1

Theory of Dhvani

In regard to the method of poetry the attention of the Pracina School is confined to
poetic expression, consisting of words and their explicit meaning. Expression has two
aspects-- the word (sabda) and its explicit meaning (vacyartha). Whatever quality in word
and meaning lends charm to the expression is regarded by these writers as an excellence
(guna) and whatever mars the beauty of expression, either in word or in meaning, is regarded
as a blemish (dosa). The presence of guna and the absence of dosa ensure beauty (carutva,
sobha) in the expression and thus make it a source of delight. Some writers do not make a
clear distinction between guna and alamkara. In so far as alamkara is distinguished from
guna, it is assigned a role subordinate to the expression rendered beautiful by the presence
of gunas and the absence of dosas.

When we come to the Navina School of aesthetic thinkers beginning with

Anandavardhana (middle of the ninth century AD), we find that the type of poetry, which
has emotion (bhava) for its theme, has won recognition as superior to the other one. An
emotion cannot be described or expressed in words. Hence it cannot be directly
communicated to the reader. What the poet can and does express are only the causes and
results of the emotion, that is, the situation in which the emotion is manifested. Yet, through
the description of the situation the reader understands the emotion and derives that exalted
delight called rasa. Thus the method by which the content of the poem gets communicated
to the reader is indirect.

Language, according to the later aestheticians, has the power of conveying a

meaning by suggestion, or indication, apart from the power of communication by overt
expression. The meaning suggested by the words is called vyangyartha. It is different
from and beyond the meaning explicitly and directly conveyed by the words (vacyartha).
When the content of a poem is emotion (bhava), the method necessarily consists in
suggested meaning, or vyangyartha, which is also called dhvani. Dhvani is the real core of
the poetic method---its ‘atman’ (kavyasyatma dhvani). The attention of the Pracina School
was confined to the expression, the mere ‘body’ of poetry. The Navina School points out
that the reader should not stop with the expression if the poetic content is an emotion but go
into the meaning that is suggested, or hinted, by it. From this point of view gunas and
dosas acquire a new definition. They do not stand for beauty and ugliness, respectively, of
the expression, but for the fitness (aucitya) or otherwise of the expression to suggest a
further meaning. As regards alamkaras, the Navina School points out that they are nothing
but ornaments in the body of poetry, namely the expression. They are therefore useful in
the outer type of poetry dealing with nature and human activities but have little use in
emotional poetry. Thus the Navina School does not reject the contribution made by the
Pracina School but only puts it in the right perspective. Sabda and vacyartha are no longer
valuable in themselves but only in subordinate relation to vyangyartha or dhvani.

The credit for formulating the theory of dhvani goes entirely to Anandavardhana,
the author of the Dhvanyaloka. The title means ‘the lusture’ (aloka) of ‘suggested meaning’
(dhvani). The concept was not entirely unknown to poeticians before Aanandavardhana.
Traces of the idea are found in their writings. But these writers did not accord any
independent status to dhvani. Neither Bharata nor his early commentators had said
anything about dhvani as the method of communicating the emotional content of drama to
the spectator. Bharata took the communication of the emotion for granted and discussed
2

only the necessary relation of the content, bhava, to the experience called rasa. There was
some opposition to the theory of dhvani from both poeticians and dramaturgists. But a
century after Anandavardhana, Abhinavagupta (980 to 1020 AD) refuted all the criticisms
of the concept of dhvani and established it for all time as an indisputable method of artistic
communication. By commenting on Bharata’s Natyasastra and Anandavardhana’s
Dhvanyaloka, Abhinavagupta, in his Abhinavabharati, brought out the inseparable relation
of bhava to dhvani, which culminates in rasa. By the time of Mammata (1050 to 1100 AD)
all opposition to dhvani had died down. Beginning with Mammata and running as far as
the seventeenth century there came a series of writers who elaborated, systematized and
expounded the creative work of Bharata, Anandavardhana and Abhinavagupta. The last
well known among these writers was Jagannatha who lived in the middle of the seventeenth
century (1620 to1660).

We may speak of three broad periods in the history of the Indian Philosophy of art.
The period from the first century BC to the middle of the ninth century AD may be described
as the period of formulation, during which Bharata enunciated the concepts of bhava and
rasa and Anandavardhana formulated the concept of dhvani. Then from the middle of the
ninth century to the middle of the eleventh century we have a period of consolidation, when
the concept of dhvani had to be defended against opponents. The third and final one,
extending from the middle of the eleventh century to as far as the seventeenth century, is
the period of exposition of the relationship between bhava, dhvani and rasa.

The Navina School of Alamkarikas beginning with Anandavardhana recognized that

emotion (bhava) is the best theme for poetry. With this recognition they had to explain
how the emotional content of a poem gets communicated to the reader. It was in answer to
this problem that they discovered the concept of dhvani. Before dhvani was recognized as
a type of meaning, three types of meanings were usually ascribed to language, namely the
primary (mukhya or vacyartha), the secondary (laksya) and the syntactical (tatparya). But
what the primary meaning stands for is only the situation, consisting of the causes and
effects of the emotion. It is from the description of the situation that the reader catches the
underlying emotion. The suggested meaning (vyangyartha) is arrived at indirectly from
the words through the medium of the primary meaning. The power in language by which
vyangyartha is said to be conveyed is called vyanjana-vrtti.

Anandavardhana takes the term dhvani from the grammarians for his theory of
poetic suggestion. The grammarians use the term dhvani for the sounds of utterances,
which reveal the integral linguistic sign (sphota). Similarly a good poem with its sound as
well as literal sense reveals a charming sense which has great aesthetic value. On account
of this similarity of function the term dhvani is applied to suggestive poetry when the
suggested sense predominates over the literal sense. The term is also used to denote the
suggested sense or the function of suggestion. In poetry, that which suggests (vyanjaka) is
the poet’s description of a situation. That which is suggested (vyangya) is an emotion either
permanent (sthayibhava) or transitory (vyabhicaribhava). The process of suggestion
(vyanjana) consists in how the words and their primary meaning suggest the emotion. It
connects the suggester and the suggested.

In his Dhvanyaloka Anandavardhana establishes his theory that suggestion is the

soul of poetry. The expressed sense is invariably an idea or a figure of speech. But the
suggested sense may be of three kinds: an idea, a figure of speech or an emotion. Only
men of taste who know the essence of poetry understand the suggested sense. This
3

suggested sense is the soul of poetry. Such poetry is the highest type of poetry (dhvani-
kavya). Poetry in which the suggested sense is subordinate to the expressed sense is called
gunibhuta-vyangya-kavya. This poetry too has some charm. But poetry that does not
contain any suggested sense (citra-kavya) cannot be considered good poetry however
charming the expressed sense. The quality of poetry depends on the importance given to
the element of suggestion.

The doctrine of dhvani is only an extension of the rasa theory propounded by the
ancient sage Bharata, according to which the main object of a dramatic work is to rouse
rasa in the audience. Anandavardhana extended this theory to poetry also. There is no
conflict between the theory of dhvani and the theory of rasa: the former stresses the method
of treatment whereas the latter deals with the ultimate effect. Suggestion in drama or poetry
must be charming. Emotions cannot be expressed directly by words. They can only be
suggested.

Criticism against the dhvani theory.

In the Dhvanyaloka Anandavardhana refers to many of the views against the

doctrine of dhvani. Some hold that it does not exist, some say that it is included in laksana
(secondary meaning) and others consider dhvani to be something beyond the province of
words, which is known only to men of literary taste. Others have tried to include it under
anumana (inference) and some have thought the concept to be absurd. The main arguments
against dhvani are:

Dhvani and Anumana

The Naiyayikas (logicians) reject the suggestive power of words. Mahimabhatta

says that the implied sense in literature is always conveyed by the expressed sense through
the process of inference. According to the later Naiyayikas, vyangyartha or suggested
sense of a word is really inferred from its primary and secondary meanings and is not
separate from them. Precision and accuracy are the chief objects of logic and it should
always demand the use of a word in its plain, primary and unambiguous sense. Logic
accepts the secondary meaning also since it can be ascertained with a fair amount of
accuracy through the primary meaning. But the suggested meaning is vague and fleeting.
Logic whose only appeal is to reason, takes accuracy and precision as indispensable and
recognizes only as much of the suggested sense as can reasonably be inferred from the
expressed sense; the subtle and subjective suggestion implied in language are not subjects
of logical discussion. In the Tractatus, Wittgenstein laid down that ‘whatever can be said,
can be said clearly. And what we cannot speak about, we must leave in silence.’ Great
poetry is written in the fringe of that silence; it aims at conveying the inexpressible, by
means of suggestion. The suggested sense plays an important part in poetry where the
appeal is more to the emotion and sentiment than to reason. In Introduction to Metaphysics,
Bergson says, ‘Language is incapable of apprehending and expressing reality. But
language may be used in another way, not to represent, but to bring the hearer to a point
where he himself may transcend language and pass to incommunicable insight. It is a
dialectical ladder which, when we have ascended, may be kicked away.’ This insight and
intuition cannot be expressed directly by words, but they can be communicated through the
power of suggestion.
4

Anandavardhana illustrates his point by means of an analogy. He says that the

relation between the expressed sense and the implied sense is something similar to that
between a light and a pot; the light reveals the pot, even though there is no invariable relation
between the two.

Dhvani and Arthapatti

Arthapatti is a kind of immediate inference. Jespersen defines suggestion as

impression through suppression. He says, ‘in all speech activity there are three things to
be distinguished: expression, suppression and impression. Expression is what the speaker
gives, suppression is what he does not give, though he might have given it, and impression
is what the hearer receives. It is important to notice that an impression is often produced
not only by what is said expressly, but also by what is suppressed. Suggestion is impression
by suppression.’ In ordinary sentences, the individual words give only their isolated
meanings, leaving the samsarga or the mutual relation of the words to be conveyed by
suppression or suggestion. Samsarga is cognized through a process of inference of the
arthapatti type. Even in laksana the transferred sense is obtained through arthapatti.
Mukulabhatta quotes the well-known example of ‘the fat boy who does not eat during the
day’ as a variety of laksna. Arthapatti, being a means of valid knowledge, implies accuracy
and definiteness of the sense cognized through it; but in poetic suggestion the implied sense
is rather vague and can be fully understood only by men of literary taste.

Dhvani and laksana

Some of the Alamkarikas like Mukulabhatta tried to include vyanjana or the

suggestive power under laksana. Mukulabhatta defines laksana in such a way that all
instances where the expressed sense indicates other ideas are included in it, and he says that
dhvani, propounded as a new doctrine by some literary critics actually falls within the sphere
of laksana itself.

Anandavardhana refers to this anti-dhvani theory and says that laksana and dhvani
differ from each other with regard to their nature and subject matter. Laksana operates
when there is some kind of inconsistency in the primary sense; it indicates the secondary
metaphorical sense after cancelling its primary sense; but in suggestion the primary sense
need not be discarded. Laksana is based on the primary sense of a word and is its extension;
it is part of the primary sense itself and some have called it the tail of the primary sense
(abhidhapuccha). Dhvani, on the other hand, depends on suggestion. And suggestion
can occur even in cases where there is absolutely no expressed sense, as in the case of
emotion suggested by the sound of music or the sight of dances. The emotive element in
language can never be explained in terms of the expressive or the metaphorical senses of
words. In laksana the implied sense is always indicated indirectly through the primary
sense of the word. But in the case of dhvani it is possible for both the meanings to occur
almost simultaneously. Again, the suggested sense is determined by the contextual factors,
the intonation, the facial expression, gestures, etc., whereas laksana, as well as abhidha
(primary signification), are independent.

Even the subjects of laksana and dhvani are different. The meaning conveyed by
laksana is always an idea; but the suggested sense can be an idea, a figure of speech or an
emotion.
5

Anandavardhana says that laksana operates only when there is inconsistency of the
primary sense and that its function is exhausted when this inconsistency is removed by
resorting to the secondary meaning which is related to the primary sense. In the example
‘the village is on the Ganga,’ the primary meaning of the word Ganga is the river Ganges.
This cannot be applied in the sentence because the village cannot stand on the river. This
makes one adopt the secondary interpretation in which the term ‘Ganga’ is interpreted as
indicating ‘the bank of the Ganges.’ Thus, the discrepancy is removed and with that the
power of laksana is also exhausted. The ideas of holiness and purity that are suggested by
the statement cannot be implied by laksana. It is determined by the emotional atmosphere,
which envelops the word and is something elusive. Even in the absence of laksana the
word Ganga can suggest the qualities of purity and sanctity. Laksana does not give the
suggested sense, but it points the way to the richness of the ideas associated with the word.
It leads the way to the land of suggestion.

Dhvani and Abhidha

Certain schools consider dhvani to be included in the primary function abhidha

itself. There is no restriction to the scope of the significative force of a word. Just as the
range of an arrow can be extended farther and farther depending on the force with which it
is discharged, the meaning of a word can be extended to any length. Anandavardhana and
his followers attack this view. The suggested sense cannot be conveyed by the power of
abhidha, for it is only the definite conventional sense, which is directly related to the word
that is conveyed by abhidha. The power of the primary function of the word is exhausted
when this task is performed. Even the sentence meaning cannot be expressed by the words
through the primary function alone. Another function has to be accepted to explain
suggested meanings. The primary sense is directly related to the word but the suggested
sense is, at times known only indirectly through the expressed sense.

Moreover, suggestion need not always depend on words; the melody of music,
gestures, etc., are suggestive of sense. The primary sense is definite and fixed; but the
suggested sense changes according to the changes in the contextual factors. The primary
sense of a word can be objectively learned by any one from a lexicon; but the suggested
sense in poetry can be fully appreciated only by men of taste.

Dhvani and Tatparyavrtti

Some Alamkarikas like Dhanika and Dhanamjaya include dhvani under

tatparyavrtti, a function of the sentence postulated to explain the verbal comprehension
arising from a sentence. The direct relation of the word is to its isolated meaning. In a
sentence the primary function of the words is exhausted. The mutual relation of the isolated
word-meanings or the samsarga as it is called is not conveyed by the words directly. It is
not expressed, it is only suggested. This is done according to them by tatparyavrtti. Some
of the later Alamkarikas have accepted tatparya almost as synonymous with suggestion.

But tataparyavrtti is postulated to explain the literal meaning of a sentence, whereas

vyanjana comes at the next stage. The power of the former is exhausted by establishing
the logical connection of the word meanings, and cannot give further suggestions. Tatparya
pertains to the expressed sense, whereas dhvani pertains to non-expressive factors also such
as music, gesture etc.
6

Dhvani and Vakrokti

In the Vakroktijivita, Kuntaka denied the independent existence of dhvani, and

included it under vakrokti or ‘a striking mode of speech.’ His vakrokti is all pervading and
is almost analogous to dhvani itself.

Classification of Dhvani

1. As suggested sense, or what is suggested (vyangya):

When what is suggested is a fact (vastu) it is called vastu-dhvani and when an alamkara
is suggested it is called alamkara-dhvani. When a transitory emotion (vyabhicaribhava) is
suggested the suggested sense is called bhava-dhvani and when a permanent emotion
(sthayibhava) is suggested it is called rasa-dhvani because the sthayibhava culminates in
rasa.

2. As the means to suggestion, or that which suggests (vyanjaka):

The primary meaning, secondary meaning, parts and aspects of a word such as letters,
prefixes and suffixes, phrases, clauses and sentences all can be used for suggestion
according to the situations in which they are used. If we extend the above argument, we
may treat even the work as a whole as a suggester.

3. As the process of suggestion (vyanjana):

Depending on whether the suggestion is effected through the primary meaning or

the secondary meaning dhvani is divided into two types: Avivaksita-vacya and
vivaksitanyapara-vacya. The former is based on laksana (secondary meaning) and is called
laksanamula; in this type the literal meaning is not intended. Corresponding to the two
varieties of laksana namely jahallaksana and ajahallaksana, the avivaksita-vacya type of
dhvani is also subdivided into two; atyantatiraskrta where the literal sense is completely
set-aside (as in calling a fool an intelligent person) and arthantarasamkramita-vacya where
the literal meaning is shifted. This second sub-variety comprises cases where a word is
used in an enhanced or diminished sense. In the example ‘dirty clothes are not clothes,’
‘not clothes’ only means ‘clothes not in the fullest sense of the term.’ An example of this
type of dhvani given by Anandavardhana is, ‘Only when favoured by the rays of the sun are
lotuses lotuses.’ Here lotuses carries the meaning ‘lotuses in the full sense of the word;
lotuses with all the qualities of beauty which make them worth being called lotuses.’

The second division of dhvani, vivaksitanyapara-vacya is sometimes also called

abhidhamula as it is based on abhidha or the primary meaning of the word. In this type
the literal sense is in fact intended, but serves the implied sense. This is also divided into
two sub-varieties--- (1) samlaksyakrama-vyangya where the stages of realizing the
suggested sense from the expressed sense can be well perceived. Here the vibhavas etc., are
not expressly mentioned and they have to be gathered from the context and hence the stages
in the realization of the emotions will be perceptible. (2) asamlaksyakrama-vyangya where
the stages in the realization of the suggested sense are imperceptible. The latter is more
important and is concerned with the suggestion of poetic emotion. Here the intermediate
steps between the understanding of the expressed sense (in the form of vibhavas, anubhavas
and vyabhicaribhavas) and the realization of rasa are not perceived.
7

The type of dhvani called samlaksyakrama-vyanga is again subdivided into vastu-

dhvani where a fact is suggested and alamkaradhvani where the suggested element is a
figure of speech. It can be classified from another point of view, into that based on words
(sabda-saktimula) and that based on the meanings (arthasaktimula). In the former the
actual words used are vital to the suggestion and cannot be substituted by their synonyms,
while in the latter it is the contextual factors and the social and cultural background that are
important in bringing about the suggestion. Or it may be based on both at the same time
(ubhayasaktimula).

In the Sahityadarpana, Visvanatha criticizes Anandavardhana for including under

poetry suggestions of a fact or a figure of speech. He says that the suggestion of poetic
emotion alone can be considered as the soul of poetry and refuses to recognize any piece of
poetry in which emotional elements are absent. Anandavardhana himself was fully
conscious of the importance of emotional elements in poetry. Abhinavagupta makes the
idea clear by saying that suggestion that leads to rasa alone is the soul of poetry and that
the suggestion of ideas and figures of speech (vastu-dhvani and alamkara-dhvani)
ultimately terminates in the development of rasa.

In sabdasaktimula-dhvani suggestion is effected through the power of the word. In

the case of homonymous expression (slesa) if both the meanings are applicable in the
context, the meanings are known through the primary sense abhidha. But if one is
contextual and the other non-contextual, the power of abhidha might bring the recollection
of both, but the contextual factors will restrict it to one of the meanings. In sabdasaktimula-
dhvani, suggestion is based on the actual words used, and the words cannot be substituted
by their synonyms.

Arthasaktimula-dhvani is based on the expressed meaning. The suggested sense

need not be an idea or a figure so speech. Under this type are included instances where the
emotions and transient feelings are suggested from contextual factors, without the express
mention of the vibhavas, anubhavas etc. Even though the primary sense of a word is
definite and fixed it can suggest various other ideas through factors such as the peculiar
character of the speaker, or the person addressed, the sentence, the presence of another
person, the expressed meaning, the occasion, the place, the time, the intonation or the
gestures.

From the point of view of the vyanjakas or the indicators of suggestion the different
varieties of the type, samlaksyakrama-vyangya, could be subdivided into pada-prakasya or
revealed by a word and vakya-prakasya or revealed by the whole sentence. The other type
asamlaksyakrama-vyangya, is also classified as arising from individual sounds, words or
parts of words, sentences, stylistic structure or the whole poem. Anandavardhana
recognizes the importance of taking the whole stanza or even the poem as a whole, in order
that the overtones of the suggested sense are fully grasped.

Intonation

The importance of intonation as a factor in conveying the nuances of the natural

sentences of everyday speech was not unknown to the ancient Indian thinkers. In the
Natyasastra, Bharata refers to the different varieties of tone, tempo and pitch to be employed
by the actors to bring out the subtle meanings in their speeches. Bharata refers to the two
8

main types of kaku or intonation in a sentence: Sakanksa or the expectant and Nirakanksha
or the non-expectant. The former intonation shows that the meaning of the sentence is not
complete and requires something more to complete it, while the latter type of intonation
shows that the sense is complete. Rajasekhara deals with the problem of intonation in
speech in greater detail. He divides the expectant intonation into three sub-varieties as
suggesting (a) an objection or disapproval (akshepagarbha) (b) question (prasnagarbha)
and (c) doubt or uncertainty (vitarkagarbha). The non-expectant intonation is also divided
into three varieties: (a) denoting a statement (vidhirupa), (b) giving an answer (uttararupa)
and (c) asserting a decision (nirnayarupa). He defines kaku or intonation as a quality in
the mode of utterance, which brings out the intention of the speaker clearly. With the
change in intonation the same sentence can mean different things--- a question, assertion or
doubt. There are innumerable distinctions in intonation, which suggest subtle shades of
meaning, cognitive or emotive. Later Alamkarikas accept intonation, as a means of
suggesting meaning not actually expressed by words. Intonation brings to light all manners
of emotional attitude, irony, pathos, argumentativeness, menace and so forth. More than
one type of intonation may be combined in different ways to indicate various emotional
attitudes.

Dhvani in literary criticism

Vyanjana is an important doctrine in the realm of literary appreciation. It is the

central principle of literary criticism in Sanskrit. Vanjana makes possible the synthesis
between literary law and literary liberty. Law in the sphere of poetic art reduces itself to
the numerous literary rules and liberty is to be understood as the principle that determines
the free play of the artist’s genius. A poem transcends the strict laws that bind it. It is the
artistic instinct of suppression that serves as the connecting link between the two entirely
distinct things, sabda and artha. Vyanjana establishes a sort of connection between
expression and impression, between the speaker and the hearer. If speech fulfills its
purpose, there ought to be some amount of suppression. Hence naturally thought is wider
than speech. This is true in the field of literary art. In the field of literary criticism we
accept that thought is always wider than form. If not, the world would have been deprived
of the pleasure of art. The synthesis of form and content is the greatest of our achievements
in the realm of art. This is achieved through the doctrine of vyanjana. It is an essentially
artistic process as it involves suppression not of the everyday type but of the agreeable type.
Through suppression we wish to create interest in the mind of the hearers. There is scope
for some intellectual quest in the process of vyanjana and this leads to conquest. Vyanjana
makes possible for every suggestive art to relive its life in itself through a purely artistic
process and to find its fulfillment and consummation in a definitely artistic purpose. It
enables us to do away with the compartmental slicing up of literature into literary genera
such as epic, lyric, the metrical, the non-metrical and so on, and enables us to take the right
view of poetic art and view it as an organic and complete expression.

The independence of dhvani:

The existence of dhvani in poetry is undeniable and it has a status independent of

that of any other concept, with which it may be closely associated. It is not possible either
to dismiss the concept as of no consequence or explain it away by reducing it to some other
concept. Although the concept of dhvani was developed and explained in the context of
poetry, its application is possible in all fine arts. This possibility is indicated by
Anandavardhana’s reference to arts other than poetry. To show, for example, that
9

suggestiveness (vyanjakatva) is different from denotation (vacakatva) and implication

(laksana), Anandavardhana points out that, while the latter two are powers associated with
language alone vyanjakatva is a power that belongs to the non-linguistic forms of
communication also. The same argument is a reply to those who identify dhvani with
figures of speech (alamkara). While figures of speech are devices for linguistic
embellishments, the scope of dhvani is wider than that of language. For example, in music
even such sounds as are not words suggest bhava, and in dance gestures (which are not even
sounds) also suggest bhava. No one will say that these sounds and gestures possess primary
and secondary meanings or are embellished by figures of speech. And yet, if they convey
sentiments, it is only by the power of suggestion. Anandavardhana foresaw that the method
of dhvani is universal and is not confined to the literary art. The nature of the process of
suggestion is such that the means to it need not necessarily be words. Sound, as in music,
gestures as in drama and dance, lines and colours, as in painting, and shapes and sizes as in
architecture and sculpture, could also be suggestive of sentiments and ideas.

***************