Chapter one: Life processes

Unicellular- single celled

Multicellular- many cells
Life Processes
1. Nutrition: the use of food materials. Plants make their own food
by photosynthesis. Animals eat other organisms
2. respire: breakdown of food materials to release energy
3. excrete: removal of metabolic waste products from body
4. respond to stimuli: are sensitive to changes in their surroundings
5. move: by the action of muscles
6. reproduce: produce offspring
7. control their internal conditions: maintain a steady state inside
the body
8. grow and develop: increase in size and mass

Function of different parts of plant and animal cells:

Plant cell animal Cell

 cellulose cell wall: maintains the shape of cell. Helps to maintain
the turgidity of the cell. Gives support to cell
 cell membrane: control the movement of materials into and out
of the cell
 cytoplasm: main site for chemical reactions
 chloroplast: contain green pigment chlorophyll, helps in
photosynthesis
 mitochondria: provides energy. Powerhouse of cell
 nucleus: Contain genetic materials of the organisms
[ chromosomes/DNA]. Controls all activities of cell
 vacuole: big and permanent vacuole in plant cell. Usually, animal
cells have no vacuole. Contains cell sap. Membrane is called
tonoplast
 ribosomes: help in protein synthesis

Difference between plant and animal cell

 Enzymes
 All enzymes are protein made up of amino acids
 Enzymes speed up metabolic/chemical without being used up
itself. Metabolism= catabolism + Anabolism. Known as the sum of
all metabolic reactions inside the body.
 Enzymes are specific. Each enzyme has an active site. The
substrate attaches to the active site of the enzyme and reaction
takes place. The substrate fits into the active site of the enzyme
like a key fitting into a lock. Just as a key will only fit one lock, a
substrate will only fit into the active site of a particular enzyme.
This is known as the lock and key model of enzyme action, e.g.,
amylase only digests starch.
 Enzymes work best at optimum temperature. As the enzyme is
heated up to the optimum temperature, the rise in temperature
increases the rate of reaction. It gives the molecules more kinetic
energy, so they collide more often and reaction takes place more
frequently. Optimum temperature means the temperature at
which the reaction takes place most rapidly. Above the optimum
temperature, enzymes are denatured.
 The pH at which the enzyme works best is its optimum ph. Either
side of the optimum, shape of its active site changes so the
substrate will not fit into it so well. Enzymes work less efficiently,
then gets denatured.
 Needed for all metabolic reactions
 Secretion is the release of a fluid or substance from
a cell or tissue

ATP: How the cell gets its energy

Respiration releases some heat energy, but most is used to make a
substance called ATP: adenosine tri phosphate
The ATP molecules can then be used for a variety of purposes such as:
 Contraction of muscle cells, producing movement
 Active transport of molecules and ions
 Building large molecules, such as proteins and other chemical/
chain reactions
 Cell division and growth
Aerobic respiration uses oxygen, rection for respiration is

Anaerobic respiration

Muscle cells can also respire anaerobically when they are short of
oxygen. This happens when a person does a burst of activity, the
glucose is broken down into a substance called lactate/ lactic acid.
 OXYGEN DEBT:
After the exercise the lactate is respired aerobically in the
mitochondria. The volume of oxygen needed to completely
oxidise the lactate that builds up in the body during anaerobic
respiration is called the oxygen debt.

DIFFUSION: is the net movement of particles from a region of high

concentration to a region of low concentration, down a concentration
gradient
Factors affecting rate of diffusion
 Diffusion happens more quickly when there is a steep
concentration gradient
 A large surface area in proportion to the volume will increase the
rate
 The rate is decreased if the distance over which diffusion has to
take place is greater
 The rate is greater at higher temperatures
ACTIVE TRANSPORT: is the movement of substances against a
concentration gradient, using energy from respiration
OSMOSIS: is the net movement of water from a dilute solution to a
more concentrated solution across the partially permeable membrane

CELL: is the structural and functional unit of life

1. nerve cell (neurone) – elongated part of cell (axon) for carrying nerve
impulses. Dotted lines indicate that axon is very long compared with the
rest of the cell.
 2 .smooth muscle cell from the wall of the intestine – elongated, can
contract to move food through the gut.
3. xylem vessel from plant stem – dead, hollow cell with strengthening
rings. Carries water up stem.
4. guard cells from surface of a leaf – special shape results in pore between
the cells for gas exchange.
5. leaf palisade cell – packed full of chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
6 sperm cell – tail for swimming, head contains genes from the father.

TISSUE: is a large number of similar cells that perform the same

function, e.g. muscle
ORGAN: a collection of several tissues carrying out a particular function,
e.g. heart, lungs, leaf, flower
ORGAN SYSTEM: When several different organs works together, an
organ system is made.
◾ digestive system
◾◾ gas exchange system – including the lungs, which exchange oxygen and
carbon dioxide
◾◾ circulatory system – including the heart and blood vessels, which transport
materials around the body
◾◾ excretory system – including the kidneys, which filter toxic waste materials
from the blood
◾◾ nervous system – consisting of the brain, spinal cord and nerves, which
coordinate the body’s actions ◾◾ endocrine system – glands secreting hormones,
which act as chemical messengers
◾◾ reproductive system – producing sperm in males and eggs in females, and
allowing the development of the embryo.
STEM CELLS: is a cell that has the ability to divide many times by
mitosis while remaining undifferentiated. Later, it can differentiate into
specialized cells such as muscle or nerve cells.
 Embryonic stem cells are found in the early stage of development
of the embryo
 Adult stem cells are found in certain adult tissues such as bone
marrow, skin and the lining of the intestine
The use of stem cells to treat (or prevent) a disease, or to repair
damaged tissues is called stem cell therapy.
Embryonic stem cells can be used to treat many diseases such as
diabetes, brain disorders such as Parkinson’s disease. Many people
object morally to using cells from embryos for medical purposes.

Chapter two: variety of living

organisms
UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS: THESE ORGANISMS CONSIST WITH ONLY
ONE CELL. EXAMPLE: AMOEBA
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS: THEIR BODY CONSISTS WITH MANY
DIAFFERENT CELLS. EXAMPLE: plant, human
INVERTEBRATES: THEY HAVE NO BACKBONE OR VERTEBRAL COLUMN.
EXAMPLE: INSECTS
VERTEBRATES: THEY HAVE BACK BONE OR VERTEBRAL COLUMN.
EXAMPLE: HUMAN
HOST: LIVING ORGANISMS IN WHICH PARASITES LIVE. PARASITES
OBTAIN THEIR NUTRITION AND
SHELTER FROM THE HOST. FOR EXAMPLE: MOSQITOES ARE THE HOST
FOR MALARIA PARASITES
PARASITES: SMALL ORGANISMS WHICH LIVE IN THE HOST BODY ARE
CALLED PARASITES. EAXMPLE:
VIRUS, BACTERIA, FUNGUS ETC.
PATHOGENS: THE DISEASE CAUSING MICROORGANISMS ARE CALLED
PATHOGENS. EXAMPLE: VIRUS,
BACTERIA, FUNGUS ETC.
MICROORGANISMS: SMALL ORGANISMS WHICH ARE VISIBLE ONLY
UNDER MICROSCOPE. VIRUS ,

THERE ARE FIVE MAIN GROUP OF ORGANISMS: [FIVE KINGDOM]

Plants:
 All plants are multicellular
 Contain chloroplast that carry out photosynthesis
 Have cell walls made of cellulose
 Stores carbohydrate as starch
 Never move from place to place
Animals:
 Are multicellular
 Feeds on other animals or plants
 Lack cell walls
 Usually move from place to place
  Store carbohydrate as glycogen
Fungi
 Most are multicellular, toadstool or moulds . unicellular is yeast
 Never contain chloroplast, cannot photosynthesise
 Have cell walls made of chitin
 Store carbohydrate as glycogen
 Usually made up of network of hyphae called mycelium
 Mushrooms are edible

Respiration: all are aerobic, yeast can respire anaerobically

Reproduction: Asexually by spores. Sexual reproduction is rare
Nutrition: most are saprotrophic (decomposers). Some are parasites
and cause disease, athlete’s foot
Saprotrophic nutrition: hyphae grow into the food. The hyphae secrete
digestive enzymes onto the food breaking it down to into soluble
substances such as sugars which are then absorbed by the mould,
fungus feeds on dead materials
PROTOCTISTS
 Protozoa(animal like):amoeba, plasmodium
 Algae (plant like): chlorella and spirogyra
 Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms
Eukaryotic: eukaryotic means having a nucleus and other membrane
bounded organelles.
Prokaryotic: has no nucleus or other membrane bounded organelle.
BACTERIA
 Small single-celled organisms
 Cell wall made of peptidoglycan
 Contain extra layer known as capsule/slime layer
 Bacterium has no nucleus
 DNA is in a single loop of chromosome
 Have flagella for locomotion
 Some can carry out photosynthesis
 Many are decomposers
 Lactobacillus bulgaricus used in the production of milk
 Some cause disease, e.g. pneumonia, are pathogens
VIRUSES
 all are parasites and only reproduce inside living cells
 not made of cells and are extremely small
 no nucleus, ribosome
 surrounded by protein coat
 genetic material either in DNA or RNA.
 Do not feed, respire, excrete, move, grow, or respond to their
surroundings
Diseases: * influenza causes flu/common cold in humans
*Tobacco mosaic virus causes discoloration of the leaves of a
tobacco plant
*Corona virus causes covid-19
Chapter 3: breathing and gas
exchange
Respiration releases energy from foods whereas breathing is the
mechanism that moves air into and out of the lungs, allowing gas
exchange to take place.

Alveoli: gas exchange takes place

C shaped cartilage: rings of cartilage support the airways and
keeps them open when breathing in
Pleural cavity: contains pleural fluid, prevents friction of lungs
Diaphragm: separates the contents of thorax from the abdomen
 Keeping the airways clean: mucus traps dirt or bacteria. Cilia beat
backwards and forwards, sweeping the mucus and trapped
particles out towards the mouth.

Breathing in(inspiration) Breathing out(expiration)

Diaphragm muscle contracts and Diaphragm muscle relaxes and

diaphragm becomes flattened diaphragm becomes dome
shaped
External intercostal muscles External intercostal muscles
contract and ribcage goes relax and ribcage goes
upwards and outwards downward and inward
Volume of thorax increases Volume of thorax decreases

Pressure inside thorax decreases Pressure inside the thorax

increases
Air pressure greater outside so Air pressure greater outside so
air goes into lungs down air goes out of lungs down
pressure gradient pressure gradient

Features common to all respiratory surfaces

 They are very large for maximum gas exchange
 They are very thin for quick diffusion across short distance
 They are always moist, because gases can only diffuse across
surfaces dissolved in water
 They are covered with blood capillaries for easy exchange of
gases between air and blood
 Have a system of ventilation to maintain diffusion gradient
 They are permeable
 Differences between inhaled and exhaled air
(i) Inhaled air contains more O2 but exhaled contains less
O2.
(ii) Inhaled air- less CO2, in exhaled air more CO2.
(iii) Inhaled air- less water vapour, exhaled air- More
water vapour.

Gas Atmospheric air Exhaled air %

%
Nitrogen 78 79
Oxygen 21 16
Carbon dioxide 0.04 4
Other gases 1 1
(mainly argon)

Smoking and its effect

(i) Emphysema: smoke damages the walls of the alveoli,
this greatly reduces the surface area for gas exchange,
blood is not easily oxygenated
(ii) Bronchitis: cilia are destroyed/ paralysed by chemicals
in cigarette smoke. So mucus is not swept away but
remains to block the air passages causing cough.
Mucus builds up in the lungs and infection from the
bacteria in mucus causes bronchitis
(iii) Smoke contains nicotine which is very addictive.
(iv) Carcinogens in the tar collects in the smoker’s lungs
causing lung cancer
(v) Smoke contains carbon monoxide which combines
with haemoglobin and forms carboxyhaemoglobin.
 Less oxygen is diffused and hence the person respires
less which ultimately release less energy.
(vi) If a pregnant women smokes, she will be depriving her
unborn fetus of carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide
binds with haemoglobin thus forming
carboxyhaemoglobin. The mother has less oxygen so
respire less to release very less amount of oxygen for
the growth and development of the fetus. This leads to
the mass of the baby at birth time being lower.

Chapter 4: Food and digestion

The need for food:
 To supply us with a fuel for energy- carbohydrate, fats
 To provide materials for growth and repair of tissue – protein
 to help fight disease and keep us healthy – vitamins, minerals,
proteins
Balanced diet: a diet that contains proteins, fats, vitamins,
minerals, carbohydrate along with dietary fibre in the correct
proportion is known as a balanced diet.
Malnutrition: Lack of balanced diet is called malnutrition

Food Tests:
Test for starch test for glucose
•take food sample in test tube and add  5cm3 of benedict’s solution is
iodine added to a sample in test tube
 Heat test tube in water bath
solution
 Colour changes to brick red in
•colour will be blue-black in presence of presence of glucose
starch
test for protein test for lipid
 A drop of oil is taken in a test tube
 Take sample solution in test and 2 cm3 of ethanol added
tube and add biuret solution  Test tube is shaken to dissolve oil and
 Colour is purple/mauve in water is added the shaken once
presence of protein Again
 cloudy emulsion forms in presence of
fat

Name source Function Deficiency

disease
Carbohydrat Honey,rice,  respired to release energy Causes
e glucose,wheat  needed to make cellulose in weakness
C6H12O6 plants
 stored as glycogen in animals and
starch in plants
 needed for the formation of
nucleic acid( DNA)
Lipids Soyabean, butter,  store energy Heat loss
Fatty acids cheese  provides insulation(heat+electric)
 needed to make cell membranes
and glycerol
 prevents mechanical injury
 maintain reproductive efficiency
Protein Chicken,fish,egg,milk  needed for growth and repair Kwashiorkor
Amino acids  needed to make antibodies and
enzymes
 cell membrane is made of protein
Calcium Dairy  needed to make teeth and bone Rickets
products,bread,green
vegetables
Iron Red meat, liver  part of haemoglobin in RBC Anaemia
 helps carry oxygen
Vitamin A Fish liver oils, liver,  makes a chemical in the retina Night
butter, carrot  protects the surface of the eye blindness
 needed to see in dim light
Vitamin c Orange,lemon  sticks together cells lining surfaces scurvy
such as the mouth
 needed to make connective tissue
Vitamin D Fish liver oil,sunlight  helps bone absorb calcium and Rickets and
phosphate poor teeth
 i) Ingestion - the taking in of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body through the mouth
ii) Mechanical digestion - the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to the
food molecules
iii) Chemical digestion - the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules
iv) Absorption - the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine into
the blood
v) Assimilation - the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they are
used, becoming part of the cells
vi) Egestion - the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed (as faeces) through the
anus

In the mouth:
• Teeth chew food to increase surface area for enzyme activity
( mechanical digestion)
• Starch is broken down to maltose by amylase enzyme (chemical
digestion)
• Saliva contains amylase and NaHCO3 and softens food and bolus is
swallowed by peristalsis
In the stomach:
• Food is churned with HCL( provides an acidic condition, activates
enzymes, kills microorganisms)
• Pepsin breaks down protein to polypeptide/peptide
In the Liver:
• Liver secrets bile, bile emulsifies fats to small fat globules to increase
surface area
• NaHCO3 in bile neutralizes stomach acid and makes food alkaline
In the small intestine:
• Pancreas secrete many enzymes + NaHCO3
• Protein to peptides by protease or peptides to amino acids by trypsin
• Maltose to glucose by maltase
• Lipids to fatty acid+glycerol by lipase
Peristalsis: the continuous contraction and relaxation of the circular and
longitudinal muscles that moves food along the gut
Adaptation of villi
 Very long with folded inner wall bearing villi and microvilli
 Present large surface area for absorption
 Epithelium is thin, so short distance for food to diffuse across
 Inside each villi is lacteal to absorb fatty acids and glycerol
 Rich network of blood capillaries to absorb glucose, water
 Blood supply to maintain diffusion gradient

Measuring the energy content of food

(Final temperature - Temperature at start)×100×4.2 Joules
Mass of food in (g)
Advantages of calorimeter:
 Oxygen is supplied to burn food completely
 Insulated container prevents loss of heat to surroundings
 Tube is coiled- to increase surface area
Reasons why energy of food measured is lower than the actual value
 Energy is lost as heat to the surroundings
 Some of the energy is used to heat the test tube, thermometer
 Not all the energy released of the food is completely burned
 Some energy is lost due to latent heat of vaporization
 Some energy is lost when transferring food from burner to test tube
 Human error when measuring volume of water or temperature

Chapter Five: Blood and circulation

Single celled organisms have a high surface area to volume ratio.
Their cell surface membrane has a large enough area to supply all
 the oxygen that their volume demands. Larger animals, surface
area to volume ratio is lower so needs transport system

Single circulatory system: blood pumped from heart to gas

exchange organ then directly to body
Double circulatory: blood pumped from heart to gas exchange
organ, back to heart then to body
Human circulatory system
 Heart
 Blood vessels: arteries, veins, capillaries
 Blood
Arteries:
 (i) Very thick wall
 (ii) They have more elastic tissue to withstand high pressure
 (iv) They have no valves
 (v) Lumen small.
Functions
 (i) They carry blood away from the heart.
 (ii) They carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery.
Veins:
(i) They have relatively thin wall.
(ii) They have less elastic tissue
(iii) Have semi lunar valve
(iv) Lumen big.
Functions
(i) Carry blood towards the heart.
(ii) They carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins.
Adaptations of capillaries:
1. One cell thick, providing short distance for diffusion
2. Permeable to cells, allow materials to pass through their walls
easily
3. Have narrow lumen: slow blood flow gives more time for diffusion
4. Branched to provide large surface area for maximum exchange of
materials
Structure And Function Of Heart
Left atrium: It receives oxygenated blood from the lungs by pulmonary veins.
Right atrium: Blood return to the right atrium from different parts of the body
by cava, Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood.
Left ventricle: It has thicker wall than the right ventricle as pumps blood to
the entire body. It receives oxygenated blood.
Right ventricle: It receives deoxygenated blood. It pumps blood to the lungs.
Valves: They prevent backward blood flow.
Septum: A dividing wall between atrium and ventricle. It separates
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood of the left and right side of the heart.
Aorta: Connected with the left ventricle. Carries oxygenated blood to different
parts of the body.
Venacava: Carries deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.
Pulmonary artery: They carry deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to the
lungs.
Pulmonary veins: They carry oxygenated blood from lungs to heart (left
atrium).
Main arteries of the body:
 Carotid artery: to the head and neck
 Hepatic artery: to the liver
 Mesenteric artery: to the intestine
 Renal artery: to the kidneys
 Iliac artery: to the lungs and sex organs
 Coronary artery: to the heart muscles
 Pulmonary artery: to the lungs
 Aorta: to different parts of the body

Heart rate: one complete contraction and relaxation of the heart

Walls of Left ventricle are thicker because it needs to pump blood to the
rest of the body
Coronary heart diseases
This occurs when cholesterol blocks the coronary arteries which reduces or
sometimes stops blood flow around the body.
Number of factors that increase heart diseases
 Heredity
 High blood pressure
 Fatty diet
 Smoking: raises blood pressure, make blood clots more likely
 Stress: raises blood pressure
 Lack of exercise: regular exercise helps to reduce blood pressure
Component of blood ( functions)

Components of blood

 Plasma: carries the blood cells around the body, carries dissolved nutrients
e.g. hormones, carbon dioxide and urea , distributes heat around the body
 Red blood cells( erythrocytes) : ( biconcave, disc-like cells, no nucleus )
transport oxygen
 Lymphocytes: produce antibodies to destroy organisms
 Phagocytes: digest and destroy bacteria and other microorganisms
 Platelets: release chemicals to make blood clot when skin is cut to prevent
excessive loss of blood and entry of pathogens

RBC adaptation:
 Provide large surface area
 Contains to haemoglobin to combine with oxygen
 Biconcave in shape so more space for haemoglobin
 Elastic membrane: squeeze through narrow capillaries

Immunity
White blood cells protect the body against disease
 Phagocytes engulf and destroy pathogens digestive enzymes
 Lymphocytes make antibodies. Antibodies bind to antigens and clump the
pathogens. Once lymphocytes identifies antigen it is stimulated to clone.
Some secrete antibodies.
 Some lymphocytes develop into memory cells. If the same microorganisms
re-infects, it identifies it and secrete antibodies. This secondary immune
response is much faster and makes more antibodies

Vaccine:
Articificial immunity can be given by vaccination.
A person is injected with
 A weakened strain of the actual microorganism
 Or dead microorganism
Lymphocytes recognize the antigens and make the person immune to the
disease.

Blood clotting:
 If the skin is cut, exposure to the air stimulates the platelets and damaged
tissue to produce a chemical
 This chemical causes soluble fibrinogen to change into insoluble fibres of
fibrin
  The fibrin forms a network across the wound in which red blood cells
become trapped
 This forms a clot which prevents further blood and entry of microorganisms

Chapter 6
1. Stimulus: change in surroundings
2. Response: is a reaction to that change
3. Receptor: change in environment is detected by receptors
4. Effector: response is brought about by contraction of muscles
5. Nerve impulses: information is transmitted in the form of tiny
electrical signals called nerve impulses
6. Sensory neuron: carry impulses from sensory organs to CNS( brain
and spinal cord)
7. Relay neuron: transmits Impulses in grey matter of CNS/ spinal cord
from one neuron to another
8. Motor neurone: carry impulses from the CNS to effectors( muscle or
glands)

Function of neuron ( nerve cell)

 Dendron: receive incoming impulses from other neurons
 Axon: electrical impulses from the neuron travel away to be
received by other neurons
 Cell body: contain genetic information, maintains the neuron’s
structure and provides energy to drive activities
 Myelin sheath: provides insulation to the neuron

Synapse: a microscopic gap between two nerve cells crossed by chemicals called
neurotransmitters. This chemical diffuses across the synaptic gap and binds to
receptor or post synaptic membrane. This is how impulses are produced in the
other neuron.
Reflex action: a rapid, automatic/involuntary response to a stimulus
which protects the body from damage.
How it happens: the stimulus is detected by receptrs in the skin. These
generate impulses in sensory neurons. The impulses enter the CNS
through the dorsal root of spinal cord. Sensory neurons connect with
motor neurons. The motor neurons emerge from the ventral root and
send impulses back to the muscles. These muscles then contract and
respond to the stimulus

: stimulus → sensory neurone → relay neurone → motor neurone →

effector → response

The EYE
1. Sclera: tough outer coat which protects the eye
2. Cornea: lets light into the eye
3. Iris: controls amount of light entering eye
4. Choroid: contains pigments which stops light being reflected
inside the eye
5. Retina: light energy is converted to electrical energy of nerve
impulses. Contains receptor cells(rod,cones) which are sensitive
to light
6. Rod cells: work in dim light, image produced is black and white
7. Cone cells: only work in bright light. Image produced is colorful
8. Optic nerve : sensory neurons pass impulses to the brain through
optic nerve
9. Blind spot: an area of the retina where image cannot be formed
as there are no rods or cones
 Refraction of light takes place in the eye at the cornea about 80%
and about 20% again at the lens

EYE ACCOMODATION

Focusing on a distant object

 Circular ciliary muscles relax
 Suspensory ligaments pulled tight
 Lens flat/less convex to focus light onto the retina

Focusing on a nearby object

 Circular ciliary muscles contract
 Suspensory ligaments slack
 Lens more rounded, more convex to focus light onto retina

Iris reflex in the iris

Bright light
 Circular muscles contract
 Radial muscles relax
 Pupil constricts

Dim light
 Circular muscles relax
 Radial muscles contract
 Pupil dilates

Chapter seven
A gland is an organ that releases or secrets a substance
 Exocrine glands secrete their products through a tube called a duct e.g.
salivary gland
 Endocrine glands have no duct and so are called ductless glands. Their
products, hormones are secreted into the blood, they dissolve in plasma

Differences between nervous and endocrine system

Nervous system
Works by nerve impulses transmitted Works by hormones transmitted
through nerve cells through the bloodstream
nerve impulses travel fast and usually Hormones travel more slowly and
have an instant effect generally take longer to act
Response is usually short-lived Response is usually longer lasting
Impulses act on individual cells such as Hormones have widespread effect on
muscle fibres so have a very localized different organs
effect
Both electrical impulses and chemicals Only chemicals involved
involved

Effects of adrenaline:
Adrenal glands release adrenal when someone is frightened, excited or
angry
 Breathing rate increases and breath becomes deeper, taking more
oxygen into the body
 The heart beats faster, sending more blood to the muscles so that
they receive more glucose and oxygen for respiration
 Blood is diverted away from the intestine and into the muscles
 In the liver, glycogen is changed into glucose and released into the
blood. The muscle cells absorb more glucose and use it for
respiration
 The pupils dilate, increasing visual sensitivity to movement
 Body hair stands upright, making the animal look larger to an
enemy
 Mental awareness is increased so reactions are faster
 Muscles become tense
  Sweating increases
Control of blood glucose :
 When level is high: insulin is made by special cells in the pancreas. It
stimulates the liver cells to take up glucose and convert it into
glycogen ,lowering the level of glucose in the blood

 When level is low: glucagon is released which causes the liver to turn stored
glycogen back into glucose and release it into the blood

Diabetes:
A disease where pancreas cannot make enough insulin to keep blood glucose
level constant.
People with diabetes check their blood glucose using a special sensor which gives
them an accurate reading of how much glucose is in their blood.

Chapter Eight
Homeostasis: keeping the conditions in the internal environment of the body
relatively constant
Excretion: removal of metabolic waste products
Metabolism: all the chemical processes that occur on the body

KIDNEY
Carries out two functions: 1. It is a homeostatic organ controlling the water and
salt concentration in the body
2. an excretory organ that excretes urea
Different parts of excretory system:
 Renal vein: carries blood towards the kidney
 Kidney: removes waste products from blood
  Nephron: structural and functional unit of kidney
 Ureters: carry urine from kidney to urinary bladder
 Urinary bladder: holds the urine temporarily
 Urethra: helps to expel urine from urinary bladder

Differences between urethra and ureter:

 Ureters carry urine from kidney to urinary bladder , urethra expels it out
the body
 Ureter is short, urethra is long
 Ureter has two tubes, urethra have one
Ultrafiltration: where lots of salts, water, urea and glucose are squeezed from the
glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule under high pressure.
Selective reabsorption: useful substances ( sugars, amino acids, some salts) are
reabsorbed back into the blood from the tubules

Maintaining water level

Diuresis: flow of urine from the body
the loss of water means that the concentration of the blood starts to increase
When water content is low: the low concentration of water level is detected by
hypothalamus which causes the pituitary gland to release more ADH( anti diuretic
hormone). ADH causes the collecting duct to become more permeable to water,
so more water is reabsorbed back into the blood. Less urine produced
When water content is high: the high concentration of water level is detected by
hypothalamus which causes the pituitary gland to release less ADH. Thus less
water is reabsorbed back into the blood. More urine produced.

Maintaining temperature
when it’s too cold: body shivers which causes muscle contraction to release heat
energy. Blood flow is decreased as vasoconstriction occurs thus less heat is
radiated. Hairs stand up which trap more insulating air close to the skin
when it’s too hot: body sweats and evaporation of sweat requires heat energy.
Blood flow is increased to the skin by vasodilation thus more heat is radiated.
Hairs lay flat thus less insulating air trapped close to skin.

Skin
Adipose tissue: store fat

Chapter Nine
Primary sex characters of male: scrotum, testis, penis
Secondary sex characters of male: voice breaking, hair distribution, sperm
production, muscle development
Parts of male reproductive organ
 Scrotum: provides right temperature for sperm production
 Testes: produces male hormone testosterone which produces sperm
 Epididymis: collect sperm for testes
 Prostate gland: produces fluid that mix with sperm to make semen

Sperm:
 Acrosome: sac of enzyme which helps to penetrate the membrane of egg
during fertilization so the nuclei can fuse
 Tail: to swim to ovum
 Mitochondria: provides energy to swim

Primary sex characters of female: ovaries,uterus,vagina

Secondary sex characters of female: hair distribution, menstruation, development
of mammary glands
Parts of female reproductive system:
 Ovaries: produces oestrogen and progesterone
 Fallopian tube/oviduct: place for fertilization
 Uterus: place where baby grows till birth
 Vagina: sperms deposited in the vagina during sexual intercourse

Eggs:
Follicle cell: protects the ovum
Cytoplasm contains store of energy: provide energy for the dividing zygote

Stages of sexual reproduction:

 Gamete formation
 Gamete transfer
 Fertilization
 Development of zygote

Menstrual Cycle
Monthly cycle of events preparing a woman’s uterus for the possible
implantation of a fertilized egg.

FSH( follicle stimulating hormone)

 Stimulates follicle to develop
 Stimulates oestrogen secretion

Oestrogen:
 Inhibits FSH
 Stimulates LH
 Causes regrowth of uterus lining

LH:
 Causes ovulation
 Develops corpus leuteum
 Stimulates progesterone

Progesterone:
 Maintains uterus lining
 Inhibits FSH
  Inhibits ovulation

Ovulation: release of ovum is called ovulation

Fertilization: fusion of gametes is called fertilization
Zygote: product or fertilization is called zygote
Embryo: zygote divides to form embryo
Implantation: process by which embryo attaches to uterus
Function Of placenta:
 Allow dissolved food and oxygen to diffuse from the mother’s blood into
embryo
 Removes metabolic waste products from the embryo via mother’s blood
stream
 Allows antibodies to diffuse from mother’s blood into the embryo
 Produces progesterone which keeps the uterus healthy during pregnancy
 Prevent damage of the fetus from high blood pressure of the mother

Functions of amniotic fluid:

 Supports the embryo/fetus
 It acts as a shock absorber
 It also protects the embryo against mechanical injury
 Lubricates and reduces friction in the vagina during birth

Chapter 10
Photosynthesis: process by which plants produce carbohydrates from raw
materials ( carbon dioxide and water) using light.

Equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2.

Products of photosynthesis (glucose)

 Uses:

 Plants use glucose for respiration

 Convert it into starch for storage
 Convert it into lipids for energy source in seeds
 Convert it into cellulose to make cell walls
 Convert it into amino acid to make proteins

Testing leaves for Starch:

 Dewax leaf in boiling water to kill cells
 Remove colour in boiling ethanol using water bath as it is flammable
 Wash with cold water to soften leaves
 Add iodine solution, where starch is present it turns blue

Precaution:
 Wear safety goggles
 Wash hands after handing chemicals
 Use tong/ wear gloves
 Tie long hair back

Need for chlorophyll test:

 Destarch variegated plant
 Keep plant in bright light for 8 hours
 Test leaf for starch by adding iodine solution
 White parts will not change colour, the green parts will stain blue black

Need for light test:

 Destarch a potted plant
 Cover part of a leaf with black paper
 Keep plant in bright light for 8 hours
 Covered part of leaf stains yellow brown, uncovered areas stain blue black

Need for co2 test:

 Destarch two potted plants
 Cover both with glass bell jars
 In experimental plant, keep a dish of soda lime to absorb co2. Control plant
has no soda lime
 Leave both in light for 8 hours
 Leaves of experimental plant stain yellow brown, control stain blue black
with iodine solution

Mesophyll layer is column shaped and packed tightly, with the most
chloroplasts to trap maximum sunlight for photosynthesis

Adaptation Of Leaf For Photosynthesis:

1. Large surface area: increased surface area for faster diffusion of
gases. Absorption of light is maximized
2. Presence of chlorophyll: to trap light for photosynthesis
3. Thin: short distance for light penetration and gas diffusion
4. Stomata: allow co2to diffuse in and o2 to diffuse out of leaf
5. Air space: for gas movement and diffusion
6. Moist: for gases to dissolve
7. Vascular bundle: network of xylem to supply water and phloem to
transport products of photosynthesis
8. Transparent: to let light reach photosynthesizing cells

Mineral ion deficiencies:

Mineral ion Use Deficiency
Nitrate Making amino acids, Limited growth of
proteins,chlorophyll plant, leaves turn
yellow
Magnesium Part of chlorophyll Leaves turn yellow,
molecule chlorosis

Water culture Experiment: Plants can be grown in water cultures if the

correct balance of minerals is added to the water.it is called a complete
culture solution. Plants can be grown in the complete and deficient
solutions.
 Aluminium foil: covering flask to prevent algae growth
  Tube for aeration: for root respiration to supply the plant with
oxygen

Chapter 11
Diffusion is the net movement of particles( molecules or ions) down a
concentration gradient

Osmosis is the net diffusion of water across a partially permeable

membrane from higher water potential to lower water potential down a
water potential gradient

Osmosis is a type of diffusion. Both are passive processes ( due to kinetic

energy) . both increases with surface area and temperature.

Effects of osmosis in plant cells

When placed in dilute solution, water moves into the plant cell by osmosis
and becomes turgid
When placed in concentrated solutions, excessive loss of water by osmosis
causes the cells to become plasmolysed. The leaves become flaccid

 The cell wall has large holes in it, making it fully permeable to water
and solutes. The cell membrane is partially permeable because they
allow only small molecules to go across.

Uptake of water by roots

Soil root hair cell root cortex cells xylem

Mesophyll cells ( osmosis causes water to pass into root hair cells
through root cortex and then into the xylem vessels)

Water travels up the xylem from the roots into the leaves of the plant to replace
the water that has been lost due to transpiration
Transpiration: loss of water vapour from plant surface
Transpiration stream: transpiration causes water to be pulled up the xylem in a
continuous flow known as the transpiration stream.
Functions of transpiration stream:
 Supplies water for the leaf cells to carry out photosynthesis
 Carries mineral ions dissolved in the water
 Provides water to keep the plant cells turgid
 Allows evaporation from the leaf surface which cools the leaf
 Draws water upto leaves, so enables absorption of water by roots

Vascular Bundle

 Xylem: transport water and mineral ions from the roots to the stems
and leaves
 Phloem: transport photosynthetic products from leaves to non-
photosynthesizing regions

Xylem adaptation:

 Lignin deposited strengthens cell walls to withstand pressure of

water
 Dead cells become hollow and cell wall join end to end to form
continuous tube for water and mineral ions to travel through
Phloem:
During summer, photosynthetic products are transported from leaf
to roots as leaf produce sugar

During winter, photosynthetic products are transported from

storage organs to the leaves as photosynthesis in leaves decrease

Factors affecting transpiration:

 Light intensity: increases because of the opening of the stomata
 Temperature: increases as rate of evaporation of water from the
mesophyll cells is increased
 Humidity: decreases in humid air as the diffusion gradient between
the air spaces in the leaf and the external air is less steep
 Wind speed: maintains constant steep diffusion gradient as moving
air removes any water vapour near the stomata.

Potometer:

Simple piece of apparatus that measures the rate of transpiration

Weight potometer: measures rate of loss of mass from a plant or a

leafy shoot over a period of time

Volume potometer: measures rate of uptake of water by magnifying

the uptake in a capillary tube

Chapter 12
Tropisms: is the response of a plant to a directional stimulus

Stimulus Name of response Response of Response of roots

shoots
Light phototropism Grow towards Grow away from
light source light ( negative
(positive phototropisms)
phototropism
gravity geotropism Grow away from Grow towards
direction of direction of gravity
gravity (negative (positive
geotropism) geotropism)

Auxin:
 Plant hormone made is tips of root and stem. Works behind the tip
region of cell elongation. Auxin stimulates cell division and
elongation
Role of auxin in tropisms

Inclole acetic acid is an important auxin

Phototropism: when light shines, IAA diffuses from tip of shoot as

auxin is destroyed in light. This causes it to reach the dark side of
shoot causing cell elongation. Thus shoot bends towards light ( auxin
diffuses to dark side when light is shone on it and cause cell
elongation)
Leaves turn yellow due to lack of light

Differences between plant and animal response to stimulus

Animal response Plant response

Muscle contraction Growth reponse
Quicker slower
Due to electrical impulses Due to chemicals/auxin
Impulses pass along neurons Chemicals travel via phloem

Chapter 13
reproduction in plants
 Runner: a new plant is produced where the runner touches the ground e.g.
strawberry ( natural)
 Tubers: potato tubers form underground at the ends of branches from the
main stem. Plants grow from the eyes which are buds ( natural)
 Bulbs: are the bases of leaves which have become swollen with food. Buds
in them can develop into new plants (natural)
 Cuttings such as money plants ( artificial)

Differences between insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers

Feature of Insect pollinated Wind pollinated
flower
Position of Enclosed within flower so that Exposed so that wind can easily
stamen insect must make contact blow pollen away
Position of Enclosed within flower so that Exposed to catch pollen blowing
stigma insect must make contact in the wind
Type of stigma Sticky so pollen grains attach Feathery, to catch pollen grains
from insects blowing in the wind
Size of petals Large to attract insects Small or absent
Colour of petals Brightly coloured to attract Not brightly coloured, usually
insects green
nectaries present absent
Pollen grains Larger, sticky grains Smaller,smooth
Scent Fewer present Light more produced

Pollination: transfer of pollen grains to stigma

Pollen is produced in anther

Self-pollination: transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma of the same

flower or to another flower of the same plants. No genetic variation.

Cross-pollination: transfer of pollen from an anther of one plants to a

stigma of a different plant of the same species. There is genetic variation of
fruits within the plant

Germination: the emergence of a radicle and a plumule / the growth of a

new plants from a seed

Conditions needed for germination:

 Water: for chemical reactions to take place, enhance enzyme

activity
 Warmth: so that enzymes can work efficiently ( at optimum
temperature)
 Oxygen: needed to aerobic respiration to release energy for the
growth of the seed
Chapter 14
 Producers/autotrophs: organisms that makes its own organic nutrients
using energy from sunlight
 Consumers/heterotrophs: animals that eat plant or other animals
1. Primary consumer: eat producers
2. Secondary consumer: eat primary consumers
3. Tertiary consumer: eat secondary consumers
4. Quatenary consumers: eat tertiary consumers
 Decomposers: organisms that break down dead material and help to
recycle nutrients
 Habitat: a place where an organism lives
 Population: all the organisms of a particular species found in an ecosystem
at a certain time
 Community: the population of all species found in an ecosystem at a
particular time
 Ecosystem: community of organisms where biotic and abiotic factor
interact
 Abiotic factor: non living components in an ecosystem e.g climate, soil
conditions, pollution, oxygen concentration in lakes
 Biotic factor: living components in an ecosystem e.g. availability of food
and competition for food resources, parasitism, disease

Measurement of abiotic factors:

 Temperature: thermometer
 pH: pH meter or universal indicator
 pollution: secchidisc { It is lowered into the water of a lake until it can no
longer be seen by the observer. This depth of disappearance, called the
Secchi depth, is a measure of the transparency of the water}

Quadrats
One way to sample is to place quadrats at random on coordinates using a
calculator. The experiment is repeated with quadrats of same size. Number
of plants in the quadrat are counted each time ( the anomalous ignored)
 and average calculated. Average * total area= population of species in that
area. Quadrats can also be used to compare population in different areas.

Biodiversity:
The amount of variation shown by species in an ecosystem is called the
ecosystem’s biodiversity. It is a combination of two:

 the number of different species present

 the relative abundance of each species

Ecosystems with a high biodiversity are more stable than ones with low
biodiversity because an ecosystem that is dominated by one or few species
is more likely to be affected by any sort of ecological disaster.

FOOD CHAIN: shows how energy is moved from one organism to another
as a result of feeding. The arrows show the direction of energy flow.

Grass ----- grasshopper------ lizard

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
 pyramid of numbers- represents number of organism in each trophic level
ALWAYS START A PYRAMID WITH PRODUCERS AND SO ON

LADYBIRD
FROG

APHIDS
GRASSHOPPERS

OAK TREE
GRASS

 pyramid of biomass: shows the total mass of organism in each trophic level
Why are diagrams of feeding relationships a pyramid shape
 some part of the grass are not eaten
 some parts are not digested and so are not absorbed e.g. cellulose
 some of the materials absorbed from excretory products e.g. urea
 many of the materials are respired to release energy
 much of the energy is used in movements, active transport and
maintenance of body temperature
 some energy is released on decomposition

CARBON CYCLE
 Photosynthesis fixes carbon atoms from carbon dioxide into organic
compounds
 Feeding passes carbon atoms already in organic compounds along food
chains
 Respiration of plants and animals produces inorganic carbon dioxide which
is released into the atmosphere
 Dead plants and animals and organic waste are decomposed by
saprotrophs. Respiration of the bacteria and fungi release co2
 Combustion also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere when fossils
are burned
WATER CYCLE:
 Water vapour condenses to cloud ( condensation)
 Cloud precipitates as rain ( precipitation )
NITROGEN CYCLE:
  Decomposition by fungi and bacteria produces ammonia from the nitrogen
in compound like proteins, DNA and vitamins
 Ammonia is converted to nitrate by nitrifying bacteria ( nitrification ) and
this is absorbed by plants
 Denitrifying bacteria uses nitrates for respiration and convert them into
nitrogen gas. Denitrification reduces the amount of nitrate in the soil
 Nitrogen fixing bacteria in soil convert nitrogen gas into ammonia and is
used by bacteria
 In root nodules, nitrogen fixing bacteria convert ammonia into amino acids
 When the plants/ bacteria dies, nitrogen is returned to soil by
decomposition

Chapter 15
Improving yields from crop plants
Using glasshouses
 The transparent walls of the glasshouse allow light for photosynthesis
 Light entering the glasshouse is absorbed and re-radiated as heat. Radiation
cannot escape through the glass so the glasshouse heats up
 Glasshouse can be heated to raise the temperature
 Additional lighting gives a longer day
 If heaters use fossil fuels such as gas, this produces carbon dioxide- a raw
material for photosynthesis
 If the plants are grown in a hydroponic culture or polythene tunnels, this
provides the right balance of mineral ions for the particular crop

Soil less cultures

 As soil is not used, water losses by surface evaporation are greatly
reduced
 The plants are supported by taut stings
 Polythene tunnels are used to increase the yield of crops
  The nutrient solution in the polythene tunnel contains essential,
minerals in right concentration
 Water potential is also maintained
 Inside the glasshouse there is more light, increased temperature and
more co2 due to burning of fuel. As a result, there is more
photosynthesis and more carbohydrate produced

Fertilizers
 Organic fertilisers – are made from the faeces of farm animals
 Inorganic fertilizer – simply inorganic compounds such as potassium
nitrate or ammonium nitrate ( inorganic fertilisers do not improve
soil structure in the way that organic fertlisers can
The amount of fertilizer added must be carefully monitored to ensure
the maximum growth and yield of the crop ( excess fertilizer wastes
money) excess washed out pollutes nearby water bodies.

Pest control
Pests are organisms that reduce the yield of crop plants or stock animals
Pests can be controlled in ways - * chemical called pesticides
 Biological control methods
Types of pesticides ( chemical )
 Herbicides kill plant pests ( they are weedkillers )
 Insecticides kill insects
 Fungicides kill fungi
 Molluscicides kill snails and slugs
Problems with pesticides
 A pest may develop resistance to the chemical
 They are slow to decompose – are persistent
 Pesticides build up in tissues of organisms ( bioaccumulation)
 Pesticides build up and become more concentrated along food chains
( biomagnification)
  They kill other insects that are harmless as well as helpful species

Biological control
Biological control is a method that reduces the number of a pest by using another
living organism
Advantages
 Specific, only pest is killed
 Pest does not grow resistance
 No need to reapply
 No bioaccumulation and no toxic waste left
Problems
 Never fully gets rid of the pest
 Takes long time to establish
 Initial research is expensive
 Control can become pest itself
Examples
 Ladybirds beetles control aphids
 Myxomatosis viruses control rabbits
 Barn owls eat rats
 Tilapia fish eat mosquito larvae

Fish Farming
Factors controlled
 High protein diet is fed frequently
 Antibiotics are used to control bacterial disease
 Air can be pumped into the tanks and enclosures to increase the amount of
oxygen dissolved in water
 Fishes of different size are kept in different tanks pr acges to avoid intra
specific predation
 Tanks are covered with nets so that birds are unable to eat the fish. This
prevents inert specific predation
  Pesticides are used to kill parasites
Advantages
 Fish is a good source of protein
 Selective breeding can improve quality and yield of fish
 Harvest guaranteed and easy to collect
 Factors like water quality can be controlled to get high yield
Disadvantages
 Diseases spread since fishes are kept densely stocked in the tanks and
enclosures
 Faeces and left over food cause pollution problem
 Decomposition of organic waste leads to oxygen shortage
 Anitibiotics used to control bacteria may not have degraded ( broken down)
by the time the fish are eaten by humans
 Wild fish are used for fish meal. So their numbers are decreasing
Pollution
Pollution is the contamination of the environment by harmful substances that
are produced by the activities of humans.
Water pollution:
Sewage: sewage is wet waste from factories and farms. The aim of sewage
treatment is to remove solid organic matter and pathogenic microorganisms
because it contains urea faeces, etc.
Air pollution by sulfur dioxide is monitored by presence or absence of lichens.
The level of pollution by organic material can be monitored by the presence or
absence of indicator species
Eutrophication: a situation where large amounts of nutrients enter a body of
water
Two main sources are : sewage, fertilisers
Leaching: minerals soluble in water is easily washed out of the soil by rain
Soil erosion cause: fertilizer washed into waterways by surface run-off of
water is soil erosion
Algal bloom: rapid growth of algae
Events of eutrophication : *Increase in mineral ions cause algal bloom
 Algae block the light from reaching the other aquatic plants decreasing
the oxygen produced by photosynthesis
 Algae soon die and are decomposed by aerobic bacteria
 Bacteria population increases
 Bacteria respire aerobically and use up oxygen in the water
 The low oxygen levels can result in the death of fish and other aerobic
animals

Air pollution
Deforestation:
Causes
 Construction of houses, industries and roads
 Manufacture ( furniture and paper)
 Agriculture ( to grow crop e.g. rice) and farming ( to keep and feed animals)
 Fuel by burning wood
Effects
 Increase in level of co2 that leads to global warming
 Destruction of habitats and reduced biodiversity that leads to disruption
break in food chain
 Soil erosion as there are no trees to hold the soil together when rain
washes the minerals out ( leaching )
 Water cycle is disrupted, thus less rainfall
 Less rainforests which is a valuable source of many medicinal drugs
 Less recycling of nutrients
Global warming effects
 Ice caps/ glaciers melt
 Sea level increases and flooding occurs
 Food chains are disrupted, ecosystems are damaged plant yield are
decreased, extinction of species
 Coral reefs are destroyed / coral bleaching occurs
 Pests, diseases and pathogens spread
 This leads to extreme weather/ climate changes

Chapter 16
DNA is usually found in the nucleus of a cell in the chromosomes
Chromosomes contains genes
Gene: a small section of dna that determines a particular feature is called a gene
or it is section of DNA that codes for a particular protein
DNA
DNA has double helix structure. It is made from two strands of molecules called
nucleotides. The two strands are held together by H bonds. Each nucleotide
contains a sugar molecule ( deoxyribose), a phosphate group and a nitrogen
containing group called a base. There are four bases: Adenine, Thymine, cytosine,
guanine
Base pairing rule: Complementary bases always link or bind with each other and
never with any other base. Adenine with Thymine, cytosine with Guanine
Differences between DNA and RNA
 DNA is a double helix , RNA is a single strand
 DNA contains sugar deoxyribose, RNA contains ribose
 RNA contains the base Uracil instead of Thymine
DNA replication and genetic code
It is important to keep the chromosome number unchanged in dividing cells.
Template strand: strand of DNA that codes for the manufacture of proteins. The
other is a non-template strand
The proteins manufactured are enzymes which control processes within the cell.
Some are structural proteins such as keratin in the skin or myosis in muscles.
Others are functional proteins such as haemoglobin and some hormones
Proteins are made of chains of amino acids. A sequence of three bases codes for
one amino acid so the DNA code is a triplet code. The triplets of bases that codes
for individual amino acids are the same in all organisms
Processes of DNA replication
 The polynucleotide strand of DNA separate with the help of helicase
enzyme
 Each strand act as a template for the formation of a new strand of DNA
 DNA polymerase assembles nucleotides into two new strands according to
the base- pairing rule
 Two identical DNA molecules are formed
Protein synthesis:
Protein synthesis takes place in the cytoplasm through stages transcription and
translation.
 transcription occurs in nucleus
 mRNA is formed from DNA and attaches to a ribosome
 mRNA has codons and tRNA has anti codons
 each tRNA molecules carries a specific amino acid
 the tRNA anticodon pairs up with mRNA codon and translation takes place
Transcription: process by which the information in the base sequence of a
strand of the DNA is copied into a molecule of mRNA
Translation: process by which the information in the base sequence of mRNA
is used to produce the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Takes place at
ribosomes
Mutation
A mutation is a rare random change in the DNA base sequence of a cell that
can be inherited which may code for the wrong amino acid and the wrong
protein. Only mutations in the gametes or in reproductory organs can be
passed on to the next generation.
In duplication, the nucleotide is inserted twice instead of once. Both genotype
and phenotype changes.
In deletion, a nucleotide is missed out
In substitution, a different nucleotide is used
In inversions, the sequence of the bases in a triplet is reversed

Homologous pairs: pairs of matching chromosomes

Heterozygous pairs: pairs of different chromosomes
Haploid: number of chromosomes found in gametes (23). Haploid cells contain
one chromosome from each homologous pair.
 Diploid: number of chromosomes found in body cells ( 46). Cells contain both
chromosomes of each homologous pair
Alleles: different forms of a gene
Dominant: allele of a gene that is expressed in the heterozygote
Recessive: allele that is not expressed in the phenotype when a dominant
allele of the gene is present
Genome: entire DNA of an organism

Chapter 17
Mitosis: type of cell division that produces diploid body cells for growth and
repair of tissues
Meiosis: type of cell division that produces haploid cells (gametes)
Differences between mitosis and meiosis
Feature of the process Mitosis Meiosis
Chromosomes are copied before division begins Yes Yes
number of cell divisions One two
Number of daughter cells produced Two Four
Daughter cells are haploid or diploid Diploid haploid
Genetic variation in the daughter cells No Yes
Where it takes place Body cells, Reproductive
embryo organs to make
gametes

Chapter 18
F1 generation: offspring formed from breeding the parent organisms
F2 generation: offspring formed from breeding individuals from the f1 generation
Codominant: if two alleles are expressed in the same phenotype, they are called
codominant.
Polygenic inheritance: characteristics controlled by two or more genes working
together

Chapter 19
Evolution: change in form of organisms over the course of time. Process by which
species develop from earlier forms during the history of the Earth
Natural selection: process where certain individuals because they are better
adapted to their environment. They are more likely to pass on their genes to their
offspring. The mechanism, of evolution
Theory of natural selection:
 There is variation within the species
 Organisms generally produce more offspring than are needed t replace
them
 So, there is competition for resources
 Those organisms best suited to their environment would survive to
reproduce. Those less suited will die
 Those characteristics that give the organisms a better chance of surviving
will be passed on to the next generation. The next generation will have
more of the type that is better adapted
 This will be repeated in each generation so they are evolving by natural
selection

Chapter 20
Humans have tried to obtain bigger yields. They cross bred different plants to
obtain more grain. They bred sheep and goats to give more milk and meat
Selective breeding: is the breeding of only those with desirable features. It is
sometimes called ‘artificial selection’ as human choose rather than
environmental factors.
 Artificial insemination (AI): method of selective breeding, where semen is
used to make an animal pregnant without sexual intercourse e.g. using semen
from prize bulls to inseminate cows
Features of selective breeding
 Plants and animals of same species are crossed
 They are chosen for desired characteristics
 It takes many generations long term
 Sexual reproduction is involved
Selective breeding of plants
The aim was to produce wheat with a much-increased yield of grain and with
shorter, stronger stems.
Advantages
 Give higher yields
 Are resistant to certain diseases
 Have a better balance of nutrients in the crop
Selective breeding of animals
Advantages:
 Produce more meat, milk or eggs
 Produce better quality fur
 Produce more offspring
 Have desired characteristics

Cloning plants
Micropropagation procedure:
 Very small pieces are cut off from the tips of stem and side shoots (0.5-
1mm). These are called explants. Using forceps/ scalpel/ knife
 They are sterilized using alcohol/bleach
 And kept in sterilized agar medium
  That contains nutrients e.g. glucose, vitamins, minerals, growth promoter
like hormone auxin and water ( these help the explants to grow)
 The explants with shoots are transferred to another agar( growth medium)
containing rooting hormones as well ( to induce root formation)
 When the plants have grown roots they are transferred to a fogging
greenhouse where it is very moist
 They are grown in cimpost and controlled temperature, co2 and light

Advantages to this micropropagation:

 Large numbers of genetically identical plants with desired characteristics
can be produced rapidly
 Plants can be produced at any time of the year
 Genetic modifications can be introduced into thousands of plants quickly,
after modifying only a few plants

Cloning animals
 Udder cells are removed from the sheep to be cloned
 Dolly will be genetically identical to this sheep
 Unfertilized eggs are taken from another sheep
 Haploid nuclei of the eggs are removed
 Udder cells are fused with (enucleated) egg cells using electric current
 The diploid egg cell is kept in nutrients
 It develops into embryo by mitosis
 Embryo is transferred into uterus of foster/surrogate mother ( hormones
are given before implantation)

Chapter 20
Fermentation: using the respiration of microorganisms to produce useful
products
Biotechnology: means using any organisms to make products that are useful
to humans
Bread making
  wheat flour and water are mixed together and yeast is added
 enzymes from the original cereal grain breaks down the starch to sugar
which are respired by the yeast
 the co2 makes the dough rise
 when the air runs out, conditions become anaerobic, so the yeast begins
to respire anaerobically making ethanol (alcohol) and more co2
 when the dough is baled in the oven, the gas bubble expands which
causes the dough to become light and fluffy
 baking kills the yeast cells and the ethanol evaporates that was formed
in fermentation
yoghurt making
 milk is pasteurized at 85-95 degree Celsius for 15-30 minutes to kill all
microorganisms
 milk is cooled to 40-45 degree Celsius
 a starter culture of lactobacillus is added
 the bacteria digest milk proteins and ferment lactose (sugar in the milk) to
lactic so the pH falls
 flavours and food colors are added further

Making Alcoholic drinks

Beer making:
 barely seeds are germinated by adding water
 amylase is added to break down starch into maltose
 these are crushed and filtered
 it is kept in vats where anaerobic conditions are maintained
 yeast is added
 yeast ferment (respire aerobically) the sugars to produce alcohol
 as alcohol concentration increases, yeast cells are killed and
fermentation stops
 it is filtered to remove dead yeast cells ( not imp)
Wine making:
 grapes are crushed
 the liquid extract is filtered
 it is kept in vats where anaerobic conditions are maintained
 yeast is added
 yeast ferment (respire aerobically) the sugars to produce alcohol
 as alcohol concentration increases, yeast cells are killed and fermentation
stops
 it is filtered to remove dead yeast cells ( not imp)

Industrial fermenter:
The advantage of using a fermenter is that conditions can be carefully controlled
to produce large quantities of exactly the right type of microorganism
 the fermenter is made sterile by pumping steam through the equipment at
high pressure to kill microorganisms and to prevent chemical
contamination, thus only desired microorganisms grow
 nutrient broth is added for respiration to release energy and to make the
microorganisms reproduce
 optimum temperature is monitored using probes and maintained using
water jacket that ensures an optimum environment for enzyme activity
 the pH of the contents is adjusted by adding acid or alkali to keep it
constant
 oxygen is needed for aerobic respiration of microorganisms
 stirring paddles ensure that microorganisms, temperature, pH and
nutrients are distributed evenly throughout the fermenter
 made of stainless steel or special alloys as to not corrode when
microorganisms produce acidic waste products

aseptic precautions: filtering the air and sterilizing the fermenter

 Chapter 22
the protein produced could be:
 an enzyme , e.g. amylase
 hormone such as insulin
 structural protein like keratin in hair, collagen in skin
 a functional protein such as haemoglobin or an antibody
Recombinant DNA: a section of DNA is cut out of the DNA of one organism
and inserted into the DNA of another. This new DNA is called recombinant
DNA.
Transgenic organism: an organism that receives the gene from a different
species

Restriction enzymes : enzymes that cut DNA molecules at specific points

Ligases: are enzymes that join the cut ends of DNA molecules
Stages in producing a transgenic bacterium:
 the gene/ DNA for human insulin is cut
 using restriction enzymes ( endonuclease)
 plasmid ( from bacteria) is split using same restriction enzyme
 the cut gene and split plasmid are mixed with ligase enzyme
 the sticky ends/complementary ends of the gene and plasmid join
 to form recombinant plasmid/DNA
 plasmid is the vector
the bacteria that have taken up the plasmid now contain the gene. They are
grown in fermenters.

Vector: vehicle used to carry other organism’s genes

Bacteriophage: is a virus that attacks a bacterium

The DNA of bacteriophage is injected into bacterium, the foreign gene is
taken by bacterial DNA

Use of genetically Modified Bacteria

 human insulin
 enzymes for washing powder
 enzymes in food industry
 Human growth hormone
 Bovine somatotrophin ( growth hormone in cattle)
 Human vaccine ( hepatitis B)

Enzymes in food industry: yeast secrete invertase that splits sucrose into
glucose and fructose. Also bacterial enzyme glucose isomerase catalyses a
reaction which converts glucose into fructose. As fructose is much sweeter
than glucose, it is needed less to sweeten. Thus, it saves money and the
food produced contains less sugar and is healthier

Genetically modified Plants

Two main stages:
 Introducing the new gene or genes into plant cells
 Producing whole plants from juts a few cells

Procedure:
 DNA of another species cut with restriction enzymes for desired gene
 Plasmid of agrobacterium isolated
 Plasmid split open with restriction enzymes
 Cut plasmid joined to desired gene with ligase ( recombinant plasmid)
 Leaf discs is obtained from plant to be modified and it is floated on nutrient
medium containing plasmid

Not all plants can be modified by this technique as agrobacterium cannot

infect all such as cereals. Another technique is gene gun
Gene gun: gun that fires golden bullets

Procedure:
 Desired gene isolated using restriction enzymes
 Tiny pellets of gold ( golden bullets) are coated with DNA that contains
desired gene
 These are then fired directly into plant tissue ( young delicate tissue)

Use of genetically modified plants

 Increased resistance to a range of pests and pathogens
 Increased heat and drought tolerance
 Increased salt tolerance
 Better balance of proteins, carbohydrates,lipids, vitamins and minerals

Genetically modified Animals

Procedure:
 Desired gene cut using restriction enzymes
 It is injected into a fertilized egg from donor mouse
 This is put into surrogate mouse
 Offspring produced contain genes