- How do they get nutrients?

If well nourished,
epithelial cells REGENERATE themselves
easily.
 REGENERATION – natural process of
CELL – the basic unit of life replacing or restoring damages/missing
TISSUES – group of cells cells, tissues, organs to full functions in
 Epithelial plants and animals
 Connective - Have one free (unattached) surface or edge
 Muscle called the APICAL SURFACE
 Nervous  Exposed to body’s exterior or to
EPITHELIAL TISSUES the cavity of an internal organ
- Cover body surfaces - Lower surface of an epithelium rests on a
- Located at outer layer of skin and lining of BASEMENT MEMBRANE / BASAL SURFACE
organs  Structure less material secreted
- Also found in glandular tissue by both the epithelial cells and
 GLANDULAR TISSUE - a type of tissue the connective tissue cells
that lines certain internal organs,
Classification of Epithelium
makes and releases substances in the
body e.g. MUCUS, DIGESTIVE JUICES, - Each epithelium is given 2 names
AND OTHER FLUIDS - First: indicates relative number of cell layers
- Located in stomach, colon,  SIMPLE (one layer of cells)
pancreas, prostate gland,  STRATIFIED (more than one cell
uterus, cervix layer)
- Play roles in absorption, filtration, secretion, - Second: describes the shape of cells
and protection against foreign substances  SQUAMOUS (cells flattened like
- These are widespread throughout the body. scales)
They form the covering of all body surfaces,  CUBOIDAL (cube-shaped)
line body cavities and hollow organs.  COLUMNAR (shaped like columns)
- The major tissue in glands.
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
Special Characteristics of Epithelium
- Usually fit closely together in continuous - Simple squamous (SS) tissue is composed of
sheets flat, scale-like cells that usually forms
• Exception: glandular epithelium membranes
- AVASCULAR (Have no blood supply of their - It lines the walls of blood vessels, pulmonary
own) alveoli (singular term alveolus) (shown here),
1. Intercellular matrix and the lining of the heart, lung, and
 It fills the space between the peritoneal cavities.
cells
 Internally process SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
 Salts, fibers
2. Extracellular matrix - This tissue is composed of a single layer of
 The space located outside the cube-like cells.
cells that form extracellular - It lines the walls of kidney tubules, covers
spaces the surface of ovaries, and is common in
 glands- EXOCRINE AND SALIVARY GLANDS - The outer layers of cells appear flat, but the
and their ducts. inner cells vary in shape from cuboidal to
columnar.
SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM - Stratified squamous epithelium serves as a
barrier to the outside environment in
- This tissue is composed of a single layer of locations such as the skin, mouth, and
tall cells. esophagus.
- It often includes mucus-producing GOBLET STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
CELLS – located in intercalated within the - Stratified cuboidal epithelium (SC) is found
epithelia of the conjunctiva/ conjunctivitis, in the ducts of sweat glands and surrounds
respiratory epithelium, and gastrointestinal Graafian follicles of ovaries.
epithelium. TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
 Goblet cells are basically arise
from stem cells and derived their - Shape of cells depends upon the amount of
name goblet cup-like appearance stretching
 Primary Function: To secrete - It lines organs of the urinary system
mucin and create a protective
mucus layer. CILIATED EPITHELIUM
- It often lines the digestive tract.
 PHOTOMICROGRAPH – a tool use to - Some epithelial membranes are made up of
visibly and clearly to view simple cells with cilia, tiny projections that beat in
columnar epithelium. unison to move mucus along the surface.
- Ciliated epithelia in the trachea, for
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM example, sweep debris out of the
respiratory tract.
- Although this tissue appears stratified, it is GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
actually composed of a single layer of cells of
different types. -A gland is defined as one or more cells
- Although their nuclei are found at different responsible for secreting a particular
levels, each cell adjoins the basal membrane product
(BM). Two major gland types:
- This tissue lines the larger respiratory  Endocrine gland
passageways. - Ductless since secretions diffuse into
- It is often ciliated (arrows) blood vessels
- Main functions: absorption and secretion - All secretions are hormones
- Ciliated variety lines respiratory tract - Examples include pituitary, pancreas,
 Mucus produced by goblet cells traps dust ovaries, testes
and other debris  Exocrine gland
 Cilia propel mucus upward and away from - Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial
the lungs surface
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM - Include sweat and oil gland

- The term “stratified” refers to the layered

arrangement of cells.
 - Dense connective tissue
 Regular
TISSUE – group of cells that working together  Irregular
ORGANS – group of tissue working together
- Reticular connective tissue
ORGAN SYSTEM - group of organs working
A. LOOSE (AREOLAR) CONNECTIVE TISSUE
together
CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Lies between other tissues or between organs
 Function binding them
 Binds structures together - Cells made of fibroblasts – large, star-shaped
 Provides support & protection cells
 Fills spaces  FIBROBLAST – is a type of cell that
 Produces blood cells contributes to the formation of connective
 Stores fat – For energy, insulation, tissue, a fiber cellular material that supports
organ protection and connects other tissues/organs. Also
secrete collagen proteins that help maintain
Parts of tissues
the structural framework of tissues.
 Structure: - Contains many white fibers (strong and flexible)
- Tissue cells are widely separated by and yellow fibers (very elastic)
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX – a large network  ELASTIC FIBER – they in though connective
of proteins and other molecules that tissues such as blood vessels, lungs, and
surround, support and give structures to skin with critical properties of elasticity and
cells and tissues in the body. resilience
- Can be solid, semisolid, or liquid  COLLAGENOUS FIBER – a structural element
found in vertebrae tissues that transmit
 Matrix of connective tissue determine its
forces, store and dissipate energy.
properties
ADIPOSE TISSUE – is a type of loose connective
Fibers of the Matrix
tissue that contains nucleus, fat droplet, plasma
 WHITE FIBERS – contain collagen which membrane
gives the fibers flexibility and strength
- Stores fat, provides insulation
COLLAGEN – is a type of fiber that forms
- Found beneath skin, around kidney & heart,
structural elements found in vertebrae
breast
tissues that transmit forces, store and
dissipate energy B. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 YELLOW FIBERS – contain elastin more  DENSE REGULAR
elastic than collagen but not as strong. They – Consists of parallel bundles of collagenous
are also thinner, less numerous, branched fibers
and a pale yellow color – found in tendons & ligaments
 RETICULAR FIBERS – thin, highly branched –binds organs together
collagenous fibers that provide support.  DENSE IRREGULAR
Utilizes stains. –Bundles run in different direction
– found in inner portion of skin
Classification of Connective Tissue
2. CARTILAGE
1. FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Actually maintains extracellular matrix and
- Loose (areolar) connective tissue produced the cartilage matrix
 Adipose
- The word CHONDROCYTES, it is surrounded  Red blood cells (ERYTHROCYTES) – carries
by collagenous fibers being release oxygen. Deliver oxygen from lungs to
substances to make cartilage strong yet tissues and organs.
flexible.  White blood cells (LEUKOCYTES) – fights
- The cell CHONCROCYTES lies in a small infection and part of immune system
chambers called LACUNAE.  PLATELETS – fragments of giant cells found
- Matrix is solid yet flexible in bone marrow. Help blood clot and
- Strong, flexible connective tissue that responsible for wound.
protects your joints and bones.
- It lacks direct blood supply, as a result it
heals slowly.
MUSCLE – It is one of the four primary tissue
 Three types of Cartilage types of the body. Muscle cells are specialized
 HYALINE CARTILAGE – trachea for CONTRACTION. So that muscles can now
 ELASTIC – ear allow for motions such as walking. It also
 FIBROCARTILAGE – ACL facilitates bodily processes such as respiration
and digestion.
3. BONES
- Most rigid connective tissues
Functions of Muscle
- Minerals and protein fibers gives bone
rigidity, elasticity, and strength 1. MOVEMENT: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
muscles
 Two types:
 Compact Bone – heavy bone structure 2. STABILITY: skeletal muscle
forms the diaphysis 3. COMMUNICATION: skeletal muscle
– Found in the outer portion of long bones 4. CONTROL OF BODY OPENINGS AND PASSAGES:
– consists of many cylindrical
skeletal and smooth muscles
– Shaped units called OSTEON
5. HEAT PRODUCTION: skeletal muscles
DIAPHYSIS – the shaft or central part of the
long bone Muscle allow a person to move, speak and control
 Spongy Bone – soft and smooth bone heartbeat, breathing and digestion. Other
structure that forms epiphysis the long seemingly unrelated function including
bone temperature regulation and vision also rely on the
– Found on ends of long bone muscular system.
– Contains bony bars and plates called Properties of Muscle
TRABECULAE separated by irregular spaces
1. EXCITABILITY (responsiveness) respond to
– blood cells are made within the red
chemical, mechanical, or electrical stimuli.
marrow found in the spongy bone
EPIPHYSIS – it is the end part of a long 2. CONDUCTIVITY initiate events that lead to
bone initially growing separately from the contraction.
shaft. Other term for epiphysis is PINEAL. 3. CONTRACTILITY ability to shorten substantially
4. EXTENSIBILITY able to stretch between
4. BLOOD contractions.
- Connective tissue composed of cells
5. ELASTICITY ability to return to original length
suspended in liquid matrix called PLASMA
after stretching.
Three Muscle Tissues  TROPOMYOSIN – these are the family of
1. SKELETAL MUSCLE closely related proteins present in
muscle and non-muscle cells
2. CARDIAC MUSCLE
 SARCOMERE is contractile unit of
3. SMOOTH skeletal muscle; defined as the distance
between 2 “Z” discs.’
SKELETAL MUSCLE Prefixes referring to Skeletal Muscle Tissue
- It forms the skeletal muscles which - Myo- and Sarco-
attached to bones or skin and control - Myofibril, myofilament, endomysium,
locomotion and any movement that can be perimysium, epimysium
consciously controlled. - Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, sarcoplasmic
- Also called VOLUNTARY MUSCLE. reticulum, sarcomere
- Cells are long and cylindrical in shape Connective tissues and fascicles
- Cells are  MYOFIBRIL – composed of bundles of
 MULTI-NUCLEATED– these are myofilaments
eukaryotic cells that have more than  ENDOMYSIUM – areolar CT covering
nucleus per cell. Multi- Nuclei. each muscle fiber and binding it to its
- Cross-striations present neighbors.
- Under voluntary control  PERIMYSIUM – dense irregular CT
- Being viewed under microscope so that we covering muscle fascicles.
can see the stipes appearance.  FASCICLES – bundles of muscle fibers
- Contractile proteins: ACTIN, MYOSIN, TITIN surrounded by perimysium.
 ACTIN – it is a highly abundant  EPIMYSIUM – covering of dense irregular
intracellular protein present in all CT surrounding the entire muscle.
eukaryotic cells and has pivotal role in  MYOFILAMENTS – In cardiac and skeletal
muscle contraction as well as in cell muscles, myofilaments are key molecular
movements. regulators of the contraction indeed
 MYOSIN – responsible for prototype of thick-thin interactions via the formation
a molecular motor. Converts chemical of myosin cross bridges lead to force
energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine production and motion
Triphosphate) to mechanical energy so Skeletal Muscle Fascicle Arrangements
it will generate force and movement  FUSIFORM– thick in the middle and taper at
 TITIN – has several functions with the ends
sarcomeres. Its main job is to provide  PARALLEL – muscle fibers are all parallel
structure, flexibility and stability.  PENNATE – fascicles are short and attach
Interacts with other muscle proteins obliquely to a central tendon (feather
including actin and myosin. shaped)
- Regulatory proteins: TROPONIN and  CONVERGENT – spread out as a fan or
TROPOMYOSIN converge to a point
 TROPONIN – is a sarcomeric regulator  CIRCULAR – muscle fibers arranged
striated responsible for skeletal and concentrically
cardiac that is for contraction
PARALLEL – fascicles are parallel to the long
axis of the muscle
 – Body of muscle increases in diameter  INSERTION – point of attachment with
with contraction greatest movement
– High endurance, not very strong
E.g. RECTUS ABDOMINIS or SARTORIUS INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MUSCLES

PENNATE – Muscle body has one or more  Muscles are at times grouped as to the
tendons – fascicles at oblique angle to tendon regions where they are found and
– pulls harder than a parallel muscle of equal function.
size  INTRINSIC MUSCLES are localized to a
 UNIPENNATE: all muscle fibers specific are (i.e. hand, tongue, back, etc.).
on the same side of the tendon They function and are contained only
(e.g. EXTENSOR DIGITORUM) within that area.
 BIPENNATE: muscle fibers on  EXTRINSIC MUSCLES extend into other
both sides of the tendon (e.g. area are responsible for movements of
INTEROSSEOUS) area other than where they are attached.
 MULTIPENNATE: tendon
branches within the muscle (e.g. Terms to know and identify
DELTOID)  SARCOLEMMA – plasma membrane
CIRCULAR – fibers arranged concentrically covering each muscle cell.
around an opening  SARCOPLASM – muscle cell cytoplasm
– Functions as a SPHINCTER to close a  THICK FILAMENTS – contractile protein
passageway or opening (e.g. orbits, myosin molecules, shaped like a golf club
mouth, and anus) head. Thin filaments slide over thick
– E.g. ORBICUALRIS ORIS filaments but do not shorten.
CONVERGENT – triangular muscle with  THIN FILAMENTS – contractile protein actin
common attachment site molecules (f and G actin) also contains the
– Direction of pull of muscle can be regulatory proteins tropomyosin and
changed troponin.
– does not pull as hard as equal-sized  ELASTIC FILAMENTS – titin and connectin
parallel muscle keep thick and thin filaments over one
– E.g. PECTORALIS MAJOR another for proper contraction to occur;
Functional Groups of Muscles comprise the “Z” line

1. PRIME MOVER OR AGONIST – muscle whose

STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF A MUSCLE
contraction is responsible for a particular
FIBER
movement
 SARCOLEMMA – The plasma membrane of
2. SYNERGISTS – muscles that assist the movement a muscle fiber
of the prime mover or agonist  SARCOPLASM – the cytoplasm of a muscle
3. ANTAGONISTA – muscle whose action opposes fiber
that of the prime mover or agonist  GLYCOGEN – An energy-storage
4. FIXATORS – stabilize the origin of the prime polysaccharide abundant in muscle
mover so it can move more efficiently.  MYOGLOBIN – An oxygen-storing red
pigment of muscle
 ORIGIN – point of attachment where least
movement occurs.
 T TUBULE – A tunnel-like extension of the  TROPONIN – A regulatory protein
sarcolemma extending from one side of the associated with tropomyosin that acts as a
muscle fiber to the other; conveys electrical calcium receptor
signals from the cell surface to its interior  TITIN – A springy protein that forms the
 SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM– the smooth elastic filaments and Z discs
ER of a muscle fiber ; a Ca2+ reservoir
 TERMINAL CISTERNAE – the dilated ends of STRIATIONS AND SARCOMERES
sarcoplasmic reticulum adjacent to a T
tubule  STRIATIONS – alternating light and dark
transverse bands across a myofibril
MYOFIBRILS  A BAND – dark band formed by parallel
 MYOFIBRIL – A bundled of protein thick filaments that partly overlap the thin
microfilaments (myofilaments) filaments
 MYOFILAMENT – A threadlike complex of  H BAND – A lighter region in the middle of
several hundred contractile protein an A band that contains thick filaments
molecules only; thin filaments do not reach this far
 THICK FILAMENT – A myofilament about 11 into the A band in relaxed muscle
nm in diameter composed of bundled  I BAND – A light band composed of thin
myosin molecules filaments only
 ELASTIC FILAMAENT – A myofilament  Z DISC – A disc of titin to which thin
about1 nm in diameter composed of giant filaments and elastic filaments are
protein, titin, that emerges from the core of anchored at each other end of a sarcomere;
a thick filament and links it to a Z disc; aids appears as a narrow dark line in the middle
in the recoil of a relaxing muscle fiber of the I band
 THIN FILAMENT – A myofilament about 5 to
6 nm in diameter composed of actin, NEUROMUSCULAR CONTROL
troponin, and tropomyosin  SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION - is
 MYOSIN – A protein with a long shaft like controlled by a nerve impulse (action
tail and a globular head; constitutes the potential) transmitted by the motor nerve
thick filaments from the brain or spinal cord.
 F ACTIN – A fibrous protein made of a long  A motor unit consists of all the muscle
chain of G actin molecules twisted into a fibers controlled by a single motor neuron.
helix: main protein of the thin filament  Fine control muscles (i.e. eyelid muscles)
 G ACTIN – A globular subunit of F actin with have fewer muscle fibers/nerve (2:1)
an active site for binding a myosin head  A contraction is initiated by an action
 REGULATORY PROTEINS – troponin and potential (nerve impulse) and followed by
tropomyosin, proteins that do not directly the release a chemical neurotransmitter at
engage in the sliding filament process of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ)
muscle contraction but regulate myosin-  Neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle is
actin binding ACETYLCHOLINE
 TROPOMYOSIN – A regulatory protein that  Each muscle fiber is innervated bya single
lies in the groove of F actin and, in relaxed motor neuron
muscle, clocks the myosin-binding active  Contractions may be graded or full due to
sites the number of muscle fibers that respond
 to the stimulus. The more fibers, the - Stain a pale color due to little myoglobin
greater the muscle contraction - Largest in diameter of all three fiber
 SYNAPSE – functional connection between a types
nerve fiber and its target cell - Depend on anaerobic glycogenolysis to
 NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION – synapse make ATP
between a motor nerve and muscle fiber - Contract rapidly and fatigue easily
 SYNAPTIC KNOB, TERMINAL OR BOUTON – - More prominent in upper limbs for large
bulbous swelling at the end of a motor work loads
nerve above the motor end plate on the - Majority of fibers in body are white
muscle fiber
 SYNAPTIC CLEFT – gap between the synaptic CARDIAC MUSCLE
knob at the motor end plate Characterized by:
 SYNAPTIC VESICLES – small packets of  Cross-striations
neurotransmitter chemical (e.g.  Intercalated discs
acetylcholine, norepinephrine, etc.)  Uni-nucleate cells
 Automaticity
SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER TYPES  Composed of the same contractile proteins
 The fiber is based on the BIOCHEMICAL as skeletal muscle
PROCESS for making ATP and how fast the
fibers contract. SMOOTH MUSCLE
 Red or slow oxidative fibers [dark staining Characterized by:
(R)]  Spindle shaped cells
 Intermediate or Fast oxidative fibers [lighter  Uni-nucleate cells
(I) staining]  Involuntary control
 Fast glycolytic g=fibers [white (W) or non-  Found in walls of hollow organs, blood
staining] vessels and glands

 SLOW OXIDATIVE (R):

- Dark staining red in color = abundant
myoglobin
- Manufactures ATP by aerobic glycolysis
- Contract slowly and are more resistant to
fatigue
- Ex. Back muscles and support muscles
 INTERMEDIATE FAST OXIDATIVE (I)
- Stains less darkly than red but slightly
larger
- Produce ATP via aerobic metabolism like
slow
- Contract faster and more powerfully
than slow
- Abundant in lower limbs = contract for
long periods
 WHITE OR FAST GLYCOLYTIC FIBERS (W):