10 1139@T07-040

1019
Colloquium 2004: Hydrogeotechnical properties of

hard rock tailings from metal mines and emerging
geoenvironmental disposal approaches
Bruno Bussière
Abstract: Tailings are ground rock particles from which the valuable minerals or metals have been extracted. An historical
overview on hard rock mines shows that since the 1930s, it has become current practice to pump the tailings into storage
areas circumscribed by dykes made of the tailings themselves. However, numerous physical and chemical stability prob-
lems were observed mainly owing to the particular hydrogeotechnical and mineralogical properties of the tailings. There-
fore, modifications to the conventional methods were proposed, but these were relatively costly, not always efficient, and
sometimes difficult to implement. New management methods that improve the physical and (or) chemical stability have
hence been developed to reduce environmental risks associated with tailings storage, namely, densified tailings, environ-
mental desulphurization, covers built with tailings, and co-disposal of tailings and waste rock. Even if many aspects need
to be optimized, these approaches can be considered today as interesting alternatives to conventional tailings management
approaches.
Key words: tailings, acid mine drainage, mining dams, geotechnical stability, geochemical stability.
Résumé : Les rejets de concentrateur sont des particules de roche broyée finement dont les valeurs commerciales ont été
extraites. La revue historique sur les mines en roches dures montre qu’il est devenu pratique courante, depuis les années
30, de pomper les rejets à l’intérieur d’aires d’entreposage circonscrites par des digues constituées des rejets miniers eux-
mêmes. Cependant, de nombreux problèmes de stabilité physique et chimique ont été observés, principalement en raison
des propriétés hydro-géotechniques et minéralogiques particulières des rejets de concentrateur. C’est pourquoi des modifica-
tions aux méthodes conventionnelles ont par la suite été proposées, mais celles-ci sont relativement coûteuses, pas toujours
efficaces et parfois difficiles à mettre en place. De nouvelles méthodes de gestion qui améliorent la stabilité physique et
(ou) chimique des rejets de concentrateur ont donc été développées pour réduire les risques environnementaux associés à
l’entreposage des rejets de concentrateur, notamment la densification des rejets, la désulfuration environnementales, l’utili-
sation des rejets de concentrateur dans les recouvrements et la co-disposition avec les stériles miniers. Même si plusieurs
aspects restent à être optimisés, elles peuvent être considérées dès maintenant comme des alternatives intéressantes aux mé-
thodes de gestion conventionnelles des rejets de concentrateur.
Mots-clés : rejets de concentrateur, drainage minier acide, digues minières, stabilité géotechnique, stabilité géochimique.
Introduction Wills 1997). Usually, the ore is ground to a grain size typical
of a silty material, with most of the particles between 2 and
A mine is by definition an excavation in the earth from
80 mm. At the end of the mineral separation process, two
which ores and minerals are extracted. To be profitable, the
products are generated: the valuable component (i.e., pre-
ore must contain a sufficient amount (a combination of vol-
ume and grade) of valuable commodities (e.g., precious met- cious metals or a concentrate of base metal(s)) and the min-
als and (or) base metals as in the case here). Once an eral separation process residue (tailings) that does not
orebody has been identified, evaluated, and is considered contain economical values of the targeted elements.
profitable, engineers and geoscientists must identify the best The present paper aims to summarize some of the main
approach to extract the ore from the earth. This can be done results of research efforts on hard rock mine tailings (lead–
from an open pit mine, an underground mine, heap leaching, zinc, copper, gold–silver, molybdenum, nickel from sulphide
or in situ extraction. Separating the valuable component deposits, and uranium from Ontario), which can be consid-
from the gangue is the next step. For hard rock mines, which ered to be one of the most difficult mine wastes to manage
the present paper focuses on, this is usually done by crushing (Vick 1990), and to present emerging geoenvironmental ap-
and grinding the ore to liberate the selected minerals or met- proaches proposed to improve tailings disposal. To introduce
als and then by separating them gravimetrically or chemi- the subject, a historical view and background on current
cally (e.g., flotation process, or hydrometallurgical process; hard rock mine tailings management practices, with their
Received 6 February 2006. Accepted 23 March 2007. Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at cgj.nrc.ca on 17 October 2007.
B. Bussière. Department of Applied Sciences, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, 445 University Blvd., Rouyn-Noranda,
QC J9X 5E4, Canada (e-mail: bruno.bussiere@uqat.ca).
Can. Geotech. J. 44: 1019–1052 (2007) doi:10.1139/T07-040 # 2007 NRC Canada

1020 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 44, 2007
main environmental challenges, are first presented. A de- because of a few significant failures such as the El Cobre
scription of the main hydrogeotechnical properties of hard tailings dyke failure in Chile (Dobry and Alvarez 1967), the
rock mine tailings then follows; these properties are respon- mining and geotechnical community started to look closer at
sible, at least in part, for the main environmental problems these infrastructures. Technical reports on how to design tail-
associated with tailings disposal facilities. Finally, new and ings dams were produced in USA (Kealy and Soderberg
modified tailings management approaches that were recently 1969) and in Canada (Department of Energy, Mines, and Re-
proposed to reduce environmental impacts of tailings from sources 1972). Specialized conferences on the topic of tail-
hard rock metal mines are described with their main advan- ings disposal were held (e.g., Symposium on Stability for
tages and disadvantages. Open Pit Mining held in Vancouver in 1970 and 1971; Con-
gress on Large Dams since 1970; the Tailings Disposal To-
A brief historical perspective day Conferences in 1973 and 1978). These conferences
focussed mainly on tailings dyke construction approaches
Tailings disposal development (e.g., Blinde and Brauns 1970; Casagrande and MacIver
An important volume of tailings must be managed by 1970; Klohn 1971; Brawner and Campbell 1973; Dopson
most mines since the metal volume is low compared to the and McGregor 1973; Girucky 1973; Klohn and Maartman
extracted volume of ore, particularly for large lower grade 1973) and on tailings hydrogeological and geotechnical prop-
deposits. In the early days of mining, tailings were typically erties (Girucky 1973; Guerra 1973; Swaisgood and Toland
transported hydraulically and deposited into the closest topo- 1973; Abadjiev 1976). Papers in refereed journals on these
graphical depression such as natural valleys, swamps, rivers, subjects also became more frequent during this period (e.g.,
or lakes, usually near the ore mill (sometimes called the Blight 1969; Smith 1969; Kealy and Williams 1971; Petti-
concentrator). However, as early as the 1920s and 1930s, bone and Kealy 1971; Webb and Smith 1971; Klohn 1972;
some mining operators started to build dams to contain the Mittal and Morgenstern 1975, 1976), which have formed the
tailings inside a defined area (Dobry and Alvarez 1967; basis for the ‘‘modern’’ geotechnical analysis and design of
Volpe 1979). This change of practice was mainly driven by tailings impoundments (Vick 1990).
local concerns about sediments in downstream watercourses,
death of fish near mining sites, water use, and other related Water pollution from tailings
issues. Also, for some mines, the tailings impoundment It is also well known that a mine can significantly affect
served a dual purpose of containing the tailings and allowing the quality of surrounding groundwater and surface water. In
the reuse of water at the ore concentrator (e.g., Vincent the first written text on mine water quality, Georgius Agri-
1973). For these pioneering operations, the dykes used to cola (1556; translated by Hoover and Hoover in 1912) men-
create the tailings impoundment were made of the tailings tioned:
themselves and were built by experienced people who were
taught empirically how to construct dykes without necessa- Further, when the ores are washed, the water which has
rily taking into account state-of-the-art geotechnical consid- been used poisons the brooks and streams, and either de-
erations, which at the time were relatively poorly developed. stroys the fish or drives them away.
Stage construction was usually adopted, with the height of This is probably the first recorded reference to mine envi-
the structure maintained at a minimum clearance above the ronmental impacts and to the acid mine drainage (AMD)
required storage level, which minimized initial capital costs phenomenon, which is a common problem for many metal,
and spread the construction costs over many years. There uranium, and coal mines.
was essentially no quality control on material properties or Specific research on AMD began in the 1920s and con-
placement method. Mine operators usually assumed that nat- sisted mainly of documenting the effect and extent of the
ural segregation of tailings particles by hydraulic deposition problem in the coal mining areas of Appalachia (see Paine
was sufficient to produce an adequate construction material, 1987 for an overview of early AMD research). As coal sur-
with the coarse fraction located near the discharge point for face mining in Appalachia flourished from World War II
the next upward dyke section. At the time, physical stability into the 1950s and 1960s, AMD impacts on surface water
of the tailings dykes was not a critical aspect of the mine and groundwater increased, and US agencies and univer-
operation, as mentioned by Smith (1973): sities in the Appalachian states became the most active par-
According to mining folklore, no tailings dam has ever ticipants in acid mine drainage research.
been completely without at least one failure occurring Research on pyrite oxidation associated with AMD was
during deposition of the particles. Although the term fail- first undertaken as early as the late 1920s, which paved the
ure is rarely defined in these stories, it can be assumed to way for many later investigations (e.g., Colmer and Hinckle
include everything from a slight nonconformity with the 1947; Garrels and Thompson 1960; Singer and Stumm
design to complete collapse.
1970). At the same time, researchers developed tests to pre-
However, it is difficult to define the nature and locations dict the acid generation potential of tailings. One of the ear-
of most tailings dyke failures because it was not a common liest studies in the field of coal mine drainage quality
practice to keep information about tailings disposal or to re- prediction was conducted by Braley (1949, 1960). Following
cord repairs and maintenance. this, a long line of research reports involving kinetic test de-
Few public technical documents on tailings geotechnical velopments and refinements was produced. From these, the
characteristics and failures of tailings deposits were produced work of Caruccio and Parizek (1968) is particularly impor-
prior the 1960s. With the emergence of big mines and larger tant since it leads to what is known today as the humidity
tailings impoundments, which implied larger dykes, and also cell test (see ASTM standard D5744-96). In the 1970s, other
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Bussière 1021
researchers developed a more qualitative test, which today is Since the 1980s, with new public awareness and concerns
called the static test, which allows a rapid estimation of tail- about environmental aspects related to industrial activities,
ings acid generating potential (e.g., West Virginia University much research financed by governments and the mining in-
1971; Sobek et al. 1978). The test basically evaluates the total dustry has been devoted to gaining a better understanding of
acid generating potential (AP) based on the sulphur content the geotechnical and hydrogeological properties of tailings,
and the total neutralizing potential (NP), which is evaluated developing new tailings management methods that are more
by chemical titration. The acid generating potential is then environmentally friendly, and improving our comprehension
subtracted from the total neutralizing potential. If the result and control of the environmental impact of tailings im-
NNP (= NP – AP) is positive, the site is likely to produce poundments. Results of this research are published in techni-
alkaline water; if it is negative, the site is expected to produce cal conferences, scientific reports such as Mine Effluent
acidic water. Different modified versions of this qualitative Neutral Drainage (MEND) reports, and in refereed journals.
test have been proposed and are now frequently used by
the mining industry as a preliminary characterization tool. Current hard rock tailings management
The treatment of AMD from coal mines to reduce environ-
mental impact was also studied by different authors in the The previous historical overview of tailings management
1960s and 1970s. Key documents were produced by Kosten- has shown that the main geoenvironmental problems related
bader and Haines (1970) and Lovell (1973). These authors to tailings disposal are the physical stability of the impound-
proposed treating AMD using High Density Sludge (HDS), ments and the geochemical stability of the solid and liquid
which is produced by adding lime to a recycled fraction of wastes produced at the mill that can lead to water contami-
the sludge; this method is now the most common approach nation. In this section, more details on conventional tailings
used by the mining industry (e.g., Aubertin et al. 2002a). management approaches are presented with the geoenviron-
In Canada, as in many other countries, the problem of mental challenges associated with these methods.
AMD was mainly, and still currently, linked to hard rock
mines. Initially, this environmental problem in hard rock Conventional methods for tailings disposal
mines was not considered as important as in US coal mines, Tailings are usually transported as a slurry from the ore
which may explain the relatively small volume of research concentrator (see Fig. 1) to a dedicated area called a tailings
on the subject before the 1970s. Water contamination by cy- impoundment, which is partly or fully surrounded by dykes
anide compounds was considered the main water quality that retain both the solid tailings and mill effluent. The loca-
problem at the time (Vincent 1973). However, in the early tion of the impoundment depends on different geological,
1970s, a few publications rang the alarm by identifying seri- topographic, geotechnical, hydrogeological, environmental,
ous environmental problems related to AMD for many Cana- and operational considerations (e.g., Vick 1990; Aubertin
dian mines (e.g., Hawley and Shikaze 1971; Rivett and Oko and Chapuis 1991a; Norman and Raforth 1998; Aubertin et
1971; Hawley 1972). At that time, reclamation of tailings al. 2002a). Dykes used to create the storage reservoir can be
impoundments for coal mine land (e.g., Bramble and Ashley built from the tailings themselves or from natural materials
1955) was done mainly by stabilizing the surface with vege- located near the site; these dykes are called water-retention
tation (e.g., Leroy 1973; Ludeke 1973). It was thought that type dykes.
the placement of a vegetative cover would alleviate environ- Although tailings dykes may have common features with
mental problems even for acid generating tailings (Leroy water-retention structures, they have some unique character-
1973). To insure the growth of the vegetation, an amendment istics (e.g., Vick 1990). In a tailings impoundment, the mate-
with alkaline tailings material was a common practice prior rial to retain is a pulp, usually at an initial solid content of
to seeding (e.g., Down and Stocks 1977). However, research between 25% and 45% that consolidates with time. Even
studies on acid generating tailings impoundments conducted after consolidation under its own weight, tailings have low
in Canada and elsewhere showed that the vegetation and shear strength and are still prone to liquefaction. Also, tail-
neutralizing effects of the amendment were temporary and ings dykes return no profit to the mining company, whereas
that AMD was only slightly reduced and only for a short pe- water-retention dams are constructed for economical pur-
riod of time (e.g., Moffet et al. 1977; Veldhuizen et al. poses. Water-retention type dykes (made of various soils)
1987). Thus, despite the advantages of having a vegetation used to create tailings impoundments are often constructed
cover on a tailings impoundment (reduces wind and water to their full design height (or to a high percentage of it) prior
erosion, is aesthetically natural, maximizes evapotranspira- to the beginning of discharge, but they can also be con-
tion, and improves biomass productivity), this technique structed more progressively to reduce the initial investment
does not control the acid generation problem. To avoid fur- (Aubertin and Chapuis 1991a; Aubertin et al. 2002a).
ther environmental impacts of AMD and to comply with the Water-retention type dykes differ little in their basic design
emerging environmental legislation (regulations requiring the from conventional water storage structures. They can contain
treatment of water were already being developed in the different zones including an impervious zone (impermeable
1970s in many US states and Canadian provinces), most upstream face or core), drainage zone(s), transition-filtering
Canadian mines began in the mid-70s and in the early 80s zone(s), and erosion protection zone(s). This type of dam is
to collect and chemically treat their effluents (Bell 1987). particularly well suited for tailings impoundments with high
Since then, much research has also been devoted to finding water storage requirements, such as those using a water
solutions to avoid AMD formation at the source (see cover to limit the production of acid mine drainage (e.g.,
Robertson 1987, and SRK 1989, for an overview of the dif- Amyot and Vézina 1997; Adu-Wusu et al. 2001; Julien et
ferent methods available). al. 2004).
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Fig. 1. Slurry of tailings discharged in a tailings impoundment.
Tailings can be used to construct dykes when natural abundant literature on this topic (e.g., Coates and Yu
materials are not available in sufficient quantity near the 1977; Ritcey 1989; Aubertin and Chapuis 1991a; Vick
site, underwater disposal is not essential to control AMD, 1990; Norman and Raforth 1998; Aubertin et al. 2002a).
and the mine tailings have the necessary physical and chem-
ical properties. Retaining dykes made of tailings differ from Main geotechnical and geoenvironmental concerns
water-retention type structures in that, because of material The safe disposal of tailings is certainly one of the most
availability, construction of the embankment is generally important environmental challenges for the mining industry.
staged over the life of the impoundment. Three main methods The traditional tailings management approaches were de-
are recognized for raised embankments made of tailings ac- signed to store tailings and did little to reduce environmental
cording to the geometry of the staged dykes: upstream, impacts. Physical and geochemical stability problems can
downstream, and centerline. For all methods, tailings are dis- occur throughout the life of the tailings impoundment.
charged at a solid content usually between 25% to 45% periph-
erally from the crest or from a single point located upstream in Physical stability problems
the tailings impoundment. The natural particle segregation The transportation and disposal method via a slurry condi-
creates two broad zones: a beach made of coarser particles tion induces tailings with an initially low in situ density that
near the point of discharge and a decanting zone of finer have a high water content and porosity, and low mechanical
particles that are transported by water. It is also possible strength. The retaining structures need to be designed in
to separate the tailings fraction by the use of a hydrocy- such a way that they can withstand solids and pore-water
clone producing a coarse underflow and a fine overflow pressures from loose and consolidating materials to insure
fraction. When the beach zone contains enough coarse par- stability. The analysis is complicated further when extreme
ticles, i.e., sand size and is sufficiently wide, it is possible events such as floods and earthquakes are considered and
to use this material for the construction of subsequent when the dykes themselves are built with non-compacted
dams. For the upstream method, the dykes are built se- and heterogeneous tailings.
quentially towards the inside of the tailings impoundment, Some recent events have highlighted the importance of
while the dykes are built towards the outside of the tailings dealing properly with the analysis, design, and construction
with the downstream method. With the centerline method, of retaining and confining structures for controlling the dis-
it is also possible to maintain an approximately vertical posal of solid and liquid mine wastes on a short- and long-
central axis. In some cases, the dyke can include structures term basis. The data made available by the World Information
such as drains and filter zones, especially for downstream Service on Energy (WISE) Uranium Project indicates that
and centerline construction methods. The main construction more than 77 major geotechnical instabilities of tailings dams
methods, and their variants, have been described in detail have occurred since 1960, 24 of them in the USA, 8 in Chile, 6
in the literature, with their main advantages and disadvan- in the Philippines and Great Britain, with others in Bulgaria,
tages, and will not be discussed further in this paper. For Peru, China, Spain, South Africa, Romania, Canada, Italy,
more information, the interested reader is referred to the Brazil, and Japan (see www.wise-uranium.org/mdaf.html).
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Bussière 1023
Many of these failure events have resulted in significant dam- and solubilized elements increases the effluent toxicity,
age to the environment, severe economical impacts and, in which can affect the stability of adjacent ecosystems. More
some cases, loss of human life (e.g., Dobry and Alvarez details on acid generation reactions can be found in the liter-
1967; Nelson and Kane 1980; Bertie et al. 1988; Shakesby ature (e.g., Kleinmann et al. 1981; SRK 1989; Ritcey 1989;
and Whitlow 1991; Vick 1996; Achterberg et al. 1999; Fourie Evangelou 1995; Perkins et al. 1995; Aubertin et al. 2002a).
and Papageorgiou 2001; Fourie et al. 2001). The rate of failure The contamination of surface and underground waters from
of tailings dams is estimated to be ten times that of traditional tailings impoundments can also occur at near-neutral pH.
water retention dams (Davies 2002). From the documented This Contaminated Neutral Drainage (CND) (e.g., Scharer et
cases, six main causes can be identified (ICOLD 1996a, al. 2000; Martin et al. 2003; Nicholson et al. 2003; Bussière
1996b): slope and foundation instability, internal erosion et al. 2005) typically occurs because some sulphide minerals
(piping), surface erosion, flood water overtopping, seismic may oxidize without producing acidic conditions while gener-
damage, and damage to decantation structures. Recent data ating metals and other contaminants that can be mobile even
from the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) in near-neutral conditions. These highly soluble elements in-
(2001) also show that most failure events (56%) and other include: antimony, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, man-
stability events (26%) occur during the active life of the tail- ganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, sulphur,
ings dykes where slope and foundation instability, seismic and zinc (Stantec Consulting Ltd. 2004). These elements are
damage, and flood water overtopping are the main causes of of concern because they can be found at concentrations above
instability or failures for these sites. The most frequent rea- existing environmental criteria. They can also affect the tox-
sons behind tailings dyke instability of inactive sites were icity of mine effluents depending on their speciation in the
seismic events and inflow of excess flood water causing over- water, even when their concentrations are relatively low. Fur-
topping. Recent surveys showed that nearly 90% of docu- thermore, they are often difficult to remove from the solute.
mented instabilities (failures or accidents) were observed for To ensure that contamination from mine effluent does not
dams and dykes made of tailings using the upstream construc- adversely affect the environment, mining operations must
tion method (e.g., Strachan 2002). use on-site measures to prevent, control or mitigate the prob-
The mechanisms associated with the physical instabilities lem. Most control methods aim at limiting the availability of
mentioned above are well known in the retaining-water in- one or more of the three main constituents of the sulphide
frastructure field. However, particularities of mining dyke oxidation reactions: oxygen, water, and sulphide minerals.
construction and the complex tailings hydrogeotechnical be- Construction of a low saturated hydraulic conductivity cover
haviour imply that these structures have to be analysed in a made of geomaterials and (or) natural soils to limit water in-
unique manner when used for mining purposes. As these dif- filtration is one option. The configuration of these covers is
ferences have not always been properly accounted for, they similar to designs developed for the isolation of domestic
may explain, at least in part, the higher rate of physical in- and hazardous wastes (e.g., Aubertin and Chapuis 1991b;
stability of mining dykes. Daniel and Koerner 1993; Rowe et al. 2004). In arid cli-
mates, covers with capillary barrier effects can also effi-
Geochemical stability problems ciently limit the infiltration of water (e.g., Williams et al.
Contamination of surface and underground mine waters is 1997; Zhan et al. 2001; Albright et al. 2004). Another option
also a source of concern, particularly when sulphide minerals to limit sulphide oxidation is to create an oxygen barrier. For
such as pyrite, pyrrhotite, and arsenopyrite are present in the instance, a water cover is sometimes used to limit the avail-
mine tailings. Although other sources of contaminants may ability of oxygen to reactive materials that are submerged at
be found in untreated mining effluents (i.e., cyanides, sus- all time (e.g., Amyot and Vézina 1997; Adu-Wusu et al.
pended solids, radioactive elements), sulphide minerals still 2001; Julien et al. 2004). Covers made of oxygen-consuming
represent the main source of potential pollution from hard materials such as wood waste, straw mulch, or other organic
rock mines. Exposure of sulphides to atmospheric oxygen residues (e.g., Tassé et al. 1997; Cabral et al. 2000) are also
can acidify the water and produce AMD, hence increasing an option. Another effective way to limit oxygen migration
the solubility of various elements contained in the host rock. is by the use of a cover with capillary barrier effects to cre-
The rate of oxidation is a function of different factors (e.g., ate a low oxygen diffusion layer (e.g., Nicholson et al. 1989;
Perkins et al. 1995) including oxygen supply, temperature, Aubertin et al. 1995; Bussière et al. 2003a). Sometimes, the
pH, bacterial activity, mineral surface area, and crystallogra- low flux barrier may also be oxygen-consuming, thus in-
phy. The chemical composition of mine drainage also de- creasing its efficiency (Mbonimpa et al. 2003; Bussière et
pends on the presence of other minerals, such as carbonates al. 2004). More details on prevention and control methods
and silicate minerals in the rock that can react and neutralize for AMD sites can be found in MEND (2001). The cost as-
the acid generated (e.g., Kwong 1993; Sherlock et al. 1995; sociated with such methods is usually estimated at 100 to
Aubertin et al. 2002a). The sulphide mineral oxidation rate is 300 k$Can/ha (Aubertin et al. 2002a).
typically slow at near neutral pH, but it increases rapidly as
the pH drops due to the presence of bacteria and soluble fer- Geotechnical properties of hard rock mine
ric iron. The oxidation of the reactive sulphide minerals con-
tained in hard rock mine tailings reduces the pH of the tailings
leachate, often to values around 2 (sometimes lower), pro- The above mentioned environmental problems of hard
ducing sulphate concentrations up to 100 000 ppm and metal rock mine tailings can be related in part to their hydrogeo-
concentrations typically greater than 1 000 ppm (e.g., Ritcey technical properties. In the following section, an overview
1989; Aubertin et al. 2002a). The combined effect of acidity of the main properties reported in the literature is presented.
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Fig. 2. Grain-size distribution of nine tailings sampled at the mill from Canadian hard rock mines before deposition in the tailings im-
poundment.
This overview of typical hydrogeotechnical properties for teen tailings samples taken on a hard rock tailings impound-
hard rock mine tailings also allows situating this relatively ment in Quebec are presented in Fig. 3. These show the
unknown mining material in the general field of soil geo- spread that can be encountered in a typical hard rock mine
technical properties. tailings impoundment. In this sample case, D10 and D60 vary
between 0.0009 and 0.006 mm, and 0.01 and 0.08 mm,
Basic characteristics respectively. The coefficient of uniformity CU varies
Tailings from hard rock metal mines are generally com- between 10 and 30. The percentage passing through the
posed of fine sand- or silt-sized particles. Figure 2 shows 0.002 mm (2 mm) mesh is between 4% and 20% while the
the grain size distributions of nine samples of hard rock percentage passing through the 0.08 mm (80 mm) sieve is be-
Canadian tailings. The samples were taken at the ore con- tween 60% and 100%. After deposition in the tailings im-
centration plant before deposition in the tailings impound- poundment, the tailings can be categorized using the USCS
ment. For these tailings, the D10 varies between 0.001 and classification system as a non-plastic silt (ML), or as a silty
0.004 mm, while the D60 varies between 0.01 and 0.05 mm. sand (SM) for the coarser fraction, depending on the distance
The corresponding coefficient of uniformity CU (D60/D10) from the discharge point. Such grain-size distribution differ-
varies between 8 and 18. The percentages passing through ences between samples taken on the same site are not
the 0.002 mm (2 mm) and 0.08 mm (80 mm) meshes are be- unusual for hydraulically deposited tailings (e.g., Mittal and
tween 5% and 14%, and 70% and 97%, respectively. The Morgenstern 1975, 1976; Vick 1990; Bussière 1993;
curves shown in Fig. 2 are fairly similar to those found in Aubertin et al. 1996, 2002a). Some researchers have tried to
the literature for hard rock mines before deposition in tail- link the distance from the discharge point to the particle size
ings impoundments (e.g., Vick 1990; Wills 1997; Aubertin (e.g., Blight and Steffen 1979; Volpe 1979; Matyas et al.
et al. 2002a; Benzaazoua et al. 2003). Using the Unified 1984; Abadjiev 1985). Their work gave interesting relation-
Soil Classification System (USCS; e.g., McCarthy 1998), ships between these two parameters; however, these are very
these tailings are classified before deposition as being sandy site specific (Vick 1990). The grain-size distribution hetero-
silts of low plasticity (ML). geneity has an impact on the in situ hydrogeotechnical be-
Due to their hydraulic deposition along or near the dyke haviour of the tailings, which can be strongly dependent on
crest, tailings are usually graded in the impoundment so that the particle size distribution.
coarser and (or) denser materials are concentrated near the Atterberg limits performed on hard rock mine tailings
point of discharge in the beach zone, while the finer par- show only a slight plasticity, with a liquid limit wL usually
ticles, sometimes called slimes, are carried by water towards below 40 and a plastic limit wP (when measurable) between
or into a downgradient pond. This signifies that the tailings 0% and 15% (Mittal and Morgenstern 1976; Mabes et al.
properties in an impoundment can vary both vertically (due 1977; Matyas et al. 1984; L’Écuyer et al. 1992; Barbour et
to displacement of the discharge point) and horizontally al. 1993; Bussière 1993; Ricard 1994; Aubertin et al. 1996,
(due to segregation). Grain-size distribution curves of thir- 1999; Qiu and Sego 2001; Wijewickreme et al. 2005).
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Bussière 1025
Fig. 3. Tailings grain-size distribution heterogeneity of in situ samples taken on a Quebec tailings impoundment of a hard rock mine.
Another parameter of interest is the relative density (Dr) are represented by the compression index Cc, the recompres-
of the solid grains, which varies depending on the ore min- sion index Ccr, and the coefficient of consolidation cv. The
eralogy. For gold mines where the ore is mostly in quartz table also presents the initial void ratio and the tailings
veins, Dr is usually between 2.6 and 2.9 (e.g., Vick 1990; USCS classification. Results show that the Cc values usually
Bussière 1993; Aubertin et al. 1996). On the other hand, the vary between 0.05 and 0.3, depending on the type of tailings
Dr value for sulphide tailings can vary from 2.9 to values (USCS classification SM, SP, SW or ML) and the type of
greater than 4.5 (Mabes et al. 1977; L’Écuyer et al. 1992; sample (undisturbed or remolded). The higher Cc values are
Barbour et al. 1993; Bussière 1993; Wijewickreme et al. usually observed for samples with a higher initial void ratio
2005). The value of Dr is important as it plays a role in the e0. The Ccr parameter typically varies between 0.003 and
stress state (total and effective), which affects the consolida- 0.03. Also, the results in Table 1 indicate that the primary
tion behaviour, pore pressure, material porosity, and re- consolidation of coarser tailings occurs more rapidly than
sponse to external loadings (static and dynamic). for fine tailings due to their higher hydraulic conductivity;
Few compaction test results can be found in the literature cv values usually vary between 102 and 10–1 cm2/s for coarse
on hard rock mine tailings (Mittal and Morgenstern 1975; tailings (classified as SP by the USCS classification) and be-
Volpe 1979; Chen et al. 1988; Bussière 1993; Golder Asso- tween 10–1 and 10–3 cm2/s for fine (SM and ML) tailings.
ciates 1996; Aubertin et al. 1996, 1999) owing mainly to the These consolidation parameters compare fairly well with
fact that tailings are rarely compacted when used as con- those obtained on natural soils with similar grain-size distri-
struction materials. The optimal water content (wopt) for butions (e.g., Holtz and Kovacs 1981).
both types of Proctor tests (i.e., Standard Proctor Compac- As a final remark on the consolidation of tailings, it is im-
tion Test, ASTM D698 and Modified Proctor Compaction portant to mention that in some tailings impoundment, due
Test, ASTM D1557 is between 10% and 20% with a corre- to the deposition method, the consolidation cannot be repre-
sponding dry unit weight d between 14.6 and 20.1 kN/m3 sented by the Terzaghi theory owing to the large displace-
(these values are valid for a Dr between 2.65 and 3.03). ments that occur in the mass of tailings. For example, soil
Higher d and lower wopt are observed for coarse (SM or stiffness and ksat cannot be considered as a constant but as a
SP) tailings compared to fine (ML) tailings. function of e. In these situations, large strain consolidation
theory and even a combination of sedimentation and large
Consolidation properties strain consolidation theory would be more representative of
The consolidation behaviour of tailings is important to the real consolidation behaviour of the tailings in the im-
consider at the design stage of development to evaluate their poundment.
possible settlement in the impoundment and to better esti-
mate the storage capacity. Consolidation tests have been per- Saturated hydraulic conductivity
formed on remolded or undisturbed samples. Table 1 One of the most important properties to establish a design
presents typical consolidation parameters for hard rock mine basis for tailings impoundments is their saturated hydraulic
tailings for both remolded and undisturbed samples. These conductivity ksat, which influences the consolidation behav-
# 2007 NRC Canada
Table 1. Typical consolidation test results for remolded and undisturbed hard rock mine tailings samples.
Initial void Classification

ratio, e0 Cc Ccr cv (cm2/s) (USCS) Reference
Remolded samples
1.06–1.08 0.06–0.13 — — SP–SW Mittal and Morgenstern 1975
0.95 0.13 — 110–1–510–2 SM Mittal and Morgenstern 1976
1.1–1.5 0.1–0.25 — 110–1–110–3 ML
1.22 0.3 0.032 — ML Mabes et al. 1977
0.70–0.85 0.06–0.13 — 1102 SP Nelson et al. 1977
0.75 0.05 — — ML Matyas et al. 1984
1.38–1.5 0.2–0.22 — — SP
— 0.54 0.056 6.210–3 ML Chen et al. 1988
— 0.12 0.011 1.110–2 SM
0.56–0.80 0.05–0.13 0.003–0.01 2.8–510–3 ML Aubertin et al. 1996
0.5–1.6 0.056–0.094 — 7.110–3–3.310–2 SM Qiu and Sego 2001
0.5–1.6 0.083–0.156 — 4.310–3–2.610–2 ML
Undisturbed samples
0.62 0.13 0.02 — SM Mabes et al. 1977
0.69 0.08 0.01 — ML
0.6–1.6 0.06–0.15 — 1.310–2–6.310–3 ML Blight and Steffen 1979
— 0.28 — 1.510–1 ML Volpe 1979
— 0.09 — 3.710–1 SP
1.25–2.0 0.17–0.47 — — ML Matyas et al. 1984
0.95–1.68 0.08–0.28 0.005–0.07 — ML L’Écuyer et al. 1992
iour, seepage conditions in the wastes and through the Predictive equation
dykes, and migration of water and contaminants in the Bussière (1993), Aubertin et al. (1996), and Chapuis and
groundwater. A proper knowledge of ksat is particularly im- Aubertin (2003) showed that standard relationships like
portant in the case of acid-generating tailings that contain Hazen and Kozeny-Carman are not well suited to predict
sulphide minerals. The application of control measures for ksat of hard rock mine tailings. Based on more than 40 per-
AMD often requires a relatively precise evaluation of the meability tests on remolded hard rock tailings samples
flow regime in and around the impoundment, which necessi- placed in a rigid wall permeameter (a method similar to the
tates a good estimate of the ksat value. ASTM D5856-95 standard) at a void ratio e between 0.5 and
1, Aubertin et al. (1996) proposed a predictive equation, in-
Laboratory measurements spired by the Hazen and Kozeny–Carman equations, which
Laboratory hydraulic conductivity tests on hard rock tail- can be written as follows (see Chapuis 2004 for details):
ings have been performed by several researchers on homo-
genized (remolded) and on undisturbed samples. As shown ½1 ksat ¼ CH D210
in Table 2, ksat values for homogenized hard rock tailings
are usually between 1 10–4 and 1 10–6 cm/s for fine- In this equation, parameter CH replaces the coefficient
grained tailings (classified as ML) and between 1 10–2 and with a preset value in the Hazen eq. [15] at 20 8C (Chapuis
1 10–4 cm/s for coarse-grained tailings (classified as SM, 2004). This parameter integrates fluid properties, void space,
SP, or SW). The range of ksat values for undisturbed fine- and grain surface characteristics. Its expression can be re-
grained samples given in the literature is typically between duced for hard rock tailings to the following equation:
1 10–4 and 1 10–7 cm/s; remolded samples are then e5:16 1=3
more permeable than undisturbed ones. The difference be- ½2 CH ¼ 1962 C
tween ksat of remolded and undisturbed samples may largely 1þe U
be due to thin layers of fine-grained materials in the undis- where the constant 1962 (1/cms) corresponds to the ratio
turbed samples that limit the vertical flow of water. How- between the unit weight of the fluid (w = 9.81 kN/m3 at
ever, these fine particles have less impact when they are 20 8C) and the dynamic viscosity (w = 10–3 Pas at
mixed through the entire sample by remolding. Some of 20 8C), multiplied by a material parameter estimated at
these studies also showed the influence of void ratio e on 0.02 for hard rock tailings (see Aubertin et al. 1996 for de-
ksat (Mittal and Morgenstern 1975, 1976; Nelson et al. 1977; tails). Equations [1] and [2] can also be viewed as a modi-
Mabes et al. 1977; Volpe 1979; Matyas et al. 1984; Barbour fied form of the Kozeny–Carman equation, where fluid
et al. 1993; Aubertin et al. 1996, 1999; Qiu and Sego 2001); properties are taken as constant, the pore space influence is
as e decreases, the pore size decreases, which reduces the expressed through a void ratio function where the exponent
ksat value. However, the relationship between e and ksat 5.16, instead of 3, is introduced to better reflect the influ-
varies depending on the materials and testing procedure. ence of path tortuosity, for hard rock tailings, and the speci-
# 2007 NRC Canada
Bussière 1027
Table 2. Saturated hydraulic conductivity laboratory test results on remolded and undisturbed hard rock mine tailings
samples.
Classification
ksat (cm/s) e Apparatus used (USCS) Reference
Remolded samples
1.310–4 0.55 Rigid wall permeameter ML Guerra 1973
110–2–110–3 0.65–1.10 Rigid wall permeameter SM–ML Mittal and Morgenstern 1975
110–4–510–7 0.60–1.25 Odometer SM–ML Mittal and Morgenstern 1976
110–5–110–6 0.45–1.20 Odometer ML Mabes et al. 1977
610–3–210–4 0.50–1.10 Rigid wall permeameter SP Nelson et al. 1977
110–5–710–7 1.20–1.70 Flexible wall permeameter ML Matyas et al. 1984
810–2–510–3 0.70–0.80 SP —
610–4–410–6 — — SM–ML Chen et al. 1988
1.510–5–710–6 0.68–1.14 Odometer ML Barbour et al. 1993
110–4–310–6 0.48–0.85 Odometer ML Bussière 1993
510–4–110–5 0.50–1.00 Rigid wall permeameter ML Aubertin et al. 1996
510–4 0.87 Rigid wall permeameter SM Bussière et al. 1998
310–5 0.80 — ML —
4.510–5–9.810–5 0.50–1.60 Odometer SM Qiu and Sego 2001
2.710–5–6.710–5 0.50–1.60 — ML —
1.210–5 0.72 Flexible wall permeameter ML Martin et al. 2005
Undisturbed samples
310–4–410–4 0.48–0.62 Odometer SM Mabes et al. 1977
310–5–310–7 0.55–1.05 — ML —
1.610–5–9.510–7 — Flexible wall permeameter ML Blight and Steffen 1979
310–5–110–6 1.00–1.40 Flexible wall permeameter ML Matyas et al. 1984
110–3–710–7 0.70–1.65 Odometer ML L’Écuyer et al. 1992
610–5–610–6 — Flexible wall permeameter ML Al and Blowes 2000
410–4 0.61 Flexible wall permeameter SM —
410–5–310–6 0.59–0.89 — ML Brisson et al. 2002
fic surface effect is expressed using grain-size parameters water flow through tailings facilities requires specific infor-
(D10 and CU). mation on unsaturated properties of the medium, such as the
A comparison between laboratory measured and calcu- water-retention curve (WRC) and permeability function (ku).
lated ksat values are presented in Fig. 4, which shows that The WRC represents the relationship between volumetric
the 61 measurements of ksat on hard rock mine tailings are water content and negative pore pressure (or suction)
in relatively good agreement, considering the numerous fac- while the permeability function is typically given by the re-
tors that affect ksat measurements, with the predicted values lationship between hydraulic conductivity k and . Unsatu-
given by eq. [1]. In this case, about 80% of the measure- rated properties have an important impact on physical
ments for coarse and fine tailings were predicted within half stability, since suction can contribute to the shear strength
an order of magnitude of precision. This equation has been (e.g., Fredlund and Rahardjo 1993), and also on geochemi-
extended by Mbonimpa et al. (2002) to generalize its appli- cal stability. The proportion and distribution of empty pores
cation to a wide variety of soils. Such types of predictive in tailings controls the movement of water and contaminant,
equations can be very useful to obtain estimates of ksat dur- and the migration of oxygen into the tailings, which deter-
ing preliminarily stages of a project, to ascertain the validity mines the amount of AMD produced when there are sul-
of experimental results and identify questionable data, and phide minerals involved.
also to establish the possible variations that can be expected
within a deposit when basic properties such as grain size Laboratory data
and void ratio are not uniform. However, predictive equa- The main parameters that characterize the WRC of low
tions are not meant to replace testing on representative sam- plasticity materials are the air entry value a and the resid-
ples. This is particularly the case for tailings that show an in ual suction r . Representative values of a and r for differ-
situ anisotropy owing to the factors mentioned previously. ent hard rock tailings evaluated using the tangent method
This anisotropy is not taken into account with predictive (see Fredlund and Xing 1994 for details) can be found in
equations such as eq. [1]. the literature (Barbour et al. 1993; Ricard 1994; Aubertin et
al. 1995, 1998, 1999; McMullen et al. 1997; Bussière et al.
Unsaturated flow properties 1998; Rassam and Williams 1999; Qiu and Sego 2001;
Surface deposition methods used to store hard rock mine Rassam 2002; Martin et al. 2005). The air entry value a
tailings typically involve a combination of saturated and un- may vary between 100 and 700 cm of water for fine-grained
saturated flow conditions. The prediction of unsaturated hard rock mine tailings, categorized as non-plastic silt (ML),
# 2007 NRC Canada
Fig. 4. Comparison between measured and predicted (with eqs. [1] and [2]) ksat values for hard rock mine tailings (see Table 2 for more
details on material properties and tests performed).
for values of e between 0.67 and 0.93. For coarser tailings, draulic conductivity was noted for both wetting and drying
categorized as sand (SM or SP), the measured a are be- cycles when the ksat value is not fixed and is used to best fit
tween 50 and 125 cm of water, for void ratios between 0.54 the experimental data. However, significant discrepancies
and 0.67. The estimated residual suction r for fine-grained were observed, especially for drying cycles, when the meas-
tailings (ML) usually varies between 5500 and 8000 cm of ured ksat values were fixed as a constant.
water while the values estimated from the WRC of coarse
tailings (SM and SP) are usually less than 3000 cm of water. Predictive equations for water retention properties
These values are typical for non-plastic silt (e.g., Aubertin et Ricard (1994) and Aubertin et al. (1998, 1999) presented
al. 2003). WRCs of remolded hard rock tailings (0.67 < e < 0.93) de-
The permeability function (ku) required to apply flow termined using Tempe cells and a pressure plate extractor.
models to the movement of water in and around the tailings These results were successfully fitted with classical descrip-
impoundment to assess seepage and fluxes (e.g., Chapuis tive models (e.g., van Genuchten 1980; Fredlund and Xing
and Aubertin 2001; Bussière et al. 2003a, 2003c) is usually 1994) to evaluate the main water-retention properties.
determined by WRC-based theoretical models such as those Despite being quite useful, descriptive (best-fit) models
proposed by Childs and Collis-George (1950) and Mualem cannot take into account the effect of a variation in the basic
(1976). Only a few unsaturated permeability measurements material properties, since they are representative of a given
on hard rock mine tailings can be found in the literature. material state. In this regard, Aubertin et al. (1998) have de-
Rassam and Williams (1999) developed a flow cell in which veloped a predictive model, called modified Kovács (MK),
transient water content and suction were monitored while to estimate the WRC of hard rock mine tailings based on
the soil underwent drying and wetting cycles. The unsatu-
some easy to obtain basic geotechnical properties; the model
rated hydraulic conductivity of sandy hard rock tailings
has since been extended for most types of soils (Aubertin et
(classified as SM with a a less than 80 cm of water, or
al. 2003). The MK model can be expressed by the following
about 8 kPa) for different suctions between 0 and 20 kPa
equation (Aubertin et al. 1998, 2003):
was measured by these authors using the steady-state flux
method (e.g., Klute and Dirksen 1986). The method consists
of an iterative process where the permeability function pa- ½3 Sr ¼ ¼ 1 h1 Sa ið1 Sc Þ
n
rameters were changed in 1D numerical models until the
best solution was reached ( and measured close to and where Sr is the degree of saturation, n is the total porosity,
simulated). It was also used to evaluate the permeability Sc and Sa correspond to adhesive and capillary components
function for drying and wetting cycles. A relatively good of Sr, respectively, and hi represents the Macauley brackets
agreement between predicted and measured unsaturated hy- (hyi ¼ 0:5ðy þ jyjÞ).
# 2007 NRC Canada
Bussière 1029
The contributions of Sc and Sa to the total degree of satu- usually between 308 and 428 and the cohesion c’ is close to
ration can be written as follows: zero. By comparison to natural sand or silt, 0 of tailings is
up to 68 higher due mainly to the more pronounced particle
½4 Sc ¼ 1 ½ðhco = Þ2 þ 1m exp½mðhco = Þ2 angularity (Mittal and Morgenstern 1975; Vick 1990). Re-
sults also show that there is little effect of the grain size
distribution (sand or silty tailings) on 0 and c’. Other au-
ln½1 þ =ð0:86h1:2
1 Þ ln ðhco = n Þ2=3
½5 Sa ¼ 0:01 1 thors have performed undrained shear tests on saturated
ln½1 þ 0 =ð0:86h1 Þ e1=3 ð = n Þ1=6
1:2
hard rock tailings. Results of CU tests performed mainly on
undisturbed and normally consolidated samples (see Vick
0:75 1990 for details) show that the undrained friction angle
½6 hco ¼ usually varies between 148 and 258, and the undrained co-
eD0 1:17 logCu þ 1
hesion c is usually between 0 and 100 kPa. Again, there is
In eqs. [3]–[5], m is a material parameter that can be ap- little apparent variation between sandy (SM or SP) or silty
proximated by the inverse of the uniformity coefficient (i.e., tailings (ML).
m ¼ 1=Cu ), hco is the average capillary rise, and n is a nor-
malization parameter introduced for unit consistencies ( n = Emerging approaches for tailings
1 cm when is given in cm, corresponding to n = 10–3 at- management
mosphere). The MK model equation forces the volumetric
water content to zero when reaches a limit imposed by Conventional impoundments require the construction of
thermodynamic equilibrium (i.e., = 0 at ¼ 0 = 107 cm retaining structures for both solids and water. The physical
of water; see Fredlund and Xing 1994). Equations [5] and stability of these structures is still a challenge for the min-
[6] are simplified versions of the original equations pro- ing industry. Moreover, hydraulic deposition produces a
posed by Aubertin et al. (1998, 2003). Some parameters and non-homogenous tailings mass, with unsaturated portions
constants have been multiplied or divided in eqs. [5] and [6] and low strength characteristics that induce difficulties with
to simplify the formulas. The reader is referred to the origi- respect to final closure of the impoundment, especially
nal papers for a more detailed description of the different when the tailings have the potential to generate AMD.
equations and the different basic parameters of the model Over the last few years, new and modified approaches have
with their respective units. been proposed to increase the geotechnical and (or) geo-
Figure 5 shows a typical example of predicted and meas- chemical stability of mine tailings to better insure environ-
ured water-retention curves with the MK model for a hard mental protection. The following sections present some of
rock tailing. As can be seen in this figure, there is good these approaches with their main environmental advantages
agreement between the two. Equations [2] to [5] can be and disadvantages.
used as a tool for predicting the WRC during the prelimi-
nary phases of a project and for estimating how the WRC Densified tailings
may vary with changing material properties. However, it is The term densified tailings includes thickened tailings
recommended to use laboratory tests to evaluate WRC for (TT), paste tailings (PT), and filtered tailings (FT). The
the final design stage of a project. main properties of the different densified tailings are pre-
sented and discussed in the following.
Shear strength
The shear strength of hard rock tailings must be deter- Thickened tailings
mined when evaluating the stability of a tailings impound- To reduce environmental risks associated with traditional
ment. Different tests can be performed to evaluate shear tailings dykes and to facilitate mine closure, Robinsky
strength properties, which are usually represented by the (1975) proposed the thickened tailings (TT) approach
Coulomb effective stress parameters: cohesion c’ and fric- (sometimes called Thickened Tailings Disposal). The aim of
tion angle 0 . In the laboratory, these parameters are com- TT technology is to create a self-supporting homogenous
monly measured using either consolidated–drained (CD) mass of tailings to minimize the requirement for retaining
triaxial or direct shear tests, or consolidated–undrained dams and at the same time to eliminate the need for a set-
(CU) triaxial tests with pore pressure measurements. CU tling pond (Robinsky 1999).
tests are also performed to evaluate the behaviour of tailings The TT method essentially relies on thickening the tailings
submitted to rapidly applied stresses and to evaluate the to a higher solid content (P), usually between 50% and 70%,
flowlike behaviour exhibited by tailings deposit failures. at which the mixture behaves more like a viscous fluid than a
Different factors affect the results obtained from CU and suspended particle slurry. Conventional or high density thick-
CD tests, such as the initial density of the material (void ra- eners are usually used to increase the solid content from 30%
tio or porosity), the stress (or strain) path and range over to 45%, (typical solid content of slurried tailings at the ore
which tests are performed, and the degree of saturation. concentrator) to 50% to 70%. In these thickeners, tailings
Most of the test results found in the literature were per- particles settle to the bottom and are pumped into the dis-
formed on ‘‘saturated’’ samples. Published results (e.g., posal area, which may be located in a valley or a flat terrain.
Pettibone and Kealy 1971; Mittal and Morgenstern 1975; To form a sloping deposit in a valley, the TT are discharged
Blight and Steffen 1979; Volpe 1979; Matyas et al. 1984; downhill. On flat terrain, TT are normally discharged from a
Qiu and Sego 2001; Rassam 2002) show that the drained tower (central discharge point), resulting in a low conical
friction angle 0 for initially saturated hard rock tailings is stack of tailings (see Robinsky 1999 for more details).
# 2007 NRC Canada
Fig. 5. Comparison between predictions with the modified MK model and measured WRC for two typical Canadian hard rock mine tailings
(data from Ricard 1994).
Most thickened tailings slurries exhibit non-Newtonian et al. 1997; Tibble and Nicholson 1997; Dagenais 2005).
flow behaviour, which can be reasonably approximated us- Nevertheless, at the Kidd Creek site, Timmins, Ont., even
ing the Bingham model (Sofra and Boger 2002). The yield when oxygen fluxes measured on the site were relatively
stress y (the limiting stress below which irreversible defor- low at values between 30 and 275 moles of O2/m2/year
mation and flow does not occur) reported in the literature is (Tibble 1997), the effect of having a high water table is not
usually between 10 and 300 Pa, for a solid content between sufficient to eliminate the production of AMD.
50% and 70% (Robinsky 1999; Sofra and Boger 2002; Also, the risk associated with the geotechnical instability
Williams et al. 2006). These consistencies usually corre- of dykes can be greatly reduced by the TT approach since
spond to in situ angles of deposition between 1% and 3% no retaining dykes have to be built and no pond is created.
(Barbour et al. 1993; Robinsky 1999; Williams and Seddon The geotechnical properties of TT are also improved when
1999; Oxenford and Lord 2006). the tailings are deposited in thin layers above the water ta-
The basic properties of TT from hard rock mines are ble. Consolidation by self-weight increases the strength of
fairly similar to those of traditional (slurried) end-pipe tail- the TT. Further consolidation and strength gain comes from
ings presented previously in the paper (see Geotechnical dessication when the tailings are exposed to natural climatic
properties of hard rock mine section). The main difference conditions. Other frequently mentioned advantages com-
between TT and conventionally deposited tailings is the pared to conventional deposition methods, such as smaller
higher in situ density (higher strength of the impoundment) disturbed areas, less susceptibility to water and wind ero-
and the relative homogeneity of TT stack. Barbour et al. sion, higher percentage of water recycling, and easier pro-
(1993) showed that even at a distance of more than 1 km gressive rehabilitation of the TT sites, are still to be proven
from discharge, the D10 and the D60 are still similar to those (Blight 2003).
near the discharge point. This homogeneity of the stack, the Since a large portion of TT deposition areas is saturated
small hydraulic gradient controlled by the gentle slopes, the (Barbour et al. 1993), at least in humid climatic conditions,
relatively low hydraulic conductivity, and the relatively high one of the main uncertainties of TT technology is related to
air entry value of the TT imply that for a typical humid cli- the liquefaction potential (McMahon et al. 1996; Fourie
mate (like in most parts of Canada) and for relatively imper- 2006) and to the prediction of the deposition angle. Other
vious foundations, the phreatic surface is perched near the aspects of TT such as the strength gain due to dessication
tailings surface. Considering that oxygen contained in air is and the impact of cracks on the hydrogeological and geo-
one of the main components of sulphide oxidation reactions, chemical behaviour of the stack still need to be investigated
it is usually considered that such an elevated water table is further. The main advantages and uncertainties related to TT
beneficial to reduce the potential for acid generation (Orava are presented in Table 3.
# 2007 NRC Canada
Bussière 1031
Table 3. Main advantages, benefits, disadvantages, and uncertainties related to the densified tailings.
Thickened tailings (TT) Paste tailings (PT) Filtered tailings (FT)

Objective Improve physical and chemical Improve physical and chemical Improve physical stability
stability stability
Principle Increase solid content of tailings Increase solid content of tailings Increase solid content of tailings
(50% < P < 70%) (70% < P < 85%) (P > 85%)
Advantages and Elimination of the surface pond Elimination of the surface pond Elimination of the surface pond
benefits minimizes water-handling issues minimizes water-handling issues minimizes water-handling issues
and reduces pore pressures in the and reduces pore pressures in the and reduces pore pressures in the
impoundment impoundment impoundment
Densified tailings eliminate the need Densified tailings eliminate the need Densified tailings eliminate the need
for large retaining dykes for large retaining dykes for large retaining dykes
No significant segregation occurs No significant segregation occurs No significant segregation occurs
during deposition, which creates during deposition, which creates during deposition, which creates
an homogenous disposal area an homogenous disposal area an homogenous disposal area
Greater shear strength of the tailings Greater shear strength of the tailings Greater shear strength of the tailings
is achieved due to the lower initial is achieved due to the lower initial is achieved due to the lower initial
n and w n and w n and w
TT are relatively easy to pump Fairly high a and low ksat, which Higher strength and lower n than
(10 < y < 300 Pa with no mea- reduce seepage and contaminant TT and PT
surable slump value) migration
Fairly high a and low ksat, which High Sr reduces oxidation reactions Water management simplified (only
reduce seepage and contaminant in the stack (particularly in humid run-off to manage)
migration climate)
High Sr reduces oxidation reactions Hydrogeological and environmental Smaller footprint for a similar
in the stack (particularly in humid properties can be improved by tonnage of tailings
climate) adding a binder
Dessication can increase the strength Less prone to liquefaction and
of the TT settlement
Disadvantages and Does not completely eliminate the Does not completely eliminate the Does not completely eliminate the
uncertainties AMD problem AMD problem AMD problem
Evolution of properties with time Evolution of properties with time Evolution of properties with time
(e.g., due to oxidation and crack- (e.g., due to oxidation and crack- (e.g., due to oxidation and crack-
ing phenomena) can be complex ing phenomena) can be complex ing phenomena) can be complex
TT are still prone to liquefaction in More viscous than TT Higher operational costs
most climatic conditions (100 < y <1000 Pa with slump
value between 200 and 275 mm)
Difficult to predict the angle of Rheological behaviour of paste is FT have a relatively low Sr, which
repose (usually between 2% and complex increase oxygen availability for
6%) oxidation reactions (compared to
TT and PT)
Cracking may affect physical and Paste deposition optimization has to
chemical stability of the stack be developed
Cracking may affect physical and
chemical stability
Paste tailings To produce PT, the tailings slurry (typically 25% to 45%
Paste tailings (PT) are usually defined as a dense, viscous solids by weight) is first sent to a thickener to increase the
mixture of tailings and water (and optionally binder), which, solids content to about 60% to 65% and later pumped to
unlike tailings slurries, do not segregate when allowed to filter discs that produce a filter cake. This filter cake is
rest (Cincilla et al. 1997). This technology was first devel- transported to the paste plant where water, fresh or proc-
oped in the 1970s for backfilling open stopes of under- essed water, is added to the paste conditioner to produce a
ground mines (Hassani and Archibald 1998). With the paste of the desired consistency (typically a paste with a
development and improvement of dewatering technologies solid content between 70% and 85%). The paste consis-
that allow increasing tailings solid content to values between tency is fairly similar to a wet concrete. PT exhibit non-
70% and 85%, underground paste backfill is now widely Newtonian flow behaviour, with a yield stress y ranging
used by the mining industry. Paste technology was recently between 100 and 1000 Pa (Li et al. 2002; Crowder et al.
proposed to replace conventional surface slurry deposition 2002). The behaviour of PT tailings is also considered thix-
mainly for environmental considerations. otropic, as the paste that flows through the pipeline system
As for TT technology, the main objectives of PT consist shows rheological properties that change with the flow dis-
of creating a self-supporting homogenous tailings stack tance (Li et al. 2002; Sofra and Boger 2002). Laboratory
without the construction of costly water-retaining structures. tests (Crowder et al. 2002) and field measurements (Ther-
# 2007 NRC Canada
iault et al. 2003; Shuttleworth et al. 2005) showed that of binder, the reduction in As concentration in leachates
slopes of PT disposal areas can vary between 38 and 108, from Soxhlet extractor tests was between one to two orders
depending on the paste rheology at the end of the pipe. of magnitude compared with uncemented tailings samples.
Shear strength of paste tailings in the field is higher than Work on this aspect is still underway, as it may have major
tailings placed in conventional impoundments and depends implications for the geoenvironmental management of reac-
on different factors such as solid content, grain size distri- tive tailings.
bution, in situ porosity, presence or absence of binder, suc- Despite the geotechnical and environmental advantages
tion and degree of saturation, and climatic conditions. Shear (actual, potential or perceived) mentioned previously, the PT
strength measurements on an existing site varied between 5 disposal concept is relatively new. More research and devel-
and 60 kPa; the higher values were observed after several opment are still needed to better understand different aspects
months of exposure to semi-arid climatic conditions where related to paste tailings for an optimized design, such as their
dessication was evident (Theriault et al. 2003). Similar rheological behaviour for a better delivery system design, the
shear strength values were measured by Verburg et al. optimization of depositional sequences to reduce the environ-
(2006) in field experimental cells. Because of its consis- mental impact and to improve geotechnical properties, inter-
tency during deposition, surface PT does not segregate, action between paste and the atmosphere, the dessication
hence it produces a relatively homogenous mass with a rel- effect on fluid (gas and water) flow, the influence of founda-
atively low hydraulic conductivity and high water-retention tion permeability on water and contaminant movement, the
properties similar to TT and to conventional end-pipe tail- reactivity of sulphide minerals in paste tailings, the stabiliza-
ings. These characteristics help to create hydrogeological tion of contaminants with cemented PT, and the evolution of
conditions that tend to reduce AMD generation. Sampling paste properties over time. Concerning the AMD generation
of the near-surface (upper 3 m) deposited paste indicated potential of sulphidic PT, the impact of cracking due to des-
that the degree of saturation remains close to 100%, with sication, which increases the physical stability of the deposit,
an in situ void ratio (e) of 0.84 (Theriault et al. 2003). Fig-
is probably one of the most important aspects to study. In this
ure 6 presents two photographs that show the typical depo-
case, the positive impact of dessication on physical stability
sition method of discharge from a tower and the in situ
could be counterbalanced by the negative impact on the over-
characteristics of the material.
all geochemical stability of the stack due to greater oxygen
It is also possible with PT technology to add a binder to availability for sulphide oxidation. The main advantages and
increase the strength of the paste (e.g., Cincilla et al. 1997; disadvantages of PT are summarized in Table 3.
Benzaazoua et al. 2004a). In this case, the amount of binder
to be added can be less than that for underground paste back- Filtered tailings
fill, where the material must have a minimal strength to serve
These dewatered tailings produced by high pressure filters
as ground support. The addition of a small amount of binder
have sometimes been termed dry stack tailings (e.g., Davies
helps to increase the shear strength and water-retention prop-
erties and to reduce the hydraulic conductivity of the paste. and Rice 2001), but since the tailings are still humid, the
Figure 7 shows the evolution of the saturated hydraulic con- term filtered tailings (FT) is preferred in this paper. FTs are
ductivity ksat with curing time (1 to 28 days) for two ce- sufficiently dewatered such that they can be handled by con-
mented paste tailings with different binder percentages ventional earth moving equipment without liquefying. The
(2 wt.% and 4.5 wt.% of a blast furnace slag (80%) and Port- tailings have a water content w that is several percent below
land cement type 10 mixes). The saturated hydraulic conduc- full saturation (usually between 10% and 20%), with a
tivity was evaluated using rigid wall permeameters for the « cake » like consistency (Davies and Rice 2001). The
first 7 days and flexible wall permeameters for curing times strength characteristics of the tailings stack are better than
of 14 and 28 days. For 2 wt.% binder content, ksat values for conventional tailings impoundments due to the higher in
decreased from 7 10–5 cm/s after 1 day of curing to 3.5 situ density and lower w. The coal industry was the first to
10–6 cm/s after 28 days of curing, while the decrease for the use FT for mining wastes (e.g., Green 1981). The washing
4.5% binder was even more pronounced from 4.7 10–5 to of the finer fraction of coal, integrated in the metallurgical
1.2 10–6 cm/s (see Fig. 7). Also, the short-term air entry process, creates fine tailings that are difficult to manage due
values ast (evaluated over a 24 h period) were estimated to their stickiness and low saturated hydraulic conductivity.
by modified pressure cell tests developed specifically for ce- Filtration of these coal tailings was then proposed to reduce
mented paste tailings (see Godbout 2005 for details). Results, the management problem and to increase water recovery at
not shown here, clearly indicate that the hydraulic properties the mine site.
of the paste are significantly affected by the presence of a Filtering of tailings can be performed by thickeners, fol-
binder and the curing time. For example, the ast was esti- lowed by the use of pressure or vacuum force, usually with
mated to be about 10 kPa (100 cm of water) for uncemented drums, stacked plates, or horizontal belt press filter. Once
PT, while it was approximately 350 and 620 kPa (3500 and tailings are filtered to a percent solid greater than about
6200 cm of water) for mixtures with 2% and 4.5% binder, re- 85%, the material is transported to the disposal area. There
spectively, after 28 days of curing. are two main methods to transport the FT: conveyor or
Another interesting advantage of using a binding agent in truck. The choice of the transportation method is a function
PT is the possibility of stabilizing contaminants in the ce- of different parameters such as haul distance, transportability
mented matrix. Work by Benzaazoua et al. (2004b) showed of tailings, and climatic conditions. The stack produced by
that the use of binder in paste backfill reduces the mobility the FT method (using both transportation methods) is rela-
of arsenic (As). Depending on the type and the percentage tively homogenous due to the consistency of the FT, and
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Bussière 1033
Fig. 6. Pictures of paste tailings: (a) end-pipe discharge from one of the towers, (b) new layer of paste flowing over a dessicated sheet of
paste.
the slope of the sides can be increased to values near the proach was selected to recover dissolved gold from solution,
natural angle of deposition of the material. for water conservation, and to reduce risks associated with
Costs associated with filtration and transportation of FT physical instability of tailings due to seismic events. The
are considerably higher than those related to conventional Raglan mine located in the northern Quebec, Canada, also
tailings disposal methods. However, in some specific condi- uses FTs that are transported by truck to the waste disposal
tions, such as in arid regions where water conservation is a area (Kemp 2005). The tailings are then leveled and left ex-
critical issue or in cold regions where water handling during posed to the cold climatic conditions to become permanently
winter is difficult, the FT approach can have significant ad- frozen. The FT approach allows the Raglan mine to recycle
vantages (Davies and Rice 2001). La Coipa mine in the dry a very large proportion of its water. The Green Creeks mine
Atacama region of Chile has a daily FT production of in Alaska also uses FT technology. In this case, about 60%
18 000 t that is filtered by belt filters and transported via a of the tailings (at a water content w of about 15%) is trans-
radial, mobile conveyor system. In this case, the FT ap- ported underground for backfilling open stopes, while the
# 2007 NRC Canada
Fig. 7. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (ksat) evolution of surface paste tailings with three different binder contents: 0%, 2%, and 4.5%
(modified from Godbout 2005).
other 40% is transported by trucks into the surface disposal Fig. 8. Scheme illustrating the environmental desulphurization
area (Condon 1999). principle where AP is the acidification potential and NP is the neu-
FT is not a panacea for tailings management but can offer tralizing potential.
some significant hydrogeotechnical advantages for specific
conditions. However, in addition the higher cost associated
with this method, the relatively low degree of saturation of
the tailings that could favor sulphide oxidation (and AMD
generation) is probably the main concern of this technology.
It could then be important to integrate the reclamation de-
sign with the placement of FT (see Table 3 for a summary
of the main advantages, benefits, disadvantages, and uncer-
tainties of FT).
Environmental desulphurization
As mentioned previously, AMD is produced when sul-
phide minerals are exposed to water and oxygen. The geo-
chemical stability of acid generating tailings is usually
controlled by limiting water infiltration and (or) oxygen mi- The technical and economical feasibility of environmental
gration. An alternative approach consists of separating the desulphurization has been demonstrated from laboratory
sulphide (acid generating) and non-sulphide minerals and to studies over the last decade or so, using different sulphide
manage the two fractions accordingly (Down and Stocks tailings (e.g., Bussière et al. 1998; McLaughlin and Stuparyk
1977; SRK 1989; McLaughlin and Stuparyk 1994; Leppinen 1994; Benzaazoua and Bussière 1999; Benzaazoua et al.
et al. 1997). This is done by conventional mineral separation 2000; Benzaazoua and Kongolo 2003; Yalcin et al. 2004).
techniques (usually froth flotation). The use of environmen- A recent study (Bois et al. 2005) performed directly on a
tal desulphurization and the separate management of the two mine site with a small scale flotation plant confirmed the
generated fractions (the desulphurized fraction and the sul- feasibility of desulphurizing tailings. One of the advantages
phide concentrate) reduce the volume of problematic wastes of desulphurization is that it can increase the net neutraliza-
to store at the surface. Figure 8 illustrates the use of desul- tion potential (NP – AP) of the treated (low sulphide) tail-
phurization. ings (Bois et al. 2005), as the removal of sulphide minerals
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Bussière 1035
Fig. 9. Integrated management of tailings with environmental desulphurization.
essentially increases the relative proportion of neutralizing to or greater than the acidification potential (AP), and it can
elements. be considered globally as nonacid generating. The low sul-
The integration of a desulphurization step at the ore con- phide tailings generated by environmental desulphurization
centrator could also allow for an improved (integrated) man- can be stored at the surface using traditional, or emerging
agement of the tailings as illustrated in Fig. 9. First, the tailings disposal approaches, and (or) sent underground to
sulphide tailings concentrate (with a high acid generating fill open stopes. Since the material is nonacid generating, it
potential) could be used as input material for the under- can be stored without the construction of elaborate infra-
ground cemented paste backfill. However, one must then structures needed for acid generating tailings (such as imper-
consider that the presence of sulphide minerals in the tail- vious dams and water treatment plants). The low sulphide
ings may affect the mechanical behaviour of cemented paste tailings can also be used to rehabilitate acid generating tail-
backfill (e.g., Benzaazoua et al. 2002, 2003). Nonetheless, ings impoundments. Because of their advantageous hydro-
these studies also showed that with a good selection of bind- geotechnical properties (relatively low saturated hydraulic
ers, it is possible to obtain good long-term mechanical conductivity and high water-retention), they can be produced
strength. The use of the sulphide concentrate in underground at the end of the mine life and used as cover material
cemented paste backfill reduces the amount of reactive tail- (mono-layered or multi-layered). This aspect will be dis-
ings that has to be sent to surface disposal facilities, which cussed in more detail in the next section.
helps to decrease both the environmental impact and capital The main challenge with environmental desulphurization
expenditures of the surface tailings facility (e.g., Hassani is its application for tailings with initially low neutralizing
and Archibald 1998). Even when sulphide concentrate is potential (Benzaazoua and Bussière 1999). Indeed, when NP
sent to the surface, its reduced volume is advantageous as it is initially low, it can be difficult to desulphurize sufficiently
can be more easily managed. In some cases, the low sul- and to generate a nonacid generating desulphurized fraction.
phide fraction has a neutralizing potential (NP) that is close For these cases, it could be necessary to add materials with a
# 2007 NRC Canada
Table 4. Main advantages, benefits, disadvantages, and uncertainties related to the environmental desulphurization and covers built with
tailings.
Environmental desulphurization Covers built with tailings (mono- or multi-layered)

Objective Improve chemical stability Improve chemical stability of underlying reactive tailings
Principle Remove sulphide minerals from tailings to produce two Reuse nonacid generating tailings to reduce surface
fractions (low and high sulphide content) fluxes (water or oxygen)
Advantages and Can eliminate the surface storage of acid generating Give a value to material considered as waste
benefits tailings when combined with underground PT
May help to obtain permits for new mine projects in Low sulphide tailings have the appropriate properties
regions with restrictive environmental regulations for use as cover material
The desulphurized tailings can be reused as cover mate- Tailings are less susceptible to freeze-thaw effects than
rials, or for other purposes clayey materials
Mono-layer cover with a controlled elevated water table
is advantageous compared to traditional water cover
(smaller pore pressures)
Residual sulphide can consume a fraction of the diffusive
O2 increasing the efficiency of the cover
Disadvantages and Can be difficult to produce a nonacid generating desul- The cover materials must not generate AMD
uncertainties phurized fraction for tailings with low initial NP
May face a negative effect of ore treatment process on Construction of the cover could be difficult due to the
the desulphurization process low bearing capacity of tailings
The sulphide recovery needed to generate a nonacid
generating desulphurized fraction
higher NP, such as mining wastes or natural calcareous ma- domain reflectometry (TDR) probes) to evaluate the per-
terials after the desulphurization stage. Other technical chal- formance of such CCBEs made of low sulphide tailings,
lenges also have to be tackled with this approach, such as the sometimes called ‘‘clean’’ tailings by these authors. The
reactivation of sulphide surfaces after the different mineral cover layers, which are placed over a layer of acid generat-
processing steps, the identification of the sulphide recovery ing tailings, include a layer of sand (30 cm in thickness), a
needed to render the desulphurized tailings nonacid generat- low sulphide tailings layer (50 cm in thickness), and a final
ing, and the mineralogical identification and quantification layer of sand (20 cm in thickness). The work also involved
of the different fractions. A summary of the main advantages extensive material characterization and numerical modelling
and disadvantages of environmental desulphurization is pre- (see Aachib et al. 1994; Aubertin et al. 1995, 1997). Results
sented in Table 4. from column tests showed that the two layers of sand in the
CCBE drained rapidly. The hydraulic conductivity of the
Covers built with tailings sand layers therefore drops and the water is retained in the
Another management option for low sulphide (nonacid moisture-retaining layer made of low sulphide tailings. The
generating) tailings is to use them as material for the rehabil- degree of saturation in the latter remained above 90% at all
itation of tailings impoundments (Aubertin and Chapuis time, even after a drainage period of 28 days. These labora-
1991b). For example, the low sulphide tailings can be inte- tory results showed the high efficiency (above 99% reduc-
grated as moisture-retaining material in a multi-layered cover tion) of the CCBE for limiting the diffusion of oxygen and
with capillary barrier effects (CCBE). They can also be used AMD generation.
for a mono-layer cover when the position of the water table Bussière et al. (1997, 1998, 2004) also performed a series
can be controlled (e.g., Dagenais 2005; Dagenais et al. 2006). of column leaching experiments (three columns with CCBEs
Multi-layered CCBEs use unsaturated soil properties to and one control column) using desulphurized (low sulphide)
create capillary barrier effects that maintain one of the tailings as the moisture-retaining layer. The difference be-
layers at a high degree of saturation at all times. The high tween the three layered covers is the amount of residual pyr-
degree of saturation makes the moisture-retaining layer an ite (Cp = wt.% of pyrite) in the low sulphide tailings used as
efficient barrier against oxygen flow by impeding gas advec- the moisture-retaining layer: C3A, Cp & 0.22%; C3B, Cp &
tion and diffusion. By limiting oxygen flux, the cover limits 0.65%; C3C, Cp & 1.17% pyrite. Each column was flushed
AMD generation, since oxygen is one of the constitutive el- with deionized water (5 to 7 L) every 3 weeks for a total
ements of the sulphide mineral oxidation reactions. More period of approximately 1 year. Water quality results show
details on CCBEs can be found in Nicholson et al. (1989), that columns with CCBEs maintained a pH over 7 during
Aubertin et al. (1995, 1999), and Bussière et al. (2003a). the testing period while the pH of the control column de-
To evaluate the possibility of using low sulphide tailings creased gradually to values near 3. The CCBEs also signifi-
(desulphurized or naturally low sulphide tailings located cantly reduced the amount of Cu and Zn in the leachate of
near the site) in a CCBE as a moisture-retaining layer, dif- the covered columns. The efficiency of the CCBE to reduce
ferent investigations have been performed over the last soluble contaminants (Cu and Zn) in the leachates (Esc) was
15 years. Aubertin et al. (1995) reports on a series of instru- estimated at more than 99.9% for both Zn and Cu for the
mented column tests (10 plexiglas columns with time three columns. Volumetric water content measurements at
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Bussière 1037
the dismantling stage (in this study, the columns were not Fig. 10. Volumetric water content profile in a CCBE with a moisture-
equipped with volumetric water content sensors) show that retaining layer made of low sulphide tailings: (a) volumetric water
the volumetric water content () was low in the two sand content profile measured at the end of the column test after 16 days
layers (usually between 0.02 to 0.10, which corresponds to of drainage (Bussière et al. (1998), (b) in situ measurements in one
a degree of saturation Sr between 7% and 36%) and high in of the five cells (Cell 2) during the 4 years of monitoring (Aubertin
the moisture-retaining layer ( usually between 0.37 and 0.4 et al. 1999).
or Sr between 80% and 87%), confirming the existence of
capillary barrier effects (see Fig. 10a). This explains in part
why there is no significant concentration of contaminants
in the percolated water of the layered columns. The water-
retention layer, which is nearly saturated at all times, im-
pedes oxygen flux to the reactive tailings.
Experimental in situ intermediate scale cells that were
made with materials similar to the laboratory studies pre-
sented above (Aubertin et al. 1999) were built near the
Manitou abandoned mine site at Val-d’Or, Quebec to vali-
date the laboratory data. Results of this 4 year field investi-
gation confirmed that low sulphide tailings could be
successfully used in a CCBE to limit the migration of oxy-
gen and the consequent production of AMD. Again, the
water distribution in the different layers for the 4 years of
monitoring was typical of an efficient CCBE (see Fig. 10b);
the two sand layers are well drained, while the volumetric
water content in the moisture-retaining layer remained high
(near the saturation value). The hydraulic behaviour during
the 4 years of monitoring remained unchanged. The effi-
ciency of the CCBE to limit AMD production was also con-
firmed by water quality measurements. Indeed, the four
CCBEs maintained a pH in the leachate between 6 and 7
compared to pH values less than 3 for an uncovered control
cell. Loadings of metals in the collected leachate of the cov-
ered cells were also reduced by 2 to 4 orders of magnitude,
in comparison with the control cell. The efficiency of these
covers was also confirmed recently from relatively elaborate
calculations using a reactive transport model (Molson et al.
2004). More details on this in situ study can be found in
Aubertin et al. (1997, 1999), Bussière and Aubertin (1999),
MEND (2001), and Bussière et al. (2007).
Along the same line of using tailings, it is also possible to
rehabilitate an acid generating tailings pond by combining an
elevated water table in the pond with a mono-layer cover
made of low sulphide tailings (e.g., Sjoberg Dobchuk et al.
2003; Dagenais 2005; Ouangrawa et al. 2005; Dagenais et al. depth of the water table, and the hydraulic properties and
2006). The concept of an elevated water table and mono-layer reactivity of the acid generating tailings. These factors must
cover is advantageous from a geotechnical stability point of be taken into account at the design stage. The concept of an
view compared to traditional water covers because of the elevated water table and mono-layer cover is also advanta-
lower position of the phreatic surface and lower pore pres- geous from a geotechnical stability point of view compared
sures. This approach is based on the principle that tailings in to traditional water covers because of the absence of free
the capillary fringe just above the phreatic surface can be water close to the dams.
maintained in a state close to full saturation, if protected As a final remark, it is worth mentioning that the residual
from evaporation, which inhibits oxygen diffusion and thus sulphide content in tailings used as cover material can im-
limits acid generation (e.g., Elberling et al. 1993; Elberling prove its performance, at least in the short term. Indeed, the
and Nicholson 1996; Tibble 1997; Tibble and Nicholson presence of sulphides in the cover helps to reduce oxygen
1997). As a general rule, the water table should be positioned migration by consuming a fraction of the diffusing oxygen.
so that the height of the tailings above it is less than its air In this case, two processes, diffusion and consumption, act
entry value a (Orava et al. 1997; MEND 2001); this concept simultaneously to limit oxygen diffusion (see Mbonimpa et
is represented schematically in Fig. 11. A recent study al. 2003 for details). The Les Terrains Aurifères (LTA)
(Dagenais 2005; Dagenais et al. 2006) showed that different cover (Malartic, Quebec, Canada, property of Barrick Gold
factors affect the performance of this method: the thickness Corp.) was built in 1995–1996 with low sulphide tailings,
and properties of the protection layer (i.e., the evaporation and since its construction the cover has been shown to be
barrier, which can be made of low sulphide tailings), the quite efficient for limiting AMD generation (McMullen et
# 2007 NRC Canada
Fig. 11. Conceptual view of a tailings impoundment covered by a mono-layer cover made of low sulphide tailings with the phreatic surface
positioned to maintain an ‘‘elevated water table’’ (adapted from Aubertin et al. 1999).
al. 1997; Ricard et al. 1997; Bussière et al. 2003b). How- particles near the surface are broken down mechanically or
ever, a critical aspect with a cover made of low-sulphide tail- by atmospheric weathering. The thickness and spacing be-
ings is to insure that over time, the cover will not generate tween such denser and (or) finer grained material layers de-
AMD (see Table 4 for a summary of the main advantages pends on the construction sequence, nature of the rock waste,
and disadvantages of this tailings management approach). and type of equipment used. Close to the external boundaries
of the dump, the effect of particle segregation along the slope
Co-disposal of tailings and waste rock is visible as these areas are less affected by heavy equipment
Mine waste co-disposal can be defined as the simultaneous traffic. In these sectors, there is a marked heterogeneous dis-
or alternate deposition of tailings and waste rock in the same tribution of waste rock, with inclined but somewhat discontin-
surface facility. Different strategies of co-disposal have been uous layers of fine-grained and coarse-grained materials
proposed over the last 20 years. Three main categories are (Wilson et al. 2000; Aubertin et al. 2005). At the bottom, there
identified here: co-mixing, layering, and co-disposal in im- is often a significant accumulation of cobbles and large size
poundments. By co-disposing the two main types of mine particles, making this an almost open zone for air and water
flow (at least close to the edge of the pile). The high porosity
wastes, the properties of the mixtures may be modified to in-
and air permeability induced by the heterogeneous structure
duce better characteristics than those of each of the separate
of the waste rock pile allow the abundant flow of oxygen to
materials.
drive sulphide oxidation reactions. During and after construc-
It is useful to recall the main features of traditional waste tion, a rock pile can become a type of natural acid generating
rock disposal areas. Waste rock piles, or dumps, are surface reactor (e.g., Ritchie 1994; Lefebvre et al. 2001a).
deposits of rock waste from mine operations. The piles can be
enormous, extending more than 300 m in height and contain- Co-mixing
ing more than 500 million cubic meters of waste. Waste rock The concept of co-mixing (initially proposed by Brawner
piles are characterized by relatively coarse-grained material 1978) consists of the combination of tailings and waste rock
covering large areas and are exposed to variable climatic con- prior to disposal. The coarse waste rock particles are then
ditions. Figure 12 illustrates a schematic cross-section through arranged in loose contact, and tailings fill the voids between
a waste rock pile constructed over a relatively flat surface, them. Co-mixing has been considered for application in sub-
showing the internal bedding and stratigraphy that can de- aqueous environments, such as natural depressions or open
velop from the usual construction methods. In the conceptual pits (Wilson et al. 2002). It as also been proposed to con-
model, horizontal layers of variable density develop from the struct waste management facilities above the surrounding
operation of heavy equipment. The layering may also be en- topography in a fashion somewhat similar to waste rock
hanced in some cases by material degradation when coarse dumps and tailings impoundments (e.g., Morris and Williams
# 2007 NRC Canada
Bussière 1039
Fig. 12. Conceptual cross-section of a waste rock pile showing internal structure (translated from Aubertin et al. 2005).
1999; Wilson et al. 2002). The objective of such co-mixing ings fill the voids between the coarse waste rock particles,
is to improve the physical stability of tailings impoundments hence reducing the total porosity n, or the volumetric water
by integrating a high shear strength material (relatively dry content at saturation sat , to a value near 0.3. The a value
waste rock) with the tailings. On the other hand, the addition of the co-mix becomes similar to that of tailings (between
of tailings in waste rock reduces the air and water permeabil- 100 and 200 cm of water), which is much higher than that of
ity of the mass and increases the water-retention properties the waste rock (between 20 and 50 cm of water). These re-
of the blended material. As a result, oxygen transport by sults also show that it is possible to reduce the saturated hy-
advection/convection, which are the primary oxygen transport draulic conductivity of waste rock by mixing them with
processes in waste rock piles (e.g., Ritchie 1994; Lefebvre tailings. Numerical modelling performed by Wilson et al.
et al. 2001a, 2001b) would be practically eliminated, and (2000, 2002) confirms that the hydraulic behaviour of a co-
the oxygen supply would be limited to oxygen diffusion, mix deposit would be similar to that of a tailings impound-
hence increasing the geochemical stability and reducing ment for humid climatic conditions, with the position of the
the production of AMD. water table very close to the ground surface. Hence, saturated
Wilson et al. (2000, 2002, 2003) showed the impact of co- conditions would prevail through nearly the entire dump
mixing tailings and waste rock on water-retention properties and oxygen entry is limited to the diffusion rate of oxygen
and saturated hydraulic conductivity (ksat) for different mix- through nearly saturated porous media. Furthermore, the co-
ing ratios varying from 20:1 to 1:1 (waste rock to tailings). mixing of waste rock and tailings produces a dense, high
Typically, reported values of ksat were between 1 10–5 and strength material with low compressibility that would be
2 10–5 cm/s for non-compacted co-mix and 5 10–6 cm/s less prone to physical stability problems than conventional
for compacted mixtures. These values are in the range of tailings impoundments (Wickland and Wilson 2005). The
those presented in Table 2 for fine tailings (classified as main advantages of co-mixing are presented in Table 5.
ML), confirming that co-mixed materials have lower satu- The concept of co-mixing tailings and waste rock is now
rated hydraulic conductivity than waste rock (typically be- being evaluated in the field, and it could become a possible
tween 10–3 and 10–4 cm/s) (Herasymuik 1996; Martin 2004, solution to reduce environmental impacts related to waste
Gamache-Rochette 2004). An example of a water-retention rock and tailings storage facilities. However, the implemen-
curve for a co-mixed material is shown in Fig. 13; it presents tation of this approach for hard rock mine sites has not been
the WRC of the tailing used in the mix and of the co-mix: done on a large scale, even if a successful experience has
blend ratio of waste rock : tailings of 2:1 (Wilson et al. been reported by the Australian coal industry (e.g., Williams
2002, 2003). Although the WRC of the waste rock in Fig. 13 1996; Morris and Williams 1999).
is not from the same study, it is typical of waste rock (Martin An important factor with co-mixing is the methods used
2004). By comparing the three WRCs, one can see that tail- to blend tailings and waste rock. For laboratory experiments
# 2007 NRC Canada
Fig. 13. Water-retention properties of a typical waste rock (Martin 2004), tailings, and tailings mixed with waste rock at a waste rock:
tailings blend ratio of 2:1 (Wilson et al. 2002).
at a small to intermediate scale, a concrete transit mixer has A series of column tests were undertaken to evaluate, in
been used successfully (Wickland et al. 2003). At the scale a preliminary manner, simplified scenarios of layering co-
of the mine, combined pumping of tailings and crushed disposal. Results showed that the layering reduces the gener-
waste rock at a ratio that limits segregation of fine particles ation of AMD because of the capillary barrier effects at the
and minimizes the risk of pipe blockages seems to be the interfaces between the fine-grained tailings and waste rock
most promising way to transport and mix the two materials. layers. However, some oxidation occurred in the columns,
Alternatives such as blending in a haul truck on a conveyor confirming that this approach reduces the rate of AMD gener-
belt, or mixing at the dump crest, or injection of tailings in ation but is not completely eliminated. To further investigate
waste rock are also being considered. the impact of adding tailings layers in waste rock piles on the
Many other aspects of co-mixing technology still need to acid generation rate, numerical analyses were performed by
be investigated further for an optimal use, such as the im- Lamontagne et al. (1999) using the TOUGH AMD program
pact of co-mix ratio on hydrogeotechnical material proper- (Lefebvre 1994). The waste rock pile model was based on
ties, the infrastructure needed for an efficient mixing and Mine Doyon located in the Abitibi-Témiscamingue region,
storage of co-mix material (dyke, dams, drainage structures Quebec, Canada (see Lefebvre 1994 for details). Two cases
in dams, etc.), the acid generation rate of sulphide co-mix were considered in the numerical study: the actual case of
material, the rheology of co-mix material when combined Mine Doyon and the case where fine layers of tailings were
pumping is planned, and the impact of adding other material integrated into the pile. Numerical results after 5 years
(bentonite, slag, cement) in the co-mix. showed a significant effect of the fine layers on the pile reac-
tivity. The base case showed thermal oxygen convection
Layering co-disposal driven by the large temperature gradient between the gas
Layering co-disposal (the terms ‘‘co-mingling’’ and within the dump and the outside air; the maximum tempera-
‘‘layered co-mingling’’ are also found in the literature) is an- ture predicted in the waste rock pile was 65 8C (average tem-
other option to store tailings and waste rock in the same perature of 38 8C after 5 years), while the outside air
storage facility. This approach, which basically consists of temperature is set at 5 8C in the model. Results for the layer-
the addition of layers of tailings in the waste rock pile, ing co-disposal case showed that convection is very limited
aims at controlling AMD production. The addition of fine- due to the tailings layers that are nearly saturated. Conse-
grained tailings layers into the waste rock pile may help to quently, the temperature in the waste rock pile remained at
reduce oxygen flux and water infiltration (e.g., Lamontagne relatively low values; the maximum temperature reached in
et al. 1999, 2000; Fala 2002; Fala et al. 2003). this case was 24 8C (average temperature of 14 8C). These
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Bussière
Table 5. Main advantages, benefits, disadvantages, and uncertainties of co-disposal of tailings and waste rock.
Co-mixing Layering co-disposal Waste rock in impoundments

Objective Improve physical and chemical stability of tailings and Improve chemical stability of waste rock Improve physical and chemical stability of
waste rock tailings and waste rock
Principle Mix tailings with crushed waste rock to produce a new Insert tailings layers in waste rock pile to Place waste rock into tailings impoundments
material with better hydrogeological and geotechnical reduce water infiltration and gas migration to add reinforcement elements and to favour
properties drainage of the tailings
Advantages and Increases the mechanical strength of the tailings Increases the mechanical strength of the tail- Increases the mechanical strength of the tail-
benefits ings ings
Facilitates rehabilitation of the site Facilitates rehabilitation of the site Facilitates rehabilitation of the site
Reduces AMD production rate of the waste rock (no Reduces AMD production rate of the waste Reduces AMD production rate of the waste
advection/convection oxygen movement) rock (no advection/convection oxygen rock (no advection/convection oxygen
movement) movement)
Hydraulic properties of co-mixed materials are similar to Water infiltration into the pile can be limited Reduce (and even eliminate for underground
tailings by inclining the tailings layers mines) the volume of waste rock stored in
separate dumps
Strength properties are more similar to waste rock
Volume occupied is less than one of the two waste products
disposed separately
Reduce (and even eliminate for underground mines) the
volume of waste rock to store in dumps
Disadvantages and Co-disposal is still a conceptual approach Co-disposal is still a conceptual approach Co-disposal is still a conceptual approach
uncertainties
Reduction of the oxidation rate of sulphide minerals Reduction of the oxidation rate of sulphide Reduction of the oxidation rate of sulphide
minerals minerals
Method to identify the optimal co-mix ratio is still to be Works to identify the optimal geometry and All waste rock cannot be stored in impound-
developed properties of the tailings layers is still needed ments for open pit mines
Rheology of co-mix (if pumping is used) is not well known Impact of climatic conditions on the efficiency Optimal design criteria must be developed
has to be evaluated
Impact of co-mixing on physical and chemical properties of
the mixture is not well understood
#
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1041
Fig. 14. (a) Numerical analysis results for horizontal layering co-disposal, conceptual model (Ht = 20 m; Hp = 10 m; Lb1 = 50 m; Lb2 =
25 m; Ls = 5 m; Ep = 0.5 m) and corresponding water content after 3 years (modified from Fala 2002). (b) Numerical analysis results for
inclined layering co-disposal, conceptual model (Ht = 20 m; Hp = 10 m; Lb1 = 50 m; Lb2 = 25 m; Ls = 5 m; Ep = 0.5 m) and correspond-
ing water content after 3 years (modified from Fala 2002).
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Bussière 1043
Fig. 15. Schematic representation of co-disposal of waste rock in impoundments: (a) plan view, (b) section through the first rock column
line (translated from Aubertin et al. 2002b).
and other results showed that such layering co-disposal AMD generation (Fala 2002; Fala et al. 2003, 2005, 2006;
would not eliminate AMD generation, but it can help to de- Molson et al. 2005). One of the scenarios studied was a
lay the onset of AMD production and minimize its magni- 20 m waste rock pile in which two horizontal fine layers
tude, thus reducing AMD problems. (coarse tailings similar to a sand) of approximately 1 m thick
Other numerical analyses were performed to investigate are placed, one at the top and one in the middle, within the
the effect of layering co-disposal on water infiltration and waste rock material (Fig. 14a). For climatic conditions simi-
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lar to those in the Abitibi-Témiscamingue region in the prov- nical properties. Other parameters to consider for the design
ince of Quebec, infiltration through the pile is still significant of such co-disposal strategies are tailings thickness, critical
and is concentrated into preferential flow channels (see conditions induced by the liquefaction (static or dynamic)
Fig. 14). Numerical simulation using a multi-component pyr- of the tailings, and grain size compatibility of both materials
ite oxidation and reactive transport model showed that the (filter criteria and internal stability of particles).
impact of fine-grained tailings layers on water quality is not The placement of waste rock into tailings impoundments
significant when the tailings layers are horizontal (Molson et is also attractive to reduce AMD production from sulphide
al. 2005). After 20 years, the pH at the base of the pile drops waste rock. As mentioned previously, properties of tradi-
to values below 3 and the sulphate and ferrous iron concen- tional waste rock piles favour the production of AMD be-
trations increased to 100 000 mg/L and 1 000 mg/L, respec- cause of the high air and water permeability of the pile. By
tively. However, when the fine layers are inclined at 5%, placing waste rock into the tailings, the availability of at-
water is diverted by the capillary barrier effects created at mospheric oxygen is reduced by the fine-grained tailings.
the interface between the coarse waste rock and the tailings The application of rehabilitation strategies on tailings im-
(e.g., Bussière et al. 2003a, Fala et al. 2005, 2006). The dis- poundments that contain waste rock is also simpler than
charge zone is therefore reduced to a peripheral ring near the strategies applicable to waste rock piles.
pile toe; for a given pile height, the radius of this ring will For underground mines, the co-disposal of waste rock into
decrease as the pile slope is increased (see Fig. 14b). Long- tailings impoundment can practically eliminate the need for
term control of AMD could be achieved if this outer zone is building waste rock piles (typical ratio of waste rock : tailings
constructed using low or non-reactive waste rock material is between 1:10 to 3:10). The co-disposal of waste rock in im-
and if the tailings used for the co-layering is not acid gener- poundments may also be interesting for open pit mines where
ating (Molson et al. 2005). The higher moisture content to- the relative proportion of waste rock is much greater. Even if
wards the pile surface may also tend to reduce oxygen all the waste rock cannot be stored in the impoundment, the
movement into the dump due to the higher degree of satura- volume co-disposed will be less reactive and the physical
tion at the external boundaries. stability of the tailings storage area will be improved. An in-
To the knowledge of the author, no application of con- vestigation is underway to define design criteria that are re-
trolled layering has been reported, even if ‘‘natural’’ layering lated to material properties and site parameters to apply this
appears in most waste rock dumps due to segregation during co-disposal approach. Table 5 presents a summary of the
placement. Different parameters of layering co-disposal are main advantages, benefits, disadvantages and uncertainties of
presently being investigated to optimize this application: the the three co-disposal approaches presented in this section.
distance between layers, the thickness and properties of the
tailings layers, the angle of the layers, the grain size compat- Summary
ibility of both materials (internal stability of the fine par-
ticles), and the impact of climatic conditions on the Every year, hard rock mining operations produce a large
performance. The development of efficient hydrogeochemi- amount of tailings, which must be managed properly to pro-
cal numerical models to predict the behaviour of layered tect the environment. The main geoenvironmental concerns
waste rock piles is also a critical issue for a broader use of related to the disposal of hard rock tailings include the geo-
this approach. technical instability of tailings impoundments and the con-
tamination of surface water and groundwater by the mine
Waste rock in impoundments effluents that could adversely affect the nearby ecosystems.
Physical stability issues of impoundments are mainly re- The main objectives of this paper were to present an histor-
lated to tailings hydrogeotechnical properties and to the dep- ical overview of tailings management and the current ap-
osition method used. Over time, tailings from hard rock proaches used by the mining industry, to give typical
mines may consolidate, which increases the in situ density hydrogeotechnical properties of tailings from hard rock
and strength. Unfortunately, the time required to reach the mines, and to describe new approaches proposed recently,
required mechanical state to ensure their stability may ex- mainly since the 1980s, to reduce environmental risks asso-
ceed the operating period. To improve mechanical character- ciated with tailings management.
istics of tailings impoundments, the placement of waste rock Tailings from hard rock mines are mainly composed of
structures into the tailings impoundment can be considered. silty size particles and have properties similar to natural silt,
In that regard, Aubertin et al. (2002b) proposed to place or silty sands, with low plasticity. The properties of tailings
waste rock on the upstream faces of dams, at the base of deposited into traditional impoundments are also a function
the impoundment to act as drainage layer, and inside the im- of the distance from the point of discharge. Hard rock tail-
poundment to create coarse-grained structures that could ings can be classified as sand, usually near the point of dis-
separate the impoundment into several cells and waste rock charge, or as non-plastic silt depending on their location in
islets that act as drainage columns (see Fig. 15). The main the impoundment. Typically, their saturated hydraulic con-
objectives of placing waste rock into tailings impoundments ductivity varies between 10–4 and 10–6 cm/s, while the air
are to add reinforcement elements and to favour drainage of entry value is usually between 10 and 50 kPa. Because of
the tailings. The drainage carpets increase the consolidation the high angularity of particles, the drained angle of friction
rate and the in situ density of the tailings and consequently of tailings from hard rock mines is usually greater than 308,
improve their geotechnical properties. The geometry of these and the drained cohesion is usually close to zero.
structural elements (size, distance between elements, shape, The historical overview showed that tailings impound-
etc.) depends on both tailings and waste rock hydrogeotech- ments created by constructing dykes made of the tailings
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Bussière 1045
themselves and (or) from natural soils were constructed as gagné for help with the figures, and Mamert Mbonimpa, John
early as the 1920s. Because tailings are traditionally trans- Molson, Isabelle Demers, and Jill Baldwin for helping im-
ported and disposed as a slurry into the impoundment, their prove the quality of the manuscript. Finally, we acknowledge
in situ properties can be detrimental to the chemical and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of
physical stability of the disposal area. Tailings are in a Canada, the Canada Research Chair program, and our various
rather loose state initially, with high water content and low partners for their support of our Industrial Research Chair on
mechanical strength. Over time, tailings may consolidate, the environment and mine waste management.
which increases the in situ density and strength. However,
because of the fineness of tailings that implies a relatively References
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1019

Colloquium 2004: Hydrogeotechnical properties of

Can. Geotech. J. 44: 1019–1052 (2007) doi:10.1139/T07-040 # 2007 NRC Canada

Fig. 1. Slurry of tailings discharged in a tailings impoundment.

Initial void Classification

Thickened tailings (TT) Paste tailings (PT) Filtered tailings (FT)

Fig. 9. Integrated management of tailings with environmental desulphurization.

Environmental desulphurization Covers built with tailings (mono- or multi-layered)

Co-mixing Layering co-disposal Waste rock in impoundments

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