), (1, 8), (2, 11) represent a function, since they do not have
the same first element.

ELEMENTS AND ITS IMAGE

Let f: A  B. If a is mapped to be b B, then image of a is b and a is called the
pre-image of b.
DOMAIN: The domain of a function is the set of, values of x when (x, y) belongs
to the function. In previous Illustration (0, 1, 2} is the domain.
CO-DOMAIN: If (x, y) belongs to a function f = x  y, then y is called the
co-domain of the function. Range is a subset of co-domain. Sometimes the range
and co domains have the same elements.

Note:
(i) A function is a one-one or many-one relation.
(ii) A one-many correspondence is NOT a function.
(iii) Each and every element of the domain should have an image in the
co domain, but all the elements in the co domain need not have a pre-image.
(iv) An element in the co domain may have more than one pre-image.

INTO MAPPING FUNCTION

The mapping of f: A  B is called into, if there is at least one element of set B
which has no pre-image in set A.

44
FUNCTIONS

A B

–2 4

40
–2

3 9
2
Y=X

ONTO MAPPING FUNCTION

The mapping of f: A B is called onto, if every element in set B has one
pre-image (or more) in set A. It is denoted as f: A  B
A B

0 3

1 4

5
2
Y=X+3

TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
EVEN FUNCTIONS
If, on replacing x by –x, the function does not change, then the function is
called an Even Function
Consider f (x) = x2. If we replace x by –x, we get
f (–x) = (–x)2 = x2 = f (x).
Geometrically, an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, meaning
that its graph remains unchanged after reflection about the y-axis.
Examples of even functions are |x|, x2, x4, cos(x)
A function f is thus said to be an even function if, f(–x). = f(x) for all x and (–x),
which belong to the domain of f.
f (x) = |x |
f (–x) = |– x |  x

45
 MODERN ALGEBRA

x –2 –1 0 1 2
f(x) 2 1 0 1 2

plotting the above values in graph we get,

f(x)

ODD FUNCTIONS
A function f is thus said to be an odd function if f(–x) = – f(x) for all x and (–x),
which belong to the domain of f.
Consider f (x) = x3. If we replace x by –x, we get
f(–x) = (–x)3 = – x3 = –f(x).
Geometrically, an odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin, meaning
that its graph remains unchanged after rotation of 180 degrees about the origin.
Examples of odd functions are x, x3, sin(x)
f(x) = x3
f(–x) = ( – x)3  – x3 = –f(x)

x –2 –1 0 1 2
f(x) –8 –1 0 1 8

46
FUNCTIONS

Plotting the above values in graph we get,

f(x)

Basic Properties Relating Odd and Even Function

* The sum of two even functions is even, and any constant multiple of an
even function is even.
* The sum of two odd functions is odd, and any constant multiple of an odd
function is odd.
* In general, the sum of an even and odd function is neither even nor odd;
e.g. x + x2.
* The product of two even functions is an even function.
* The product of two odd functions is again an even function.
* The product of an even function and an odd function is an odd function.
* The derivative of an even function is odd.
* The derivative of an odd function is even.

SHIFTING OF THE GRAPH

You can shift a graph above and below the x-axis by adding a constant. To
illustrate it let us take the above function f(x) = | x |. Now if we add a constant
(say 1), the function becomes f(x) = | x | + 1. Keeping the same values of x as above
f(x) becomes

x –2 –1 0 1 2
f(x) 3 2 1 2 3

47
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Plotting the above values in the graph,

f(x)

Thus the graph is raised above the x-axis by a constant (in this case its 1).
Similarly we can shift a graph below the x-axis, by subtracting a constant from
the function.
Taking the above example
f(x) = |x | – 1

x –2 –1 0 1 2
f(x) 1 0 –1 0 1

Plotting the above values in the graph,

F(x)

The graph is shifted below the x-axis by a constant (in this case its 1)

48
FUNCTIONS

CONSTANT FUNCTION
A constant function is a function whose values do not vary and thus are
constant.
Consider f (x) = 1. If we put any values of x, f(x) will be equal to 1.
Such a function is called a constant function. All constant functions are even
functions.
e.g. f(x) = 1
f(–x) = 1  f(x) = f(–x)

x –2 –1 0 1 2
f(x) 1 1 1 1 1

Plotting the above values in graph we get

f(x)

The only function which is both even and odd is the constant function which
is identically zero (i.e. f(x) = 0 for all x).
LINEAR FUNCTION
Consider f(x) = ax + b , where a and b are real numbers. Such a type of function
is called as linear function. When we plot a linear function on a graph its always a
straight line.
f(x) = 2x + 3

x –2 –1 0 1 2
f(x) –1 0 3 5 7

49
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Plotting the above values in the graph,

f(x)

In the above graph, the straight line is the graph of equation 2x + 3.

The point where the line intersect the x-axis is the root of the above equation or
the value of x where the function takes the value ‘zero’.
Solving the above equation,
2x + 3 = 0
 x = –3/2
(which can be verified from the above graph)

EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
Consider f(x) = ax, where a > 0 and x is a real number. Such functions are called
as exponential functions

x –2 –1 0 1 2
f(x) 1/4 1/2 1 2 4

f(x) = 2x

50
FUNCTIONS

f(x)

Note :
The exponential curve of ax (a be any whole number) will never be negative
for any value of x.

MODULUS FUNCTION

Absolute Value for a Real Number

If ‘a’ is the real number (either rational / irrational), then it is represented on the
number line at a distance ‘a’ from point 0. This distance is the absolute value of a.
Since distance is always non-negative, the absolute value is always non-
negative. It is written as |a|.
By definition,
|x| = x, if x  0
|x| = –x, if x < 0
f(x) = | x |

x –2 –1 0 1 2
f(x) 2 1 0 1 2

51
 MODERN ALGEBRA

f(x)

Forms of the equations containing absolute values:

The equation of the form
f(|x|) = g(x)
is equivalent to the collection of systems

 f(x) = g(x), if x  0
f(–x) = g(x), if x < 0 
Illustration: Solve the equation
x2 – 5|x| – 6 = 0
Solution: The given equation is equivalent to the collection of systems

 x2 – 5x – 6 = 0, if x  0
x2 + 5x – 6 = 0, if x < 0 
(x – 6) (x + 1) = 0, if x  0
  (x + 6) (x – 1) = 0, if x < 0

Hence the solutions of the given equation are x1 = 6x 2 = –6

COMPOSITE FUNCTION
The functions f: X  Y and g: Y  Z can be composed by first applying ‘f’ to
an argument x and then applying g to the result. Thus one obtains a composite
function.
g o f: X  Z defined by (g o f)(x) = g(f(x)) for all x in X.
52
FUNCTIONS

As an example, suppose that an airplane’s height at time t is given by the

function h(t) and that the oxygen concentration at height x is given by the function
c(x). Then (c o h)(t) describes the oxygen concentration around the plane at time t.
Illustration: If f(x) = x3 and g(x) = 5x + 1. Find the value of g o f for x = 2
Solution: f(x) = x3
f(2) = 23 = 8
(g o f) = g[f(x)] = g[f(2)] = g(8) = 5 × 8 + 1 = 41
Illustration: Find the domain and range for each function.
(a) y = 3 – x2
(b) y = x3 + 1
(c) y = x+ 2

(d) y = 3 x
Solution:
(a) Domain = all real numbers, since every real number can be squared
& 3 – x2 is defined for all real numbers.
Range = {all real numbers  3}, since x2 is non negative for all real
numbers, 3 – x2 does not exceed 3
(b) Domain = all real numbers
Range = all real numbers
(c) Domain = Real numbers  –2
Range = Real number  0
(d) Domain = all real numbers  0
Range = all real numbers  0

INEQUALITY
In mathematics, an inequality is a statement about the relative size or order of
two objects. The notation a < b means that a is less than b and the notation a > b
means that a is greater than b. These relations are known as strict inequality; in
contrast a  b means that a is less than or equal to b and a  b means that a is greater
than or equal to b.

53
 MODERN ALGEBRA

If the sense of the inequality is the same for all values of the variables for which
its members are defined, then the inequality is called an “absolute” or “unconditional”
inequality. If the sense of an inequality holds only for certain values of the variables
involved, but is reversed or destroyed for other values of the variables, it is called a
conditional inequality. The sense of an inequality is not changed if both sides are
increased or decreased by the same number, or if both sides are multiplied or divided
by a positive number; the sense of an inequality is reversed if both members are
multiplied or divided by a negative number.
(i) If a – b is positive, a is said to be algebraically greater than b (i.e a > b)
Example: 4 > (–5) i.e 4 + 5 is positive.
(ii) If a – b is negative, a is said to be algebraically less than b (i.e a < b)
Example: –8 < – 3 because – 8 – (–3) = – 8 + 3 is negative.

Note:
In accordance with these definitions, zero must be regarded as greater than
any negative number.

UNCONDITIONAL INEQUALITY
An inequality that holds for all values of the variables is called an unconditional
inequality.
Example: 2x2 + 3 > x – 1 is true only for x > 1. So it is not unconditional inequality. We
will be interested in conditional inequality and the conditions for which they are
true.

PROPERTIES OF INEQUALITIES
(i) If a and b are real positive quantities, a > b, and x is any positive quantity,
it is evident that
(a) a + x > b + x
(b) a – x > b – x
(c) ax > bx
a b
(d) >
x x

54
FUNCTIONS

that is an inequality will still hold after each side has been increased,
diminished, multiplied or divided by the same positive quantity.
(ii) If a – x > b, by adding x to each side, a > b + x;
Which shows that in an inequality any term maybe transposed from one
side to the other if its sign is changed.
(iii) If a > b then b < a; that is, if the sides of an inequality are transposed, the
sign of inequality must be reversed.
(iv) If a > b then a – b is positive and b – a is negative, that is – a – (–b) is
negative and therefore – a < – b; hence, if the signs of all the terms of an
inequality are changed, the sign of inequality must be reversed.
(v) If a > b, then – a < – b and therefore – ax < – bx, that is a(–x) < b (–x);
Hence, if the sides of an inequality are multiplied by the same negative
quantity, the sign of the inequality must be reversed.
(vi) If a and b are distinct real positive quantities, a2 + b2 > 2ab.
Since (a – b)2 is always positive, or zero
a2 – 2ab + b2 > 0  a2 + b2 > 2ab. Thus unless a and b are equal a2 + b2 > 2ab.
Similarly, unless x and y are equal, x + y > 2(xy)½
a b
(vii) If a > b and c > d and a, b, c, d all positive then are ac > bd and > .
d c

1 1 1 1
(viii) If a > b and a, b are positive then a2 > b2, a3 > b3 and < ; 2 < 2 . In
a b a b
particular an > bn if n > 0 and a–n < b–n if n > 0

1 1
Example: 4 > 3 and 42> 32 but 4–2 < 3–2 i.e. <
16 9
(ix) If a, b, c denote distinct positive quantities, then
a2 + b2 + c2 > bc + ca + ab.
Since a2 + b2 > 2ab, b2 + c2 > 2bc, c2 + a2 > 2ac
Adding these results we have
2(a2 + b2 + c2) > 2(ab + bc + ca)
a2 + b2 + c2 > ab + be + ca.

55
 MODERN ALGEBRA

(x) If a, b, c denote positive quantities, then a3 + b3 > a2b + ab2

Since a2 + b2 > 2ab, we have a2 – ab + b2 > ab;
 (a2 – ab + b2) (a + b) > ab (a + b)
 a3 + b3 > a2b + ab2
(xi) If a, b, c be positive, real and unequal quantities, then
(b + c) (c + a) (a + b) > 8 abc.
Since b + c = (b)1/2 + (c)½ > 2(bc)½
c + a = (c)1/2 + (a)½ >2(ac)½
a + b = (a)1/2 + (b)½ > 2(ca)½
Multiplying, (b + c) (c + a) (a + b) > 8 (ab)½ (ac)½ (ca)½ i.e. > 8abc
(xii) If a, b, c are positive, real and unequal quantities then
(a + b + c) (bc + ca + ab) > 9abc.
If a, b, c be positive, real and unequal quantities then a3 + b3 + c3 > 3abc.

a c e a + c + e + ...
(xiii) If the fraction , , …. be unequal, then is greater than
b d f b + d + f + ...
the least and less than the greatest of them, the denominators b, d, f being
positive.

a
Let be the smallest of the fractions.
b

c a e a
Hence > ; > ; and so on
d b f b

a c e
Let = k, > k, > k , and so on Hence a > bk, c > dk, e > fk, and so on
b d f
Adding a + c + e ... > bk + dk + fk ... a + c + e... > k(b + d + f....)
a+b+e
> k (i.e the least of the fractions)
b+d+f

56
FUNCTIONS

IMPORTANT RESULTS TO BE IN USED IN PROBLEMS

1. If a1 > b1 , a2 > b2……….. an > bn, then a1 + a2 + ... + an > b1 + b2 + ....+ bn and
a1 . a2. a3... an > b1. b2 .b3... bn for a1> 0 & b1 > 0
2. (n!)2  nn
n
1 + 1 
3. For any positive integer n, 2    3
 n 

a b c d
4. + + + >4
b c d a
5. a4 + b4 + c4 + d4 > 4abcd
6. If x > 0 & a > b > 0, then ax > bx
7. If a > 1 and x > y > 0 then ax > ay
8. If 0 > a < 1 and x > y> 0 then ax < ay
9. If 0 < n < 1 & x > y then logn x < logn y
10. If n > 1 & x > y then logn x > logn y
11. For all real a, a2  0
1
12. If a > 0, i = 1 ... n then a1 + a2 + ... + an  (a1 . a2.... an)
n
i.e., geometric mean of n positive numbers cannot exceed their arithmetic
mean.
13. If the sum of two positive quantities is constant then their product is
greatest when they are equal and if their product is constant then their sum
is the least when the numbers are equal.
14. If ai > 0, i = 1, 2, 3 ... n then

a 1
m m
+ a 2 + ... + a n
m
  a 1 + a 2 + .... a n  
m

 
n  n 
if m  1
a 1
m m
+ a 2 + ... + a n
m
   a 1 + a 2 + .... a n  
m

  if 0 < m < 1
n  n 

57
 MODERN ALGEBRA

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
Inequations can be represented in a graph
e.g., 2x – y  –3
we have to first draw the graph of the equation 2x – y = –3

x –2 –1 0 1 2
f(x) –1 0 3 5 7

Plotting the above value in a graph,

f(x)

From the graph its clear that the line 2x – y = –3 divides the plane into two parts.
To know the part = 2x – y  – 3
If we put x = 0 and y = 0, the equation 2x – y = 0. Also 0 is greater than –3 .
Thus the part without the origin will be 2x – y  – 3.

Important Points
 Inequalities x  0 and y  0 lie on the first quadrant
 Inequalities x  0 and y  0 lie on the second quadrant.
 Inequalities x  0 and y  0 lie on the third quadrant.
 Inequalities x  0 and y  0 lie on the fourth quadrant.

58
FUNCTIONS

MAXIMA MINIMA
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES OF EXPRESSIONS
Illustration: Find the maximum values of 5 – 2x – x2
(i.e find the algebraically greatest value of 5 – 2x – x2 of the various values of x)
The given expression 5 – 2x – x2 = 5 + 1 – 1 – 2x – x2
= 6 – (1 – x)2 = 6 + {–(1 + x)2}
Since (1 + x)2 cannot be negative, {– (1 + x)2} cannot be positive.
Hence whatever real values the expression may have, the given expression can
never be greater then 6. Evidently, the given expression = 6, when x + 1 = 0.i.e
x = –1. Hence we notice that the expression can never be greater than 6. Hence the
maximum value of the expression = 6.
Illustration: Find the minimum value of 4x2 + 12x + 18
(i.e find the algebraically smallest value of 4x2 + 12x + 18 for various values of x).
The given expression = (2x)2 + 2(2x)(3x) + (3)2 + 9
= (2x + 3)2 + 9 Since (2x + 3)2 cannot be negative, the given expression can never
–3
be less than 9, but can be equal to 9, when 2x + 3 = 0 i.e when x = .
2
The smallest value required = 9.

MAXIMA AND MINIMA BY DIFFERENTIATION

The function f(x) is said to have attained its maximum value for x = a if the
function ceases to increase and begins to decrease at x = a.
Y

A D

X
L M N P

59
 MODERN ALGEBRA

The function f(x) is said to have attained its minimum value for x = b if the
function ceases to decrease and begins to increase at x = b.
As shown in the diagram, A and C are maximum points, and B and D are minimum
points. The maximum or minimum points are called the turning or stationery points.
AL and CN are maximum values of f(x) at A and C respectively. Similarly BM and DP
are minimum values of f(x) at B and d respectively. Thus:
(i) ‘Maximum’ and ‘Minimum’ values do not mean the ‘greatest’ and the
‘least’ values the function can have but they only signify that the value
considered is greater or less than the value in both sides of it in its
immediate neighborhood.
(ii) The function may have several maximum and minimum values.
(iii) Maximum and Minimum values occur alternately.
(iv) A minimum value can be greater than a maximum value. As shown in the
diagram DP>AL.

CONDITIONS FOR MAXIMA AND MINIMA

At a maximum point, the function y as f(x) changes from an increasing to a
decreasing state dy/dx changes from positive to negative value. In changing from
positive to negative values dy/dx must pass through the value zero.
Hence, dy/dx = 0 at a maximum point. Similarly, at a minimum point the function y =
f(x) changes from a decreasing to an increasing state, dy/dx changes from negative
to positive value. Hence dy/dx = 0 at a minimum point. Thus dy/dx = 0 for both
maximum and minimum points on the curve y = f(x)
Note :
dy/dx = 0 is only a necessary but not sufficient condition for maximum and
minimum points. For a maximum point dy/dx changes from positive to negative.
This indicates that dy/dx is a decreasing function of x its differential co-efficient,
d2 y
i.e. < 0. Similarly for a minimum point dy/dx changes from negative to
dx2
positive.
This indicates that dy/dx is an increasing function of x. Its differential
d2 y
co- efficient, >0
dx 2
d2 y
hence, for a maximum point : (i) dy/dx = 0 (ii) <0
dx2
d2 y
for a minimum point (i) dy/dx = 0 (ii) >0
dx 2

60
FUNCTIONS

APPLICATION TO PROBLEMS OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA

Suppose that a1, a2, a3, ...., an are n positive variables and k is constant, then
(i) If a1 + a2 + a3 + .... + an = k (constant), the value of a1 a2 a3 ... an is greatest when
a1 = a2 = a3 = ... = an
n
k
So that the greatest value of a1 a2 a3 ... an is   .
n
Illustration: Find the greatest value of xyz for positive values of x, y, z, subject to
the condition.
yz + zx + xy = 12
Solution: Given yz + zx + xy = 12 (constant), the value of (yz) (zx) (xy) is greatest
when
yz = zx = xy
Here n = 3 and k = 12
3
 12 
Hence greatest value of (yz) (zx) (xy) is   i.e. 64.
 3
 greatest value of x2 y2 z2 is 64.
Thus greatest value of xyz is 8.
(ii) If a1 a2 a3 .... an = k (constant), the value of a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an is least when
a1 = a2 = a3 = ... = an
1
So the least value of a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an is n  k  n .

Illustration: Find the minimum value of bcx + cay + abz, when xyz = abc.
Solution: To find minimum value of bcx + cay + abz, write xyz = abc
or (bcx) (cay) (abz) = a3 b3 c3 = k (constant)
Here n = 3
Hence greatest value of bcx + cay + abz
1
= n  k n

61
 MODERN ALGEBRA

1
= 3  a 3 b3 c3  3

= 3abc
(iii) If a1 + a2 + a3 + .... + an = k (constant), then accordingly as m does not or does
lie between 0 and 1, the least or the greatest value of a1m + a2m + a3m + ... +
anm occurs when a1 = a2 = a3 = .... = an, the value in question being n1–m. km.
Illustration: Find the least value of x–1 + y–1 + z–1, for possible values of x, y, z
which satisfy the condition x + y + z = 9.
Solution: Given x + y + z = 9 = (constant) k
Here m = –1 and n = 3

9
Hence the least value of x–1 + y–1 + z–1 is 31–(–1). 9–1 i.e. = 1.
9
(iv) If a1m + a2m + a3m + .... + anm = k, then accordingly as m does not or does lie
between 0 and 1, the greatest or the least value of a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an occurs
1–1 1
when a1 = a2 = a3 = ... = an, the value in question being n m . k m .

Illustration: Find the greatest value of x + y + z for possible values of x, y, z which

satisfy the condition x3 + y3 + z3 = 1.
Solution: Given x3 + y3 + z3 = 1 = k (constant)
Here m = 3 and n = 3 (m does not lie between 0 and 1)
Hence greatest value of x + y + z is
1 1
1–
3 3 .13
2
i.e., 33
2
Thus the greatest value of x + y + z is 3 3 .

62
FUNCTIONS

EXERCISE - 3
1. L(x,y) greater of (xy, x/y) and H(x, y) = lesser of (x/y, y/x). If x = 1, y = –1, then find
H [L {L (x,y), H (x,y)}, H {L (x,y), H(x,y)}].
(1) 3 (2) 5
(3) –1 (4) 1
2. Given below are three graphs, which of the following represents e|1/x| where x is
a real number.

nd rd
1st 2 3
graph graph graph

(1) 2nd graph (2) 3rd graph

st
(3) 1 graph (4) None of these
3. Which of the following functions is/are even ?
(a) f(x) = x4 – x2 + 1
(b) f(x) = x3 + x
(c) f(x) = x2 + 1
(1) (a) and (b) (2) (a) and (c)
(3) (b) and (c) (4) None of these
4. What is the maximum value of sinx + cosx?
(1) 2 (2) 1

(3) 2 (4) 5
5. What is the minimum value of the function f(x) = 8x3 – 15x2 +10
(1) 16 (2) 36
(3) 24 (4) None of these

63
 MODERN ALGEBRA

6. Find the maximum possible value of 4a2 + 9b2 + 16c2 subject to 2a + 3b + 4c = 15,
where a, b and c are all real numbers.
(1) 100 (2) infinity
(3) 75 (4) 500
7. If |r – 6| = 11 and |2q – 12| = 8, then what could be the minimum possible value
of q/r?
(1) –4 (2) –6
(3) –8 (4) –2
2
8. If f(x) = x – 3x + 4. Find the values of x which satisfies the f(1) + f(x) = f(1) × f(x)?
(1) 1 or 2 (2) 3 or 4
(3) 5 or 8 (4) 1 or 6
9. What will be the solution set for the following function (x!)2 + 10x! – 600  0?
(1) x  4 (2) x  5
(3) x  4 (4) None of these
2
10. f(x) = |x + 2| ; g(x) = |x| + 4. Find the values of x for which f(x)  g(x) are defined.
(1) –2  x  2 (2) –2 < x  2
(3) –2  x < 2 (4) x > 2 or x < –2
11. If f[g(x)] = x2 + 2x and f(x) = x2 – 1, then find g(x)?
(1) x + 1 (2) x – 1
(3) x + 5 (4) x
12. f(x) = (x – 3)2 (4 – x)(x + 4),find the set of real values of x for which f(x) > 0?
(1) 1 < x < 4, x  3 (2) –1 < x < 4, x  3
(3) –4 < x < 1, x  0 (4) –1 < x < 3, x  0
13. Find x if f (x + 1 ) = f(x + 2) when f (x) = 1+ x – x2
(1) 2 (2) 12
(3) –2 (4) 5
2
14. If f(x) = ax – bx + 7 and f(2) = 5 and f(4) = 11. Find the value of a + b
(1) 8 (2) 4
(3) 16 (4) 22

64
FUNCTIONS

15. Find the perimeter of the triangle bounded by the graphs x + y  1, y  0 and
x – y  –1
(1) 2 + 2 2 (2) 2 – 2 2

(3) –2 + 2 2 (4) None of these

16. Find the area of the region bounded by the inequation |x + 6|  6 and |x – y|  6
(1) 60 sq. units (2) 64 sq. units
(3) 72 sq. units (4) 68 sq. units

1
17. If f(x) =  2x  and f(f(x)) = f2(x), then find the value of f(f(f(x))) + f5(x) + f10(x),

when x = 1
(1) 4 (2) 8
(3) 6 (4) 2
18. If p, q, r, s be real numbers such that p2 + q2 = 1, r2 + s2 = 1, then find the maximum
value of pr + qs ?
(1) 5 (2) 9
(3) 7 (4) 1
19. [P] denotes the largest integer less than or equal to P. P is a positive integer &
P  P 
 5  –  7  = 1 If the minimum value of P is x and the maximum value of P is y ,
   
then find the value of x + y?
(1) 34 (2) 36
(3) 30 (4) 38

65
 MODERN ALGEBRA

20. In the above figure the shaded area is represented by ?

y=x

(– 1, 0)
x
O

(0, – 1)

(1) x – y + 1 < 0 and y > x (2) x + y – 1 < 0 and y > x

(3) x + y + 1 < 0 and y > x (4) x + y + 1 < 0 and y < x
3 2
21. The expression 4x – x – 2x – 1 has the maximum value for what value of x?

1 1
(1) (2) –
3 3

2
(3) – (4) None of these
3

66
FUNCTIONS

1 1 1
22. If + = , where x, y > 0 and x, y I. What is the maximum value of
x y 2
x + y?
(1) 9 (2) 13
(3) 12 (4) 16
23. A balloon is present inside a cube of edge 3m. Air is blown into the balloon at
a rate such that the surface area increases at p/2 m2/sec. Find the rate of the
decrease of volume of the cube outside the balloon at an instant when the
diameter of the balloon is ½ of the edge of the cube?

5 3
(1) sec/m3 (2) sec/m3
16 16

7
(3) sec/m3 (4) None of these
16
24. The distance d(km) traveled by a man after time t(hr) is given by the equation
d = –t3 + 14t2 + 7t. Find the distance traveled by the man till the point when his
speed was maximum?
(1) 236 km (approx) (2) 230 km (approx)
(3) 232 km (approx) (4) 238 km (approx)
25. Find the domain of the definition of the function y = 1/(4 – x2)1/2
(1) (–2, 2)
(2) [–2, 2]
(3) (–, –2)  (2, ) excluding –2 and 2
(4) (2, )

67
 4
Counting Principles
When we talk of permutations and combinations in everyday life we often use
the two terms interchangeably. In mathematics, however, the two have very specific
meanings, and this distinction often causes problems.
In brief, the permutation of a number of objects is the number of different ways
they can be ordered; i.e. which is first, second, third, etc. If you wish to choose
some objects from a larger number of objects, the way you position the chosen
objects is also important. With combinations, on the other hand, one does not consider
the order in which objects were chosen or placed, just which objects were chosen.
We could summarise permutations and combinations (very simplistically) as
Permutations - position important (although choice may also be important)
Combinations - choice important,
Which may help you to remember which is which.
In this chapter we will go through the following topics briefly
(i) Concept of Factorial
(ii) Fundamental Principles of counting (F.P.C)
(iii) Addition Principle
(iv) Permutation
(v) Permutation of Things, when not all are Different
(vi) Permutation with Restrictions
(vii) Circular Permutation with Restrictions
(viii) Combinations
(ix) Combinations with Restrictions

CONCEPT OF FACTORIAL
If n is a positive integer then the continued product of first n natural numbers
are called factorial n. It is denoted by n! When n is a negative or a fractional number
then n! is not defined
COUNTING PRINCIPLES

Hence n! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5........... (n – 2)(n – 1) n

Or = n (n – 1)(n – 2)......... 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
Illustration: 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 and
4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
thus 5! = 5 × 4!
Similarly n! = n(n – 1)(n – 2)(n – 3)......... 3 × 2 × 1
= n × [(n – 1)(n – 2)(n – 3)......... 3 × 2 × 1]
= n × (n – 1)!
To find the value of 0!
Since we know that n! = n (n – 1)!
Put n = 1 then 1! = 1 × 0! = > 0! = 1

6!
Illustration: Is = 3! ?
3!

6! 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 ×1
Solution: = = 6 × 5 × 4 = 120
3! 3×2×1
But 3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6

6!
Hence  3!
3!
Illustration:

25!
(i) Compute
22!
(ii) Is 5! + 6! = 11!
Solution:

25! 25 × 24 × 23 × 22!
(i) =
22! 22!
= 25 × 24 × 23
= 13,800

69
 MODERN ALGEBRA

(ii) 5! + 6! = 5! + 6 × 5!
= 5!(l + 6) = 7 × 5!
= 7 × [5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1] = 840
But 11! = 11×10×9×8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1 = 3,99,16,800
Since, 840  3,99,16,800
Therefore, 5! + 6!  11!
Illustration: If (n+1)! = 6(n–1)!, find n .
Solution: Since (n+1)! = (n+1)(n)(n–1)!
n(n+1) = 6
2
or n +n–6 = 0
n2 + 3n–2n –6 = 0
or n(n+3)–2(n+3) = 0
or (n–2)(n+3) = 0
or n = 2,–3 and it can’t be –3.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING (F.P.C.)

If one operation can be performed exactly in ‘m’ different ways, i.e. it has been
done in any of the ‘m’ ways, a second operation can be performed exactly in ‘n’
different ways, i.e. it has been done in any of the ‘n’ ways, for any of the occurrence
of the first operation, then the two operations in succession can occur (m×n) different
ways. This can be extended further, if a third operation can be performed in q
different ways and so on, then the total number of ways in which all the operations
can be performed in the following order is (m × n × q × ….).
The above principle is also called multiplication principle or multiplication
rule or multiplication theorem.
Illustration: Let us suppose Basket I contains 5 Mangoes, namely (Ml, M2, M3, M4,
M5) and another basket contains 3 bananas, i.e. (Bl, B2, B3). A person is interested
to take one mango and one banana at a time; it can be taken in any the following
manner.
(M1, B1) or (M2, B1) or (M3, B1) or (M4, B1) or (M5, B1)
(M1, B2) or (M2, B2) or (M3, B2) or (M4, B2) or (M5, B2)
(M1, B3) or (M2, B3) or (M3, B3) or (M4, B3) or (M5, B3)

70
COUNTING PRINCIPLES

Thus we can say that one mango and one banana can be taken in 15 different
ways. In other words, one mango can be taken in 5 different ways, with each mango
the three bananas can be taken in 3 different ways. Thus both the operation
successively can be performed in (5 × 3 = 15) ways.
Illustration: In a class there are 25 boys and 10 girls. The teacher wants to select
one boy and one girl to represent the class in a function. In how many ways can
the teacher make this selection?
Solution: Here the teacher is to perform two operations:
(i) Selecting a boy from the 25 boys and
(ii) Selecting a girl from the 10 girls. The first operation can be done in 25 ways
(since any one out of the 25 can be selected) and the second operation can
be performed in 10 ways. Also, the second operation can be done in 10
ways for any of the boy selected. Hence, by the fundamental principle of
counting, the required number of ways is 25 × 10 = 250
Illustration: From among the 25 teachers in a school, one principal and one vice-
principle are to be appointed. In how many ways can this be done?
Solution: Out of 25 teachers, one principal may be appointed in 25 ways. After the
principal is appointed, we have remaining 24 teachers, out of which a vice-principle
is to be appointed. This can be done in 24 ways.
Hence, by the fundamental principle of counting one principal and one vice-
principal can be appointed out of 25 teachers in 25×24 = 600 ways.
Addition Principle:
If two operations can be performed independently in exactly m ways and ‘n’
ways respectively, then either one out of the two operations can occur in ‘(m + n)’
ways.
Example: The above principle can be understood by the following example. Suppose
a library has 5 books of Accountancy and 4 books of laws, and out of them one book
is taken at a time, the book may be either of accountancy or of law, it has no meaning,
the meaning is only that one book is taken at a time, this is just equivalent to one
book taken out of 9 book (5 Accountancy + 4 Law) at a time. The book can be taken
in 9 ways.
Illustration: A mint prepares metallic calendars specifying months, dates and
days in the form of monthly sheets (one plate for each month). How many types of
February calendars should it prepare to serve for all the possibilities in the future
years?
71
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Solution: In the month of February, there may be 28 days or 29 days, starting with
any of the day out of the 7 days of a week, we have 7 calendars for the month of 29
days and so on for 28 days. Hence the required types of calendars of February may
be prepared to serve for all the possibilities in the future years = 7 + 7 = 14
Illustration: A Friend shows you 3 Accountancy books, 4 law books and 5
economics books and allows you to select two books on the condition that they
must not both be of the same language. In how many ways can you select any one
combination?
Solution: Since the books taken are not of same language therefore the books may
either be of accountancy and law or of law and economics or of economics and
accountancy.
(1) The book of accountancy and law can be taken in 3 × 4 = 12 different ways.
(2) The book of law and economics can be taken in 4 × 5 = 20 different ways.
(3) The book of economics and accountancy can be taken in 5 × 3 = 15 different
ways.
Thus the required selection of two books will be 12 + 20 + 15 = 47
Illustration: There are three routes between Delhi and Mathura . In how many
different ways can a man go from, Delhi to Mathura and return, if for returning,
(i) Any of the routes is taken
(ii) The same route is taken
(iii) The same route is not taken
Solution:
(i) Since the man can take any route from Delhi to Mathura, therefore there
will be 3 ways of going from Delhi to Mathura. After doing so he can
return by any of the routes, i.e. in 3 different ways. Thus by Fundamentals
Principle of counting, the total number of ways of going to Mathura and
returning to Delhi = 3 × 3 = 9.
(ii) Since there are 3 ways of going to Mathura from Delhi and in this case,
there is only 1 returning route i.e. by the same route. Therefore required
number of ways = 3 × 1= 3.
(iii) In this case same route is not taken which means that there are 3 ways of
going to Mathura and 2 ways of returning to Delhi therefore the required
number of ways = 3 × 2 = 6

72
COUNTING PRINCIPLES

PERMUTATION
The permutation is an arrangement, in a definite order, which can be made out
of n things taken r at a time (where n  r). It is denoted by symbol nPr or P(n,r) [read
as n pee r).
n!
Symbolically, we write n Pr  .
 n – r !
Permutation is an ordered selection made from a group of objects. For example,
if you look at credit card codes you must also look at the order. The order 5–3–7–5
is different from 3–7–5–5: the order in which you pick your numbers is significant.
Now suppose you have these:
1, 2, 3
Here is a list of all permutations of those, using three numbers per line:
12 3 13 2
21 3 23 1
31 2 32 1
Illustration: Suppose Mr X,Y and Z are three friends they approach a photographer
and request him to take as many different photographs as possible with persons
standing in different position among themselves. If the photographer has the idea
of permutation, he can calculate the exact number of film. For the calculation, the
photographer can arrange all the three friends in following manner
Solution: Situation I XY Z
Situation II XZ Y
Situation III YX Z
Situation IV YZ X
Situation V ZX Y
Situation VI ZY X
Thus there are six possibilities, therefore he requires six films. Each one of these
situations is called permutation of three friends taken all at a time

73
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Illustration: Write down all the permutations of the English vowels A, E, I, O, U

taken three at a time and starting with E.
Solution: The following possibilities are listed as
(EAI), (EIA), (EAO), (EOA), (EIO), (EOI), (EAU), (EUA), (EOU), (EUO), (EIU),
(EUI)
Thus there are 12 such permutations.

Permutation of n different things

Theorem 1:
The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time, denoted by
n
Pr and is given by
n(n – 1)(n – 2)...(n – r + 1) n!
P(n,r) or nPr = =
! (n – r)!
where r  n
Proof:
For the first place there are n different things and any one of them may be put
there. So the number of ways in which the first place can be filled up is n.
Therefore, P(n,1)
n
or P1 = n
When the first place has been filled up by any one of the given n things, the
second place may be filled up in (n–1) different ways. Hence by fundamental principle
of counting, the first two places can be filled in n(n–l) ways.
Therefore, P(n,2)
n
or P2 = n(n – l)
When the first two places have been filled up, then we are left with (n – 2)
things and so the third place can be filled in (n – 2) ways. Again, by fundamental
principle of counting, the first three places can be filled up in n(n – 1)(n – 2) ways
i.e. P(n,3)
n
or P3 = n(n – l)(n – 2) and so on.
Proceeding in the same way, there remains n – (r – 1) = (n – r + 1) ways to fill up
the rth place. Thus by the fundamental principle of counting, the total number of
ways in which r places can be filled up
= n(n – 1)(n – 2)... to r terms,

74
COUNTING PRINCIPLES
n
i.e. P(n,r) or Pr = n{n – 1)(n – 2) [n – (r – 1)]
n
Hence P(n,r) or Pr = n (n – 1)(n – 2)...... [n – r + 1]
Multiplying the Numerator And Denominator of R.H.S. by (n – r)! we get
n(n – 1)(n – 2)...(n – r + 1)(n – r)!
P(n,r) or nPr =
 n – r !
n
n(n – 1)(n – 2)...(n – r + 1)...(n – r)(n – r – 1).....2 × 1
Pr =
 n – r !
n!
n
Thus, Pr =
 n – r!
Corollary: Prove that P(n,n) or nPn = n!
n!
Proof: We know that P(n, r) = n – r !
 
Put r = n
n! n!
P(n,n) = = = n! as 0! = 1
 n – n! 0!
Hence P(n,n) = n!
Illustration: If P(n,4) = 20×P(n,2), find n
n!
Solution: Since P(n,4) =
 n – 4!
n!
and P(n,2) =
 n – 2!
Given P(n,4) = 20 × P(n, 2)
n! 20 × n!
=
 n – 4!  n–2 !
1 20
 n–4 ! =  n – 2!
 n – 2!
= 20
 n – 4!

75
 MODERN ALGEBRA

 n – 2  n – 3 n – 4!
= 20
 n – 4 !
(n – 2)(n – 3) = 20
Hence, n2 – 5n + 6 = 20,
Or, (n – 7)(n + 2) = 0
Hence, n2 – 5n – 14 = 0
n = 7, –2
Neglecting the negative values of n. Hence n = 7
Illustration: There are 2 different rings to be worn in 3 fingers with at most one in
each finger. In how many ways can this be done?
Solution: The number of ways in which the 2 different rings can be worn in 3
fingers.

3! 3!
P(3,2) = = = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6 ways
 3 – 2! 1!

Illustration: How many words, with or without meaning, can be formed by using
all the letters of the word, ‘DELHI’, using each letter exactly once?
Solution: The word DELHI consist of five different letters. Hence the required
number of arrangements(permutations) of five letters, taken all at a time = p(5,5)
ways.

5! 5!
i.e.  5 – 5! = = 5! = 5×4×3×2×1 = 120
0!

PERMUTATION WHEN NOT ALL ARE DIFFERENT

If out of n things, p are exactly alike of one kind, q exactly alike of second kind
and r exactly alike of third kind and the rest are all different, then the number of
permutations of n things taken all at a time.

n!
P! × q! × r!

76
COUNTING PRINCIPLES

Illustration: In how many ways can the letters of each of the following words be
arranged?
(i) COMMERCE (ii) EXAMINATION
Solution:
(i) The word COMMERCE contains 8 letters, out of them 2 are C’s 2 are M’s
and 2 are E’s, the rest letters are all different. Hence the number of
arrangements is

8! 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2!
=
2!2!2! 2! × 2! × 2!

8×7×6×5×4×3
=
 2 × 1 ×  2 × 1
= 5,040 words
(ii) The word EXAMINATION contains 11 letters out of which 2 are A’s, 2
are I’s and 2 are N’s and the rest letters are all different. Hence the required
11
number of arrangement is = 49,89,600 words
2! × 2! × 2!
Illustration: Five examination papers are to be set in a certain order not to be
disclosed. It was discovered that one order has been leaked out. In how many ways
can this order be changed?
Solution: The number of ways, in which the five examination papers can be arranged
= 5P5 = 5! = 120 ways. Since out of 120, one has been leaked out so there will be
(120 – 1) =119 more ways in which the order may be changed.
Illustration: In an examination hall, there are four rows of chairs. Each row has 8
chairs one behind the other, there are two classes sitting for the examination with
16 students in each class. It is desired that in each row, all students belong to the
same class and that no two adjacent rows are allocated to the same class. In how
many ways can these 32 students be seated?
Solution: There are two ways of selecting the rows for a class i.e. either (I and III) or
(II and IV), thus the 16 students of one class may be arranged in 16 chairs in 16!
Ways and 16 students of another class can be arranged in 16 remaining chairs in 16!
ways. Thus the required number of permutation will be 2 × 16! × 16! .

77
 MODERN ALGEBRA

PERMUTATIONS WITH RESTRICTION

Sometimes in some questions certain restrictions are given in permutation.
Arrange five brothers and three sisters in such a line that
(i) Brothers sit together
(ii) Sisters sit together
(iii) No two sisters sit together
(iv) Sisters sit at even places.
The above situation can be dealt in the following manner.
(i) If brothers sit together then they can be considered as a single unit, and
they among them can be arranged in 5! Ways. After treating 5 brothers as
a single unit, we are left with 4 units (i.e. 3 sisters + 1 unit of brother),
which can be arranged in 4! ways thus by F.P.C. the required sitting
arrangement in this case will be
5! × 4! = 2,880
(ii) Similarly, if sisters sit together, they can be considered as a single unit and
these can be arranged in 3! ways. After taking 3 sisters as a single unit, we
are left with remaining 6 units (5 brothers + 1 unit of 3 sisters) and these
six units can be arranged in 6! Ways. Thus by F.P.C. the required permutation
will be
6! × 3! = 4,320
(iii) No two sisters sit together means each sister may sit either at left hand or
at right hand of a brother, thus in this case there are six blank spaces in
which sisters can sit in 5! Ways. Thus the required arrangement of sisters
will be 6P3 and brothers may sit in 5! Ways. Thus the required arrangement
will be
6
P3 × 5! = 14,400
–B1 – B2 – B3 – B4 – B5 – (Where—indicate blank spaces)
(iv) In this case sisters sit at 2nd, 4th, 6th and 8th places, this can be done in 4P3
ways. After occupying any 3 even places by 3 sisters, we are left with
remaining 5 places (i.e. 4 odd places + 1 even places) and 5 brothers can
sit in these 5 places in 5P5 ways, thus, total required arrangements will be
4
p3 × 5p5 = 2,880

78
COUNTING PRINCIPLES

Illustration: In how many ways 7 books can be arranged so that the best and
worst books never come together.
Solution: There are 7 books, in which one will be best and one worst. Seven books
can be arranged in 7P7 ways , i.e. 7! ways. Since the best and worst books always
come together, so the number of permutations will be 6!×2! (Since the two books
best and worst may be considered as one unit and these two books among themselves
may be arranged in 2! Ways).
Hence the required number of permutations when the best and worst books
never come together
= 7! – 6! × 2! = 6![7 – 2] = 5 × 6!
= 5 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 3,600
Illustration: In how many ways can nine different pictures be hung in a row so that
one specified picture is?
(i) At the center
(ii) At either end.
Solution: (i) After hanging one picture at the center, we are left with remaining 8
pictures and 8 places and these 8 pictures can be hung in 8 places in
8! ways therefore, the total number of ways for hanging
= 8! = 40,320
(ii) Since one specified picture is to be hung at either of two ends in 2!
ways. After hanging one specified picture in any one of the two ways,
we are left with 8 pictures and these 8 pictures can hang in 8! ways.
Therefore the total required number of ways will be 8! × 2! = 80,640
Illustration: How many different words can be formed from letters of the word
“GANESHPURI” when
(i) All the letters are taken
(ii) The letter G always occupies the first place
(iii) The letter P and I respectively occupy the first and last places
(iv) The vowels are always together
(v) The letters E,H,P are never together
(vi) The vowels always occupy even places.
Solution: The word “GANESHPURI” contains 10 letters in which 4 letters are vowels
as (A, E, I, U) and 6 letters are consonants, i.e.(GNSHPR)
79
 MODERN ALGEBRA

(i) Since all letters are taken, therefore it can be arranged in 10! ways.
(ii) Since the letter G occurs at first place. In other words, G is fixed at first
place. After fixing G at first place, we are left with rest 9 letters, which can
be arranged in 9! ways.
(iii) Since P and I are fixed at first and last place. Therefore we will arrange
remaining 8 letters, which can be arranged in 8! ways.
(iv) Since vowels A E U I comes together which means that these can be
arranged in 4! ways. Now consider vowels as single unit so we have in all
6 + 1 = 7 letters, which can be arranged in 7! ways. By F.P.C., the required
arrangements will be 4! × 7!.
(v) Consider the case when EHP comes together. In the given problem, it is
given that EHP don’t come together but we take the case first when EHP
comes together. For this EHP consider as a single unit and these can be
arranged among themselves in 3! ways and take these three letters as one
unit and so we have in all 1+7 = 8 which can be arranged in 8! ways. By
F.P.C, the arrangements (in which EHP comes together) will be 8!×3!. But
in given problem, we take the case where EHP do not come together.
It can be obtained as 10! – 8! × 3! = 84 × 8!
(vi) Out of 10 places, there are 5 even places (namely 2nd, 4th,6th.8th,10th) and 5
odd places (namely 1sl, 3rd, 5th,7th,9th). In the five even places we have to fix
up 4 vowels, which can be done in 5P4 ways. After fixing the vowels in
even places, we are left with remaining 6 places (5 odd + 1 even). In these
six places, we have to fix 6 consonants, which can be done in 6P6 (= 6!)
ways. By F.P.C, required permutation will be 5P4 × 6! = 86,400

CIRCULAR PERMUTATION WITH RESTRICTIONS

The arrangement of objects in a line is known as linear permutation. Instead of
arranging the objects in a line, if we arrange them in the form of a circle, we call them
circular permutations. It is important to note that in a circular arrangement, there is
neither a beginning (first term) nor an end (the last term). In such arrangements we
consider the relative position of the different things, i.e. the circular permutations
are different only when the relative order of the objects is changed, otherwise they
are the same. For example, if we consider the following two arrangements of 4
letters.

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COUNTING PRINCIPLES

A B

D B A C

C D

It is quite clear from the above figure that two arrangements are same. But it is
not so in the following cases where the order changes:

A A

C B D C

D B

Thus, in circular permutations, the position of any one object is first fixed and
then the arrangements of the other objects made so the number of permutations of n
n!
things around a circle is , i.e. (n – 1)!
n
But in the case of linear permutations, the number of permutations of n things
taken all at a time is n!, e.g. circular arrangement of 6 persons will be in 5! ways, i.e.
5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 ways.

Remarks:
There are two types of circular permutations.
(a) The circular permutations in which clockwise and anti clockwise arrangements
give rise to different permutations. For example sitting arrangements of
students around a table.
(b) The circular permutation in which clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements
give rise to same permutations, for example, arrangements of some beads to
form a necklace. The above two types can be explained as:

81
 MODERN ALGEBRA

(i) n students can be seated around a circular table in (n – 1)! ways if

clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are taken as different,
(ii) If there is no difference between clockwise and anticlockwise
arrangements then n students can be seated around a circular table in
1
(n – 1)! ways.
2
 n – 1!
(iii) n beads should be strung in a necklace in ways,
2
The restrictions in circular permutation can be understood with the help of
solved examples.
Illustration: In how many ways can 7 persons be arranged in
(i) A line
(ii) A circle
Solution:
(i) The seven persons in a line can be arranged in 7! = 5040 ways,
(ii) The seven persons in a circle can be arranged in 6! = 720 ways.
Illustration: There are 10 judges of Supreme Court seated round a table to discuss
the problem of U.P. government. In how many ways can they be seated if
(a) Any two particular judges sit together
(b) Any two particular judges do not sit together.
Solution: (a) First the two particular judges can be arranged among themselves in 2!
ways. After taking two judges as a single unit we are left with 9 judges (rest 8 judges
+ 1 unit of 2 judges) and these 9 judges can be seated round a table in 8! Ways.
Hence required number of ways in which two particular judges sit together
= 8! × 2! = 80,640
(b) In this case first of all, we find the arrangements of 10 judges round a table,
this can be done in 9! = 3,62,880 ways. If two judges do not sit together then it can
be obtained as 9! – (8! × 2!) = 2,82,240 ways.

COMBINATION
A combination is an un-ordered selection made from a group of objects. For
example, suppose you have fifty-two playing cards, and select five cards for a poker
hand. It would not matter in which order the cards were drawn, because you could
rearrange them in your hand.

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COUNTING PRINCIPLES

In more formal terms, a combination is a subset. In a set, the order does not
matter. These are represented usually with second brackets: {2, 4, 6}. With sets,
since order does not matter, you are only interested in what is present, not in what
order. Thus,
{2, 4, 6} = {6, 4, 2}.
Also, {1, 1, 1} is the same as {1} because a set is defined by its elements; they
don’t usually appear more than once.
In the previous article, we have discussed about permutation and we have
already explained in the permutation, the order is important but in the case of
combination order has no meaning. For example if we say that select 2 persons for
photo, out of 3 persons, the person may be AB or BC or CA. Which is the combination
in 3 ways. Instead of this, if we say that take the photo of 2 persons out of 3 persons
in different manner then the arrangements should be AB, BA, BC, CB, CA, and AC
respectively, thus we can say that in the case of combination (AB or BA) and (BC or
CB) and (CA or AC) have the same meaning but in case of permutation (AB or BA)
and (BC or CB) and (CA or AC) have different meaning. Hence, in this institution,
how to find the number of ways of selection? The theory of combinations applies
here.

DEFINITION
Each of the different groups or selections, which can be formed by taking some
or all of the them, without reference to the order are called combinations of n things
taken ‘r’ at a time (where n  r)
It can be written in the form of formula as

n
n!
Cr =
 n – r !r!
Difference between Permutation and Combination
(i) In combination we are concerned, only with the number of things contained
in each selection. In other words, in combination the order of the selection
of objects has no meaning.
(ii) In permutation, the order of different objects in the arrangements are
important.
Theorem 2
The number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time is given by
n
Cr = n! / r! × (n – r)! where r  n

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 MODERN ALGEBRA

Proof
Let nCr denote the required number of combinations of n different things taken
r at a time. Also we know that, in each combination there are r things, which can be
arranged among them in r! ways. Therefore each combination of r things gives r!
permutations and hence nCr combinations will give in all nCr×r! permutations.

n n!
Hence n
Cr × r! = Pr =
 – r !
n

n!
n
Cr =
n!×  n – r !
n
Corollary I: Cr = 1
Proof: Putting r = n in the above formula, we get

n
n! n!
Cr = (n – n)! = × 0! = 1 [0! = 1]
n! n!
n
Corollary 2: C0 = 1
Proof:Putting r = 0 in the formula, we get

n
n! n!
C0 = × (n – 0)! = × 0! = 1 [0! = 1]
0! n!
n
Corollary 3: Cr = nCn–n
Proof: Putting r = n – r we get

n!
n
Cn–r =
 n – r! n – (n – r)!

n!
=
 n – r !(n – n + r)!

n!
n n
Cn–r =
 n – r !r! = Cr

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COUNTING PRINCIPLES

COMBINATIONS WITH RESTRICTIONS

(i) The number of combinations of n different objects taken r at a time when p
particular objects always occurs is n–pCr–p.
(ii) The number of combinations of n different objects taken r at a time when
particular objects never occurs is n–pCr.
(iii) Division into groups
(a) The number of ways in which p+q things can be divided into two
groups containing p and q things respectively then,

 p + q !
The required number of combinations = p + qCp. =
p! q!
(b) If p = q, then the two groups are equal, and in this case the number of
2p!
different ways of subdivision = p!p!2! for in any one way it is possible

to interchange the two groups without obtaining new division.

(c) But if 2p things are to be divided equally between two persons, then
2p! 2p!
the number of ways of division = = .
p!× p! (p!) 2
(d) Similarly the number of divisions of p + q + r things, into groups of
 p + q + r !
p, q and r, things respectively =
p! q! r!
(e) If 3p things are to be divided into three equal groups then the number
3p! 3p!
of divisions = p!× p!× p!× 3! = (p!)3 × 3!

(f) But if 3p things are to be divided among three persons, then the
3p! 3p!
number of divisions = p!× p!× p! = (p!)3

(g) Number of combinations of n things taken r at a time when each may

occur once, twice, thrice, etc. up to r times in any combination
= n+r –lCr.
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 MODERN ALGEBRA

EXERCISE - 4
1. Find the number of 3 digit numbers that can be formed by using the digits 4, 5,
3, 8, 9, the digits are not repeated?
(1) 80 (2) 60
(3) 75 (4) 50
2. Find how many four letter word can be formed out of the word LOGARITHMS.
(The words may not have any meaning.)
(1) 5040 (2) 4200
(3) 5000 (4) 720
3. A friend shows you 5 English books, 6 Hindi books and 7 Urdu books and
allows you to select any two books on the condition that they must not both be
of the same language. In how many ways can you select any one combination?
(1) 100 (2) 108
(3) 105 (4) 107
4. In how many ways 4 boys and 6 girls be seated in a line so that no two boys
may sit together?
(1) 5! P(7, 4) (2) 10!
(3) 6! P(7, 4) (4) 9!
5. A coin is tossed 10 times. In how many different ways can we obtain 6 head and
4 tails?
(1) 210 (2) 15
(3) 200 (4) 1500
6. In a city all telephone numbers have six digits. The first two digit always being
46 or 47 or 48 or 49 or 53. How many telephone numbers have all six digits
distinct?
(1) 7200 (2) 8400
(3) 6000 (4) None of these
7. In how many ways can the letters of the word VIOLENT be arranged so that
letters I, O, E, occupy only even places?
(1) 120 (2) 132
(3) 136 (4) 144

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COUNTING PRINCIPLES

8. There are 3 different rings to be worn in 4 fingers with at most one in each finger.
In how many ways can this be done?
(1) 24 (2) 18
(3) 22 (4) 26
9. In how many ways can 5 boys and 5 girls be seated around a table so that no 2
boys are adjacent?
(1) 2600 (2) 2880
(3) 2400 (4) 2800
10. In how many different ways can 20 different pearls be arranged to form necklace?
(1) 20! (2) 19!

1
(3)  19! (4) None of these
2
11. In how many ways can 9 cabinet ministers occupy their seats at a round table if
one of the seats is to be reserved for the prime ministers and there are eight
other seats?
(1) 20160 (2) 362880
(3) 5040 (4) 40320
12. If 2nC3:nC3=12:1, find n?
(1) 7 (2) 5
(3) 9 (4) 11
13. Out of 7 consonants and 4 vowels, how many words can be made each
containing 3 consonants and 2 vowels?
(1) 25200 (2) 10500
(3) 20000 (4) None of these
14. On a new year day every student of a class sends a card to every other student.
The postman delivers 600 cards. How many students are there in the class?
(1) 9 (2) 15
(3) 16 (4) 25

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 MODERN ALGEBRA

15. How many combinations can be formed of 8 counters marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

taking them four at a time, there being at least one odd and one even counter in
each combinations?
(1) 68 (2) 75
(3) 70 (4) 80
16. There are 10 points in a plane out of which 4 are collinear. Find the number of
straight lines formed by joining them?
(1) 38 (2) 32
(3) 40 (4) 34
17. In an examination paper on Advanced Accounts, 10 questions are set. In how
many different can an examinee choose 7 questions?
(1) 138 (2) 120
(3) 108 (4) 128
18. Five balls of different colors are to be placed in three boxes of different sizes.
Each box can hold all five balls. In how many different ways can we place the
balls so that no box remains empty?
(1) 146 (2) 136
(3) 156 (4) 150
19. A candidate is required to answer six out of ten questions, which are divided
into groups, each containing 5 questions, and he is not permitted to attempt
more than 4 from any group. In how many ways can he make up his choice?
(1) 200 (2) 180
(3) 162 (4) 150
20. A bag contains 4 red, 3 white and 2 blue marbles. 3 marbles are drawnfrom it, at
random. Find the number of ways of selecting at least one white marble in this
selection?
(1) 36 (2) 49
(3) 64 (4) 13

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COUNTING PRINCIPLES

21. Find the number of diagonals that can be drawn by joining the vertices of
hexagon?
(1) 12 (2) 9
(3) 10 (4) 15
22. There are 15 points in a plane, no line of which is collinear except 6. How many
(i) lines (ii) triangles can be formed by joining them?
(1) 91435 (2) 72000
(3) 90000 (4) 64000
23. If there are 12 persons in a party and if each two of them shakes hands with
each other. How many hand shakes happen in the party.
(1) 64 (2) 66
(3) 60 (4) 72
24. In an examination a student has to answer 5 questions out of seven. Question 1
and 2 are however, compulsory. Determine the number of ways in which student
can make the choice.
(1) 12 (2) 18
(3) 15 (4) 10
25. How many different 9-digit numbers can be formed from the number 223355888
by rearranging its digits so that the odd digits occupy even positions?
(1) 120 (2) 9!/(2!)3.3!
(3) (4!)(2!)3.3! (4) 60

89
 5
Probability

It is a concept, which numerically measures the degree of uncertainty and

therefore certainty of the occurrence of events.

EXPERIMENT
It is used to describe an act, which can be repeated under given conditions.

RANDOM EXPERIMENT
It is an experiment whose all possible results are known and which can be
repeated under identical conditions, but it is not possible to predict the result of any
particular experiment in advance. Example: tossing a coin, throwing a dice.

SAMPLE SPACE
Each performance in a random experiment is called a trial. The result of a trial in
a random experiment is called an outcome, an elementary event, or a sample point.
The totality of all possible outcomes (i.e. sample points) of a random experiment
constitutes the sample space (S).

Note:
(i) Each element of S denotes a possible outcome of the experiment.
(ii) Any trial results in an outcome that corresponds to one and only one element
of the set S.

Illustration: When a coin is tossed there are two possible outcomes i.e. head up
(H) or tail up (T) Then the set {H,T} is the set of all possible distinct outcomes of
this experiment.
This set is called the sample space of the experiment.
PROBABILITY

EVENT
The possible outcomes of a random experiment are called event. Thus every
non-empty subset A of the sample space S is called an Event. The null set  is
known as the ‘Impossible Event’ and S is called ‘Sure Event’
Illustration: When a dice thrown, there are six possible outcomes the sample
space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
The event E: the outcome is even is {2, 4, 6}
The event G: the outcome is 7 is 

MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS

Two or more events are mutually exclusive if the occurrence of one of the
events excludes the occurrence of the other events, i.e. if one event occurs, other
cannot occur at the same time.
Illustration: In tossing a coin, the events ‘Head’ and ‘Tail’ are mutually exclusive.

Note:
If A is any event and A’ is the complement of A then A A’ =  i.e. any event and
its complement are mutually exclusive events

EQUALLY LIKELY EVENTS

Two or more than two events are equally likely if no one of the events can occur
in preference to the other events.
Illustration: In tossing a coin, ‘Head & Tail’ are equally likely events. On throwing
a dice, all the six faces are equally likely events, if it is not biased.

EXHAUSTIVE EVENTS
Events are said to be exhaustive if at least one of them must necessarily occur.
Illustration: In tossing a coin, the two exhaustive events are ‘Head’ and ‘Tail’.
In throwing a dice, the exhaustive events are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6.

INDEPENDENT EVENTS
Events are said to be independent if the occurrence or non-occurrence of one
event does not influence the probability of occurrence or non-occurrence of the
other event(s)

91
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Illustration: If a fair coin is tossed, twice, the event ‘Head’ in any first toss and the
event ‘Head’ in the second toss are independent since, the occurrence of ‘Head’ in
any toss does not influence the occurrence of ‘Head’ in the other toss. Similarly, if
2 cards are drawn with replacement from a well shuffled pack of cards, the events
‘A’ (black card in the first draw) and ‘B’ (black card in the second draw) are
independent.

COMPOUND EVENTS
It signifies the simultaneous occurrence of two or more than two events.

CONDITIONAL (OR DEPENDENT) EVENTS

Two or more events are dependent events if occurence of changes the
probability of an occurence of other event(s).
Illustration: If 2 cards are drawn without replacement, then the above events A &
B are dependent because the number of available cards will be different from the
number of cards in the first draw.

PROBABILITY OF AN EVENT
If a trial results in ‘a’ exhaustive, mutually exclusive and equally likely cases
and ‘m’ of them are favorable to the happening of an event E, then the probability ‘p’
of happening of A is given by,
m
Probability of any event A = p =
n
number of arrangements / combination favourable to event
=
number of arrangements / combination available (possible)
The number of cases favorable to the non-happening of the event E are (n-m),
the probability ‘q’ that E will not happen is given by,

n+ m m
q = = 1 + =1 + p
n p

 p+q = 1

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PROBABILITY

Note:
(i) p and q are non-negative and cannot exceed unity, i.e. 0  p  l, 0  q  l
(ii) The probability ‘p’ of the happening of an event is also known as the
Probabilityof success and the probability (q) of “the non-happening of the
event as the Probability of failure.
(iii) If P(A) = 1, A is called a Certain Event and if P(A) = 0, A is called an Impossible
Event.
(iv) In the solution of some problem on probability, it is necessary to use results
from theory of combinations and permutations. Thus,
(a) The number of ways to choose r objects from ‘n’ distinct objects, is
n
Cr
(b) The number of arrangement of r objects in a line out of ‘n’ distinct
n n!
Pr =
objects is (n – r)!

a
(v) If the odds in favour of an event A such that, P(A) =
ab
a b
and  
P A 1  
ab ab
(vi) P (at least one event occurs) = 1 – P (no event occurs)

PROBABILITY THEOREM
For any two events A and B, it is stated the probability of at least one event
(i.e. either A or B or both occurs) is given by
P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A B)

Note:
When events A and B are Mutually Exclusive, P(A B) = P(A) + P(B).
The above theorem may be extended for more than two events also. For any
three events A, B and C,
Probability of at least one event is given by:
P(A B C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) – P(A B) – P(B C) – P(C A)
+ P(A B C).

93
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Illustration: (i) What is the probability that one card drawn at random from the
pack of playing cards may either be a King or an Ace?
One card can be drawn from a pack of cards in 52C1 ways = 52 ways.
Let K = The card be a King
A = The card be an Ace
n(S) = 52, n(K) = 4, n(A) = 4.
Since K and A are mutually exclusive events, P(A  B)= P(A)+P(B)
4 4 8 2
= + = =
52 52 52 13
(ii) What is the probability that one card drawn at random is a king or a
spade or both.
n(S) = 52
Let K = event of getting a King,
S = event of getting a spade
K S = event of getting a king and a spade.
K S = event of getting a king or a spade or both
4 1 13 1
P(K) = = , P(S) = =
52 13 52 4
1
P(K S) =
52
P(K S) = P(K) + P(S) – P(K S)
1 1 1  4  13 – 1
= + – =
13 4 52 52
16 4
= =
52 13

INDEPENDENT EVENTS
Two events A and B are said to be independent if the occurrence of one of them,
say A, does not affect the probability of occurrence of the other event B.
Thus, A and B are independent if and only if
P(B/A) = P(B) and P(A/B) = P(A)

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PROBABILITY

Otherwise, they are said to be dependent events. For dependent events, the
occurrence or non-occurrence of one of them affects the probability of occurrence
of the other events.
Example: When a coin is tossed twice, the result of the first throw does not affect
the result of the second throw.

Note :
(i) A and B are independent events if and only if P(A B) = P(A) × P(B).
(ii) If A and B are two dependent events, then
P(A B) = P(A) P(B/A) = P(B) P(A/B).
i.e. the probability of the simultaneous occurrence of two events. A and B, is
the product of the probability of A by the conditional probability of B given
that A has occurred.
Note :
When A and B are independent events, we have, P(A/B) = P(A) and P(B/A)
= P(B) P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
Illustration: (i) For two events A and B let P(A) = P and P(B) = 0.4 and
P(A B) = 0.6
(a) Find P so that A and B are independent events
(b) for what value of P are A and B mutually exclusive ?
Solution: P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) – P (A B)
0.6 = P + 0.4 – P (A B)
P(A B) = 0.2 – P
(a) Since A and B are independent events,
P (A B) = P(A) × P(B)
0.2 – P = P(0.4)
0.2 = 1.4 P
0.2 1
P = 
1.4 7
(b) Since A and B are mutually exclusive events,
P (A B) = 0
0.2 – P = 0  P = 0.2

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 MODERN ALGEBRA

CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY
Let A and B two events defined on a sample space S, Let P(B) > 0.
Then the conditional probability of A provided B has occurred, denoted by
P(A/B) is defined as
P  (A  B)
P(A/B) = , P(B) > 0
P(B)
P  (A  B)
Similarly P(B/A) = , P(A) > 0
P(A)
Illustration: A dice is rolled. If the outcome is an odd number, what is the probability
that it is a prime?
Solution: S = { 1,2,3,4,5,6}
Let A = The event of getting an odd number.
B = The event of getting an prime number.
Then A = {1,3,5} B ={2,3,5}
We have to find the conditional probability of B when A has occurred
n(A  B ) 2
i.e. P(B/A) = =
n(A ) 3

BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION
A series of independent trials which can result in one of the two mutually
exclusive possibilities success or failure such that the probability of success (or
failure) in each trial is constant, then such repeated independent trials are called
Bernoullian trials (named after Jame Bernoulli who discovered this distribution)
If we perform a series of n Bernoullian trials such that for each trial p is the
probability of success and q is the probability of failure (p + q = l), then the probability
of r success in a series of n independent trials is given by
P(r) = nCr pr qn – r where p + q = 1 and r = 0, 1, 2 . ……n

PROPERTIES OF THE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

(i) n and p are the two parameters of the binomial distribution. As soon as the
values of n and p are known, the binomial distribution is completely
determined.
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PROBABILITY

(ii) The mean of the binomial distribution is np

(iii) The standard deviation and the variance of the binomial distribution are
 1 
  and (npq) respectively. Since q < l, therefore np > npq. Thus the
 26 
mean of the binomial distribution is always greater than the variance.
(iv) If p = q = l/2, then the binomial distribution is a symmetrical distribution.
Illustration: A dice is thrown 8 times. If getting an “odd number” is success, find
the probability of getting at least 6 success?
Solution: P = ½ , q = ½ , and n = 8
P( at least 6 success) = P( 6 success) + P( 7 success ) + P( 8 success)
= 8C6p6q2 + 8C7p7q + 8C8p8q0
= 8 × 7/2 × (½)6 (½)2 + 8(½)7 (½) + (½)8 (½)0
= (½)8 [28 + 8 + 1]
= 37 (½)8
DECK OR PACK OF CARDS
A pack or deck of cards contains 52 cards which are divided equally into 4 suits,
namely, spade(black), club(black), heart(red) and diamond(red). So each suit contains
13 cards which are ace, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, jack, queen
and king. Out of these 13 cards jack, queen and king are called picture cards.

DICE
Dice is a cube with numbers 1 to 6 written on each of its face. It should be
remembered that the total of the two numbers on opposite face of a dice is always 7
e.g. 1 + 6 = 7, 2 + 5 = 7 and 3 + 4 = 7
Illustration: 10 different letters of English alphabet are given. A word is formed
using 5 letters (with replacement) out of these. Find the probability that at least
one letter is repeated in the word?
Solution: Number of arrangement of 5 letters out of 10= 105
(as each letter could be any of the 10 different letters)
P(at least one repetition) = 1–P(no repetition)
Number of ways of no repetition = 10P5

97
 MODERN ALGEBRA
10
P5
P(no repetition) =
105
10
P5
P(at least one repetition) = 1 –
105
Illustration: A classroom has 3 electric lamps. From a collection of 10 electric
bulbs of which 6 are good, 3 are selected at random and put in the lamps.
Find the probability that
(i) the room is lighted (ii) all lamps are burning.
Solution: Of the 10 electric bulbs, 3 are selected in 10C3 ways = 120 ways.
(i) The room is lighted if at least one of the 3 lamps chosen at random is a
good one. Wherever ‘at least one’ is present, it is easier to do the problem
using the complement of the event (i.e. room is dark and all 3 lamps are bad)
4
C3
P (room is dark) = P(none of the bulbs is good) = 10
C3

(since 4 bulbs are bad, 3 of them are chosen in 4C1 ] ways)

4
C3 4 29
P(room is lighted) = 1 – 10 =1– =
C3 120 30

(ii) P(All lamps are burning) = P(all 3 bulbs selected are good)
6
C3 20 1
= = =
120 120 6
Illustration: A box contains 6 red and 3 black balls. If 5 balls are drawn at
random, what is the probability that
(i) Two are black balls,
(ii) At least two are black balls,
(iii) One is black and four are red balls?
Solution:
(i) Without restriction, number of ways of selecting 5 balls = 9C5 = T
Two black balls are selected, then rest 3 are red balls.
With restriction, number of ways of selecting 5 balls = 3C2 × 6C3 = F

98
PROBABILITY

With restriction F
Probability = =
Without restriction T

 3
C 2 × 6 C3  10
P(2 black) = =
 9
C5  21

(ii) P(at least 2 black) = P(2 black) or P(3 black)

= P (2 black) + P(3 black)

 3
C 2 × 6 C3   3
C3 × 6 C 2 
= +
 9
C5   9
C5 

60 15 25
= + =
126 126 42
3
C1 × 6C4
(iii) P(l black & 4 red) = 9
C5

60 10
= =
126 21

99
 MODERN ALGEBRA

EXERCISE - 5
1. Two dices are thrown simultaneously. What is the probability of obtaining a
total score of seven?

1 1
(1) (2)
6 3

5 7
(3) (4)
36 36
2. Two dices are thrown at a time. What is the probability that the sum of the two
number is 6 or 9?

1 3
(1) (2)
9 4

1 2
(3) (4)
4 9
3. A student has to select 3 subjects out of 6 subjects M, B, H, U, L and S (only
first letter of subjects are indicated). If he has chosen M, what is the probability
of B being chosen?

3 2
(1) (2)
5 5

1
(3) (4) None of these
5
4. An instrument manufactured by a company consist of 2 parts A and B. In manu-
facturing part A, 9 out of 100 are likely to be defective and in manufacturing part
B, 5 out of 100 are likely to be defective. Calculate the probability that the
instrument will not be defective?
(1) 0.74 (2) 1
(3) 0.80 (4) 0.86

100
PROBABILITY

5. 5 identical balls are distributed at random into 4 boxes marked A, B, C, D. Find

the probability that these boxes contain respectively 1, 2, 2, 0 balls?

3 1
(1) (2)
56 14

1 5
(3) (4)
56 56
6. There are 5 pairs of shoes in a cupboard from which 4 shoes are picked at
random. Find the probability that there is at least one pair in the pick?

13 4
(1) (2)
21 7

11
(3) (4) None of these
21
7. A and B play a game where each is asked to select a number from 1 to 16. If the
two numbers match, both of them win a prize. Find the probability that they
will not win a prize in a single trial?

13 15
(1) (2)
16 16

7 3
(3) (4)
8 4
8. A box contains 5 red pens and 4 blue pens. 2 pens are drawn at random, what is
the probability that both are of the same colour? (Assume pens differ only in
colour)

5 1
(1) (2)
9 3

4 2
(3) (4)
9 3

101
 MODERN ALGEBRA

9. Five persons A, B, C, D and E occupy seats in a row at random. What is the

probability that A and B sit next to each other?
3 1
(1) (2)
5 5

4 2
(3) (4)
5 5
10. An elevator starts with 5 passengers and stops at 8 different floors of the
house. Find out the probability of all the 5 passengers alighting at different
floors?
99 105
(1) (2)
512 512

103
(3) (4) None of these
512
11. The probability that a computer company will get a computer hardware con-
tract is 2/3 and the probability that it will not get a software contract is 5/9. If the
4
probability of getting at least one contract is , what is the probability that it
5
will get both the contracts?
14 1
(1) (2)
45 3

4 13
(3) (4)
15 45
12. If the probability for A to fail in an examination is 0.2 and that for B is 0.3, then
find the probability that either A or B fails in the examination?
(1) 0.56 (2) 2
(3) 1.42 (4) 0.44
13. There are 2 men aged 30 and 36 years the probability to live 35 years more is 0.67
for 30 years old man 0.60 for 36 years old man. Find the probability that at least
one of these men will be alive 35 years hence?
(1) 0.36 (2) 0.132
(3) 0.868 (4) 0.156

102
PROBABILITY

14. A box contains 20 machine parts, 5 of them being standard. A worker takes out
3 parts at random. Find the probability that at least 1 of the 3 turns out to be
standard?

137 1
(1) (2)
228 2

22
(3) (4) None of these
38
15. A bag contains three white, two black and four red balls. If four balls are drawn
at random with replacement, then find the probability that the sample contains
just one white ball ?

4 32
(1) (2)
9 81

11 13
(3) (4)
27 27
16. A bag contains 8 red, 6 white and 4 blue balls. If three balls are drawn at
random, find the probability that one is red, one is white and one is blue?

4 5
(1) (2)
17 17

6 12
(3) (4)
17 17
17. A box contains 45 tickets numbered from 1 to 45. One ticket is drawn at random.
Find the probability that the number on the ticket is either divisible by 3 or is a
perfect square?

2 16
(1) (2)
5 45

19 17
(3) (4)
45 45

103
 MODERN ALGEBRA

18. A, B, C are three mutually exclusive and exhaustive events associated with a
1 1
random experiment. Find P(A) given that P(B) = P(A) and P(C) = P(B)?
2 6

12 13
(1) (2)
19 19

9 7
(3) (4)
19 19
19. A box contains 4 green, 7 white and 5 red balls. If four balls are drawn one by
one with replacement, what is the probability that none is red?
4 4
3  7
(1)   (2)  
4  16 

4 4
 5  11 
(3)   (4)  
 16   16 
20. A can solve 75% of the problems given in a book and B can solve 95%. What
is the probability that at least one them can solve a problem selected at random
from the book?
(1) 2 (2) 0.9875
(3) 1.5 (4) None of these
21. A and B are two independent events. The probability that both A and B occur is
1 1
and the probability that neither occurs is . Find the probability of the
6 3
occurrence?

1 1 1 1
(1) or (2) or
2 3 4 5

1 1
(3) or (4) None of these
6 7

104
PROBABILITY

22. A bag X contains 3 white balls and 2 black balls; another bag Y contains 2 white
balls and 4 black balls. A bag and a ball out of it are picked at random. What is
the probability that the ball is white?

3 8
(1) (2)
5 15

4 7
(3) (4)
5 15
23. A and B throw a coin alternately till one of them gets a ‘tail’ and wins the game.
Find the probability of winning.

2 2 1
(1) 1, (2) ,
3 5 5

2 1
(3) , (4) None of these
3 3
24. The odds that A speaks the truth are 3:5 and the odds that B speaks the truth
4:3. In what percentage of the cases are both likely to contradict each other on
an identical point?
(1) 33.9% (2) 68%
(3) 50% (4) 72%

1
25. The probability of a man hitting a target is . If he tries 7 times, what is the
4
probability of hitting the target at least twice?

4500 4547
(1) (2)
8192 8192

125
(3) (4) None of these
256

105
 6
Set Theory

Like the concepts of point and line in geometry, in mathematics, the term “set”
is a fundamental object used to define other mathematical objects, and so are not
themselves formally defined. However, informally, a set can be thought of as a
well-defined collection of objects considered as a whole. The objects of a set are
called elements or members. The elements of a set can be anything: numbers,
people, letters of the alphabet, other sets, and so on. Sets are conventionally denoted
with capital letters, A, B, C, etc.
The Greek letter epsilon ‘’ denotes the elements belonging to a sets. Where
as  denotes that the element does not belongs to the set.
A set can be represented in two ways:
1. Tabulation form: In this type, a set is described by writing all its elements
separated by a comma and enclosed within second bracket ‘{ }’
e.g. X is the set of all the vowels in the English alphabet.
X  {a, e, i, o, u}
Y is the set of all natural numbers less than 40 and divisible by 5
Y  {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35}
2. Set builder form: in this type , a set is described by specifically mentioning
the condition followed by the elements of the set.
e.g. X  {x | x is the set of all the vowels in the English alphabet.}
X  {a, e, i, o, u}
Y  {y |y is the set of all natural numbers less than 40 and divisible by 5}
Y  {5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35}

TYPES OF SETS
1. Empty Set or null set : A set which contains no elements is called an empty or
null set it is denoted by ‘{ }’ or 
SET THEORY

e.g. X  {x | x is an even prime number greater than 3}

X  {}
2. Singleton sets : A set containing only one element is called a singleton set
e.g. X  {x | x is an even prime number}
X  {2}
3. Finite sets : A set which consists a certain number of elements is called a finite
set
e.g. X  {x | x is the set of all the vowels in the English alphabet.}
X  {a, e, i, o, u}
4. Infinite sets : A set which consists of infinite number of elements is called an
infinite set.
Y  {y |y is the set of all natural numbers divisible by 5}
Y  {5,10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35…………… ……………..}
5. Equal sets : Two sets are said to be equal if they both contain exactly the same
elements
e.g. X  {x | x is a prime number greater than 2 and less than10}
X  {3, 5, 7}
Y  {y | y is a odd number greater than 1 and less than 8}
Y  {3, 5, 7}
Hence above sets X and Y are equal.
6. Disjoint sets : Two sets are said to be disjoint if they don’t have any common
elements.
e.g. X  {1, 3, 5, 7}
Y  {2, 4, 6, 8}
7. Universal set :The set which contains all elements equal to two or more set is
called a universal set.
e.g. the set of english alphabets is a universal set, from it any letters can be
chosen to form different sets.
8. Sub sets : A set ‘Y’ is a subset of ‘X’ if and only if all elements of Y are also the
elements of X . The subset is denoted by the symbol ‘’
9. Super sets: A set ‘X’ is the superset of ‘Y’ if ‘X’ contains all the elements of ‘Y’.

107
 MODERN ALGEBRA

COMPLEMENT OF A SET
Let X is a set , which is the subset of the universal set U. Complement of set X
will contain all the elements which are present in universal set but not in the set X.
it is denoted as X’ or Xc.
e.g. U  {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k}
X  {b, e, f, i, k}
X’  {a, c, d, g, h, j}

Points to remember
 The empty set or null set is the subset of every other set
 A set containing ‘n’ elements will have 2n subsets
 ( X’ )’ = X
 If X  Y and Y  Z then X  Z
 If X  Y then Y’  X’

VENN DIAGRAM
U
Representation of different sets in the form of diagrams X
Y
(rectangles, triangles, circles) is called as venn diagram.
e.g. let a set Y is the subset of X.
In the above venn diagram rectangle is the universal set U, the larger circle is
the set X and the circle inside is the set Y.
Let us take another example,
Set X = number of students in a school
Set Y = number of student in class 10th of the same school
Set Z = number of girls in the class 10th

X
Y
Z

108
SET THEORY

UNION OF SETS
The union of two or more sets forms a set which contains all the elements of the
uniting sets. If A and B are sets, then the union of A and B is the set that contains all
elements of A and all elements of B, but no other elements. Union is denoted by the
symbol ‘’.
x is an element of A  B if and only if
 x is an element of A or
 x is an element of B.
e.g. X  {1 , 3 , 4, 5 , 7, 8}
Y  { 1, 2 , 4 , 6, 8}
X  Y  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,}

X Y

INTERSECTION OF SETS
The intersection of two sets forms a set which contains the elements which is
common between the two intersecting sets. It is denoted by the symbol ‘’.
x is an element of A  B if and only if U
x is an element of A and
x is an element of B.
e.g. X  {1 , 3 , 4, 5 , 7, 8}
A B
Y  { 1, 2 , 4 , 6, 8}
X Y  {1, 4, 8}
109
 MODERN ALGEBRA

CARDINAL NUMBER
The total number of elements in a set is called as the cardinal number of the set.
For the set X the cardinal number is written as n (X)
eg. X = {1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8} : n(X) = 6

DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTIES
If A, B, C are any three sets
1. A ( B C ) = ( AB )( A  C )
2. A ( B C ) = ( A B )( A C )

DE – MORGAN’S LAWS
1. ( A B )’ = A’B’
2. ( A B )’ = A’B’

Important points to remember

1. A B = B A
2. A B = B A
3. A A’ = U
4. A A’ = 
5. A  = A
6. A  = 
7. n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A B)
8. n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C)
–n(A B) – n(B C) –n(A C)
+n(A B C)
Illustration: In a group of 1000 persons, 760 can speak Hindi & 430 can speak
Bengali. Find
(a) How many can speak both ?
(b) How many can speak Hindi only and Bengali only?
Method 1: H B = H + B – H B
1000 = 760 + 430 – H B
H B = 190

110
SET THEORY

H only = H – H B = 570

B only = B – H B = 240
Method 2: Let a denote Hindi only, b denote Bengali & Hindi both, c denote
Bengali only.
We have a + b = 760, b + c = 430, a + b + c = 1000
a = 570, c = 240 and b = 190

Note :
The caveat here is that each person has to speak at least one language.
Otherwise, there can be 430 people who speak both the languages, 330 (=760
– 430) people who speak only Hindi and rest 240 (=1000 – 760) people who
do not speak any language. This tells us another beautiful aspect to ponder
over.
Given the above data, there is a minimum of zero people who do not speak
any language and at a maximum of 240 people who do not speak any language.
And related to this, there are minimum of 240 and maximum of 430 people
who can speak both the languages.

Illustration: A survey shows that 63% of the Americans like cheese whereas 76%
like apples. Find what percentage of Americans like both cheese and apples?
Solution: Out of a total of 100 Americans:
Then A = 63, B = 76 & A  B = 100
A B = A + B – A B = 39
Thus 39% Americans like both cheese & apples.
Think, had A B 100(!!)

111
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Illustration: In a certain city only two newspapers A & B are published. It is

known that 25% of the city population reads A & 20% reads B, while 8% read
both A&B.It is also known that 30% of those who read A but not B, look into
advertisements and 40% of those who read B but not A, look into advertisements
while 50% of those who read both A & B look into advertisements. What % of the
population reads an advertisement?
Solution:
A = 25, B = 20, A B = 8
Hence A B = 37 Only A = 17, Only B = 12
Now percentage of people reading an advertisement
= [(30% of 17) + (40% of 12) + (50% of 8)]
= 13.9 %
Illustration: In a class of 15 students, 12 have taken mathematics, 8 have taken
Mathematics but not Statistics. Find the number of those who have taken mathematics
and statistics and those who have taken statistics but not mathematics.
Method 1: M  S = 15, M = 12, Only M = 8
So, M  S = (M – Only M) = 4
So, S = 7
Only S = 3
Method 2: By Venn Diagram
a + c = 12 , a = 8
So , c = 4
a + b + c = 15 so, b = 3

112
SET THEORY

EXERCISE - 6
1. If P  {x | 6x + x – 15 = 0}, Q  {x | 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0}
2

and R  {x | 2x2 + x – 3 = 0}. Find P  Q  R.

(1) 1 (2) 

3
(3) (4) None of these
2
2. In a swimming meet, 50 students from Delhi, 63 students from Mumbai, 41
students from Guwahati, 5 students from Meerut participate. If 3 students
represents all 4 cities and 5 students represents Delhi, Mumbai and Guwahati;
3 students represents Mumbai, Guwahati and Meerut; 2 students represents
Delhi, Guwahati, and Meerut. 25 students represents Delhi and Guwahati and
none of the students of any other cities are taken 2 to 3 at a time, then how
many people participated in the meet?
(1) 141 (2) 150
(3) 152 (4) 168
3. In the above question, if 2 students representing Guwahati and Meerut and
decide to participate in the meet, but as a rule any student representing all 4
cities is not allowed to participate in the meet, then what will be the total number
of students participating?
(1) 130 (2) 142
(3) 139 (4) 150
4. In an examination conducted by NIOS, 5% of the students cannot appear for
the exams and were declared failed. Of the students who appeared for the exams,
10% failed in at least one subject and were declared failed. The students who
passed the examination were divided in 3 groups i.e. A, B, and C. Only 20% of
the passing students were in group C. The number of students in group B were
highest with 40% of the total students. Find the total number of students who
will not clear the examination, if the number of student in group A is 28400?
(1) 15000 (2) 12000
(3) 18000 (4) 14500

113
 MODERN ALGEBRA

5. In a party, 100 women and 50% of men can dance. 70% of the men who were
dancing had women partners. If the number of sum of dancing couples and
solo dancers is 130, then how many men are there in the party? (assume that
partner should always be of opposite sex)
(1) 300 (2) 200
(3) 400 (4) None of these
6. If P = set of all students, Q = set of girl students, R = set of all basketball players
and S = set of all baseball players, then [ P  ( Q  R )]’  S represents?
(1) boys who plays only baseball. (2) boys who plays only basketball
(3) girls who plays baseball (4) None of these
7. In a office of 60 employees, men constitute 40% of the total. If a third of the men
and 2 women leave the office to join somewhere else, what percent of the
remaining employees in the office would be women?
(1) 58% (2) 28%
(3) 48% (4) 68%
8. In a group of 32 people, 25 like Indian food, 20 like Chinese and 15 like Italian
food. 15 people like both Indian and Chinese food. 5 people like Chinese and
Italian. If 3 people like all three foods, how many people like Indian and Italian
food?
(1) 9 (2) 11
(3) 8 (4) 12
9. In a survey of 100 people, 50 peoples watch Star, 40 watches Sony and 30
watch Discovery. Of these 20 watch both Star and Sony, 15 watche Sony and
Discovery, 10 people watch Star and Discovery. How many people watch all
three channels?
(1) 15 (2) 16
(3) 25 (4) 36
10. A music class of 30 students, some sing, others dance and play musical
instruments. 3 students can only sing. 3 students can only dance and 2 students
can only play instruments. 4 students can do all three things, while 11 could
sing and play instruments. 10 students can dance and play instruments. How
many students can dance and sing but cant play instruments?
(1) 5 (2) 8
(3) 3 (4) 11

114
SET THEORY

11. In the above question how many students can do at least 2 of dancing, singing
or playing?
(1) 15 (2) 18
(3) 22 (4) 29
12. A survey conducted in an apartment shows that 1/6th of the people own Ferrari,
1/4th own BMWs and 1/8th of those who own Ferrari do not own BMW. What
fraction of the people, living in the apartment, own both a Ferrari and a BMW?

5 7
(1) (2)
48 48

13
(3) (4) None of these
48
13. In the question 12, what fraction of the people living in the apartment owns
neither a Ferrari nor a BMW?

29 35
(1) (2)
48 48

9
(3) (4) None of these
16
14. In a class of 42 students, each plays at least one of cricket, hockey or football.
14 play cricket, 20 play hockey and 24 play football, 3 play both cricket and
football, 2 play both hockey and football and none play all three. How many
students play cricket but not hockey?
(1) 3 (2) 5
(3) 12 (4) None of these
15. In a survey conducted by a certain soap firm, 100 people were interviewed. It
was found that 72 of them use Savlon, 39 use Dettol and 75 use Medicare. 32
of them use both Savlon and Dettol, 53 use Savlon and Medicare, 26 use Dettol
and Medicare. Also 21 use Savlon, Dettol and Medicare. How many of the
people interviewed do not use any of the three soaps?
(1) 3 (2) 4
(3) 17 (4) 12
115
 MODERN ALGEBRA

16. In a group of 50 people, 35 speak Hindi, 25 speak both Hindi and English and all
the people speak at least one of the two languages. What is the number of
people who speak English?
(1) 33 (2) 40
(3) 18 (4) 20
17. There are 100 students in a class. In an examination, 50 of them failed in
mathematics, 45 failed in physics and 40 failed in statistics. 32 failed in exactly
two of these three subjects. What is the number of students failing in all three
subjects?
(1) 6 (2) 8
(3) 2 (4) None of these
18. There are three types of people in a meeting, which include 50 people of group
A; 60 people of group B and 60 people of group C. There were 10 people who
belong to group A and B; 15 people who belong to group A and C and 25
people who belong to group B and C. If there are 5 people who belong to all
the 3 groups, how many attended the meeting?
(1) 125 (2) 150
(3) 200 (4) None of these
19. In an examination 70% of the candidates passed in History, 65% in Geography,
27% failed in both the subjects and 248 passed in both the subjects. What is the
total number of candidates?
(1) 100 (2) 189
(3) 270 (4) 400
20. There are 200 members in a club, 96 play hockey, 90 cricket and 104 baseball.
30 play both hockey and baseball, 36 play hockey and baseball and 42 play
cricket and baseball. Each one plays at least 1 game. Find the number of players
that play all three games?
(1) 28 (2) 18
(3) 38 (4) None of these
21. In question 27, what is the number of players who play only hockey?
(1) 48 (2) 36
(3) 40 (4) None of these

116
SET THEORY

22. In a survey of 2000 people conducted in a city, it was found that 64% prefer
Fanta, 48% Pol-sip and 54% Coca-Cola. Of the total, 28% like both Pol-sip
and Coca-Cola, 30% like both Pol-sip and Fanta and 32% like both Coca-Cola
and Fanta. Only 6% did not like any of the drinks. Find the number of people
who like all the three drinks?
(1) 200 (2) 320
(3) 160 (4) 240
23. Of 500 television watchers, 285 watch football, 195 hockey and 115 basketball.
45 watch both football and basketball, 70 both football and hockey, 50 both
hockey and basketball and 50 none of the three games. How many of them
watch all the three games?
(1) 20 (2) 16
(3) 18 (4) 22
DIRECTIONS for questions 24 and 25: These questions are based on the following
data.
A survey was conducted in a residential complex to find out the viewership of three
TV channels Star Plus, BBC and Discovery. The following data was collected
regarding the viewership.
– 30% of the residents watch Star Plus.
– The number of people not watching any of the three channels is twice that
watching all three channels.
– Half the residents watching Star Plus also watch at least one of the other
two channels.
– The number of people who watch Star Plus and BBC is the same as the
number of people who watch Star Plus and Discovery which is in turn the
same as the number of people who do not watch any of the three channels.
24. What percentage of the residents do not watch any of the three channels?
(1) 10% (2) 15%
(3) 20% (4) Cannot be determined
25. What percentage of the residents watch either BBC or Discovery but not Star
Plus?
(1) 50% (2) 60%
(3) 55% (4) Cannot be determined
117
 7
Sequence

Sequence, in mathematics, is an ordered set of mathematical quantities called

terms.
A sequence is said to be known or defined if a formula can be given for any
particular term using the preceding terms or using its position in the sequence.
Fibonacci sequence : The sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, … is formed by adding
any two consecutive terms to obtain the next term.
1 7 23
The sequence – , 1, , 7, , 17, … is formed according to the formula
2 2 2
(n 2 – 2)
for the nth, or general term.
2
An Infinite sequence has no final term, e.g., 1, 2, 3, …. and thus continues
indefinitely. E.g. Natural Numbers, Even Numbers, Odd Numbers
A Finite sequence has known number of terms, e.g., 1, 2, 3, … 50, a sequence of
50 terms.
Series: The terms of a sequence, when written as an indicated sum, form a
series; e.g., the sum of the sequence 1, 2, 3, … 50 is the series 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 50.
Progressions are special types of sequences.
Progression in mathematics, is a sequence of quantities, called terms, in which
the relationship between consecutive terms is the same.

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
An arithmetic progression is a sequence in which each term is derived from the
preceding one by adding a given number, d, called the common difference.
It has the general form a, a+d, a+2d, … , a+(n–1)d, … , where a is some number
and a+(n–1)d is the nth, or general, term; e.g., the progression 3, 7, 11, 15, … is
arithmetic progression with a = 3 and d = 4. For clarity, at times we also refer to the
first term as T1 and the general or nth term as Tn.
SEQUENCE

The value of the 20th term, i.e. when n = 20, is found by using the general or nth
term: for T1= a =3, d = 4, and n = 20, its value is T20 = 3 + (20 – 1) 4 = 79.
An arithmetic series is the indicated sum of an arithmetic progression.
There are different ways to look at the sum of the series. If we have a relook at
the AP, we can see that the Sum of the 1st and last term = Sum of 2nd term and 2nd last
term = Sum of 3rd term and 3rd last term and so on. = a + a + (n – 1)d = 2a + (n – 1)d
If there are n terms, we can make n/2 such pairs.
n
Hence the Sum of n terms of the series = (T1 + Tlast) ×
2
n
= [2a + (n – 1)d] ; the conventional way
2
Illustration: The arithmetic series is 3 + 7 + 11 + 15 + 19. The sum of the first 5
terms, i.e., when n =5, is
Method 1
n
Sn = [2 × a + (n – 1)d] ×
2
5
= [2 × 3 + (5 – 1)4] ×
2
= 55.
Method 2
n
Sn = (T1 + Tlast) ×
2
5 5
= (3 + 19) × = 22 ×
2 2
= 55
Method 3
If we look at the series, out of 5 terms, 3rd term is the central or middle term.
It is also the average of all the terms.
Sn = n × Avg = n × Tmid
= 5 × 11 = 55

119
 MODERN ALGEBRA

ARITHMETIC MEAN
The arithmetic mean of a set of numbers is the sum of all the members of the set
divided by the number of items in the set. The arithmetic mean is what we have been
taught very early to call the “average.” This is the concept that we have used in the
above example.
Illustration: The arithmetic series is 3 + 7 + 11 + 15 + 19 + 23. The sum of the first
6 terms, i.e. n = 6, is
Method 1
n
Sn = [2 × a + (n – 1)d] ×
2
6
= [2 × 3 + (6 – 1)4] ×
2
= 78.
Method 2
n
Sn = (Tl + Tlast) ×
2
6
= (3 + 23) × = 26 × 3
2
= 78.
Method 3
There is no single central term here but 2 central terms: 11 and 15.
Hence, Tmid can not be readily identified, but ‘can be’ taken as 13 i.e. the mid
point of 11 & 15
Sn = n × Avg = n × Tmid
= 6 × 13 = 78.
Illustration: How many numbers between 11 and 90 are divisible by 7?
Method 1
Using an AP
The required numbers are 14, 21, 28, 35,..., 77, 84.
This is an AP with T1 = 14 and d = 21 – 14 = 7.
Tlast = 84 = Tl + (n – 1)d
= 14 + (n –1) × 7

120
SEQUENCE

Solving n = 11. Or, number of terms between 11 & 90 which are divisible by
7 = 11.
Method 2
Using Number line
Between 11 & 90 (both inclusive), there are 80 terms
We also know that in any 7 consecutive numbers, there exists only one multiple
of 7.
In 80 consecutive numbers, we can make 11 sets of 7 consecutive numbers
covering 77 numbers and leaving 3. Hence, we definitely have 11 multiples of 7.
If we start making the sets from 90 in a decreasing order, we will be left with the
first 3 as 11, 12 and 13. We can see that in these 3 numbers there is no multiple of 7.
Hence, there are only 11 multiples of 7 between 11 & 90.
Illustration: Find the sum of all odd numbers upto 100.
The given numbers are 1, 3, 5, 7,...., 99. This is an AP with a = 1 and d = 2.
For the number of terms
1 + (n – 1) × 2 = 99
or n = 50.
n
Required sum = (first term + last term).
2
50
= (1 + 99) = 2500
2
Illustration: Find the sum of all 2-digit number divisible by 3.
All 2 digit numbers divisible by 3 are:
12, 15, 18, 21, ..., 99.
This is an AP with a = 12 and d = 3.
For the number of terms
12 + (n – 1) × 3 = 99
or n = 30.
30
 Required sum (12 + 99) = 1665
2

121
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Illustration: How many even numbers starting from 2, add upto 1640?
Here, a = 2, d = 2;
n
Sn = [2 × a + (n – 1)d] ×
2

n
1640 = [2 × 2 + (n – 1) × 2] ×
2
Solving using Quadratic Equations
n = 40
Illustration: Find the 7th term of an Arithmetic Progression, given the common
difference between consecutive terms is 3 and the sum of first 41 terms is 2583.
Method 1
Here, n = 41, d = 3;
n
Sn = [2×a1 + (n – 1)d] ×
2
41
2583 = [2 × a1 + (41 – 1) × 3] ×
2

2
2583 × = [2 × a1 + 120]
41

(125 – 120) 6
a1 = = =3
2 2
a7 = a1 + (n – 1) × d
= 3 + (7 – 1) × 3 = 21
Method 2
In 41 terms, the central or middle term is the 21st.
Then, S41 = 41 × T21
T21 = 63
T7 = T21 – (21 – 7) × d
= 63 – 14 × 3 = 21

122
SEQUENCE

GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION (GP)

A progression of numbers in which every term bears a constant ratio with its
preceding term, is called geometrical progression.
The constant ratio is called the common ratio of the GP.
The sequence 1, 3, 9, 27, . . . is a geometric progression with first term 1 and
common ratio 3.
The common ratio can be a fraction and it can also be negative.
For example, the geometric progression with first term 2 and common ratio

–1
is
3

–2 2 –2
2, , , , ...
3 9 27
Alternatively, a geometric progression is one in which each term is derived by
multiplying the preceding term by a given number r, called the common ratio.
It has the general form a, ar, ar2, … , arn–1, … , where a and n have the same
meanings as above;
e.g., the progression 1, 2, 4, 8, … is geometric with a = 1 and r = 2.
The value of the 10th term, i.e., when n=10, is given as 1 × 210–1 = 29 = 512.
(1– r n )
The sum of the geometric progression is given by the formula a × for
(1–r )
the first n terms where r  1
Illustration: How many terms are there in 2, 4, 8, 16, ..., 1024?
Clearly 2, 4, 8, 16..., 1024 form a GP
4
with a = 2 and r = =2
2
If there are n terms,
Then, 2 × 2n–1 = 1024
or n = 10.

123
 MODERN ALGEBRA

Illustration: Find the sum 2 + 22 + 2 3 + …….. + 28 = ?

Given series is a GP with a = 2, r = 2 and n = 8.

( r n – 1)
 Sum = a × = 2 × (28 – 1 )
(r  1)

= 2 × 255 = 510.

GEOMETRIC MEAN
The geometric mean is a measure of central tendency. It is different from the
traditional mean (which we sometimes call the arithmetic mean) because it uses
multiplication rather than addition to summarize data values.
Geometric mean of A and B is the square root of (A×B). The geometric mean of
A, B, and C is the cube root of (A×B×C). And so forth.
And more generally, it is calculated by multiplying a series of numbers and
taking the nth root of the product, where n is the number of items in the series. The
geometric mean is often used when finding an average for numbers presented as
percentages.
The geometric mean is a useful summary when we expect that changes in the
data occur in a relative fashion.

APPLICATIONS OF THE GEOMETRIC MEAN

When would one use the geometric mean as opposed to arithmetic mean?
What is the use of the geometric mean in general?
The arithmetic mean is relevant any time several quantities add together to
produce a total. The arithmetic mean answers the question, “if all the quantities had
the same value, what would that value be in order to achieve the same total?”
In the same way, the geometric mean is relevant any time several quantities
multiply together to produce a product. The geometric mean answers the question,
“if all the quantities had the same value, what would that value be in order to
achieve the same product?”
For example, suppose you have an investment, which earns 10% the first year,
50% the second year, and 30% the third year. What is its average rate of return? It is
not the arithmetic mean, because what these numbers mean is that on the first year

124
SEQUENCE

your investment was multiplied (not added to) by 1.10, on the second year it was
multiplied by 1.60, and the third year it was multiplied by 1.20. The relevant quantity
is the geometric mean of these three numbers.
The question about finding the average rate of return can be rephrased as: “by
what constant factor would your investment need to be multiplied each year in
order to achieve the same effect as multiplying by 1.10 one year, 1.60 the next, and
1.20 the third?” The answer is the geometric mean (1.10 × 1.60 × 1.20)1/3.
If you calculate this geometric mean you get approximately 1.283, so the average
rate of return is about 28.3% (not 30% which is what the arithmetic mean of 10%,
60%, and 20% would give you).

Note:
The geometric mean of a data set is always smaller than or equal to the set’s
arithmetic mean (the two means are equal if and only if all members of the data
set are equal).
The geometric mean is well defined only for sets of positive real numbers.

HARMONIC PROGRESSION
A harmonic progression is one in which the terms are the reciprocals of the
1 1
terms of an arithmetic progression; it therefore has the general form a , (a  d ) , … ,

1
.
a   n –1 d 
This type of progression has no general formula to express its sum.

SERIES
The terms of a sequence, when written as an indicated sum, form a series.
A series may be finite or infinite.
A finite series contains a definite number of terms whose sum can be found by
various methods.
An infinite series is a sum of infinitely many terms,
1 1 1 1
e.g., the infinite series    +….
2 4 8 16
125
 MODERN ALGEBRA

The dots mean that the remaining terms are formed according to the rule made
evident by the first few terms, in this case doubling the denominator of the preceding
n
1
term to form that of the next term; the nth term of this series is   .
2
Some infinite series converge to a certain value called its limit; i.e., as one adds
together progressively more terms.
For example, the series given above converges to the value 1.
Many series, however, do not converge.

1 1 1
Such a series is   + … , for even though the terms become very small,
2 3 4
enough of them added together will give a value greater than any number that can
be named.
A series that does not converge is said to diverge; various tests exist for
determining whether or not a given series converges and for determining its limit if
it does converge. We will not go into these details, as these are more useful in
engineering phenomena.
Arithmetic Progressions Geometric Progressions
Illustration Illustration
3, 7, 11, 15, ... 3, 6, 12, 24, ...
The first term = a = 3 The first term = a = 3
The common difference = d = 4 The common ratio = r = 2

d = u n – un – 1 un
r=
u n –1

A general Arithmetic Progression: A General Geometric Progression:

a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, .... , a, a r 2, a r 3, a r 4, ... , a r n–1
a + (n – 1)d

T n = a + (n – 1)d T n = a r n–1

126
SEQUENCE

To find the sum of an Arithmetic To find the sum of a Geometric

Progression (Sn): Progression (Sn)

Sn =[a+d]+[a+2d]+...+[a+(n–1)d] Sn =a+ar+ar 2 +...+ar n–1

Sn = a+(n–1)d+a+(n–2)d+a+(n–3)+...+a 2 n-1
rSn =ar+ar +...ar +ar n

2Sn = 2a+(n–1)d+2a+(n–1)d+...+2a+(n–1)d
2Sn = n[2a+(n–1)d] Sn (1–r)=a(1–r n )
n a(1–r n ) a(r n –1)
Sn = [2a+(n 2 –1)d] Sn = or
2 1–r r–1

Sn = a + [a + d] + [a +2d] + ...
+ [a + (n–1)d]

T1 + Tn = T2 + Tn-2 = T3 + Tn-3 = ……....

n
No. of pairs =
2
n
Sn = (T1 +Tn) ×
2
The average of any AP is the central term
of that AP.
Hence, the sum is Average × No. of terms
Sn = n × Tmid

3 Consecutive Terms of an arithmetic 3 Consecutive Terms of a Geometric

Progression Progression
a - d, a, a + d a
, a, a r
r

To prove a sequence is arithmetic: To prove a sequence is geometric:

Show that T n – T n-1 = a constant Tn
(i.e. T n – T n-1 is independent of n) Show that = a constant
Tn–1
(i.e. independent of n)

127
 MODERN ALGEBRA

To find T n given S n To find T n given Sn

T n = S n - S n–1 T n = S n – S n–1

To find a and d when given two terms: To find a and r when given two terms:
e.g. If T2 = 5 and T4 = 11 find a and d. e.g. If T3 = 2 and T6 = 16 find a and r.
T2 = a + (2 - 1)d T4 = a + (4 - 1)d T3 = a r 2 = 2 T6 = a r 5 = 16
5 = a + d 11 = a + 3d
T6 ar 5
Simultaneous equations gives = = r3 = 16/2 =8
T3 ar 2
a = 3 and d = 2
r = 2 and a = 1

Arithmetic mean Geometric Mean

The arithmetic mean of two numbers is If a, b and c are in geometric progression
that number that when placed between then
two numbers, forms three consecutive
terms of an arithmetic progression. a b
  b 2 =ac  b= ac
b c
e.g. the arithmetic mean of the numbers
a+b
a and b is
2
Sum to infinity of a geometric
progression:
If | r | < 1 then

a(1 – rn ) a
S = lim = as r = 0
1–r 1–r
n 

For Two number, if A represents Arithmetic Mean

G represents Geometric Mean
H represents Harmonic Mean
A.H = G2

128
SEQUENCE

EXERCISE - 7
1. If Sn denotes the sum of the first n terms in an AP and Sn = 2n2 + 5n then the ratio
of first term to the 4th term is
(1) 1 : 3 (2) 2 : 3
(3) 7 : 17 (4) 1 : 5
2. What is the sum of first 100 terms which are common to both the progressions
17, 21, 25,..... and 16, 21, 26, ……….
(1) 100000 (2) 101100
(3) 111000 (4) 100110
3. How many distinct samples are there such that if two or more than two such
samples are mixed in any ratio, the resulting solution is always a sample of more
than 80% concentration?
(1) 4 (2) 6
(3) 15 (4) 10
4. I have an infinite number of circles. The first one has radius r. The second has
radius r/2. The third has radius r/4, and so on. I also have an infinite number of
squares, each of which has area equal to the area of the corresponding circle.
What is the sum of the perimeters of all my squares?
(1) 8r π (2) 7 πr
(3) 8 πr (4) 8πr
5. The mth term of an arithmetic progression is x and the nth term is y. Then the sum
of the first (m + n) terms is
m+n x–y m+n x+y
(1)   x + y + (2)  x – y +
2  m – n  
2  m – n 

1x+y x–y 1x+y x–y

(3)  +  (4)  –
2 m + n m – n 2  m + n m – n 
6. If first, second and last term of an A.P. is a, b and c respectively. Find the sum of
all the terms.
(b + c – 2a)(a + c) (b + c + 2a)(a + c)
(1) 2(b – a)
(2) 2(b – a)

 a + b b + c – 2a (b + c – 2a)(a – c)

(3) (4) 2(b – a)
2 b – a

129
 MODERN ALGEBRA

7. Consider the two arithmetic progressions 3, 7, 11, ...., 407 and 2, 9, 16, .........709.
The number of common terms of these two progressions is
(1) 0 (2) 7
(3) 15 (4) 14
8. The smallest prime number that is the fifth term of an increasing arithmetic
sequence for which all four preceding terms are also prime, is
(1) 17 (2) 37
(3) 29 (4) 53
9. Shmita owes sangeeta Rs. 800 now, but not being able to discharge the debt
fully, she agrees to pay Rs. 425 now and Rs. 425 after one year. At what rate
percent is the interest being calculated (at compound interest)?
(1) 121/2% (2) 10%
(3) 131/3% (4) 1113/17%
10. Three progressions A, B, C are obtained from the n terms of an arithmetic
progression, P. A has the 1st, 4th, 7th,……….terms of P, B has the 2nd, 5th, 8th,
……….terms and C has the 3rd, 6th, 9th, ……….terms. Among the averages of A,
B and C, two are terms of P, while the remaining average is not a term of P.
Which of the following can be the value of n?
(1) 20 (2) 29
(3) 36 (4) 49
11. Amar planned to save his earnings in the following manner. On January 1st 2005,
he saved Re. 1. On every day starting from January 2nd 2005, he saved Re. l more
than the previous day. Find the first date after January 1st 2005 on which his
total savings will be a perfect square.
(1) 17th January 2005 (2) 19th February 2005
th
(3) 26 January 2005 (4) None of these
1 1 1 1
12. What is the sum of the series : + + + .......... + ?
5 × 8 8 × 11 11 × 14 242 × 245

48 16
(1) (2)
240 245

48 3
(3) (4)
245 49

130
SEQUENCE

2 4 8
13. If the sum to infinity of the series 2 + (2 + d) + (2 + 2d) + (2 + 3d)
3 9 27

5
+…… is , what is the value of d?
2

7 –5
(1) (2)
12 12

–7 5
(3) (4)
12 12
14. ABC is an equilateral triangle. The midpoints of the sides of the triangle ABC
are joined to form another equilateral triangle A1B1C1. The midpoints of the
sides of this triangle are joined to form another triangle A2B2C2 and this process
is continued indefinitely. If the area of the triangle ABC is 60 sq.cm, find the sum
of the areas of all the triangles.
(1) 120 cm2 (2) 160 cm2
(3) 240 cm2 (4) 80 cm2
15. Raju invested a certain amount in a 15 year fixed deposit scheme. An interest of
Rs. 1,250 accrued for the 5th year, whereas Rs.2500 accrued for the 11th year. If
the interest is compounded annually, what is the maturity value of Rs.P, invested
today, at the end of the 15 years of the fixed deposit scheme?
(1) Rs. 4.66 P (2) Rs. 5.66 P
(3) Rs. 16 P (4) Rs. 32 P

131
 MODERN ALGEBRA

PRACTICE EXERCISE
1. If x, y, z are non–zero real numbers and 4x2 + 13y2 + 9z2 = 2y (x + z), which of the
following could be false?

3 2
(1) x  y (2) y  z
2 3

9 9
(3) x  z (4) z  x
4 4
2. Find the number of permutations of letters in the word ENGINEERING?
(1) 11! (2) 30240
(3) 36960 (4) 277200
3. Two cards are drawn from a pack of well shuffled cards. Find the probability
that one is a club and the other is an ace?
1 1
(1) (2)
26 52

3 1
(3) (4)
52 13
4. In how many ways can 11 distinct objects be divided into two groups containing
5 and 6 objects respectively?
(1) 462 (2) 480
(3) 420 (4) 540
5. A certain number consists of two digits. If 5 is added to the number, and the
result divided by the units digit, the quotient is 6, and if 10 is subtracted from
the number, and the remainder divided by the sum of the digits, the quotient is
3. What is the number?
(1) 39 (2) 49
(3) 43 (4) 45
6. In a party person shakes hand with every other person. If there are 105 hand
shakes, find the number of persons present in the party?
(1) 16 (2) 15
(3) 18 (4) 32

132
PRACTICE EXERCISE

7. The equations x2 + ax + b = 0 and x2 + cx + d = 0 have a common root. The

other root of x2 + ax + b = 0 is the square of the other root of x2 + cx + d = 0,
which of the following relationships holds true?
(1) b2–bd=ad2–cd2 (2) b2–bd = cd2–ad2
2 2 2 2
(3) b – b d = c d – a d (4) b2 – b2d =a2d– c2d
8. If f(x) = [x], g(x) = [x] + 1 and h(x) = x2 –[x] + 2. Find the value of [f(x) + g(x) – h(x)]
+ [ f(x) × h(x)] – g{g(x)} at x = –3?
(1) 16 (2) 12
(3) 20 (4) 18
9. What is the maximum value of ( t + x) ( t – x)4 for any real value of x ?
3

65  82 a6 63  84 a7
(1) (2)
77 77

63  84 a7
(3) (4) None of these
75
10. In how many ways can 5 different beads be strung in to a necklace?
(1) 16 (2) 12
(3) 9 (4) 11
11. f(x) = 2f(x – 1) + 1 for all positive integers x. Then.
(1) f(x) = 2x–1 [f(1)+1] (2) f(x) = 2x–1 f(1)
x–1
(3) f(x) + 1 = 2 [f(1) + 1] (4) f(x) = 2x[f(1)+1]
12. In how many ways can a student choose 5 courses out of 9 courses if 2 courses
are compulsory for every student?
(1) 32 (2) 40
(3) 35 (4) 42

1– a
13. Let f(a) = log and g(a) = – f(a), which of the following equals f(a) + g(b)?
1 a

 a b   a–b 
(1) f   (2) f  
 1 – ab   1 – ab 

 1   1 
(3) a+b f   (4) a–b f  
 1 – ab   1 – ab 

133
 MODERN ALGEBRA

14. How many numbers each containing four digits can be formed?
(1) 9000 (2) 7200
(3) 8000 (4) 6400
15. The difference of 4 from twice the square of a number is 28 than the number is.
(1) 4 (2) –4
(3) ± 4 (4) None of these
16. A candidate is required to answer 7 questions out of 12 questions which are
divided into two groups, each containing 6 questions. He is not permitted to
attempt more than 5 questions from either group. In how many different ways
can he choose the 7 questions?
(1) 800 (2) 640
(3) 720 (4) 780
17. A question paper contains 6 questions, each having an alternative. In how
many ways can an examinee answer one or more questions?
(1) 640 (2) 728
(3) 720 (4) 800
18. Three husbands and three wives are to be seated around a table in circle.
Among them the husband A does not want any wife and the wife B does not
want any husband neighbor. How many such arrangements are possible?
(1) 4 (2) 3
(3) 2 (4) 8
19. In how many ways can 6 women draw water from 6 taps, if no tap remains
unused?
(1) 640 (2) 720
(3) 800 (4) 760
20. Find the solution of x if | 2x – 5 | < 4x + 9?

–2 2
(1) x > (2) x >
3 3

–2 2
(3) x < (4) x <
3 3

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PRACTICE EXERCISE

21. Find the number of permutation of the word ACCOUNTANT?

(1) 113400 (2) 362880
(3) 226800 (4) None of these

1 1 1
22. If = logbc a = logca b and = logab c, then
x –1 y –1 z –1
(1) xy + yz + zx=1 (2) l/x + 1/y + 1/z = 1
(3) x + y + z = l (4) none of these
23. If p and q be the roots of the quadratic equation px2 + px + q = 0, then
(1) q < 0 (2) q > 0
(3) q  0 (4) q  0
24. From 5 apples, 4 mangoes and 3 bananas, how many selections of fruits can be
made?
(1) 117 (2) 102
(3) 128 (4) 119
25. If | x – 4 |  8 and | 2y — 4 |  10, then find the maximum possible value of
| x | – | y |?
(1) 9 (2) 12
(3) 15 (4) 16
26. A man has 15 acquaintances of whom 10 are relatives. In how many ways can
he invite guests so that 7 of them may be relatives?
(1) 900 (2) 1100
(3) 1320 (4) 1200
27. In how many ways can n books on n subjects be arranged in almirah so that no
two books on particular subjects are together?
(1) n × (n – 1)! (2) (n – 2)!
(3) (n – 1)! (4) (n – 2) × (n – 1)!
28. How many words, each of 3 vowels and 2 consonants, can be formed from the
letters of the word INVOLUTE?
(1) 2640 (2) 120
(3) 2880 (4) None of these

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 MODERN ALGEBRA

29. A five digit number divisible by 3 is to be formed using the numerals 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

and 5, without repetition. What is the total number of ways, this can be done?
(1) 216 (2) 200
(3) 180 (4) 240
30. In how many ways can 6 plastic beads of different colours be arranged so that
the blue and green beads are never placed together?
(1) 460 (2) 450
(3) 480 (4) 520
31. Two friends Ram and Shyam sat for an examination. The probability of selection
1 2
of Ram is and that of Shyam is . find the probability that both of them are
5 7
selected?
3 1
(1) (2)
35 5

2 4
(3) (4)
35 35
32. If 20 lines are drawn in a plane such that no two of them are parallel and no three
are current. In how many points will they intersect each other?
(1) 200 (2) 196
(3) 190 (4) 150
33. How many 5 digits telephone numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7 if no digit is repeated?
(1) 2400 (2) 2520
(3) 2460 (4) 480
34. If x > 8 and y > –4, then which one of the following is always true?
(1) xy < 0 (2) x2 < –y
(3) –x < 2y (4) x > y

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ANSWERS

ANSWERS EXERCISE - 1
1. (4) 2. (2) 3. (1) 4. (1) 5. (4)
6. (2) 7. (3) 8. (1) 9. (1) 10. (4)
11. (3) 12. (1) 13. (2) 14. (1)

ANSWERS EXERCISE - 2
1. (2) 2. (2) 3. (1) 4. (3) 5. (2)
6. (3) 7. (1) 8. (2) 9. (4) 10. (1)
11. (2) 12. (2) 13. (1) 14. (3) 15. (1)
16. (4) 17. (3) 18. (3) 19. (1) 20. (3)

ANSWERS EXERCISE - 3
1. (4) 2. (2) 3. (4) 4. (1) 5. (4)
6. (2) 7. (4) 8. (1) 9. (3) 10. (2)
11. (1) 12. (2) 13. (3) 14. (2) 15. (1)
16. (3) 17. (4) 18. (4) 19. (1) 20. (3)
21. (2) 22. (1) 23. (2) 24. (1) 25. (1)

ANSWERS EXERCISE - 4
1. (2) 2. (1) 3. (4) 4. (3) 5. (1)
6. (2) 7. (4) 8. (1) 9. (2) 10. (3)
11. (4) 12. (2) 13. (1) 14. (4) 15. (1)
16. (3) 17. (2) 18. (4) 19. (1) 20. (3)
21. (4) 22. (1) 23. (2) 24. (4) 25. (4)

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 MODERN ALGEBRA

ANSWERS EXERCISE - 5
1. (1) 2. (3) 3. (2) 4. (4) 5. (3)
6. (1) 7. (2) 8. (3) 9. (4) 10. (2)
11. (1) 12. (4) 13. (3) 14. (1) 15. (2)
16. (1) 17. (3) 18. (1) 19. (4) 20. (2)
21. (1) 22. (4) 23. (3) 24. (1) 25. (2)

ANSWERS EXERCISE - 6
1. (2) 2. (1) 3. (3) 4. (4) 5. (2)
6. (1) 7. (4) 8. (2) 9. (3) 10. (1)
11. (3) 12. (2) 13. (2) 14. (1) 15. (2)
16. (2) 17. (3) 18. (1) 19. (4) 20. (2)
21. (1) 22. (4) 23. (1) 24. (1) 25. (2)

ANSWERS EXERCISE - 7
1. (3) 2. (2) 3. (1) 4. (1) 5. (1)
6. (1) 7. (4) 8. (3) 9. (3) 10. (1)
11. (4) 12. (2) 13. (3) 14. (4) 15. (2)

ANSWERS PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. (4) 2. (4) 3. (1) 4. (1) 5. (2)
6. (2) 7. (3) 8. (4) 9. (2) 10. (2)
11. (3) 12. (3) 13. (2) 14. (1) 15. (3)
16. (4) 17. (2) 18. (1) 19. (2) 20. (1)
21. (3) 22. (2) 23. (3) 24. (4) 25. (2)
26. (4) 27. (4) 28. (3) 29. (1) 30. (3)
31. (3) 32. (3) 33. (2) 34. (3)

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