Encyclopedia of

MANAGEMEN
T
THEORY
VOLUME TWO

ERIC H. KESSLER EDITOR

Pace University

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526 Organizational Commitment Theory

Gutierrez
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Cover Designer: Glenn Vogel Further Readings
Marketing Manager: Carmel Schrire Gailliard, B., Myers, K. K., & Seibold, D. R. (2010).
Organizational assimilation: A multidimensional
 reconceptualization Waldeck, J., & Myers, K. K. (2007). Organizational
and measure. assimilation theory, research, and implications for
Management multiple divisions of the discipline: A state of the art
Communication review. In C. S. Beck (Ed.), Communication yearbook 31,
Quarterly, 24, 552 (pp. 322—369). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
—578.
Jablin, F. (2001).
Organizational entry,
assimilation, and exit. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT
In E Jablin & L.
Putnam (Eds.), The THEORY
new handbook of
organizational
communication (pp. Organizational commitment (OC) is, in general
732—818). Thousand terms, an employee's sense of attachment and
Oaks, CA: Sage. loyalty to the work organization with which the
Louis, M. (1980). Surprise and employee is associated. It is defined in terms of
sense-making: What an employee's attitudes and intentions
newcomers experience (understood as the precursors of behavior).
when entering unfamiliar
organizational settings.
Employees are said to be committed to the
Administrative Science organization when their goals are congruent
Quarterly, 23, 225-251. with those of the organization, when they are
McPhee, R. D., & Zaug, willing to exert effort on behalf of the
P. (2000). The organization, and when they desire to maintain
communicative their connection with the organization.
constitution of Unsurprisingly, OC has been shown to be a key
organizations: A antecedent of other important attitudes and
framework for behaviors, including those related to
explanation. Electronic performance and turnover. For instance, a large
Journal of
body of research suggests that organizations
Communication/ La
Revue Electronique de
whose members have higher levels of
Communication, commitment tend to get more out of those
10(1/2). members, in terms of higher in-role and extra-
Retrieved from role performance and lower levels of
http://www.cios.org/getfile absenteeism and lateness. The study of
/ organizational commitment has grown in
MCPHEE_VION1200 popularity over recent years in the literature of
Miller, V., & Jablin, F. (1991). management, industrial-organizational
Information seeking during psychology, and organizational behavior.
organizational entry: Indeed, OC is among the most studied of all the
Influences, tactics, and a characteristics and attitudes that have drawn the
model of the process.
Academy of Management
attention of organizational scholars. Much of
Review, 16, 92-120. this interest is due to the fact that OC appears to
Scott, C. W., & Myers, K. K. predict some organizational outcomes,
(2010). Toward an including extra-role performance and turnover,
integrative theoretical better than other work attitudes, such as job
perspective of membership satisfaction. This entry reviews the dominant
negotiations: Socialization, theories of organizational commitment from the
assimilation, and the duality
1960s to the present day and concludes with
of structure.
Communication Theory,
possible directions for the future development
20, 79—105. of this theory.
 Fundamentals the late 1960s and the 1970s. These measures
Organizational scholars began question respondents on the likelihood of their
seriously to conceptualize the leaving the organization, given various levels of
notion of OC, and to delineate inducement in pay, status, responsibility, job
its antecedents and freedom, and promotion opportunities.
consequences, in the 1960s.
Since then, the growing The Attitudinal Approach
interest in OC has contributed
The second approach, also called the
to a conceptual richness in
"organizational behavior" or "psychology" approach,
how we understand this
sees commitment as affective or attitudinal. According
construct. Over the years,
to the attitudinal approach, employees feel committed
there have been three main
to the organization because they identify with the
approaches to defining and
organization's values and goals. More specifically,
measuring OC: the calculative
commitment under this approach has three dimensions:
approach, the attitudinal
(a) a desire to maintain membership in the
approach, and the
organization, (b) belief in and acceptance of the values
multidimensional approach.
and goals of the organization, and (c) willingness to
These will now be described
exert effort on behalf of the organization. Commitment
in turn.
under the attitudinal approach has also been termed
The Calculative Approach affective commitment and value commitment.
The attitudinal approach gave rise to one of the
The calculative approach rests
most important measures of OC, the Organizational
on the "side bet" theory of
Howard Becker. Becker Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ), which
introduced this term in the 1960s dominated the literature from the early 1970s to the
to refer to the accumulation of mid1980s. The OCQ consists of 15 items (a
investments valued by the shortened version has nine positively phrased items)
individual that would be lost or reflecting the three dimensions of commitment.
deemed worthless if he or she Some studies noted that the relationships between
were to leave the organization. In this measure and some attitudinal variables, such as
gambling, a side bet is a wager job satisfaction and job involvement, were too high
that is separate from the main bet for an acceptable level of discriminant validity.
or stakes in the game being
played; for instance, two players
However, in separate examinations of the OCQ,
in a card game might bet on other researchers supported the general conclusion
whose hand holds the highest that it contains good psychometric properties.
spade. Becker argued that over Because of the OCQ's dominance, most findings,
time, economic, social, and other conclusions, and proposals for a future research
investments—side bets—such as agenda on OC are based on this measure. But in the
income, status, seniority, and mid-1980s, new criticisms began to arise regarding
friendships, even simply this approach. The basic difficulty is that two of the
"knowing the ropes," tie people dimensions of commitment in the OCQ, a strong
to a particular line of activity.
desire to maintain membership in the organization
The threat of losing these
investments, and a willingness to exert considerable effort on
Organizational Commitment Theory 527

along with a perceived lack of behalf of the organization, overlap with intentions
alternatives to replace or make of outcome behaviors such as withdrawal and
up for them, commits the performance. The response to that criticism has
person to the organization. taken two directions. First, since the items in
Measures reflecting this the full measure that deal with withdrawal and
approach were developed in performance are among the six problematic items
which are negatively phrased, researchers have
tended to use the nine-item a third dimension: normative commitment,
version of the OCQ more defined as employees' feelings of obligation to
frequently than the full 15- remain with the organization.
item version. Second, a new The multidimensional approach is today the
trend has evolved in the
prevailing approach to OC. However, the
definition and measurement
of OC. theory remains in flux. For instance, some
studies have found that continuance
commitment is itself a two-dimensional
The Multidimensional construct, with one subdimension representing
Approach the sacrifices made by an employee in staying
Arguing that OC can with the organization (this is termed
be better understood as a highsacrifice continuance commitment) and the
multidimensional other representing available employment
concept, two scholars— alternatives (low-alternatives continuance
John P. Meyer and commitment). For this reason, some scholars
Natalie Jean Allen— argue that commitment should be studied as a
proposed in 1984 a two- four-component model. In addition, the
dimensional measure of normative commitment scale is very highly
OC. Conceptually, their correlated with the affective dimension of OC,
distinction between the raising concerns about the discriminant validity
two dimensions paralleled of the normative scale. In short, scholars have
that between the side-bet raised serious questions about the validity and
reliability of two of the three dimensions

Organizational Commitment Theory

calculative approach of advanced by the multidimensional approach,

Becker and the attitudinal and much work still needs to be done before
approach. The first this approach can be used to draw firm
dimension was termed conclusions.
affective commitment and Importance
was defined as positive Aside from these questions about the various approaches
feelings of identification to the study of organizational commitment, researchers
with, attachment to, and have raised more general concerns about the usefulness
involvement in, the work of OC as a predictive tool. The basic test of commitment
organization. The second —as for any other construct—is its predictive validity.
was termed continuance OC has shown modest relationships with turnover and
commitment and was weak correlations with in-role performance. It does show
defined as the extent to relatively high correlations with organizational
which employees feel citizenship behavior (OCB), or extra-role behavior. This
raise the question of whether the real power of OC is its
committed to their ability to predict OCB, as opposed to in-role
organizations by virtue of performance—a question that should be considered in
the costs that they feel are future research.
associated with leaving Another promising direction for future research
(e.g., investments or lack is the adoption of a multiple-commitment
of attractive alternatives). approach. Some scholars have begun to examine
Later, the scholars added simultaneously several foci of commitment in the
workplace, including not There is some evidence that the move toward a
only the organization but multiple-commitment approach will increase the
also the workgroup, the job,
the union, and the predictive validity of commitment. However, it is still
occupation. Several forces too early to tell how fruitful this approach will prove.
have advanced this Do employees really distinguish among all the
approach. First, there is different possible foci of commitment at work, or are
growing awareness that in we researchers developing concepts that do not have
strong meaning for employees? Concept redundancy
the workplace, as in life
and measurement problems may yet prove to bedevil
generally, people can and the multiple-commitment approach. This is another
do show commitment to important issue that needs to be examined in future
more than one focus at the research on commitment.
same time. For a real Better understanding of commitment theory has
understanding of important practical implications for modern managers.
commitment in the First, by understanding what commitment entails for
workplace, it is therefore individual employees, managers may be better able to
necessary to examine more motivate them and increase their contribution to the
than one object of organization. For instance, employees with higher
levels of affective commitment may respond
commitment.
positively to work-sponsored social events, while
Second, changes in the employees with higher levels of calculative
work environment commitment might need more tangible incentives,
worldwide, particularly such as the promise of pay raises. This may be
recent and continuing particularly relevant for international managers, as
recessions in many commitment may have different meanings,
economies, have led many antecedents, and implications in different cultures.
organizations to reduce their Second, an understanding of how commitment
workforces. Many have can extend to multiple foci might allow managers
simply cut back, while to characterize employees by commitment
others have turned to profiles. This can provide valuable practical
outsourcing— contracting information for employers. For example, which
jobs and tasks previously profile of commitment has the best fit to the
performed in-house to organization in terms of employees' behavior in
external providers. This has the workplace? Which profile of commitment is
led, in turn, to a decline in better from the viewpoint of the employee's well
the importance of the being? Commitment profiles can assist
organization from the organizations in both selection and maintenance
employees' point of view. of human resource functions. If organizations
The result is that in many know which profiles are more beneficial for them
occupations across many they can integrate some of this knowledge into
countries, organizations do their selection criteria. Also, they can include and
not want to be tied to increase the relevant commitments through their
employees, and employees training programs. Commitment profiles can also
do not want to be tied to be related to nonwork domains, potentially
organizations. Long-term offering a means by which employers can help
commitment is no longer employees to better cope with the sometimes
seen as desirable, and competing demands of work and nonwork.
organizations no longer put Career management, both through individual
effort into creating a career planning and through household planning,
commitment culture. may improve career commitment and, to a lesser
degree, organizational commitment.
Organizations, therefore, might benefit from
programs intended to aid employees in planning
their careers and managing consequences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61, 20—
household activities that 52.
might interfere with work- Morrow, P. C. (1983). Concept redundancy in organizational
related commitments. research: The case of work commitment.
Understanding these Academy of Management Review, 8, 486—500.
Morrow, P. C. (1993). The theory and measurement of work
aspects can assist in finding
commitment. Greenwich, CT: Jai Press.
positive ways to effect
Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. M., & Steers, R. M. (1982).
commitment forms. Aaron Employee-organizational linkage. New York, NY:
Cohen
Organizational Culture and Effectiveness 529

See also Affect Theory; Authentic Academic Press.

Leadership; Reichers, A. E. (1985). A review and reconceptualization of
Management Roles; Organizational organizational commitment. Academy of Management
Culture Theory; Review, 10, 465-476.
Organizational Identity; Social
Exchange Theory; Social
Identity Theory; Trust

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND

Further Readings
EFFECTIVENESS
Becker, H. S. (1960). Notes on the
concept of commitment.
American Journal of Sociology, Organizational culture encompasses the system of
66, 32—40.
beliefs, assumptions, values, and norms held by the
Cohen, A. (1993).
Organizational commitment
members of an organization. Over the past 30 years,
and turnover: A meta- scholars of management and organizational science
analysis. Academy of have advanced a number of theoretical perspectives
Management Journal, 36, to explain how culture impacts organizational
1140-1157. effectiveness. The purpose of this entry is to
Cohen, A. (2003). Multiple provide an overview of the major theories and what
commitments in the workplace: they contribute to our generalized understanding of
An integrative approach. the culture-effectiveness relationship.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence These theories can be broadly categorized into
Erlbaum. process-oriented and resource-based perspectives.
Mathieu, J. E., & Zajac, D. M. The process-oriented perspective follows from an
(1990). A review and anthropological tradition (and more recently,
metaanalysis of the antecedents, organizational psychology) and considers how
correlates and consequences of
organizational cultures—as systems—evolve in
organizational commitment.
Psychological Bulletin, 108,
response to environmental demands. The resource-
171-194. based perspective is rooted in economics and
Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1997). describes the macro factors that allow culture to
Commitment in the workplace: serve as a source of competitive advantage for the
Theory, research, and firm. The modern dimensionalized view of
application. Thousand Oaks, organizational culture is evident in both theoretical
CA: Sage. perspectives, providing the framework for
Meyer, J. P., Stanley, J. D., comparing organizational cultures and studying the
Herscovitch, L., & existence and nature of culture-effectiveness
Topolnytsky, L. (2002). relationships. In light of growing evidence pointing
Affective, continuance, and to culture .as an important antecedent of various
normative commitment to the organizational performance outcomes (for a recent
organization: A meta-analysis
overview of this literature, see Sonja Sackmann,
of antecedents, correlates, and
2011), these theories hold are the kinds of cultural values, norms, and work
particular relevance for practices
management scholars
interested in human-social
factors as drivers of
organizational effectiveness.

Fundamentals
The process theory linking
culture to effectiveness is
perhaps best illustrated by
Edgar Schein's work
beginning in the early 1980s.
Schein described culture as
an adaptive feature of
organizations with a
recursive relationship with
the organization's
effectiveness. Founding
leaders implant their
personal values and
assumptions within the
organizations they create. As
the group struggles to
overcome competitive
pressures and succeed
together as an organization,
the culture evolves and
becomes deeply ingrained.
As a consequence of this
process unfolded over time,
the organization's culture
comes to reflect the
collective learning of the
group regarding what works
and what doesn't (i.e., what
is effective). Cultural
elements and practices that
inhibit the organization's
effectiveness are eventually
abandoned in favor of those
that promote effectiveness
and increase the likelihood
that the organization will
survive and flourish. If
culture does not adapt to
meet changing demands, the
organization may face crisis
or even perish.
Thus, culture shapes, and
is shaped by, the
organization's successes and
failures. Yet two main
questions remain for
theories to address: What