TRANSPORT IN

ANIMALS
PREPARED BY: TAMILARASI NARAYANASAMY
 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system is a system of blood vessels with a pump and

valves to ensure one-way flow of blood
 CIRCULATION IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS
● Fish have a two-chambered heart and a single circulation
● This means that for every one circuit of the body, the blood
passes through the heart once
● Mammals have a four-chambered heart and a double circulation
● This means that for every one circuit of the body, the blood
passes through the heart twice
● The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the
body and pumps it to the lungs (the pulmonary circulation)
● The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs and pumps it to the body (the systemic circulation)
THE SINGLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN FISH
THE DOUBLE CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM IN MAMMALS
 ADVANTAGES OF A DOUBLE
CIRCULATION
● Blood travelling through the small capillaries in the lungs loses a lot
of pressure that was given to it by the pumping of the heart,
meaning it cannot travel as fast
● By returning the blood to the heart after going through the lungs its
pressure can be raised again before sending it to the body,
meaning cells can be supplied with the oxygen and glucose they
need for respiration faster and more frequently
 HEART STRUCTURE
● The heart is labelled as if it was in the chest so what is your left
on a diagram is actually the right hand side and vice versa
● The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the
body and pumps it to the lungs
● The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs and pumps it to the body
● Blood is pumped towards the heart in veins and away from the
heart in arteries
● The two sides of the heart are separated by a muscle wall called
the septum
● The heart is made of muscle tissue which are supplied with blood
by the coronary arteries
● The ventricles have thicker muscle walls than the atria as they are
pumping blood out of the heart and so need to generate a higher
pressure
● The left ventricle has a thicker muscle wall than the right
ventricle as it has to pump blood at high pressure around the
entire body, whereas the right ventricle is pumping blood at lower
pressure to the lungs
● The septum separates the two sides of the heart and so prevents
mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
STRUCTURE OF THE
HEART SHOWING THE
DIFFERENT VALVES
 THE FUNCTION OF VALVES
● The basic function of all valves is to prevent blood flowing
backwards
● There are two sets of valves in the heart:
○ The atrioventricular valves separate the atria from the
ventricles
○ The valve in the right side of the heart is called the TRICUSPID
and the valve in the left side is called the BICUSPID
○ These valves are pushed open when the atria contract but
when the ventricles contract they are pushed shut to
prevent blood flowing back into the atria
○ The semilunar valves are found in the two blood arteries that
come out of the top of the heart
○ They are unusual in that they are the only two arteries in the
body that contain valves
○ These valves open when the ventricles contract so blood
squeezes past them out of the heart, but then shut to avoid
blood flowing back into the heart
 PATHWAY OF BLOOD THROUGH THE
HEART
● Deoxygenated blood coming from the body flows into the right
atrium via the vena cava
● Once the right atrium has filled with blood the heart gives a little
beat and the blood is pushed through the tricuspid
(atrioventricular) valve into the right ventricle
● The walls of the ventricle contract and the blood is pushed into the
pulmonary artery through the semilunar valve which prevents
blood flowing backwards into the heart
● The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the capillaries
past the alveoli where gas exchange takes place (this is why there
has to be low pressure on this side of the heart – blood is going
directly to capillaries which would burst under higher pressure)
● Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary
vein
● It passes through the bicuspid (atrioventricular) valve into the left
ventricle
● The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract strongly to push
the blood forcefully into the aorta and all the way around the body
● The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood flowing back
down into the heart
 EXERCISE & HEART RATE
● Heart activity can be monitored by using an ECG, measuring pulse
rate or listening to the sounds of valves closing using a
stethoscope
● Heart rate (and pulse rate) is measured in beats per minute (bpm)
● To investigate the effects of exercise on heart rate, record the pulse
rate at rest for a minute
● Immediately after they do some exercise, record the pulse rate
every minute until it returns to the resting rate
● This experiment will show that during exercise the heart rate
increases and may take several minutes to return to normal
 WHY DOES HEART RATE INCREASE
DURING EXERCISE?

● So that sufficient blood is taken to the working muscles to provide

them with enough nutrients and oxygen for increased
respiration
● An increase in heart rate also allows for waste products to be
removed at a faster rate
● Following exercise, the heart continues to beat faster for a while to
ensure that all excess waste products are removed from muscle
cells
● It is also likely that muscle cells have been respiring anaerobically
during exercise and so have built up an oxygen debt
● This needs to be ‘repaid’ following exercise and so the heart
continues to beat faster to ensure that extra oxygen is still being
delivered to muscle cells
● The extra oxygen is used to break down the lactic acid that has
been built up in cells as a result of anaerobic respiration
 CORONARY HEART DISEASE
● The heart is made of muscle cells that need their own supply of
blood to deliver oxygen, glucose and other nutrients and remove
carbon dioxide and other waste products
● The blood is supplied by the coronary arteries
● If a coronary artery becomes partially or completely blocked by
fatty deposits called ‘plaques’ (mainly formed from cholesterol),
the arteries are not as elastic as they should be and therefore
cannot stretch to accommodate the blood which is being forced
through them – leading to coronary heart disease
● Partial blockage of the coronary arteries creates a restricted blood
flow to the cardiac muscle cells and results in severe chest pains
called angina
● Complete blockage means cells in that area of the heart will not be
able to respire and can no longer contract, leading to a heart attack
THE CORONARY
ARTERIES
BUILDUP OF PLAGUE
IN THE CORONARY
ARTERIES
EFFECT OF NARROWING OF ARTERIES
RISK FACTOR OF CORONARY HEART
DISEASE
 PREVENTION & TREATMENT
Reducing the risks of developing coronary heart disease
● Quit smoking
● Reduce animal fats in diet and eat more fruits and vegetables –
this will reduce cholesterol levels in the blood and help with weight
loss if overweight
● Exercise regularly – again, this will help with weight loss, decrease
blood pressure and cholesterol levels and help reduce stress
Treatment of coronary heart disease
● Aspirin can be taken daily to reduce the risk of blood clots
forming in arteries
● Surgical treatments include:
1. Angioplasty
2. Coronary bypass surgery
 ANGIOPLASTY

● A narrow catheter (tube) is threaded through the groin up to the

blocked vessel
● A tiny balloon inserted into the catheter is pushed up to the blocked
vessel and then inflated
● This flattens the plaque against the wall of the artery, clearing the
blockage
● To keep the artery clear, a stent (piece of metal / plastic mesh) is
also inserted which pushes against the wall of the artery
● Sometimes the stent is coated with a drug that slowly releases
medication to prevent further build-up of plaque
INSERTING A STENT INTO A BLOCKED ARTERY
 CORONARY BYPASS SURGERY

● A piece of blood vessel is taken from the patient’s leg, arm, or chest
and used to create a new passage for the flow of blood to the
cardiac muscle, bypassing the blocked area
● The number of bypass grafts gives rise to the name of the surgery,
so a ‘triple heart bypass’ would mean three new bypass grafts being
attached
CORONARY BYPASS GRAFT
 ARTERIES

● Carry blood at high pressure away from the heart

● Carry oxygenated blood (other than the pulmonary artery)
● Have thick muscular walls containing elastic fibres
● Have a narrow lumen
● Speed of flow is fast
 VEINS

● Carry blood at low pressure towards the heart

● Carry deoxygenated blood (other than the pulmonary vein)
● Have thin walls
● Have a large lumen
● Contain valves
● Speed of flow is slow
 COMPARING
ARTERIES AND VEINS
 CAPILLARIES

● Carry blood at low pressure within tissues

● Carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
● Have walls that are one cell thick
● Have ‘leaky’ walls
● Speed of flow is slow
STRUCTURE OF A
CAPILLARY
 HOW STRUCTURE OF BLOOD VESSELS
IS ADAPTED TO THEIR FUNCTION
Arteries
● Have thick muscular walls containing elastic fibres to withstand
high pressure of blood and maintain the blood pressure as it
recoils after the blood has passed through
● Have a narrow lumen to maintain high pressure
Veins
● Have a large lumen as blood pressure is low
● Contain valves to prevent the backflow of blood as it is under
low pressure

Capillaries

● Have walls that are one cell thick so that substances can easily
diffuse in and out of them
● Have ‘leaky’ walls so that blood plasma can leak out and form
tissue fluid surrounding cells
 ARTERIOLES & VENULES

● As arteries divide more as they get further away from the heart,
they get narrower
● The narrow vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called
arterioles
● Veins also get narrower the further away they are from the heart
● The narrow vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called
venules
THE BLOOD VESSEL NETWORK
 SHUNT VESSELS
● Sometimes the cardiovascular system needs to redistribute the
blood to specific areas of the body
● For example:
○ During exercise, more of it goes to the working muscles and
less of it goes to other body organs such as the digestive
system
○ When we are hot, more blood flows through the surface of the
skin and when we are cold less blood flows through the surface
of the skin
● This redirection of blood flow is caused by the use of a vascular
shunt vessel
● The shunt vessels can open or close to control the amount of
blood flowing to a specific area
 A SHUNT
VESSEL IN THE
SKIN WHEN WE
ARE COLD
A SHUNT VESSEL IN
THE SKIN WHEN
WE ARE HOT
 CIRCULATION AROUND THE BODY

● Blood is carried away from the heart and towards organs in

arteries
● These narrow to arterioles and then capillaries as they pass through
the organ
● The capillaries widen to venules and finally veins as they move
away from the organs
● Veins carry blood back towards the heart
THE CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
IMPORTANT BLOOD VESSELS
 LYMPH FLUID
● The walls of the capillaries are so thin that water, dissolved solutes
and dissolved gases easily leak out of them / pass through the walls
from the plasma into the tissue fluid surrounding the cells
● Cells exchange materials (such as water, oxygen, glucose, carbon
dioxide, mineral ions) across their cell membranes with the tissue
fluid surrounding them by diffusion, osmosis or active transport
● More fluid leaks out of the capillaries than is returned to them and
this excess fluid passes into the lymphatic system and becomes
lymph fluid
HOW LYMPH FORMS
 LYMPH VESSELS & NODES
● The lymphatic system is formed from a series of tubes which flow
from tissues back to the heart
● It connects with the blood system near to the heart, where lymph
fluid is returned to the blood plasma
● Lymph nodes are small clusters of lymphatic tissue found
throughout the lymphatic system, especially in the neck and armpits
● Large numbers of lymphocytes are found in lymph nodes
● Tissues associated with the lymphatic system, such as bone
marrow, produce these lymphocytes
● Lymphocytes play an important role in defending the body against
infection
 BLOOD

Blood consists of

● red blood cells

● white blood cells
● platelets
● plasma
COMPOSITION OF
HUMAN BLOOD
COMPONENTS OF THE BLOOD
BLOOD MICROGRAPH
 TYPES OF WHITE BLOOD CELL

● White blood cells are part of the body’s immune system, defending
against infection by pathogenic microorganisms
● There are two main types, phagocytes and lymphocytes
 PHAGOCYTES

● Carry out phagocytosis by engulfing and digesting pathogens

● Phagocytes have a sensitive cell surface membrane that can detect
chemicals produced by pathogenic cells
● Once they encounter the pathogenic cell, they will engulf it and
release digestive enzymes to digest it
● They can be easily recognised under the microscope by their
multi-lobed nucleus and their granular cytoplasm
PHAGOCYTOSIS
 LYMPHOCYTES

● Produce antibodies to destroy pathogenic cells and antitoxins to

neutralise toxins released by pathogens
● They can easily be recognised under the microscope by their large
round nucleus which takes up nearly the whole cell and their
clear, non-granular cytoplasm
 FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE
BLOOD
● Plasma is important for the transport of carbon dioxide, digested
food (nutrients), urea, mineral ions, hormones and heat energy
● Red blood cells transport oxygen around the body from the
lungs to cells which require it for aerobic respiration
● They carry the oxygen in the form of oxyhaemoglobin
● White blood cells defend the body against infection by pathogens
by carrying out phagocytosis and antibody production
● Platelets are involved in helping the blood to clot
 BLOOD CLOTTING

● Platelets are fragments of cells which are involved in blood

clotting and forming scabs where skin has been cut or punctured
● Blood clotting prevents continued / significant blood loss from
wounds
● Scab formation seals the wound with an insoluble patch that
prevents entry of microorganisms that could cause infection
● It remains in place until new skin has grown underneath it, sealing
the skin again
● When the skin is broken (i.e. there is a wound) platelets arrive to
stop the bleeding
● A series of reactions occur within the blood plasma
● Platelets release chemicals that cause soluble fibrinogen
proteins to convert into insoluble fibrin and form an insoluble
mesh across the wound, trapping red blood cells and therefore
forming a clot
● The clot eventually dries and develops into a scab to protect the
wound from bacteria entering
HOW THE BLOOD CLOTS