Flotation and initial

5 stability

EQUILIBRIUM
Equilibrium o f a b o d y floating in still water
A b o d y floating freely in still water e x p e r i e n c e s a downward force act-
ing o n it d u e to gravity. If the body has a mass m, this force will be mg
a n d is known as the weight. Since the b o d y is in equilibrimn t h e r e must
be a force o f the same m a g n i t u d e and in the same line o f action as the
weight b u t o p p o s i n g it. Otherwise the b o d y would move. This o p p o s i n g
force is g e n e r a t e d by the hydrostatic pressures which act on the body,
Figure 5.1. T h e s e act n o r m a l to the body's surface a n d can be resolved
into vertical a n d horizontal c o m p o n e n t s . T h e sum o f the vertical com-
p o n e n t s must equal the weight. T h e horizontal c o m p o n e n t s must can-
cel out otherwise the body would move sideways. T h e gravitational
force mg can be imagined as c o n c e n t r a t e d at a p o i n t G which is the
c e n t r e o f mass, c o m m o n l y known as the centre of gravity. Similarly the
o p p o s i n g force can be i m a g i n e d to be c o n c e n t r a t e d at a p o i n t B.

eta

[?)ure 5.1 Floating body

62
 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STABILITY 63

C o n s i d e r n o w the hydrostatic forces acting o n a small e l e m e n t o f the

surface, da, a d e p t h y below the surface.

Pressure = density, × gravitational acceleration × depth = pgy'

T h e n o r m a l force o n an e l e m e n t o f a r e a d a = pg)' da
If ~p is the a n g l e o f inclination o f the body's surface to the h o r i z o n t a l
t h e n the vertical c o m p o n e n t o f force is:

(pgy da)cos ~ = pg (volume of vertical element)

I n t e g r a t i n g over the whole v o l u m e the total vertical force is:

pgV where V is the i m m e r s e d volume of the body.

This is also the weight o f the displaced water. It is this vertical force
which 'buoys u p ' the b o d y a n d it is k n o w n as the buoyano'force or sim-
ply buoyancy. T h e point, B, t h r o u g h which it acts is the c e n t r o i d o f vol-
u m e o f the displaced water a n d is k n o w n as the centre of buoyancy.
Since the b u o y a n c y force is equal to the weight o f the body, m = pV.
In o t h e r words the mass o f the b o d y is equal to the mass o f the water
displaced by the body. This can be visualized in simple physical terms.
C o n s i d e r the u n d e r w a t e r p o r t i o n o f the floating b o d y to b e r e p l a c e d by
a weightless m e m b r a n e filled to the level o f the free surface with water
o f the s a m e density as that in which the b o d y is floating. As far as the
water is c o n c e r n e d the m e m b r a n e n e e d n o t exist, t h e r e is a state o f
e q u i l i b r i u m a n d the forces o n the skin m u s t b a l a n c e out.

Underwater volume
O n c e the ship f o r m is d e f i n e d the u n d e r w a t e r v o l u m e can be calcu-
lated by the rules discussed earlier. If the i m m e r s e d areas o f a n u m b e r
o f sections t h r o u g h o u t the length o f a ship are calculated, a sectional
a r e a curve can be drawn as in Figure 5.2. T h e u n d e r w a t e r v o l u m e is:

V = ;Adx

If i m m e r s e d cross-sectional areas are calculated to a n u m b e r o f water-

lines parallel to the design waterline, t h e n the v o l u m e up to e a c h can
be d e t e r m i n e d a n d p l o t t e d against d r a u g h t as in Figure 5.3. T h e vol-
u m e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to any given d r a u g h t T c a n be p i c k e d off, p r o v i d e d
the waterline at Tis parallel to those used in deriving the curve.
A m o r e g e n e r a l m e t h o d o f finding the u n d e r w a t e r v o l u m e , k n o w n as
the volume of displacement, is to m a k e use o f Bonjean curves. T h e s e are
curves o f i m m e r s e d cross-sectional areas p l o t t e d against d r a u g h t for
64 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STABILITY

Cross-sectional area

0 dx L

Figure 5.2 Cross-sectional area curve

v J
t
Y:

121

/<,
Underwater volume

Figure 5.3 Volume curve

Bonjean curve
of area

W_ l / / /
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Figure 5.4 B o n j e a n cuiwes

each transverse section. T h e y are usually drawn o n the ship profile as

in Figure 5.4. Suppose the ship is floating at waterline ~rL. T h e i m m e r s e d
areas for this waterline are o b t a i n e d by drawing h o r i z o n t a l lines, shown
dotted, f r o m the i n t e r c e p t o f the waterline with the middle line o f a
section to the Bonjean curve for that section. Having the areas for all
the sections, the u n d e r w a t e r v o l u m e a n d its longitudinal c e n t r o i d , its
c e n t r e o f buoyancy, can be calculated.
W h e n the d i s p l a c e m e n t o f a ship was calculated manually, it was cus-
t o m a r y to use what was called a displacement sheet. A typical layout is
shown in Figure 5.5. T h e d i s p l a c e m e n t from the base up to, in this
 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STABILITY 65
E
® 8
sd!qsp!uJ~
wo4 sleAe-I
<
s~e!id!flnw
>-
o o.
Ld ~
c~
m
o
~L ca
C~
0
C~
o
c~
u3
c5 c~ ~)
"3
o
£
o ~
c5 E
co
sd!qsp!u~e
UJOJJ SJOAO7
(D
sla!ldfllnw Q_
s, u o s d w ! s (n
O ~ eJ m ,~ LO (D r~ co m o ~- - "6
uoflaeS m >
66 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STABILITY

case, the 5 m waterline was d e t e r m i n e d by using Simpson's rule applied

to half ordinates m e a s u r e d at waterlines 1 m apart a n d at sections taken
at every t e n t h o f the length. T h e calculations were d o n e in two ways.
Firstly the areas o f sections were calculated a n d i n t e g r a t e d in the fore
a n d aft direction to give volume. T h e n areas o f waterplanes were cal-
culated and i n t e g r a t e d vertically to give volume. T h e two v o l u m e val-
ues, A and B in the figure, had to be the same if the arithmetic h a d
b e e n d o n e correctly, p r m i d i n g a c h e c k o n the calculation. T h e dis-
p l a c e m e n t sheet was also used to calculate the vertical a n d longitudinal
positions o f the c e n t r e o f buoyancy. T h e calculations are now d o n e
by computer. T h e calculation lends itself very well to the use o f Excel
spreadsheets as discussed in an earlier chapter.
This text has c o n c e n t r a t e d o n the concepts o f calculating the char-
acteristics o f a floating body. It will be helpful to the student to have
these c o n c e p t s d e v e l o p e d in m o r e detail using n u m e r i c a l examples
a n d this is d o n e in A p p e n d i x B.

STABILITY AT SMALL ANGLES

T h e c o n c e p t o f the stability o f a floating b o d y can be e x p l a i n e d by con-

sidering it to be inclined f r o m the u p r i g h t by an external force which is
t h e n removed. In Figure 5.6 a ship floats originally at waterline W0L 0
a n d after rotating t h r o u g h a small angle at waterline WILl.

F~gure 5.6 Small angle stability

T h e inclination does n o t affect the position o f G, the ship's c e n t r e o f

gravity, p r o v i d e d n o weights are free to move. T h e inclination does,
however, affect the u n d e r w a t e r shape and the c e n t r e o f buoyancy moves
from B 0 to B1. This is because a volume, v, r e p r e s e n t e d by WoOW1, has
 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STABILITY 67

c o m e out o f the water a n d an equal volume, r e p r e s e n t e d by LoOL 1, has

b e e n immersed.
If ge a n d gi are the centroids o f the e m e r g e d a n d i m m e r s e d wedges
a n d g~gl = h, then:

v×h
BoB1 -
V

w h e r e V is the total v o l u m e o f the ship.

In general a ship will trim slightly when it is inclined at constant dis-
placement. For the present this is ignored but it means that strictly B0, B1,
ge, etc., are the projections o f the actual points on to a transverse plane.
T h e b u o y a n c y acts upwards t h r o u g h B 1 and intersects the original
vertical at M. This p o i n t is t e r m e d the metacentre a n d for small inclin-
ations can be taken as fixed in position. T h e weight W = mgacting down-
wards and the buoyancy force, o f equal magnitude, acting upwards are
n o t in the same line but form a c o u p l e W × GZ, where GZ is the per-
p e n d i c u l a r on to B1M drawn from G. As shown this c o u p l e will restore
the b o d y to its original position a n d in this c o n d i t i o n the body is said to
be in stable equilibrium. GZ = GM sin q~ a n d is called the ~ghting lever
o r / e v e r a n d G M i s called the metacentric height. For a given position o f G,
as M can be taken as fixed for small inclinations, GM will be constant
for any particular waterline. More importantly, since G can vary with
the loading o f the ship even for a given displacement, B M will be con-
stant for a given waterline. In Figure 5.6 M is above G, gi~ing positive
stability, a n d G M is r e g a r d e d as positive in this case.
If, w h e n inclined, the new position o f the c e n t r e o f buoyancy, B 1, is
directly u n d e r G, the t h r e e points M, G and Z are c o i n c i d e n t and t h e r e
is n o m o m e n t acting on the ship. ~3aen the disturbing force is r e m o v e d
the ship will r e m a i n in the inclined position. T h e ship is said to be in
neutral equilibrium and b o t h GM a n d GZ are zero.
A third possibility is that, after inclination, the new centre o f buoyancy
will lie to the left o f G. T h e r e is t h e n a m o m e n t W × GZwhich will take
the ship f u r t h e r f r o m the vertical. In this case the ship is said to be
unstable and it may heel to a considerable angle or even capsize. For
unstable equilibrium M is below G a n d b o t h G M a n d GZare c o n s i d e r e d
negative.
T h e above considerations apply to what is called the initial stability o f
the ship, that is w h e n the ship is u p r i g h t or very nearly so. T h e criterion
o f initial stability is the m e t a c e n t r i c height. T h e t h r e e conditions can
be s u m m a r i z e d as:
M above G GM and GZpositive stable
M atG GM and GZzero neutral
M below G GM and GZnegative unstable
68 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STABII.ITY

Transverse metacentre
The position of the metacentre is found by considering small inclin-
ations of a ship about its centreline, Figure 5.7. For small angles, say 2 or
3 degrees, the upright and inclined waterlines will intersect at O on the
centreline. The volumes of the emerged and immersed wedges must
be equal for constant displacement.

Figure 5. 7 Transverse metacentre

For small angles the emerged and immersed wedges at any section,
WoOW1 and LoOL 1, are approximately triangular. Ify is the half-ordinate
of the original waterline at the cross-section the emerged or immersed
section area is:

1 2
½y × y tan~ = -gy ~p

for small angles, and the total volume of each wedge is:

f ly2q~ dx

integrated along the length of the ship.

This volume is effectively moved from one side to the other and for
triangular sections the transverse movement will be 4y/3 gi~ing a total
transverse shift of buoyancy of:

f½y2q~dx × 4y/3 = q~f2y3/3dx

since q~is constant along the length of the ship.

 FLOTATIONAND INITIALSTABILITY 69

The expression within the integral sign is the second m o m e n t of

area, or the m o m e n t of inertia, of a waterplane about its centreline. It
may be denoted by/, whence the transverse movement of buoyancy is:

Iq~ and V × B B 1 = Iq~

so that BB1 = I~o/V where V is the total volume of displacement.

Referring to Figure 5.7 for the small angles being considered
B B 1 = BMq~ and B M = / / V . Thus the height of the metacentre above
the centre of buoyancy is found by dividing the second m o m e n t of area
of the waterplane about its centreline by the volume of displacement.
The height of the centre of buoyancy above the keel, KB, is the height
of the centroid of the underwater volume above the keel, and hence
the height of the metacentre above the keel is:

KM= KB+ BM

The difference between KM and K G gives the metacentric height, GM.

Transverse metacentre for simple geometrical forms

Vessel o f rectangular cross section
Consider the form in Figure 5.8 of breadth B and length L floating at
draught T. If the cross section is uniform throughout its length, the vol-
ume of displacement = L B T .

L~
/3
f
F"

W /_

K
Figure 5.8 Rectangularsection vessel

The second m o m e n t of area of waterplane about the centreline =

L 1 ~ / 1 2 . Hence:

LB'3
BM - - - - B2/12T
12LBT
70 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STABILITY

H e i g h t o f c e n t r e o f b u o y a n c y above keel, KB = 7 / 2 a n d the h e i g h t o f

m e t a c e n t r e a b o v e the keel is:

K M = T/2 + Bz/12T

T h e h e i g h t o f the m e t a c e n t r e d e p e n d s u p o n the d r a u g h t a n d b e a m
b u t n o t the length. At small d r a u g h t relative to b e a m , the s e c o n d t e r m
p r e d o m i n a t e s a n d at zero d r a u g h t / G 1 4 w o u l d be infinite.
To p u t s o m e figures to this, c o n s i d e r the case w h e r e B is 15 m for
d r a u g h t s varying f r o m 1 to 6 m. T h e n :

T 152 18.75
KM = - - + - - = 0.5T+--
2 12T T

K M v a l u e s for various d r a u g h t s are shown in Table 5.1 a n d K M a n d KB

are p l o t t e d against d r a u g h t in Figure 5.9. Such a d i a g r a m is called a
metacentric diagram. KM is large at small d r a u g h t s a n d falls rapidly with
i n c r e a s i n g d r a u g h t . I f the calculations were e x t e n d e d KM would r e a c h
a m i n i m u m value a n d then start to increase. T h e d r a u g h t at which K M i s
m i n i m u m can be f o u n d by differentiating the equation for KM with
respect to T a n d equating to zero. T h a t is, KMis a m i n i m u m at Tgiven by:

dKM 1 B2 B2
dT-- - 2 ~127" - 0, giving 7"z - 6 or 7"

Table 5.1

d 0.5d 18.75d Ka'~l

1 0.5 18.75 19.25

2 1.0 9.37 10.37
3 1.5 6.25 7.75
4 2.0 4.69 6.69
5 2.5 3.75 6.25
6 3.0 3.12 6.12

In the e x a m p l e K M is m i n i m u m w h e n the d r a u g h t is 6.12 m.

Vessel of constant triangular section

C o n s i d e r a vessel o f t r i a n g u l a r cross section floating a p e x down, the
b r e a d t h at the top b e i n g B a n d the d e p t h D. T h e b r e a d t h o f the waterline
 FLOTATIONAND INITIALSTABILITY 71

0 4 8 12 16 20
KB,KM (m)

bigure 5. 9 Metacentricdiagram

at draught Tis given by:

b = (T/D) × B

I = (L/12) x [ ( T / D ) x B] ~
V = LX (T/D) x Bx T/2

BM = I/V= B2T/61~

KB = 2 T / 3

K M = 2 T / 3 + BZT/61~

In this case the curves of both KM and KB against draught are straight
lines starting from zero at zero draught.

Vessel of circular cross section

Consider a circular cylinder of radius R and centre of section O, float-
ing with its axis horizontal. For any waterline, above or below O, and
for any inclination, the buoyancy force always acts through O. That is,
KMis i n d e p e n d e n t of draught and equal t o / L The vessel will be stable
or unstable depending upon whether K G is less than or greater t h a n / L

Metacentric diagrams
The positions of B and M have been seen to depend only upon the
geometry of the ship and the draughts at which it is floating. They can
therefore be determined without knowledge of the loading of the ship
that causes it to float at those draughts. A metacentric diagram, in which
KB and KM are plotted against draught, is a convenient way of defining
the positions of B and M for a range of waterplanes parallel to the
design or load waterplane.
72 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STABILITY

Trim
Suppose a ship, floating at waterline W0L 0 (Figure 5.10), is caused to
trim slightly, at constant displacement, to a new waterline W1L1 inter-
secting the original waterplane in a transverse axis t h r o u g h F.

ME

h
W ~ I~ G G1 :~ -.---.----'-/L1 ~'

L: "
L
,1
Figure5.10 Trim changes

T h e volumes o f the i m m e r s e d and e m e r g e d wedges must be equal

so, for small 0:

f2 yr(xfO) dx = f2 ya(XaO)dx

w h e r e yf and Ya are the waterplane half b r e a d t h s at distances xc a n d xa

from E
This is the c o n d i t i o n that F is the c e n t r o i d o f the waterplane a n d F is
known as the centre offlotation. For small trims at c o n s t a n t d i s p l a c e m e n t
a ship trims a b o u t a transverse axis t h r o u g h the c e n t r e o f flotation.
I f a small weight is a d d e d to a ship it will sink a n d trim until the extra
b u o y a n c y g e n e r a t e d equals the weight a n d the c e n t r e o f buoyancy o f
the a d d e d buoyancy is vertically below the c e n t r e o f gravity o f the
a d d e d weight. If the weight is a d d e d in the vertical line o f the c e n t r e o f
flotation t h e n the ship sinks bodily with n o trim as the c e n t r e o f buoy-
ancy o f the a d d e d layer will be above the c e n t r o i d o f area o f the water-
plane. Generalizing this a small weight placed anywhere along the length
can be r e g a r d e d as b e i n g initially placed at F to cause sinkage and t h e n
m o v e d to its actual position, causing trim. In o t h e r words, it can be
r e g a r d e d as a weight acting at F and a trimming m o m e n t a b o u t E

Longitudinal stability
T h e principles involved are the same as those for transverse stability but
for longitudinal inclinations, the stability d e p e n d s u p o n the distance
 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STM~ILITY 73

b e t w e e n the c e n t r e o f gravity a n d the longitudinal m e t a c e n t r e . In this

case the distance b e t w e e n the c e n t r e o f buoyancy and the longitudinal
m e t a c e n t r e will be g o v e r n e d by the s e c o n d m o m e n t o f area o f the
waterplane a b o u t a transverse axis passing t h r o u g h its centroid. For
n o r m a l ship forms this quantity is m a n y times the value for the s e c o n d
m o m e n t o f area a b o u t the centreline. Since B M L is o b t a i n e d by divid-
ing by the same v o l u m e o f d i s p l a c e m e n t as for transverse stability, it will
be large c o m p a r e d with B M T a n d often c o m m e n s u r a t e with the length
o f the ship. It is thus virtually impossible for an u n d a m a g e d conven-
tional ship to be unstable w h e n inclined a b o u t a transverse axis.

K M L ~- K B "4- B M L = K B + I L / V

w h e r e I L is the s e c o n d m o m e n t o f the waterplane areas a b o u t a trans-

verse axis t h r o u g h its centroid, the c e n t r e o f flotation.
If the ship in Figure 5.10 is t r i m m e d by m o v i n g a weight, w, f r o m its
initial position to a new position h forward, the t r i m m i n g m o m e n t will
be wh. This will cause the c e n t r e o f gravity o f the ship to move f r o m G
to G1 a n d the ship will trim causing B to move to B~ such that:

GG 1 = wh/ W

a n d B 1 is vertically below G~.

T h e trim is the d i f f e r e n c e in draughts forward a n d aft. T h e c h a n g e
in trim angle can be taken as the c h a n g e in that d i f f e r e n c e divided by
the longitudinal distance between the points at which the draughts are
m e a s u r e d . F r o m Figure 5.10:

tan 0 =t/L = GCq/GM L = wh/WGM L

f r o m which:

wh = t × W× GML/L

This is the m o m e n t that causes a trim t, so the m o m e n t to cause unit

c h a n g e o f trim is:

WGML/ L

T h e m o m e n t to c h a n g e trim, MCT, o n e m e t r e is a c o n v e n i e n t figure to

q u o t e to show how easy a ship is to trim.
T h e value o f MCT is very useful in calculating the draughts at which
a ship will float for a given c o n d i t i o n o f loading. Suppose it has b e e n
ascertained that the weight o f the ship is W a n d the c e n t r e o f gravity is
x forward o f amidships a n d that at that weight with a waterline parallel
74 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STABILITY

to the design waterline it would float at a d r a u g h t T w i t h the c e n t r e o f

b u o y a n c y y f o r w a r d o f amidships. T h e r e will be a m o m e n t W ( y - x) /
M C T taking it away f r o m a waterline parallel to the design one. T h e
ship trims a b o u t the c e n t r e o f flotation a n d the d r a u g h t s at any p o i n t
a l o n g the l e n g t h can be f o u n d by simple ratios.

98 m long, floats at draughts o f 5.5 m

m e a s u r e d at t h e e x t r e m e ends. T h e
"ht is 1 0 4 m a n d the c e n t r e o f flora-
D e t e r m i n e the m o m e n t to change
id draughts when a mass o f 85 tonnes,
is m o v e d 30 m forward.
~t/0n

W × GM L
100L
5000 × 9.81 × 104
where g = 9.81m/s 2
100 × 98
= 520.5 MNm

As:'t,he ~ i s already on board t h e r e will b e no bodily sinkage. T h e

i • in trim = 85 × 9.81 x 30
520.5
= 48.1 c m by the bow.

in d r a u g h t will be:

~ "-' ...... x (98/2) + 2.1 ~,,

: 98
i '::~ : • .__ (98/2)-21
"Aft: = 48.I × - - " " = 23.0cm
~; ; " 98
n~draughts b e c o m e 5.751 m f o r w a r d a n d 5.97 m aft.

HYDROSTATIC CURVES

It has b e e n shown how the d i s p l a c e m e n t , position o f B, M a n d F can

b e calculated. It is c u s t o m a r y to obtain these quantities for a r a n g e o f
 FLOTATION A N D I N I T I A L ST,~d3II,ITY 75

waterplanes parallel to the design waterplane and plot t h e m against

draught, d r a u g h t b e i n g m e a s u r e d vertically. Such sets o f curves are
called hydrostatic curves, Figure 5.11.

~/ ' " ~ °-~" --

v 5
g
~ 4 /
3

Amidships
Figure5.11 Hydrostatic curves

T h e curves in the figure show m o u l d e d and e x t r e m e displacement.

T h e f o r m e r was m e n t i o n e d in an earlier chapter. It is the latter, nor-
mally shown simply as the d i s p l a c e m e n t curve and which allows for dis-
p l a c e m e n t outside the p e r p e n d i c u l a r s , and bossings, bulbous bows,
etc., which is relevant to the discussion o f flotation a n d stability. Clearly
the additions to the m o u l d e d figure can have a m e a s u r a b l e effect u p o n
d i s p l a c e m e n t a n d the position o f B.
It will be n o t e d that the curves include o n e for the increase in dis-
p l a c e m e n t for unit increase in draught. If a waterplane has an area A,
t h e n the increase in displaced v o l u m e for unit increase in d r a u g h t at
that waterplane is 1 × A. T h e increase in d i s p l a c e m e n t will be pgA. For
p = 1025 k g / m 3 a n d g = 9.81 m / s ') increase in d i s p l a c e m e n t per m e t r e
increase in d r a u g h t is:

1025 × 9.81 × 1 × A = 10055A newtons.

T h e increase in d i s p l a c e m e n t p e r unit increase in d r a u g h t is useful in

a p p r o x i m a t e calculations w h e n weights are a d d e d to a ship. Since its
value varies with d r a u g h t it s h o u l d be a p p l i e d with care.
Hydrostatic curves are useful for working out the draughts and the
initial stability, as r e p r e s e n t e d by (;M, in various c o n d i t i o n s o f loading.
This is d o n e for all n o r m a l working conditions o f the ship a n d the
results supplied to the master.
76 FLOTATIONAND INITIALSTABILITY

Fully submerged bodies

A fully submerged body presents a special case. Firstly there is no water-
plane and therefore no metacentre. The forces of weight and displace-
ment will always act vertically through G and B respectively. Stability
then will be the same for inclination about any axis. It will be positive if
B is above G. Secondly a submarine or submersible is an elastic body
and will compress as the depth of submergence increases. Since water
is effectively incompressible, there will be a reducing buoyancy force.
Thus the body will experience a net downward force that will cause it
to sink further so that the body is unstable in depth variation. In prac-
tice the decrease in buoyancy must be compensated for by pumping
water out from internal tanks or by forces generated by the control sur-
faces, the hydroplanes. Care is needed when first submerging to arrange
that weight and buoyancy are very nearly the same. If the submersible
moves into water of a different density there will again be an imbalance
in forces due to the changed buoyancy force. There is no 'automatic'
compensation such as a surface vessel experiences when the draught
adjusts in response to density changes.

P R O B L E M S IN T R I M AND STABILITY
Determination of displacement from observed draughts
Suppose draughts at the perpendiculars are Ta and Tf as in Figure 5.12.
The mean draught will be T = ( T a + T f ) / 2 and a first approximation
to the displacement could be obtained by reading off the correspond-
ing displacement, A, from the hydrostatic curves. In general, WoL0 will
not be parallel to the waterlines for which the hydrostatics were com-
puted. If waterline W1L1, intersecting WoL0 at amidships, is parallel to

W I W°J L [ I 12
W2 Ta T F Tf Fo
Amidships
FiEure 5.12

the design waterline then the displacement read from the hydrostatics
for draught Tis in fact the displacement to W1L]. It has been seen that
because ships are not symmetrical fore and aft they trim about F. As
shown in Figure 5.12, the displacement to W0L0 is less than that to
W1Lt, the difference being the layer WIL1L2W2, where W2L2 is the
waterline parallel to WIL 1 through F on WoL0. If A is the distance of
 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STABILITY 77

F forward o f amidships t h e n the thickness o f layer = A x t/L where

t=Ta-Tf.
If i is the increase in d i s p l a c e m e n t per unit increase in draught:

Displacement of layer = a × ti/L and the actual displacement

= A -A × ti/L

W h e t h e r the c o r r e c t i o n to the d i s p l a c e m e n t r e a d off f r o m the hydro-

statics initially is positive or negative d e p e n d s u p o n w h e t h e r the ship is
t r i m m i n g by the bow or stern a n d the position o f F relative to amid-
ships. It can be d e t e r m i n e d by m a k i n g a simple sketch.
If the ship is floating in water o f a d i f f e r e n t density to that for which
the hydrostatics were calculated a f u r t h e r c o r r e c t i o n is n e e d e d in pro-
p o r t i o n to the two density values, increasing the d i s p l a c e m e n t if the
water in which ship is floating is g r e a t e r than the standard.
This calculation for displacement has assumed that the keel is straight.
It is likely to be curved, even in still water, so that a d r a u g h t taken at
amidships may n o t equal (d a + dr)/2 b u t have some value a~n giving a
d e f l e c t i o n o f the hull, 6. If the ship sags the above calculation would
u n d e r e s t i m a t e the v o l u m e o f displacement. If it hogs it would overesti-
mate the volume. It is r e a s o n a b l e to assume the d e f l e c t e d profile o f the
ship is parabolic, so that the deflection at any p o i n t distant x f r o m
amidships is 611 - (2x/L)2], and h e n c e :

Volume correction = I b6[ 1 - ( 2 x / L ) 2 ] dx

w h e r e b is the waterline breadth.

Unless an expression is available for b in terms o f x this c a n n o t be
i n t e g r a t e d mathematically. It can be evaluated by a p p r o x i m a t e integra-
tion using the ordinates for the waterline.

Longitudinal position o f the centre o f gravity

Suppose a ship is floating in equilibrium at a waterline W0L 0 as in
Figure 5.13 with the centre o f ~a~ity distant x from amidships, a distance

W0

Figure5.13
78 FLOTATION AND INITIAl. STABILITY

yet to be d e t e r m i n e d . T h e c e n t r e o f buoyancy B 0 must be directly

b e n e a t h G. Now assume the ship b r o u g h t to a waterline WILl parallel
to those used for the hydrostatics, which cuts off the c o r r e c t displace-
ment. T h e position o f the c e n t r e o f buoyancy will be at B 1, distant y
f r o m amidships, a distance that can be read f r o m the hydrostatics for
waterline WiLl. It follows that if t was the trim, relative to ~T1L :, w h e n
the ship was at WoL0:

A(y - x) = t × ( m o m e n t to cause unit trim) and:

t × MCT
x=y A

giving the longitudinal c e n t r e o f gravity.

Direct determination of displacement and position of G

T h e m e t h o d s described above for finding the d i s p l a c e m e n t a n d longi-
tudinal position o f G are usually sufficiently accurate when the trim is
small. To obtain m o r e accurate results a n d for larger trims the Bonjean
curves can be used. If the e n d draughts, distance L apart, are observed
t h e n the d r a u g h t at any particular section can be calculated, since:

x
L =

w h e r e x is the distance f r o m where Ta is m e a s u r e d .

T h e s e draughts can be c o r r e c t e d for h o g or sag if necessary. T h e cal-
culated draughts at each section can be set up o n the Bonjean curves
a n d the i m m e r s e d areas read off. T h e i m m e r s e d v o l u m e and position
o f the c e n t r e o f b u o y a n c y can be f o u n d by a p p r o x i m a t e integration.
For equilibrium, the c e n t r e o f gravity a n d c e n t r e o f buoyancy must
be in the same vertical line a n d the position o f the c e n t r e o f gravity
follows. Using the density o f water in which the ship is floating, the
d i s p l a c e m e n t can be d e t e r m i n e d .

Heel due to moving weight

In Figure 5.14 a ship is shown u p r i g h t and at rest in still water. I f a small
weight w is shifted transversely t h r o u g h a distance h, the c e n t r e o f
gravity o f the ship, originally at G, moves to G1 such that GG1 = wh/W.
T h e ship will heel t h r o u g h an angle ~ causing the c e n t r e o f buoyancy
 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STABILITY 79

h ---~
I

Wo
r~ M

Gc G~ J
L0

Bo

Figure 5.14 Moving weight

to m o v e to B 1 vertically b e l o w G l to r e s t o r e e q u i l i b r i u m . It will be
s e e n that:

GG 1 wh
-- = tan q~ and tan ~ -
GM W × GM

This applies whilst t h e a n g l e o f i n c l i n a t i o n r e m a i n s small e n o u g h f o r M

to be r e g a r d e d as a fixed p o i n t .

Wall-sided ship
It is i n t e r e s t i n g to c o n s i d e r a special case w h e n a ship's sides are verti-
cal in way o f t h e w a t e r l i n e o v e r the w h o l e l e n g t h . It is said to be wall-
sided, see F i g u r e 5.15. T h e vessel c a n have a t u r n o f bilge p r o v i d e d it is

7
Figure 5.15 Wall-sided ship
80 FLOTATION AND INITLM. STABILfIS'

n o t e x p o s e d by the i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e ship. N o r m u s t t h e d e c k e d g e be
i m m e r s e d . B e c a u s e the vessel is wall-sided the e m e r g e d a n d i m m e r s e d
w e d g e s will have s e c t i o n s w h i c h are r i g h t - a n g l e d triangles o f e q u a l
area. L e t the n e w p o s i t i o n o f the c e n t r e o f b u o y a n c y B1 after inclina-
t i o n t h r o u g h q~ be ~ a n d fl relative to t h e c e n t r e o f b u o y a n c y p o s i t i o n
in t h e u p r i g h t c o n d i t i o n . T h e n u s i n g t h e n o t a t i o n s h o w n in t h e figure:

Transverse m o m e n t o f v o l u m e shift = I y × ),tan q~dx x 4)'

3
= I 2 y 3 tanq~dx

= tan ~p y dx
= I tan q~

w h e r e / i s the s e c o n d m o m e n t o f area o f the w a t e r p l a n e a b o u t the centre-

line. T h e r e f o r e :

I
a = Itanq~/V = BoMtanq~ since BoM -
V

Similarly t h e vertical m o m e n t o f v o l u m e shift is:

I ly2 tan q~ × 2_
:~.'; tan q~dx = tan z q~dx = _2 tan 2 q~
I @ /

and:

/3 = ½I tan 9 q)/V = ½BoM tan 2 ~p

F r o m t h e f i g u r e it will be s e e n that:

BoR = a cos q~ + / 3 sin q~

= BoM tan q~ cos q~ + I B o M tan 2 q~ sin q~
1
= sin q~(BoM + ~_BoM tan 2 g~)

Now

GZ = BoR - BoG sin

1 9
= sin ~ (BoM - BoG + ~BoM tan- ~)
1
= sin ~ (GM + FBoM tan 2 ~)
 FLOTATION AND INITIALSTABILITY 81

This is called the wall-sided formula. It is often reasonably accurate for

full forms up to angles as large as 10 °. It will n o t apply if the deck edge
is i m m e r s e d or the bilge emerges. It can be regarded as a r e f i n e m e n t of
the simple expression GZ = GM sin q~.

Influence on stability of a freely hanging weight

Consider a weight w suspended freely from a point h above its centroid.
W h e n the ship heels slowly the weight moves transversely and takes up
a new position, again vertically below the suspension point. As far as
the ship is c o n c e r n e d the weight seems to be located at the suspension
point. C o m p a r e d to the situation with the weight fixed, the ship's
centre of gravity will be effectively r e d u c e d by GG 1 where:

GCq = w h / W

This can be regarded as a loss of metacentric height of GG1.

Weights free to move in this way should be avoided but this is not
always possible. For instance, when a weight is being lifted by a shipboard
crane, as soon as the weight is lifted clear of the deck or quayside its
effect on stability is as t h o u g h it were at the crane head. The result is a
rise in G which, if the weight is sufficiently large, could cause a stability
problem. This is i m p o r t a n t to the design of hea~T lift ships.

FREE SURFACES
Effect of liquid free surfaces
A ship in service will usually have tanks which are partially filled with
liquids. These may be the fuel a n d water tanks the ship is using or may
be tanks carrying liquid cargoes. W h e n such a ship is inclined slowly
t h r o u g h a small angle to the vertical the liquid surface will move so as
to remain horizontal. In this discussion a quasi-static condition is con-
sidered so that slopping of the liquid is avoided. Different consider-
ations would apply to the dynamic conditions of a ship rolling. For small
angles, a n d assuming the liquid surface does n o t intersect the top or
b o t t o m of the tank, the volume of the wedge that moves is:

~lyZ~dx, integrated over the length, l, of the tank.

Assuming the wedges can be treated as triangles, the m o m e n t of trans-

fer of volume is:

5 1y2q~dx × 4y
82 FLOTATION AND INITIAl. STABILITY

w h e r e I1 is the s e c o n d m o m e n t o f area o f the liquid, or free surface.

T h e m o m e n t o f mass m o v e d = pf q~ll, where Of is the density o f the
liquid in the tank. T h e c e n t r e o f gravity o f the ship will move because
o f this shift o f mass to a position G1 and:

GG 1 = p~.gq~I 1 / W = t3g~ll/pgV = pfq~V1/pV

w h e r e p is the density o f the water in which the ship is floating a n d Vis

the v o l u m e o f displacement.
T h e effect o n the transverse m o v e m e n t o f the c e n t r e o f gravity is to
r e d u c e GZby the a m o u n t GCq as in Figure 5.16(b). T h a t is, t h e r e is an
effective r e d u c t i o n in stability. Since GZ = G M sin q~ for small angles,

G~W

G1

W
(a) (b)

Figure 5.16 Fluid free surface

the influence o f the shift of G to G l is equivalent to raising G to G 2 on the

centre line so that GCq = G G 2 tan q~and the righting m o m e n t is given by:

W( G M s i n q) - GG 2 cos q~ tan q~) = W( G M - GC~_)) sinq~

T h u s the effect o f the m o v e m e n t o f the liquid d u e to its free surface, is

equivalent to a rise o f G G 2 o f the centre o f gravity, the 'loss' o f G M being:

Free surface effect GG,2 = p [ l l / p V

A n o t h e r way o f looking at this is to draw an analogy with the loss o f sta-

bility d u e to the s u s p e n d e d weight. T h e water in the tank with a free
surface behaves in such a way that its weight force acts t h r o u g h some
p o i n t above the c e n t r e o f the tank a n d h e i g h t l l / V above the c e n t r o i d
o f the fluid in the tank, where v is the v o l u m e o f fluid. In effect the tank
 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STABILITY 83

has its own ' m e t a c e n t r e ' t h r o u g h which its fluid weight acts. T h e fluid
weight is p f v a n d the c e n t r e o f gra~4~ o f the ship will be effectively
raised t h r o u g h GC~2 where:

W × GG 2 = pV × GGz = (prV)(I]/v) = prI1

and

GG,~ = pfI2/pV as before.

This loss is the s a m e w h a t e v e r the h e i g h t o f the t a n k in the ship or its

transverse position. If the loss is sufficiently large, the m e t a c e n t r i c
h e i g h t b e c o m e s negative a n d the ship heels over a n d m a y even capsize.
It is i m p o r t a n t that the free surfaces o f tanks s h o u l d be k e p t to a min-
i m u m . O n e way o f r e d u c i n g t h e m is to subdivide wide tanks into two or
m o r e n a r r o w ones. In Figure 5.17 a d o u b l e b o t t o m t a n k is shown with
a central division fitted.

centre division

Figure 5.17 Tank subdivision

I f the b r e a d t h o f the t a n k is originally B, the width o f e a c h o f the two

tanks, c r e a t e d by the central division, is B / 2 . A s s u m i n g the tanks have
a c o n s t a n t section, a n d have a length, l, the s e c o n d m o m e n t o f a r e a
w i t h o u t division is U ~ / 1 2 . With c e n t r e division the s u m o f the s e c o n d
m o m e n t s o f a r e a o f the two tanks is (1/12) (B/2) :~ × 2 = l t ~ / 4 8 .
T h a t is, the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a c e n t r e division has r e d u c e d the free
surface effect to a q u a r t e r o f its original value. Using two b u l k h e a d s to
divide the tank into t h r e e equal width sections, r e d u c e s the free surface
to a n i n t h o f its original value. T h u s subdivision is seen to be very effect-
ive a n d it is c o m m o n practice to subdivide the d o u b l e b o t t o m o f ships.
T h e m a i n tanks o f ships c a r i y i n g liquid cargoes m u s t be d e s i g n e d tak-
ing free surface effects into a c c o u n t a n d their b r e a d t h s are r e d u c e d by
p r o v i d i n g c e n t r e l i n e or wing b u l k h e a d s .
Free surface effects s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d w h e r e possible a n d w h e r e
u n a v o i d a b l e m u s t be t a k e n into a c c o u n t in the design. T h e o p e r a t o r s
m u s t be aware o f their significance a n d a r r a n g e to use the tanks in ways
i n t e n d e d by the designer.
84 FLOTATION AND INITIAl. STABILITY

THE INCLINING EXPERIMENT

As the position of the centre of gravity is so i m p o r t a n t for initial stabil-

ity it is necessary to establish it accurately. It is d e t e r m i n e d initially by
calculation by considering all weights making up the ship - steel, outfit,
fittings, m a c h i n e r y a n d systems - a n d assessing their individual centres
of gTavity. From these data can be calculated the displacement and centre
of gravity of the light ship. For particular conditions of loading the
weights of all items to be carried must then be a d d e d at their appro-
priate centres of gravity to give the new displacement and centre of
gravity. It is difficult to a c c o u n t for all items accurately in such calcula-
tions a n d it is for this reason that the lightship weight and centre of
gravity are m e a s u r e d experimentally.
T h e e x p e r i m e n t is called the inclining experimentand involves causing
the ship to heel to small angles by moxing known weights known dis-
tances tranversely across the deck and observing the angles of inclin-
ation. The draughts at which the ship floats are n o t e d together with the
water density. Ideally the e x p e r i m e n t is c o n d u c t e d when the ship is
complete but this is not generally possible. There will usually be a n u m -
ber of items both to go on and to c o m e off the ship (e.g. staging, tools
etc.). The weights a n d centres of gravity of these must be assessed a n d
the condition of the ship as inclined corrected.
A typical set up is shown in Figure 5.18. Two sets of weights, each of
zo, are placed on each side of the ship at about amidships, the port and
starboard sets being h apart. Set 1 is moved a distance h to a position
alongside sets 3 a n d 4. G moves to G l as the ship inclines to a small

Figure 5.18 Inclining experiment

 FLOTATION AND INITIAL STABILITY 85

angle a n d B moves to B 1. It follows that:

wh
GG 1 - - GMtan ~ and GM = wh cot q~/W
W

q~ can be o b t a i n e d in a n u m b e r o f ways. T h e c o m m o n e s t is to use two

l o n g p e n d u l u m s , o n e forward and o n e aft, s u s p e n d e d from the deck
into the holds. If d a n d l are the shift and length o f a p e n d u l u m respect-
ively, tan q~ = d / I .
To improve the accuracy o f the e x p e r i m e n t , several shifts o f weight
are used. Thus, after set 1 has b e e n moved, a typical s e q u e n c e would be
to m o v e successively set 2, replace set 2 in original position followed by
set 1. T h e s e q u e n c e is r e p e a t e d for sets 3 a n d 4. At each stage the angle
o f heel is n o t e d a n d the results plotted to give a m e a n angle for unit
applied m o m e n t . W h e n the m e t a c e n t r i c h e i g h t has b e e n obtained, the
h e i g h t o f the c e n t r e o f gravity is d e t e r m i n e d by subtracting G M f r o m
the value o f KM given by the hydrostatics for the m e a n d r a u g h t at
which the ship was floating. This K G must be c o r r e c t e d for the weights
to go o n a n d c o m e off. T h e longitudinal position o f B, a n d h e n c e G,
can be f o u n d using the r e c o r d e d draughts.
To obtain accurate results a n u m b e r o f p r e c a u t i o n s have to be
observed. First the e x p e r i m e n t should be c o n d u c t e d in calm water with
little wind. Inside a dock is g o o d as this eliminates the effects o f tides
a n d currents. T h e ship must be floating freely w h e n records are taken
so any m o o r i n g lines must be slack and the brow must be lifted clear.
All weights must be secure a n d tanks must be e m p t y or pressed full to
avoid free surface effects. If the ship does n o t r e t u r n to its original pos-
ition w h e n the inclining weights are r e s t o r e d it is an indication that a
weight has m o v e d in the ship, or that fluid has m o v e d f r o m o n e tank to
another, possibly t h r o u g h a leaking valve. T h e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e o n
b o a r d must be kept to a m i n i m u m , and those present must go to d e f i n e d
positions w h e n readings are taken. T h e p e n d u l u m bobs are d a m p e d by
i m m e r s i o n in a t r o u g h o f water.
T h e draughts must be m e a s u r e d accurately at stem and stern, a n d
must be read at amidships if the ship is suspected o f h o g g i n g or sag-
ging. T h e density o f water is taken by h y d r o m e t e r at several positions
a r o u n d the ship a n d at several d e p t h s to give a g o o d average figure. If
the ship should have a large trim at the time o f inclining it m i g h t n o t
be a d e q u a t e to use the hydrostatics to give the d i s p l a c e m e n t and the
longitudinal a n d vertical positions o f B. In this case detailed calcula-
tions should be carried out to find these quantities for the inclining
waterline.
T h e M e r c h a n t Shipping Acts r e q u i r e ever}.' new passenger ship to be
inclined u p o n c o m p l e t i o n a n d the e l e m e n t s o f its stability d e t e r m i n e d .
86 FLOTATION AND INITIAl. STABILITY

SUMMARY

T h e r e a d e r has b e e n i n t r o d u c e d to the m e t h o d s for calculating the

draughts at which a ship will float, a n d its stability for small inclin-
ations. A m o r e detailed discussion o n stability, with b o t h w o r k e d a n d
set examples, is to be f o u n d in D e r r e t t a n d Barrass (1999).