IB

SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Topic 4: Chemical Bonding and Structure

4.1 Ionic Bonding and Structure

Ions
Positive ions (cations) form by metals losing valence electrons (oxidation).

Negative ions (anions) form by non-metals gaining electrons (reduction).

The number of electrons lost or gained is determined by electron configuration:
Group number 1 2 3 14 15 16 17 18
Number of atoms in
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
valence shell
Number of electrons Loses Loses Loses Gains / Gains Gains Gains
0
gained / lost 1 2 3 loses 4 3 2 1
Charge 1+ 2+ 3+ 4± 3- 2- 1- 0

Formulae of ionic compounds
Criss-cross method:
• Determine the charges of the ions
• Write the charge as a subscript to the other ion

Common polyatomic ions – KNOW LEARN MEMORISE:
Name Formula
-
Hydroxide OH
Nitrate NO3 -
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3 -
Carbonate CO3 2-
Sulfate SO4 2-
Phosphate PO43-
Ammonium NH4 +


Ionic bonding
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of electrons from the outer energy level of one atom
to the outer energy level of another.

An ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. They are
formed:
• Between a metal and a non-metal.
• By elements with an electronegativity difference of 1.8 units or greater.


IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Ionic compound examples:

Sodium atom and ion:






Chlorine atom and ion:





Structure of ionic compounds

Ionic compounds usually have a lattice structure of alternating
positively and negatively charged ions with the ions held in fixed
positions.



Physical properties of ionic compounds
Melting point and boiling point:
• High melting and boiling points due to the strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between oppositely charged ions.
• The greater the absolute charge on the ion and the smaller its ionic radius, the
greater the attraction between ions and the higher the melting / boiling points.

Volatility (the tendency of a substance to vaporise):
• Volatility is very low due to the strong electrostatic forces of attraction.

Electrical conductivity:
• Do not conduct electricity as a solid – ions are held in fixed positions in the
lattice so are not free to move and there are no free electrons.
• Able to conduct electricity when molten / dissolved – ions are free to move.

Solubility:
• Dissolve in polar solvents
• Do not dissolve in non-polar solvents


IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

4.2 Covalent Bonding

Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonding is the sharing of a pair of electrons between two
atoms.
• A covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction
between a shared pair of electrons and the positively
charged nuclei.
• Covalent bonds are formed between non-metals.

Single, double and triple covalent bonds involve one, two and three shared pairs of
electrons respectively.

As the number of shared electrons increases:
• Bond length decreases
• Bond strength increases

Bond polarity
Bond polarity results from the difference in electronegativities of the bonded atoms.

Non-polar covalent bonds:
• Both atoms have similar electronegativities
• They share electrons equally

Polar covalent bonds:
• One of the atoms in the pair has a significantly higher electronegativity
• The electrons are unequally shared
• The more electronegative atom appears to have a slight negative charge while
the less electronegative atom appears to have a slight positive charge



IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Electronegativity difference Type of bond
0 – 0.4 Non-polar covalent
0.5 – 0.7 Polar covalent
> / = 0.8 Ionic








The bond polarity is designated by the δ+ and δ- signs placed on the molecule, referring
to partial charges known as dipoles. The δ- sign is assigned to the more electronegative
element in the bond.

Ionic and Covalent Bonding Summary
Ionic bonding Covalent bonding
Forms between a non-metal and a metal
Formed between non-metals
(cation & anion)
Forms by oxidation (loss of electrons) or
Forms by atoms sharing electrons
reduction (gain of electrons)
Electrostatic attraction between Electrostatic attraction between shared pair
oppositely charged ions (cation & anion) of electrons and positively charged nuclei
Lattice structures Molecules
High melting and boiling points Low melting and boiling points
Low volatilities High volatility
Soluble in water Insoluble in wataer
Conduct electricity when molten – ions
Do not conduct electricity – no ions present
are free to move











IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

4.3 Covalent Structures

Lewis Structures
Lewis structures show all the valence electrons in a covalently bonded species.

They show the bonding electrons and non-bonding electrons (lone pairs) in the valence
shell.








Octets
The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to gain a valence shell with a total of
eight electrons.

Some atoms might form stable compounds with incomplete octets of electrons:
• Hydrogen is stable with only two valence electrons.
• Boron, beryllium and aluminium (in compounds) are stable with less than eight
valence electrons – they are electron deficient.
• Atoms in period 3 and higher can have more than eight valence electrons – they
have an expanded octet.

Coordinate Covalent Bonding
In coordinate covalent bonding, the shared pair of electrons comes from only one of
the two atoms. E.g. Al2Cl6.

Resonance Structures
Resonance structures occur when there is more than one possible position for a double
bond in a molecule.

E.g. CO32-




Shapes of species are determined by the repulsion of electron pairs according to VSEPR
theory.


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Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory
Each pair of electrons occupies an electron domain. The electron domain geometry is
the total number of electron domains around the central atom.

Pairs of electrons repel one another to be as far apart as possible. The molecular
geometry takes into account the extra repulsion between bonding and non-bonding
(lone) domains.

Lone pairs occupy more space than bonding pairs so they decrease the bond angle
between bonding pairs.


Two electron domains Three electron domains

Four electron domains Molecules with non-bonding domains

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Number of Example of Bond
Molecular geometry
electron domains molecule angle

2 AB2 linear 180

trigonal
AB3 120
planar

3
v-shaped
AB2E 118
(bent)

AB4 tetrahedral 109.5

trigonal
4 AB3E 107.5
pyramidal

v-shaped
AB2E2 105
(bent)

*E represents the non-bonding electron domains

Molecular Polarity
A non-polar molecule may have polar bonds and vice versa. Bond polarities can be
represented with vectors. The arrow head represents δ- and the tail represents δ+.

A symmetrical molecule has no net dipole moment. The polar bonds cancel each other
out and the molecule is overall non polar.





If polar bonds do not cancel, the molecule may be polar overall. It has a net dipole
moment.






IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Network Covalent / Giant Covalent Structures
The atoms are held together by covalent bonds in a giant lattice structures. They do not
form discrete molecules (that contain a fixed number of atoms). Carbon and silicon form
network covalent structures.

Allotropes
Allotropes are different forms of the same element in the same physical state.

Allotropes of carbon
Diamond

Structure Forces Geometry Properties
• Covalent network • Strong • Tetrahedral • High melting point – carbon atoms
solid covalent • bond angle held in strong covalent bonds
• Each carbon is bonds = 109.5 • Extremely hard
covalently bonded to • Poor electrical conductor – no
four other carbon delocalised electrons
atoms • Colourless / transparent crystals

Graphite

Structure Forces Geometry Physical Properties

• Covalent network • Layers are connected by • Trigonal • Good conductor of
solid weak intermolecular planar electricity – each
• Layers of forces of attraction • Bond angle = carbon atom has an
hexagonal rings (London forces) 120 electron which
consisting of • Within layers, carbon becomes delocalised
carbon atoms atoms are held in strong • Soft – layers can slide
• Each carbon is covalent bonds over each other due to
covalently weak IMF between
bonded to three layers
other carbon • Dark grey / shiny solid
atoms

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Graphene

Structure Forces Geometry Properties
• Covalent network solid • Strong • Trigonal • Good thermal and electric
• Single layer of graphite covalent planar conductor – contains
• Single planar sheet of bonds • bond angle delocalised electrons
carbon atoms arranged = 120 • High melting point – strong
hexagonally covalent bonds
• One atom thick


C60 buckminsterfullerene

Structure Forces Geometry Properties
• Simple molecular • Strong covalent • Trigonal • Can conduct electricity –
substance bonds planar contains delocalised electrons
• Carbon atoms bonded • Weak London • Bond (poorer electrical conductor
in 20 hexagons + 12 forces between angle = than graphite)
pentagons molecules 120
• Each carbon atom is
covalently bonded to
three other carbon
atoms















IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Allotropes of silicon
Silicon

Structure Forces Geometry Properties

• Covalent network solid • Strong • Tetrahedral • High melting and boiling
• Each silicon atom is covalent • Bond angle = points – strong covalent
covalently bonded to four bonds 109.5 bonds
other silicon atoms • Does not conduct
electricity – no mobile
electrons


Silicon dioxide, SiO2 (quartz)

Structure Forces Geometry Properties
• Covalent network structure • strong • Tetrahedral • High melting and
• Each silicon is atom is bonded covalent • Bond angle = boiling points
covalently to 4 oxygen atoms bonds 109.5 • Does not conduct
• Each oxygen atom is covalently • Si-O-Si bonds = electricity
bonded to 2 silicon atoms bent












IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

4.4 Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular Forces
London forces
• Exist between all atoms and molecules
• Consist of temporary / instantaneous dipoles and induced dipoles:
• At a certain moment in time, the electrons may be concentrated on the side of
an atom or molecule, giving this side a slight negative charge and the other side
a slight positive charge (temporary dipoles)
• A molecule with a temporary dipole can induce a dipole in a neighbouring
molecule (induced dipole)

As the molar mass of a molecule or surface area increases, larger temporary and
induced dipoles are formed within the molecule, which leads to stronger London forces
between molecules.

Dipole-dipole forces
• Exist between polar molecules that have a permanent dipole (due to an
electronegativity difference)

Van der waals forces = London forces + dipole-dipole forces + dipole-induced dipole

Hydrogen bonding
• Occurs between molecules that have an electronegative nitrogen, oxygen or
fluorine atom directly bonded to a hydrogen atom

Relative strengths of intermolecular forces:
London forces < dipole-dipole forces < hydrogen bonds


IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

4.5 Metallic Bonding

Metallic Bonds
A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of cations and
delocalised electrons.

Factors affecting strength of the metallic bond
Ionic charge:
• Metal ions with a higher charge have a greater number of delocalised electrons.
• This increases the force of attraction between the nuclei of the ions and the sea
of delocalised electrons.

Ionic radius:
• Metal ions with a smaller radius have a stronger force of attraction between the
nuclei and delocalised electrons.

Properties of metals
Electrical conductivity:
• Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity due to mobile electrons.

Malleability:
• Metallic bonding is non-directional – the force of attraction between ions and
delocalised electrons occurs in all directions.
• Layers of ions can slide over another without disrupting the metallic bond.
• Metals are malleable (can be bent into different shapes).

Melting / boiling points:
• The stronger the metallic bond, the higher the melting / boiling points.


IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Alloys
An alloy is usually a homogenous mixture of 2 or more metals. They have enhanced
properties.

Metals are malleable due to non-directional bonding. When different atoms are
present, the regular lattice of cations is disturbed and it becomes more difficult for the
cations to slide past each other and change shape. So alloys are generally stronger than
metals.

Properties of alloys compared to metals
• Greater strength
• Greater resistance to corrosion
• Enhanced magnetic properties

Examples of alloys
Alloy Composition
Brass Copper & zinc
Bronze Copper & tin
Steel Iron & carbon
Stainless steel Iron, chromium & nickel