PROCESSING OF CERAMICS

• Processing of Traditional Ceramics

• Processing of New Ceramics
• Product Design Considerations
 Raw Materials for Traditional
Ceramics
• Mineral silicates, such as clays of various compositions,
and silica, such as quartz, are among the most abundant
substances in nature and constitute the principal raw
materials for traditional ceramics
• Another important raw material for traditional ceramics is
alumina
• These solid crystalline compounds have been formed
and mixed in the earth’s crust over billions of years by
complex geological processes
Clay as a Ceramic Raw Material
• Clays consist of fine particles of hydrous aluminum
silicate
– Most common clays are based on the mineral
kaolinite, (Al2Si2O5(OH)4)
• When mixed with water, clay becomes a plastic
substance that is formable and moldable
• When heated to a sufficiently elevated temperature
(firing ), clay fuses into a dense, strong material
– Thus, clay can be shaped while wet and soft, and
then fired to obtain the final hard product
 Silica as a Ceramic Raw
Material
• Available naturally in various forms, most
important is quartz
– The main source of quartz is sandstone
• Low in cost; also hard and chemically
stable
• Principal component in glass, and an
important ingredient in other ceramic
products including whiteware, refractories,
and abrasives
 Alumina as a Ceramic Raw
Material
• Bauxite - most alumina is processed from this mineral,
which is an impure mixture of hydrous aluminum oxide
and aluminum hydroxide plus similar compounds of iron
or manganese
– Bauxite is also the principal source of metallic
aluminum
• Corundum - a more pure but less common form of Al2O3,
which contains alumina in massive amounts
• Alumina ceramic is used as an abrasive in grinding
wheels and as a refractory brick in furnaces
 Traditional Ceramic Products
• Pottery and Tableware
• Brick and tile
• Refractories
• Abrasives
 Types of Ceramics and Their
Processing
• Ceramic materials divide into three categories:
1. Traditional ceramics – particulate processing
2. New ceramics – particulate processing
3. Glasses – solidification processing
• The solidification processes for glass are
covered in a different slide set
• The particulate processes for traditional and
new ceramics as well as certain composite
materials are covered in this slide set
 Overview of Ceramics Particulate
Processing
• Traditional ceramics are made from minerals
occurring in nature
– Products include pottery, porcelain, bricks, and
cement
• New ceramics are made from synthetically
produced raw materials
– Products include cutting tools, artificial bones, nuclear
fuels, and substrates for electronic circuits
• The starting material for all of these items is
powder
 Overview of Ceramics Particulate
Processing - continued
• For traditional ceramics, the powders are usually
mixed with water to temporarily bind the particles
together and achieve the proper consistency for
shaping
• For new ceramics, substances other than water
are used as binders during shaping
• After shaping, the green parts are fired
(sintered), whose function is the same as in
powder metallurgy:
– To effect a solid state reaction which bonds
the material into a hard solid mass
Figure 17.1 - Usual steps in traditional ceramics
processing: (1) preparation of raw materials, (2)
shaping, (3) drying, and (4) firing
Part (a) shows the workpart during the sequence,
while (b) shows the condition of the powders
Preparation of the Raw Material
for Traditional Ceramics
• Shaping processes for traditional ceramics
require the starting material to be a plastic
paste
– This paste is comprised of fine ceramic
powders mixed with water
• The raw ceramic material usually occurs in
nature as rocky lumps, and reduction to
powder is the purpose of the preparation
step in ceramics processing
 Comminution
Reducing particle size in ceramics processing
by use of mechanical energy in various
forms such as impact, compression, and
attrition
• Comminution techniques are most effective
on brittle materials such as cement, metallic
ores, and brittle metals
• Two general types of comminution
operations:
1. Crushing
2. Grinding
 Crushing
Reduction of large lumps from the mine to
smaller sizes for subsequent further
reduction
• Several stages may be required (e.g.,
primary crushing, secondary crushing), the
reduction ratio in each stage being in the
range 3 to 6
• Crushing of minerals is accomplished by
compression against rigid surfaces or by
impact against surfaces in a rigid
constrained motion
 Jaw Crusher
Large jaw toggles back and forth to crush
lumps against a hard, rigid surface

Figure 17.2 -
Crushing operations:
(a) jaw crusher
 Roll Crusher
Ceramic lumps are squeezed between
rotating rolls

Figure 17.2 - Crushing operations: (c) roll crusher

 Grinding
In the context of comminution, grinding refers to
the operation of reducing the small pieces
after crushing to a fine powder
• Accomplished by abrasion, impact, and
compaction by hard media such as balls or
rolls
• Examples of grinding include:
– Ball mill
– Roller mill
– Impact grinding
 Ball Mill
Hard spheres mixed with stock are rotated
inside a large cylindrical container; the
mixture is carried up the container wall as it
rotates, and then pulled back down by gravity
for grinding action

Figure 17.3 - Mechanical

methods of producing
ceramic powders: (a) ball mill
 Roller Mill
Stock is compressed against a flat
horizontal grinding table by rollers riding
over the table surface

Figure 17.3 -
Mechanical methods
of producing ceramic
powders: (b) roller mill
Ingredients of Ceramic Paste for
Shaping

1. Clay (hydrous aluminum silicates) - usually the main

ingredient because of ideal forming characteristics
when mixed with water
2. Water – creates clay-water mixture with suitable
plasticity for shaping
3. Non-plastic raw materials, such as alumina and silica
- reduce shrinkage in drying and firing but also
reduce plasticity of the mixture during forming
4. Other ingredients, such as fluxes that melt (vitrify)
during firing and promote sintering, and wetting
agents to improve mixing of ingredients
 Shaping Processes
• Slip casting
– The clay-water mixture is a slurry
• Plastic forming methods
– The clay is plastic
• Semi-dry pressing
– The clay is moist but has low plasticity
• Dry pressing
– The clay is basically dry (less than 5% water)
and has no plasticity
Figure 17.4 - Four categories of shaping
processes used for traditional ceramics,
compared to water content and pressure
required to form the clay
 Slip Casting
A suspension of ceramic powders in water, called a slip,
is poured into a porous plaster of paris mold so that
water from the mix is absorbed into the plaster to
form a firm layer of clay at the mold surface
• The slip composition is 25% to 40% water
• Two principal variations:
– Drain casting - the mold is inverted to drain excess
slip after a semi-solid layer has been formed, thus
producing a hollow product
– Solid casting - to produce solid products,
adequate time is allowed for entire body to
become firm
Figure 17.5 - Sequence of steps in drain casting, a
form of slip casting: (1) slip is poured into mold
cavity, (2) water is absorbed into plaster mold to
form a firm layer, (3) excess slip is poured out,
and (4) part is removed from mold and trimmed
 Overview of Plastic Forming
• The starting mixture must have a plastic
consistency, with 15% to 25% water
• Variety of manual and mechanized
methods
– Manual methods use clay with more water
because it is more easily formed
• More water means greater shrinkage in drying
– Mechanized methods generally use a mixture
with less water so starting clay is stiffer
 Plastic Forming Methods
• Hand modeling (manual method)
• Jiggering (mechanized method)
• Plastic pressing (mechanized method)
• Extrusion (mechanized method)
 Hand Modeling
Creation of the ceramic product by manipulating the
mass of plastic clay into the desired geometry
• Hand molding - similar only a mold or form is used to
define portions of the part geometry
• Hand throwing on a potter's wheel is another
refinement of handcraft methods
– Potter's wheel = a round table that rotates on a
vertical spindle, powered either by motor or
foot-operated treadle
– Products of circular cross-section can be formed
by throwing and shaping the clay, sometimes
using a mold to provide the internal shape
 Jiggering
Similar to potter's wheel methods, but
hand throwing is replaced by
mechanized techniques

Figure 17.6 - Sequence in jiggering: (1) wet clay slug is placed on a

convex mold; (2) batting; and (3) a jigger tool imparts the final
product shape
 Plastic Pressing
Forming process in which a plastic clay slug is pressed
between upper and lower molds contained in metal
rings
• Molds are made of porous material such as gypsum,
so when a vacuum is drawn on the backs of the mold
halves, moisture is removed from the clay
• The mold sections are then opened, using positive air
pressure to prevent sticking of the part in the mold
• Advantages: higher production rate than jiggering
and not limited to radially symmetric parts
 Extrusion
Compression of clay through a die orifice to produce
long sections of uniform cross-section, which are
then cut to required piece length
• Equipment utilizes a screw-type action to assist in
mixing the clay and pushing it through die opening
• Products: hollow bricks, shaped tiles, drain pipes,
tubes, and insulators
• Also used to make the starting clay slugs for other
ceramics processing methods such as jiggering and
plastic pressing
 Semi-dry Pressing
Uses high pressure to overcome the
clay’s low plasticity and force it into a
die cavity

Figure 17.7 - Semi-dry pressing: (1) depositing moist powder into die
cavity, (2) pressing, and (3) opening the die sections and ejection
 Dry Pressing

Process sequence is similar to semi-dry pressing - the

main distinction is that the water content of the starting
mix is typically below 5%
• Dies must be made of hardened tool steel or cemented
carbide to reduce wear since dry clay is very abrasive
• No drying shrinkage occurs, so drying time is eliminated
and good dimensional accuracy is achieved in the final
product
• Typical products: bathroom tile, electrical insulators,
refractory brick, and other simple geometries
Clay Volume vs. Water Content
• Water plays an important role in most of
the traditional ceramics shaping processes
• Thereafter, it has no purpose and must be
removed from the clay piece before firing
• Shrinkage is a problem during drying
because water contributes volume to the
piece, and the volume is reduced when it
is removed
Figure
17.8 - Volume of
clay as a
function of water
content
Relationship
shown here is
typical; it varies
for different clay
compositions
 Drying

The drying process occurs in two stages:

• Stage 1 - drying rate is rapid and constant as water
evaporates from the surface into the surrounding air
and water from the interior migrates by capillary
action to the surface to replace it
– This is when shrinkage occurs, with the risk of
warping and cracking
• Stage 2 - the moisture content has been reduced to
where the ceramic grains are in contact
– Little or no further shrinkage occurs
Figure 17.9 - Typical drying rate curve and associated
volume reduction (drying shrinkage) for a ceramic body
in drying
Drying rate in the second stage of drying is depicted here
as a straight line; the function is sometimes concave or
convex
 Firing of Traditional Ceramics
Heat treatment process that sinters the ceramic material
• Performed in a furnace called a kiln
• Bonds are developed between the ceramic grains,
and this is accompanied by densification and
reduction of porosity
• Therefore, additional shrinkage occurs in the
polycrystalline material in addition to that which has
already occurred in drying
• In the firing of traditional ceramics, a glassy phase
forms among the crystals which acts as a binder
 Glazing
Application of a ceramic surface coating to make
the piece more impervious to water and
enhance its appearance
• The usual processing sequence with glazed
ware is:
1. Fire the piece once before glazing to harden
the body of the piece
2. Apply the glaze
3. Fire the piece a second time to harden the
glaze
 Processing of New Ceramics
• The manufacturing sequence for the new
ceramics can be summarized in the
following steps:
1. Preparation of starting materials
2. Shaping
3. Sintering
4. Finishing
• While the sequence is nearly the same as
for the traditional ceramics, the details are
often quite different
Preparation of Starting Materials
• Strength requirements are usually much greater
for new ceramics than for traditional ceramics
• Therefore, the starting powders must be smaller
and more uniform in size and composition, since
the strength of the resulting ceramic product is
inversely related to grain size
• Greater control of the starting powders is
required
• Powder preparation includes mechanical and
chemical methods
 Shaping of New Ceramics
• Many of the shaping processes for new
ceramics are borrowed from powder metallurgy
(PM) and traditional ceramics
– PM press and sinter methods have been
adapted to the new ceramic materials
• And some of the traditional ceramics forming
techniques are used to shape the new ceramics,
such as: slip casting, extrusion, and dry pressing
• The processes described here are not normally
associated with the forming of traditional
ceramics, although several are associated with
PM
 Hot Pressing
Similar to dry pressing except it is carried
out at elevated temperatures so sintering
of the product is accomplished
simultaneously with pressing
• This eliminates the need for a separate
firing step
• Higher densities and finer grain size are
obtained, but die life is reduced by the hot
abrasive particles against the die surfaces
 Isostatic Pressing
Uses hydrostatic pressure to compact the
ceramic powders from all directions
• Avoids the problem of nonuniform density
in the final product that is often observed
in conventional uniaxial pressing
• Same process used in powder metallurgy
Powder Injection Molding (PIM)
Ceramic particles are mixed with a thermoplastic polymer,
then heated and injected into a mold cavity
• The polymer acts as a carrier and provides flow
characteristics for molding
• Upon cooling which hardens the polymer, the mold is
opened and the part is removed
• Because temperatures needed to plasticize the carrier
are much lower than those required for sintering the
ceramic, the piece is green after molding
• The plastic binder is removed and the remaining ceramic
part is sintered
 Sintering of New Ceramics
• Since the plasticity needed to shape the new ceramics
is not normally based on water, the drying step required
for traditional green ceramics can be omitted for most
new ceramic products
• The sintering step is still very much required
• Functions of sintering are the same as before:
1. Bond individual grains into a solid mass
2. Increase density
3. Reduce or eliminate porosity
 Finishing Operations for New
Ceramics
• Parts made of new ceramics sometimes
require finishing, which has one or more
of the following purposes:
1. Increase dimensional accuracy
2. Improve surface finish
3. Make minor changes in part geometry
• Finishing usually involves abrasive
processes
– Diamond abrasives must be used to cut the
hardened ceramic materials