HISTORY

Grade
8

Educational Publications Department

 First Print - 2016
Second Print - 2018
Third Print - 2020

All Rights Reserved

ISBN - 978 - 955 - 25 - 0661 - 1

Published by Educational Publications Department

PrintedGraphic
Printed by Savinda by R.S. Systems
Printek (Pvt)
(Pvt)Ltd.
Ltd, No. 145,
No. 765/2, Waduwegama Road, Malwana.

ii
 The National Anthem of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka Matha

Apa Sri Lanka Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha
Sundara siri barinee, surendi athi sobamana Lanka
Dhanya dhanaya neka mal palaturu piri jaya bhoomiya ramya
Apa hata sepa siri setha sadana jeewanaye matha
Piliganu mena apa bhakthi pooja Namo Namo Matha
Apa Sri Lanka Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha
Oba we apa vidya
Obamaya apa sathya
Oba we apa shakthi
Apa hada thula bhakthi
Oba apa aloke
Apage anuprane
Oba apa jeevana we
Apa mukthiya oba we
Nava jeevana demine, nithina apa pubudukaran matha
Gnana veerya vadawamina regena yanu mana jaya bhoomi kara
Eka mavakage daru kela bevina
Yamu yamu vee nopama
Prema vada sema bheda durerada
Namo, Namo Matha
Apa Sri Lanka Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha

iii
iv
 Foreword

The Educational Publications Department which is entrusted with the responsibility of

providing a free textbook to the students by the government fulfills the duty diligently in
each year for the student community which exceeds 04 million.

Without limiting to the above mentioned important task, the Educational Publications
Department is engaged in producing supplementary reading materials for Advanced
Level and other higher examinations. As a result of that process, valuable books with the
contribution of subject experts in different fields are sold at a concessionary price.

These supplementary reading materials can be an excellent source of knowledge for

those who sit for examinations and for the reading public who is interested in reading
different academic books. I would like to compliment the subject experts and the staff of the
Educational Publications Department who contributed to produce this book.

I would like to extend my thanks to you who justify the following saying
by George R. R. Martin – “A person who reads books lives thousand lives before his death.
Those who don’t read have only one life”.

P. N. Ilapperuma
Commissioner General of Educational Publications
Educational Publications Department
Isurupaya
Battaramulla
26 - 06 - 2020

v
 Monitoring and Supervision
P.N. Ilapperuma - Commissioner General of Educational Publications
Educational Publications Department

Direction
W.A. Nirmala Piyaseeli - Commissioner of Educational Publications (Development)
Educational Publications Department
Co-ordination
I. Ranjith - Deputy Commissioner
Educational Publications Department

Indumini Darshika - Deputy Commissioner

Educational Publications Department
Panel of Editors
Prof. Padmasiri Kannangara - Department of History
University of Sri Jayawardhanapura

Prof. Raj Somadewa - Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology

University of Kelaniya

Dr. Anusha Senadhiraja - Senior Lecturer

Faculty of Art & Culture
Eastern University

Chandima Nishani Dharmapala - Senior Lecturer

National Insitute of Education

Panel of Writers

Dr. Rohitha Disanayaka - Senior Lecturer

University of Peradeniya

J.M. Sudharmawathi - Senior Lecturer

University of Kelaniya

W. A. S. Shiromala Gunawardana - Assistant Lecturer

National Institute of Education

M. D. Thilakalatha - Teacher
C.W.W. Kannangara M.V.
Borella

vi
Nalin Bandara - Teacher
Kuruwita Central College
Kuruwita

Sister Mary Doneta - Retired Deputy Principal

U. L. M. Baseer - Retired In-Service- Adviser

Translation
E.A. Amarasena - Parliamentary Interpreter
Parliament of Sri Lanka

Language Editing
I. Ranjith - Assistant Commissioner
Educational Publications Department

Cover Page and Page Layout Designing

Charani Nishamini Alahakoon - Educational Publications Department

vii
viii
 CONTENT
1. Traditional Technologies and Arts of Sri Lanka 1

1.1 Water Technology 2

1.2 Clay Technology 20

1.3 Architectural and Artistic Creations 24

2. Kandyan Kingdom 35

2.1 Establishment of the Kandyan Kingdom 36

2.2 Pattern of Economy in the Kandyan Kingdom 45

2.3 Social System in the Kandyan Kingdom 47

2.4 Architecture and Arts and Crafts of the Kandyan Era 47

3. The Renaissance in Europe 51

3.1 The Background of the Renaissance 52

3.2 Coming of the Renaissance 54

4. Explorations and Arrival of the Europeans in the East 63

4.1 Background of Explorations 64

4.2 Receiving State Patronage for Explorations 67

4.3 Arrival of the Europeans in Asia 72

5. Capture of Coastal Areas of Sri Lanka by the Portuguese 75

5.1 Directing the Attention of the Portuguese towards Sri Lanka 76

5.2 Political, Economic and Cultural Activities of the Portuguese 87

ix
x
Traditional Technologies and
Arts of Sri Lanka

01

Introduction

W e know that Sri Lanka is a country which has a continuously recorded

history of about 2500 years. During this long period, our ancestors
adopted various technologies that were appropriate for their contexts in
resolving the issues that affected their day-to-day life. Some aspects of those
technologies that have kept advancing from generation to generation are
unique to Sri Lanka. For this reason, such technologies are called traditional
technologies. Ancient Lankans constructed buildings and other works that
suited the environment and the culture of this country. They are described
as architectural creations. Apart from that, they also created forms of arts
that suited their thoughts and wishes. A study of all these things helps gain
knowledge about the day-to-day life of the ancient Lankans. In this chapter,
further information is given about such things which are our heritage.

1
 1.1 Water Technology 1.1.1 Beginning of the Construction
of Tanks
Many of the canals, tanks, anicuts and ponds
etc. that were constructed by the people who
It is clear that tanks and anicuts were first
lived in ancient settlements in various parts
constructed in the dry zone in order to
of our country can be seen even today and
obtain water required for the agricultural
we can also see that in certain places only
activities of the people who settled in the
ruins of some of those constructions have
earliest villages established in our country
remained. All such constructions were done
before the era of the Christ. There occurred
by people who lived in certain periods of time
a rapid expansion in establishment of
in the history of this country in order to get
settlements in this country following the
their needs fulfilled. As tanks, canals, dams,
arrival of groups of people from India
ponds etc. are constructions related to water,
around 6th century BC. During the period of
the technology that were adopted in doing
about three centuries that succeeded, several
such constructions can simply be called as
other groups arrived from India and settled
water technology. The ancient Lankans knew
here. When establishing their settlements,
how to apply such technologies perfectly
they selected the dry zone where the land is
well in constructing tanks, canals, dams and
mostly plain and highly fertile and therefore
anicuts.
is most suitable for agricultural activities.

Fig:1.1 Basawakkulama Wewa

2
We know that the dry zone of this country such as Mahawamsa. As kings began to be
receives rain only during a certain period of involved in the construction of tanks, bigger
the year. For this reason, the people of that tanks which had more capacity than village
time had the need for storing water that tanks could be constructed because kings
was required for their consumption and for could collect more people than village heads
agricultural activities during the dry season. could. By about 3rd century BC, construction
It was to fulfil this need that people started of bigger tanks under the patronage of kings
constructing tanks. After about 3rd century had begun. Mahawamsa speaks of three
BC, there occurred a rapid growth in the tanks that had been constructed during the
expansion of settlements in the dry zone and reign of King Pandukabhaya. They had been
consequently, the people of that time faced the called Jaya Vapi, Abhaya Vapi and Gamini
challenge of increasing the food production Vapi. It is believed that the tank presently
in order to cater to the need of the increasing called Basawakkulama was the then Abhaya
population. Addressing this challenge, they Vapi. Thissa Wewa in Anuradhapura is
constructed giant tanks and connected those considered to have been constructed by
tanks through canals creating a network of King Devanampiyatissa. These are some of
irrigation systems bringing many of the areas the tanks that were constructed about three
under paddy cultivation. centuries after the arrival of Prince Vijaya in
Lanka. It is clear that those tanks had been
It can be assumed that construction of a dam small tanks. Basavakkulama and Thissa
across a brook or a stream so that water is Wewa are seen in present status after been
collected there, is the origin of constructing renovated on several occasions.
small tanks. Similarly, it is seen that small
tanks have also been constructed by selecting
an area of land of which three sides were
bordered with high land and by constructing Construction of Big Tanks
a bund across the low lying land of the other
side so that rain water is collected there. As
a lot of labour was not needed for such small It is seen that construction of big tanks
constructions, members of a family or the was started several centuries after the
villagers could get together and construct a establishment of the first villages in ancient
small tank. As villages spread throughout the Lanka. It was King Vasabha who ruled the
dry zone, small tanks required for those small country during the period from 67-111 AD
villages were constructed by the villagers who first started constructing big tanks in this
themselves under the leadership of the heads country. By this time, Lankans had acquired
of those villages. These are called village thorough knowledge about irrigation
tanks. There are stone inscriptions which technology as they had been constructing
contain information about some village tanks tanks for several centuries. By the beginning
which are not spoken of in literary sources of King Vasabha’s reign, settlements had

3
 spread in most parts of the dry zone. With the King Mahasen (274 – 301 AD) is prominent
expansion of settlements, production of food among kings who constructed big tanks after
had to be increased in order to provide for King Vasabha. According to Mahawansa,
the increasing population. Construction of King Mahasen has constructed thousand
big tanks seems to have started at this time in tanks. Maniheera presently called as
addition to smaller tanks in order to fulfil this Minneriya Wewa was constructed by
requirement. A large amount of water could him. Jallura Vapi (presently called Hurulu
be stored consequent to the construction of Wewa) and Khaanu Vapi (presently called
big tanks and the water thus stored could be Mahakanadara Wewa) are examples for
distributed to small and medium-scale tanks other tanks constructed by him. Following
through canals. the construction of Minneriya tank King
Mahasen came to be known as Minneriya
Chronicles have recorded that king Vasabha God.
had constructed 11 tanks. Mayeth Wewa
(presently called Mahavilachchiya Wewa) King Dathusena (455 – 473 AD) is another
and Maanikviti or Mahanikkavatti Wewa prominent king who constructed large-
(presently called Maanankattiya Wewa) are scale tanks during Anuradhapura kingdom.
examples for tanks that have been identified Mahawansa records that he had constructed
so far as those constructed by him. eighteen tanks. Out of the tanks constructed
by him, Kala Wewa is an outstanding

Fig:1.2 Minneriya Wewa

4
creation. Kala Wewa was built by constructing ■ Small tanks could be provided with water
a dam across Kala Oya. Chronicles have from large-scale tanks through canals.
also recorded of many other tanks such as
Paadulaka Vapi and Mahadaththa Vapi ■ Floods could be controlled because of
which were constructed by King Dathusena. large-scale tanks.
It is believed that Mahadaththa Vapi is the
tank presently called as Maadathugama ■ With the construction of large-scale tanks,
(Madatugama) Wewa situated close to the technology of constructing long canals
Dambulla – Kekirawa main road. Paadulaka developed.
Vapi has not been identified so far.

King Parakramabahu I, too, is important Challenges confronted and Technologies

among the kings who constructed large-scale adopted in constructing Tanks
tanks during Rajarata civilization. His motto
was, “Not a single drop of water received It is not an easy task to construct a tank and to
from rain should be allowed to flow into make use of it with proper maintenance. As
the sea without making any use of it”. He mentioned at the beginning of this lesson, it
rendered an invaluable service towards the is not a very difficult task to construct a small
development of the irrigation sector of this tank, but constructing a large-scale tank is
country. According to Mahawamsa, he has a complex process which should be carried
constructed 163 tanks including the famous out to a very high standard according to a
Parakrama Samudraya in Polonnaruwa. proper plan with thorough understanding.
A large-scale tank is a vast reservoir which
Rajarata civilization collapsed in 1215 AD holds a huge volume of water which is at
following the invasion of Kalinga Magha least 20-30 feet high and spreads over an
which was launched towards the end of area of thousands of acres. Further, as the
Polonnaruwa Kingdom. After the collapse of height of the volume of water increases,
Rajarata civilization, people mostly began to the water pressure exerted on the dam, too,
move towards the wet zone and consequently increases. Many people live in downstream
the tanks and anicuts in Rajarata areas began areas of a tank and there also are cultivations.
to be overgrown with wild. Therefore, it is essential that a very strong
dam is constructed to a very high standard.
Achievements of the Lankans consequent
to Construction of Large Scale Tanks

■ As a huge volume of water could be stored

in large tanks, shortage of water could be
minimized even during prolonged droughts.

5
 can withstand the pressure exerted by the
Length Area that volume of water collected in the tank. In order
Height of
Name of of the gets under to prevent the dam from caving in, the top
the dam
the tank dam water soil of the relevant area is removed up to the
(feet)
(miles) (acres) bed rock and then it is filled with layers of soil
of different types. When building up the dam
with such layers of soil, the soil was pressed
Minneriya 1¼ 44 4670
Wewa hard so that absorption of water by the soil is
minimum and the dam is strong enough to
withstand water pressure. It is also clear that
Kala Wewa 3¾ 40 6380 the width of the dam was determined based
on the height and the length of the dam.
Parakrama 8½ 40 5300
Samudraya Another challenge that was encountered when
constructing a tank was to find the labour
required for that. Thousands of workers had
Table 1.1 – The extent of some of the tanks
to be deployed for several years in order to
build up a dam of about 30–40 feet high over
You can gain some understanding about several miles by way of filling soil. It is really
the massiveness of the large-scale tanks wonderful that such mammoth tasks had
by studying the figures given in the above been fulfilled accurately with human labour
table. Ancient Lankans confronted various so long ago unlike in the present day where
challenges in constructing such giant tanks. modern machinery is used to do such heavy
When constructing a tank, the most suitable work. When constructing a dam and canals, a
place of the river or the stream had to be proper plan and a good organizing skill were
selected for building the dam. When selecting needed in order to carry out various tasks
the location, mostly a land in a narrow river such as finding the required labour, managing
valley with two mountain ranges on either the workers, providing food for the workers,
side was selected and a dam was constructed carrying the soil and building up the dam by
across the river joining the two mountain pressing the soil hard. The giant tanks we see
ranges. When selecting such a location, they today give evidence to the fact that ancient
must have taken into particular consideration Lankans had succeeded in overcoming
the height of the location, the condition of the all those challenges. It was in response to
mountain ranges on either side of the river many such challenges encountered in the
and as to how the tank could be connected to construction and maintenance of tanks that
the other tanks and the irrigation networks. various features of a tank such as the sluice,
bisokotuwa (a cistern sluice), the breakwater,
A major challenge that the builders of tanks the inner spill and the outer spill were created.
confronted was to design the dam so that it

6
 The Key Features of a Tank

Fig:1.3 The Sluice

The Sluice

The sluice was created for the

purpose of letting out through the
dam into a canal the water that is
stored in the tank exerting a very
high pressure on the dam. Most
tanks have two sluices, namely the
upper sluice and the bottom sluice.
The bottom sluice is constructed
at the bottom level of the tank so
that all the water stored in the tank
can be let out into the valley. This
also helps desilting the tank. The
upper sluice is constructed a little above the level of the bottom sluice. In smaller tanks a
Bisokotuwa has not been constructed and water is let out through the sluice itself.

Bisokotuwa
Fig:1.4 Bisokotuwa
Bisokotuwa has been
constructed in order to
let out the water stored
in the tank with proper
regulation. Bisokotuwa
is a part of the sluice
itself. In big tanks with
several sluices, there also
are an equal number of
bisokotuwa. Bisokotuwa
is constructed in a square
shape from inside the
tank very close to the
dam. Water enters the Bisokotuwa through a tunnel. Inside Bisokotuwa, there is a door that
can be moved up and down and water can be released into the outlet tunnel with proper
control by moving the door as required. Bisokotuwa is considered to be a unique invention of
the Lankan irrigation technologists.

7
 Breakwater

The inside of the dam has been constructed laying stone on the surface in order to
prevent the dam from
being washed away into
the tank. This is called
the breakwater. Small
waves are created on the
surface of the water due
to wind. When these
waves hit the surface of
the dam unceasingly,
there is a risk of the dam
being washed away into
the tank. Therefore, the
breakwater is essential in
order to protect the dam.
Fig:1.5 Breakwater

Inner Spill and Outer Spill

The inner spill has been constructed for the purpose of obtaining water for the tank from
some other source of water. A small pit has been constructed so that the silt that is carried
with the water from outside is deposited there preventing it from entering the tank.

When the flow of

water from outside is
stopped, this pit can be
desilted. The outer spill
has been constructed
for the purpose of
letting the excess water
out. A big tank may be
constructed with two
outer spills.

Fig:1.6 Inner spill and outer spill

8
Fig:1.7 Thekkam anicut that has been constructed by building up a dam on a natural rock plain in
Malwathu Oya (on the left) and how the anicut overflows after it has been filled with water
(on the right).

current and blocking the flow of water with

1.1.2 Technology applied in small branches of trees, mud and sand. The
constructing Canals and Dams objective of constructing such makeshift
dams was to obtain water that was needed for
the nearby paddy-fields during that season
A bund that is constructed across canals,
or that year. Such dams got destroyed as the
streams or rivers blocking the flow of water
next rainy season came.
in order to divert some of that water to
paddy fields is known as an anicut. A bund
Unlike makeshift dams, permanent dams
of this nature is called a dam. Accordingly,
have been constructed in a very stable way so
the term ‘dam’ mostly refers to a bund that is
that they last long. It is a common feature that
constructed for retaining water. Through the
bunds have been constructed using blocks
experience that was gained by constructing
of stone so that the dam is strong enough to
such dams across small streams at the earliest
withstand the water pressure and is protected
stage of irrigation works in ancient Lanka,
from erosion. When constructing a dam, the
the technology for constructing huge dams
foundation has been joined to a natural rock
across rivers and streams was developed and
plain or to the bedrock by removing the top
giant tanks were constructed.
layer of soil. Thekkam anicut that has been
constructed across Malwathu Oya close to
As far as the technology of constructing dams
Vavuniya – Mannar main junction is a fine
in ancient Lanka is concerned, it is noticed
example for an ancient anicut with a stable,
that there had been two types of dams,
permanent bund. Water was carried over a
namely makeshift dams and permanent
distance of about 17 miles up to Yodha Wewa
dams. When the current of the rivers and
in Mannar through the canal that begins
streams slackened after the rainy season had
from this anicut.
ended, makeshift dams were constructed by
way of standing wooden poles across the
9
 King Dathusena constructed the canal named
Construction of Canals Jaya Ganga or Yodha Ela (Giant Canal)
in order to carry water from Kala Wewa to
Thissa Wewa in Anuradhapura. Yodha Ela is
It is obvious that, at the initial stage of the 54 miles long and certain portions of it are
irrigation history of this country, water had about 40 feet wide.
been carried from small tanks or anicuts
to farmlands through short canals. Later, Minipe Ela constructed by King Aggabodhi
with the advancement of the technology of I for carrying water from the Mahaweli
constructing bigger anicuts and giant tanks, is another fine example that displays the
the technology of constructing wider and great skill of constructing canals in the
longer canals, too, developed. According Anuradhapura era. There seem to have been
to Mahawansa, King Vasabha, who was the several requirements for constructing canals
pioneer in constructing big tanks in this in this way during various periods of the
country, has constructed twelve canals, but it history of this country.
has recorded by name only the Aalisara or
Elahera Ela. Requirements for constructing canals:

A dam was built up across Amban Ganga ■ To carry water from tanks or anicuts to
and Elahera Ela was constructed from there farmlands.
over a distance of about 30 miles in order
to carry water to the northern part of the ■ To carry water from an anicut to a tank or
country. King Mahasen constructed a canal a tank system.
named Thilavaththuka or Thalwathu Ela
for the purpose of obtaining water for the
■ To carry water from one tank to another
Minneriya Tank.
or to several other tanks.

Fig:1.8 Yodha Ela, a marvelous creation of our forefathers

10
 conditions. When doing such constructions,
Technology applied in constructing
extremely accurate measurements of the
Canals and the Challenges confronted
height of the land should be obtained from
the beginning to the end of the canal. It is
The ancient Lankans connected tanks and wonderful to learn that a gradient of about
anicuts through canals and created an one inch per mile has been maintained
irrigation network in the dry zone. They also within the first 17 miles of Jaya Ganga. This
succeeded in carrying water over miles and is a classic example which shows the expert
miles through canals from areas where water knowledge the ancient Lankans had in
was abundant to areas where water was scarce. surveying the land.
It is obvious that the constructors of those
canals would have faced various challenges When constructing very long canals,
in carrying out such arduous tasks. However, various challenges such as digging the canal,
the sources available in this country do not maintaining the correct width and depth,
provide sufficient information about how building up bunds to protect the banks from
such canals were constructed or about the erosion in places where the soil was loose
difficulties the constructors faced. Therefore, and constructing the canal to suit variations
some understanding about the technology of in the geographical conditions had to be
constructing canals and bunds at that time confronted. R.L. Brohier, in his great book
has to be gained by studying the nature of the entitled ‘Irrigation Systems in Ancient Lanka’,
remaining canals and bunds and by studying has described how such challenges had been
the ruins of such works. overcome when constructing Elehera Ela.
At the construction stage itself, measures
When constructing very long and wide canals had been taken to prevent the banks of the
like Jaya Ganga, constructors had to face the Elahera Ela from being washed away when
problem of variation in the geographical it overflows during the rainy season as a lot

Fig:1.9 Elahera anicut

11
 of rainwater flows into this canal from the
Requirements for constructing Ponds
surrounding areas. In places where streams
and Types of Ponds
of rainwater join the canal, the banks of
the canal have been constructed with stone
walls. Similarly, the sluices along the canal  Ponds constructed for storing water
for diverting water to paddy-fields have been required for consumption.
constructed with stone blocks. Further, in
places where the canal overflows, spills have Most of the ancient ponds of this country had
been constructed laying stone. been constructed for storing water required
for human consumption. It is also seen that
separate ponds had been constructed for
storing water required for drinking and for
1.1.3 Constructing Ponds bathing. It can be assumed that the big pond
named Eth Pokuna in Abhayagiriya had been
constructed to store water for bathing. The
Ponds were constructed for the purpose of ponds in Ranmasu Uyana in Anuradhapura
storing water required for various human had been constructed for the purposes of
needs. We learnt that tanks were constructed bathing and for water sports.
by building up a bund on the ground, but
ponds were constructed by digging the soil  Ponds constructed for proper removal of
and building stone walls around it to protect rainwater.
the banks from erosion.
In order to minimize the environmental
The history of constructing ponds in Lanka problems created due to collection of
runs as far back as to the time of the legend rainwater here and there in the premises of
of Prince Vijaya. According to Mahawansa, monasteries, tunnels and drains have been
when prince Vijaya arrived in Lanka, Kuveni constructed to direct the rainwater into
was knitting cotton by the side of a pond. It is ponds.
evident from this description that ponds had
been constructed in this country even by that The rainwater that falls on to Abhayagiri
time. It can be assumed that the technology dagoba runs down the surface of the dagoba
of constructing ponds, too, developed and gets collected on the stone-slab laid
with the development of the technology of courtyard (salapathala maluwa). The water
constructing tanks and canals. This is evident collected in this courtyard then runs through
from the records of Mahawansa which say the spouts that have been constructed outside
that King Vasabha constructed many ponds the courtyard and flows on to the sand-laid
to beautify the city. yard (Welimaluva). The water then runs
along the sand-laid yard and flows into a pit
that has been constructed close to the outer
wall, and from there the water flows through
the stone tunnel into a pond that has been
constructed outside. Four such ponds have
been constructed on the four sides of
12
  Ponds that have
been constructed to
keep the environment
cool.

It can be noticed
that, as the climate
in Rajarata areas is
usually dry, ponds
had been constructed
in every suitable place
in the premises of
certain monasteries
in order to facilitate
the monks to engage
in meditation being in
Fig :1.10 How the rainwater that falls on to Abhayagiri dagoba and a cool environment.
the stone-slab laid courtyard has been made to flow into a pond.

About 65 ponds had been constructed in

the premises of the Abhayagiri temple itself,
Abhayagiri Dagoba. Ponds constructed which is about 500 acres in extent. More than
in this manner can be seen around many 40 ponds of this nature have been discovered
dagobas and monasteries. in the Rajagala archaeological site in Ampara.
When ponds are constructed close to one
 Ponds constructed to add beauty. another in a certain area and are kept filled
with water, the air in that area becomes cool
The ponds in Ranmasu Uyana in because of water vapour.
Anuradhapura and Kumara Pokuna and
Nelum Pokuna (Lotus Pond) in Polonnaruwa Although ponds are classified into different
types for easy understanding as described
are examples for ponds that have been
above based on the purpose they were
constructed to add beauty. These ponds have constructed for, mention should be made
not been constructed merely to add beauty; that those ponds were used to fulfil various
the water collected in those ponds must requirements. Twin Ponds in Anuradhapura
have been used for human consumption, is a fine example for that. It can be assumed
too. It is remarkable that these ponds have that the Twin Ponds served the purposes
been constructed with various decorative of providing water for the consumption of
the Bhikkus in Abhayagiri Temple, adding
elements.
beauty to the environment and keeping the
environment cool.

13
 Fig:1.11 The Twin Ponds

Technology of
constructing Ponds

Most of the ponds found in

various places of the dry zone
of this country have been
constructed according to a
proper plan by digging the soil.
When selecting the location for
constructing ponds, the way
that water can be obtained for
the ponds has been taken into
consideration. Some ponds
have been designed to be filled
with rainwater while some
others have been designed to be
Fig:1.12 A water filter of the Twin Ponds (The water filled with water obtained from
that gets collected in the outer compartment of this filter some source of water through a
flows into the inner compartment over the six cuts on tunnel or canal. Ponds have also
the top of the middle wall. Then the water flows from been constructed by building
the inner compartment into the pond through a pipe.) stone walls on rock plains in

14
order to collect rainwater. The ponds that have been constructed by digging the earth are of
various shapes. Ponds of square shape and rectangular shape are the most common, but round-
shaped ones, too, are found in certain places.

Fig: 1.13 A pond that has been constructed on the rock plain in the ancient monastery complex in
Rajagala

Fig:1.14 Lotus Pond

15
 Fig:1.15 Pokuna in Abhayagiriya

In certain ponds used for drinking or bathing the water can be removed before it flows into
purposes, there are holes at the bottom and the pond.
underground pipes have been constructed
beginning from those holes in order to In order to prevent rainwater from flowing
remove the water that becomes dirty into a into the pond from outside, the topmost
canal or into some other suitable place. Twin stone slabs of the walls have been fixed so that
Ponds and ponds in Ranmasu Uyana are the walls rise above the ground level. In all
examples for such ponds. The walls of most of the ponds found on the rock plains and rock
the ponds have been made using stone slabs funnels at the ancient monastery complex in
in order to prevent the soil from breaking Rajagala, a hole has been constructed close
into the pond and to minimize the amount to each pond and has been filled with water
of water absorbed into the walls. Those stone for the purpose of washing the feet before
slabs have been placed one above the other getting into the pond. It seems that depositing
joining them with a very thin and strong of sand in the pond and adding of dirt into
cement and therefore the amount of water the water had been minimized by this. There
that leaks through the joints is minimum. also are signs of small cabins that had been
As a flight of stairs has been constructed, it constructed for shade close to the ponds.
is easier for one to climb down to the pond at Those who came to bathe had been provided
any water level. When the pond is filled with with facilities to get their body cooled by
water obtained through pipes made of stone, being in the shade before getting into the
the water is not made to flow into the pond water. It is evident that ponds had been
directly; it is first sent to a filter that has been constructed according to a proper plan with
constructed outside the pond. By filtering a good understanding of the environmental
the water, waste matter and silt contained in conditions.

16
 the royalty. Therefore they can also be called
1.1.4 Water Gardens as ‘royal gardens’. It is also seen that gardens
had been constructed in the premises of
monasteries where many Bhikkus lived. It is
clear that such gardens had been constructed
Water gardens or pleasure gardens are those
for Bhikkus to engage in meditation leisurely.
in which plants and trees are grown and
They can be called as monastery gardens. It
are designed for spending leisure or doing
can be assumed that such gardens had been
sports in them. It was King Mutaseeva
constructed at the premises of Maha Vihara,
who first constructed such a garden in
Abhayagiri Temple, and Jethawana Temple
this country. According to Mahawansa,
in Anuradhapura.
on the day when the land was prepared
for constructing the garden, a heavy rain
(Megha) had fallen; hence the garden was
given the name ‘Maha Megha Wana’. Later it Planning Water Gardens and the
became famous as Mahamewuna Gardens. Technology adopted
King Devanampiyatissa later offered this
garden to Arahat Mahinda and other
Bhikkus. When Arahat Mahinda arrived in Gardens that had been designed beautifully
this country, there existed another garden with many ponds constructed in them
named ‘Nandana Uyana’ in Anuradhapura. providing abundant water facility can be
As Arahat Mahinda preached dhamma called water gardens. Ranmasu Uyana in
being in this garden, it was considered to be Anuradhapura and the water gardens in
a place which made Buddha Sasana shine in Sigiriya are fine examples for such gardens.
the island and therefore it was called Jothi
Garden. However, these gardens, which are
considered to be the very first gardens of
this country, cannot be seen today because Ranmasu Uyana
of various constructions that were done
later in areas related to these gardens and
due to the changes that took place with the
passage of time. Kings took the lead role in The area from Isurumuni Temple on the
constructing gardens in ancient Lanka. After bank of Thissa Wewa to Mirisawetiya Temple
King Mutseeva’s time, King Kutakannathissa belongs to Ranmasu Uyana. It seems that,
constructed a garden named ‘Padmasvara’. after Mahamewuna Uyana and Nandana
In addition to them, King Vasabha, King Uyana had been offered to Bhikkus, Ranmasu
Gotabhaya, King Kasyapa I, King Agbo I Uyana was constructed for the use of kings.
and King Parakramabahu I, too, constructed This garden has been designed taking into
gardens. Out of those ancient gardens, consideration the slope of the land and the
Ranmasu Uyana in Anuradhapura and the calm environment prevailing in the area.
water gardens in Sigiriya are very beautiful A system of pipes had been constructed to
gardens that can be seen even today. These make the water obtained from Thissa Wewa
gardens seem to have been constructed for flow through the garden systematically and,

17
 Fig:1.16 Ranmasu Uyana

Sigiriya Water Garden

in addition to that, several ponds had been
constructed, too. To suit the hot season, the
garden had been constructed with open
cabins, pavilions, bathing places and beds Sigiriya water garden is outstanding among
made of rock for lying on. The garden had the ancient water gardens in South Asia. It
been maintained very beautifully. It can be was constructed in 5th century AD, but it had
assumed that the ponds in this garden had later been overgrown with wild. Lately, it
been used for both bathing and water sports. was discovered by H.C.P. Bell and Senarath
Paranavithana. Through archaeological
surveys, a clear understanding has been
gained about the plan of the water garden
that has been constructed on either side of
the western part of Sigiriya.

18
 Fig:1.17 Sigiriya water garden

Fig:1.18 Water fountains in Sigiriya

According to the landscaping plan, the waterways on the two sides, the ponds and
water garden has been constructed on either pavilions have been constructed beautifully
side of and parallel to the road that runs according to a proper plan. As water flows
westwards beginning from the middle part downwards with a high pressure through
of Sigiriya rock. Taking into consideration the drain system that begins from the high
the sloping nature of the land, the system of land of Sigiriya, the flow of water has been

19
 blocked covering it with round, stone slabs  Maintaining the gardens properly under
with holes in them in order to create water the supervision of gardeners.
fountains. The water that flows under natural
pressure squirts up through the holes of the
stone slabs. These fountains function even
today during rainy seasons. It was no wonder 1.2 Clay Technology
that ancient Lankans who possessed great
skills of water technology have constructed
such artificial water fountains. A clear view Clay industry is foremost among the first
of the original plan of the water garden manual industries that the earliest members
can be obtained when looking towards the of the modern human community had learnt.
west from the top of Sigiriya rock. It can be The main factors that led man to take to the
understood that the road system, the system clay industry were that clay is a material that
of drains, pavilions, ponds, water fountains, can be obtained very easily and that clay can
and places for resting have some mutual be easily shaped with hand. There is evidence
agreement forming a single whole which which shows that man had started making
creates beautiful scenery. One can imagine simple cooking pots with clay some time
how beautiful this garden would have looked after discovering fire. At the initial stage of
during the time of King Kashyapa when it man’s long journey to the present status, he
was complete with all its features such as had no doubt used clay for making the first
beautiful roofs of buildings, flower gardens, vessels, images, sculptures and other artistic
rows of trees and water fountains. creations.

Key Features of Water Gardens

 Planning the gardens to suit the nature of

the land and the environment.

 Constructing a well-planned system of

roads within the garden.

 Beautifying the garden with drains, ponds

and water fountains.

 Creating a pleasant environment with

cabins, pavilions, resting places and
beautifully grown plants and trees.
Fig:1.19 A clay vessel belonging to the early
period of Anuradhapura era
20
Like most other creations of man, making consequent to the arrival of Arahat Mahinda
of clay vessels, too, started at a primary in the 3rd century BC also resulted in an
level. It is obvious that the humans who first advancement in the art of pottery in this
started making clay vessels with hand had country. According to chronicles, there had
made those vessels stronger by drying them been skilled workmen belonging to eight
in hot sun. With the passage of time, man potter castes among the craftsmen who
must have learnt the technology of making arrived in Lanka when the sacred Sri Maha
clay vessels stronger by way of firing. The Bodhi was brought to this country. It is
art of making clay pots developed rapidly obvious that the technology of making clay
after man had built houses and established pots that existed in India at that time was
civilizations. Archaeological findings prove transferred to Lanka with the arrival of these
that man in ancient civilizations had made craftsmen.
clay vessels of different shapes and different
sizes for various needs. Cooking pots, plates, Most of the objects found through
cups, water pots and vases are examples archeological excavations in Sri Lanka are
for such objects made of clay. With the those made of clay. Pieces of clay pots, pieces
development of the technology of making of clay vessels, tiles, bricks and clay images and
clay vessels, people in all civilizations had seals are outstanding among them. Findings
started adding beauty to those vessels by of archaeological excavations provide
colouring, painting and drawing patterns on evidence to prove the fact that a developed
those vessels. Invention of the potter’s wheel pottery industry had existed from the very
brought about a complete transformation in beginning of the Anuradhapura kingdom
the art of making clay pots. Potter’s wheel and that clay objects of very high quality had
is a horizontal wooden disc that has been been produced during that period.
designed to spin easily on the ground or on
some structure. A ball of clay is placed on The process of making clay objects consists of
the fast rotating disc and clay vessels can be several basic steps. A suitable type of clay is
made with a good finishing using the rotating selected and first the clay is left to firm up. A
speed and the shape made by the hand. It was ball of the firmed-up clay that is big enough
after the invention of the potter’s wheel that to make the required object is taken and
making of clay vessels of various sizes and placed on the potter’s wheel. First the shape
shapes mentioned above was started. of the object is formed and then the bottom
of the object is made. Finally, patterns or
The history of the pottery industry of Sri designs are made on the surface of the object
Lanka runs as far back as to the prehistoric in order to add beauty. Now the clay object
era. Pieces of clay vessels belonging to the is left to dry and, after that, it is put in the
final phase of that era have been discovered kiln and fired. It is clear that clay objects of
in archeological excavations carried out very high quality had been made following
at several places in the country. The this process.
improvement of relationships with India
21
 brick producers of this country to produce
Making Bricks and Tiles bricks with a similar standard. Therefore,
those who were conserving the stupa had
to build a special kiln and produce bricks
with the required standard. Accordingly,
a kiln was constructed in the village called
Galkadawala in Nuwaragam Palatha Central
Division during the period of 1990 -1991
AD and the bricks necessary were produced
there.

Ancient brick monuments found from

various parts of the country prove that the
technology of making bricks had spread
throughout the country.
Fig:1.20 Bricks made in Anuradhapura
era and bricks made at present
Huge stupas like Abhayagiri dagoba and
Jethawana dagoba in Anuradhapura,
There is evidence which reveals that and Demala Maha Seya and King
bricks had been used in this country from Parakramabahu’s palace in Polonnaruwa are
around 3rd century BC. By the time of King examples for ancient constructions that have
Dutugemunu’s reign (161 – 137 BC), the been done using bricks.
technology of making bricks had been
so developed that constructions as huge It seems that the roofs of the ancient buildings
as Ruwanweliseya dagoba could be done of which the ruins of stone pillars remain
using bricks. Mahawansa has recorded at present had been made of wood and
that, for constructing Ruwanweliseya, King covered with roofing tiles. When excavations
Dutugemunu had called producers of bricks are carried out at these buildings, a lot of
and selected one who made very strong roofing tiles that remained after the wooden
bricks. structure of the roof had decayed have been
found. Those who were engaged in producing
The bricks that had been made at the early roofing tiles had been called “Ulu Vaduwa”
period of Anuradhapura era were bigger meaning tile maker. Producers of brick, too,
in size than those that are made at present. had sometimes been called “Ulu Vaduwa”.
Absorption of water into those bricks was
minimum and they were strong enough to During Rajarata civilization, there seem
bear a massive weight. When renovation to have been tiled roofs for the buildings
work of the Jetawana Stupa was being in religious places, public buildings, kings’
carried out, there arose the requirement for palaces, and houses of chieftains, but possibly
producing bricks as strong as the bricks of the houses of the common masses have not
the ancient days, but it was not easy for the had such permanent roofs.

22
Production of roofing tiles seems to have had The period from 2nd century BC to 2nd century
several rudimentary phases such as selecting AD shows an expansion of cave inscriptions
suitable types of clay, firming up the clay, in many parts of the Dry Zone. Making drip
putting clay into the mould and shaping the ledges on rock caves and carving the writing
tiles, drying the tiles and firing them. on stone to make inscriptions require the
use of iron and steel tools. Further, those
There is evidence which shows that stone inscriptions have mention of workers
production of roofing tiles, like brick- engaged in various fields related to metal
making, had spread throughout the country industry such as ‘kabara’ (blacksmiths),
in the ancient times. ‘thambara’ (coppersmiths) and ‘thopasha’
(tinkers).

Metals such as iron, bronze, copper, silver

Metal Technology and gold had been commonly used during
Rajarata Civilization. Objects that had been
created using these metals have been found
in archaeological excavations. There also is
information which reveals that some of these
metals such as iron, copper and silver had
been obtained from this country itself.

When excavating a pond in the premises

of Abhayagiri Temple in Anuradhapura in
1994, five pieces of gold weighing from 370g
to 438g were found. Together with them
some gold coins, too, were found. Those
five pieces of gold were in the shape of a
Fig:1.21 Ancient jewellery found in disc made by melting gold and pouring it
archaeological excavations into a shallow container. The weight of each
piece of gold had been engraved on them in
kalandas (a small measuring unit in ancient
According to the evidence found through Lanka) in ancient scripts. When carrying out
archaeological excavations in various parts further excavations in that pond, evidence
of Sri Lanka, it seems that metals like iron was discovered revealing that a goldsmith’s
and copper had been used even before 3rd workshop had been there in ancient times
century BC. However, there had been a rapid on one of the banks of the pond. Furnaces
development in metal technology and in the used for melting gold in that workshop
use of metals since 3rd century BC due to the and parts of clay vessels used for collecting
expansion of agriculture, rapid urbanization, water have been found in the excavations. In
development in the field of construction, and excavations at Abhayagiri Temple premises,
adoption of Indian technology in various several objects made of gold such as bangles,
fields in this country.

23
 and put into furnaces
made of clay and iron
had been extracted by
heating them to the
required temperature
using fire. The natural
wind available during
monsoon seasons in
Samanalawewa area
had been made use
of for continuously
burning the charcoal
used for making the
fire to heat the iron
ore. In Dehigahaela
Kanda area, a pair
of bellows had
Fig:1.22 Furnaces used in extraction of iron been used to keep
the furnaces fired
anklets, rings, ear-ornaments and a necklace continuously. These findings confirm that the
have been found. Accordingly, it can be ancient Lankans had an efficient technology
assumed that the said goldsmith’s workshop of producing iron by heating and refining the
had been run for the purposes of plating the iron contained in natural rock.
images in the temple premises with gold and
for making various ornamental objects.
1.3 Architectural and Artistic Creations
Evidence has been discovered confirming
that iron had been widely used throughout
the country after 3rd century BC. Use of iron Architectural Creations
was essential for making tools, agricultural
Architecture is the study of the field of
implements and for various other purposes constructing houses and buildings. As a close
such as making iron nails. It can be assumed relationship was built up between India and
that, in ancient times, metals like gold may Lanka with the arrival Arahat Mahinda in
have been imported to this country, but iron Lanka, it seems that the developed knowledge
had been produced in this country itself. of architecture that India had was transferred
Convincing evidence has been discovered to Lanka. Most of the architectural creations
from Samanalawewa area in Balangoda and including buildings that have been discovered so
Alakolawewa Dehigahaela Kanda in Sigiriya, far from various parts of the country belong to
the eras after King Dutugemunu’s reign. Most of
revealing how extraction of iron had been
those creations can be considered to have been
done in ancient Lanka. Natural rock that constructed for religious purposes or for the use
contained iron had been broken into pieces of Bhikkus.

24
Architecture
Religious Buildings
Architectural creations belonging to Rajarata
civilization can be divided into two parts:
Dagobas
architectural
According to literary sources, Thuparama is
creations
the first dagoba constructed in Lanka. With
the passage of time, huge dagobas such as
Mirisawetiya, Mahathupa or Ruwanweliseya,
Abhayagiri and Jethawana were constructed
non-religious in Anuradhapura. During Anuradhapura
religious buildings
buildings period, dagobas were also constructed even
in areas outside the capital city. Seruwavila,
1. dagoba
1. palaces of kings Somawathi, Thissamarama, Medirigiriya,
2. chetiyagara Deeghavapi, and Neelagiriya are examples
2. fortresses for such dagobas. Such huge dagobas were
3. bodhigara
3. hospitals constructed during the Polonnaruwa period,
4. image houses too. Kirivehera in Polonnaruwa, Demala Maha
4. houses
5. temples and monasteries Seya, Dedigama Kotavehera, Yudanganawa
4. toilets and urinals
Dagoba, and Rankot Vehera are examples for
6. meditation chambers
such Dagobas. The following are the names
7. alms houses of some of the kings who constructed such
8. devalas prominent Dagobas in Lanka:

Name of the king who

Period Name of Dagoba
constructed it
Thuparama King Devanampiyatissa
Ruwanweliseya
Mirisawetiya King Dutugemunu
Anuradhapura era
Abhayagiri King Walagamba
Jethawana King Mahasen
Polonnaruwa Kirivehera
Demala Maha Seya
King Parakramabahu the Great
Polonnaruwa era Yudanganawa Dagoba
Dedigama Kotawehera
Rankoth Vehera King Nissankamalla

Table 1.2

25
 By the mid part of the
Anuradhapura period, the
main parts of a Dagoba were
Paadama (the base), Pesa
Walalu (basal rings), Garbhaya
(relics chamber), Devatha
Kotuwa (cylindrical neck),
Koth Kerella (conical spire)
and Kotha (pinnacle).

Further, in order to enhance

the aesthetic value of a dagoba,
four Vahalkadas (frontispieces)
have been constructed facing
the four cardinal directions. The
most remarkable Vahalkada
belonging to the Rajarata era is
found from the eastern side of Fig. 1.23 – Vahalkada (frontispiece) of Kantaka
Kantaka Chetiya in Mihintale. Chetiya in Mihintale

Chetiyagara
A chamber constructed as a protection to a small dagoba is called a chetiyagara or watadageya. Evidence
discovered shows that watadageyas had been constructed by standing huge stone pillars in rows around
the dagoba and making
an angular roof by fixing
wooden rafters on top of
those stone pillars.

Medirigiriya Watadageya
is the most artistic
Watadageya belonging
to the Rajarata era. Apart
from that, the stone pillars
that had been stood to
construct chetiyagaras
for Thuparama,
Lankarama, Ambasthala
and Thiriyaya Dagobas
are still available.

Fig. 1.24 Watadageya in Medirigiriya

26
Bodhigara

After the Sacred Bo Tree (Sri Maha Bodhi) was brought to this country, the eight shoots (Ashatapala)
and the thirty two shoots (Dethispala) that grew from it were planted in various parts of the country.
A house had been
constructed around Bo
trees for the protection
of the Bo trees and to
enhance their beauty, and
also for the convenience
of the devotees. This house
was called bodhigara. In
ancient times, a bodhigara
had been constructed
around Jaya Sri Maha
Bodhi, too. Nillakkagama
bodhigara in Kurunegala
District is the most artistic
bodhigara belonging to
Rajarata civilization.

Fig. 1.25 Nillakkagama bodhigara

Image Houses
constructed for devotees to have a clear view of
After depositing images of the Buddha, houses the image from was called the pavilion. Kiribath
were constructed to protect those images from vehera, Vijayarama, Pankuliya and Tholuwila are
rain and sun and also for the convenience of the examples for the image houses belonging to this
devotees who came to worship them. There had tradition.
been several traditions of building image houses
during Rajarata civilization. Image houses belonging to Gedige tradition
can be identified as a more developed stage of
Gandhakuti tradition Gandhakuti tradition. In Gedige tradition, not
Gedige tradition only the walls, even the roof had completely been
Cave temple tradition made of bricks or stone. During Polonnaruwa
period, there was a remarkable development
The oldest tradition of building image houses in this tradition particularly during the reign
was the Gandhakuti tradition. In image houses of King Parakramabahu the Great. The image
built according to Gandhakuti tradition, the part houses he had constructed, namely Thuparama,
in which the image was deposited was called the Lankathilaka and Thivanka image houses are
chamber house and the part which had been excellent works belonging to Gedige tradition.

27
 Fig. 1.26 Thuparama image house in Polonnaruwa

Cave temples were another tradition of building Jethawana which were constructed and offered to
image houses during this period. A special feature Bhikkus under royal patronage. At those temple
of this tradition is that the main image had been monastery complexes, many other buildings
constructed in reclining position. Pidurangala, had been constructed in addition to the main
Habessa, Hulannuge, and Bambaragastalawa religious buildings in order to fulfil various
are examples for cave temples belonging to this needs of Bhikkus.
period.
Devalas
Temple Monasteries
Hindu devalas (temples) were constructed
At the earliest stage, natural caves were used by
during Polonnaruwa Kingdom. Siva Devala I
the Bhikkus to live in. Such caves which had
and Siva Devala II in Polonnaruwa are examples
been constructed as appropriate by making drip
for Hindu devalas. Siva Devala II, which has been
ledges can be found from many parts of the
constructed completely out of stone according
country. Mihintale, Wessagiriya, Ritigala and
to Choala architecture style, is an example for a
Rajagala are fine examples for that. Those caves
Siva devala that has been well protected.
had been well-planed with walls constructed
below the drip ledge and in the front side of
the cave and doors and windows made of
wood had been fixed. Later, with the expansion
of the Sangha community, Bhikkus began to
live in bigger temples such as Abhayagiri and

28
 Prasadaya situated in the inner
city of Polonnaruwa. According
to chronicles, this palace, which
had been constructed by King
Parakramabahu I, had seven floors.
Even today, there are remains of
three floors and the flight of stairs
that had been constructed to climb
up to the upper floors. Further,
Ruins of a smaller palace that had
been constructed according to the
plan of the Vaijayantha Prasadaya
is found from Panduwas Nuwara,
too. This palace is considered to
have been constructed by King
Parakramabahu when he was
Fig. 1.27 Siva Devala II in Polonnaruwa the ruler of Dakkina Deshaya
(Southern Lanka).
Non-religious Buildings Hospitals

During Rajarata civilization, buildings of various Ruins of ancient hospitals have been discovered
forms were constructed in order to fulfil the from several areas, namely Medigiriaya, Mihintale
needs of the kings, chieftains and the common and Alahana Pirivena in Polonnaruwa. The
masses. Among the buildings thus constructed hospitals had constituted a central courtyard and
were royal palaces, fortresses, hospitals, and rooms connected to that for in-house patients,
houses as well as toilets and urinals. storerooms, halls in which medicines were
manufactured and a dispensary. The medicinal
Royal Palaces bath found from these hospital sites is a unique
creation. Medical equipment, too, have been
During the Anuradhapura period, the palaces discovered from among the ruins of the hospital
of kings and the highest nobility had been that was discovered among the buildings of the
constructed in the inner city. Sigiriya can be Alahana Pirivena in Polonnaruwa.
described as a unique palace complex belonging
to Anuradhapura period. It was built by King Toilets and Urinals
Kashayapa using Sigiriya rock as the base and it
has been beautified with water parks, rock parks, Due consideration had been given to the sanitary
moats and boundary walls. conditions of the people in the ancient times
and therefore well-planned toilets and urinals
Vijayaba palace in the inner city of Anuradhapura had been constructed for that. They were so
is the oldest palace belonging to Polonnaruwa concerned about the environment that they had
period. The most remarkable royal palace not even let out the waste water from
belonging to that period is the Vaijayantha
29
 Fig. 1.28 Ruins of the palace of King
Parakramabahu and an imaginary
replica of the original palace

urinals directly into the soil; several clay pots

had been put one on top of the other so that the
waste water is filtered before it is released into Artistic Creations
the soil. The surface of the toilets and urinals
in monastery complexes were decorated with
beautiful carvings. Statues

Sculpture is given a prominent place among the

artistic creations found in Sri Lanka. Statues
of the Buddha, the Bodhisaththa, kings and
other statues had been created beautifully
paying attention to methods of mathematical
measurements.
30
Fig. 1.29 An ancient urinal decorated with carvings (on the left). How the pots that had
been used to filter the waste water from urinals in order to purify it without directly
releasing into the soil are kept on display (on the right).

Statues of the Buddha

During the Anuradhapura period statues of the

Buddha had been constructed in three postures,
namely standing, sitting and reclining positions.
The most commonly found are the statues
of Dhyana Mudra (meditation posture) in
Veerasana (seated with the legs crossed). Samadhi
Buddha Statue in Anuradhapura and Tholuwila
Buddha Statue are examples for that. Avukana
statue, Resvehera statue, and Maligawila statue
are prominent among the statues in standing
position belonging to Anuradhapura period.
The development that had been achieved in the
construction of statues of the Buddha during
Polonnaruwa period is evident from the statues
in Uttararama or Gal Vihara. Statues belonging
to all postures, namely sitting, standing and
reclining can be found there.

Fig. 1.30 Dambegoda Bodhisathwa Statue

31
 Bodhisathwa Statues artistic creation. Some scholars have opined that
this is not a statue of king Parakramabahu, but of
Worshipping Bodhisathwa statues became Kapila or Pulasthi Rishi (sage).
popular with the spread of Mahayana ideals
in this country. For that, Bodhisathwa statues Carvings and sculpture
were created in several places of the country.
Dambegoda Bodhisathwa statue can be identified Arts of carving and sculpture in Lanka were
as a very great work belonging to Anuradhapura originally influenced by the Indian traditions,
period. Bodhisathwa statues can also be found but with the passage of time, these arts developed
in places such as Buduruwagala, Weligama, with features of identity unique to this country.
Kushtarajagala, and Yatalavehera. Sandakadapahana (moonstone) is a unique
creation of this nature. Sandakadapahana is a
Statues of the royalty and others semicircular (shape of half moon) stone slab
placed at the entrance to buildings. At the earliest
Royal statues believed to be of King Dutugemunu stage this was a plain stone slab, but later it was
and King Bhathikabhaya have been found from decorated with intricate carvings. In the centre
the courtyard of Ruwanweliseya. The famous of the Sandakadapahana is a half lotus around
statue found close to Parakrama Samudraya which a band of creeper design has been carved.
considered to be of King Parakramabahu’s is an Then it is decorated with a procession

Fig. 1.31 How the Sandakadapahana, guard stones, and Korawakgala had been fixed at
the entrance to a building.

32
 Fig. 1.32 Sandakadapahana

of swans carrying a lotus bud in the beak. rock during the Anuradhapura period have been
Then is a band with carvings of four animals – found mostly from Abhayagiri and Jethawana
elephants, lions, horses and bulls following one temples. Avalokitheshwara Bodhisathwa statue
another in a procession. The outermost band in Veheragala and Badulla metallic statue are
contains carvings of flames or foliage. Two very artistic metallic images belonging to that
most artistic Sandakadapahanas belonging to period. It is also noticed that bronze images of
the Anuradhapura period have been discovered Siva, Siva-nataraja, Parvathi, and Soorya (sun)
from the Abhayagiri temple premises. It can had been created based on Hindu concepts
be noticed that the figure of the bull had been during the Polonnaruwa period.
removed from the Sandakadapahana of the
Polonnaruwa period due to the influence of Paintings
Hinduism. Further, it is interesting to note
that entrances to buildings had been beautified There is evidence which indicates that
with a combination of the artistic creations of Lankans had known the art of painting since
Sandakadapahana, guard stones, korawakgala ancient times. Remains of such sketches have
(balustrade), and piyageta (stairs). Isurumuniya been discovered from caves in areas such as
lovers and the man and the horse head carved on Sithulpawwa, Hindagala, Karambagala and
rock are very great artistic creations. Vessagiriya. However, complete paintings have
been discovered from Sigiriya. It is considered
As far as the art of creating images in Lanka is that Sigiriya frescoes belong to 5th century AD.
concerned, it is found that types of rock and The remaining paintings on two nooks of the
metals have been used to create images relating west side of Sigiriya rock depict figures of
Buddhism and Hinduism. Statues carved out of

33
 Fig. 1.33 Sigiri frescoes Fig. 1.34 Frescoes in Pulligoda rock cave

beautiful women wearing and carrying lotuses, Activity

lilies, and Sapu flowers. Out of the colours used
in these paintings, yellow, bay, red and blue are 1. Make a model of a tank including the key
predominant. features of a tank.

Scholars hold different views about the women 2. Collect pictures and information about
depicted in Sigiriya frescoes. ancient ponds and water gardens and
prepare a leaflet.
This tradition of painting has further developed
during the Polonnaruwa period. Paintings in 3. Write a letter to a friend in a foreign
places such as Maraveediya in Dimbulagala, country giving information about the great
Pulligoda and in Gal Vihara and Thivanka image creations our forefathers had done using clay
house in Polonnaruwa are fine examples for the and metals.
paintings belonging to that period.
4. Collect information and pictures about
architectural and artistic creation belonging
to Rajarata period as appropriate for holding
an exhibition in the classroom.

34
 Kandyan Kingdom

02

Introduction

T he Kandyan kingdom was established towards the end of the 15th century
centered around Senkadagala, a city situated in the central hills of Sri
Lanka. Kandyan kingdom had the capacity to maintain the independence of
Sri Lanka until 1815 while countering the threats that had been posed since
16th century by the Europeans, namely the Portuguese, the Dutch and the
English, who had seized power in the coastal areas of the country.

This chapter focuses on the establishment of the Kandyan kingdom which is

the last kingdom of Sri Lanka, the renowned kings who ruled that kingdom,
and the nature of the economy, religion, society, architecture, and arts and
crafts of the Kandyan kingdom.

35
 Kandyan kingdom was a ruling centre which
was established in a location that was naturally 2.1 Establishment of the Kandyan
protected due to its geographical position. Kingdom
This kingdom was established centred
around the city of Kandy or Senkadagala While King Parakramabahu VI was ruling
in the central hills of Sri Lanka. Kandyan in Kotte kingdom, Kandy area was an
kingdom is also called as Senkadagalapura, administrative unit that was being ruled
Kanda Udarata (the Hill Country), Udarata under Kotte kingdom. Once a ruler named
(upcountry) kingdom and Kande Nuwara Jothiya Situ was ruling Kandy area under
(city in the Hills). Mahaweli River provides King Parakramabahu VI. Sources reveal
protection to the city of Kandy and further that a riot was started under Jothiya Situ
protection is provided to it by the mountain against King Parakramabahu VI for winning
ranges of Udawaththa and Hanthana. As the freedom for Kandy from Kotte kingdom, but
city of Kandy is located in the highlands, the riot failed. Eventually, Kotte kingdom
access to the city from low country areas was gradually grew weaker after the death of
difficult in the past. Having to take mountain King Parakramabahu VI.
passes such as Balana and Hunnasgiriya
to reach this city was another factor that Taking advantage of this situation, a powerful
ensured the protection of this city. elite named Sena Sammatha Wickramabahu

Fig: 2.1 City of Kandy in the Past

36
got the Kandyan kingdom freed from the rule had embraced the culture of those foreigners
of Kotte kingdom and established a separate and was acting accordingly. For this reason,
kingdom centred around Senkadagala city. Weerasundara Bandara who was a powerful
Accordingly, the first king of the Kandyan elite in Kandy supported the ruler of
kingdom was Sena Sammatha Wickrmabahu. Seethawaka, King Rajasinghe I, to capture the
Kandyan kingdom. When King Rajasinghe
After King Sena Sammatha Wickramabahu, invaded Kandy, King Karalliyadde failed to
Jayaweera Bandara, who is considered to be resist the invasion and ran away to Mannar
his son, became the king of Kandy. During the together with the royal family including his
reign of Kandyan King Jayaweera Bandara, daughter Kusumasana Devi and nephew
Kotte kingdom was split up into three Yamasinha Bandara seeking protection of
divisions, namely Kotte, Seethawaka and the Portuguese. There, King Karalliyadde’s
Raigama. (Further information about this daughter and nephew were baptized by the
splitting is given in Chapter 5 of this book.) Portuguese as Dona Catherina and Don
Kandyan kingdom could function with more Phillip.
freedom consequent to the splitting of Kotte
kingdom into these three divisions.

The Portuguese arrived in Lanka at the

beginning of the 16th century. They built up
relationships with the Kotte kingdom and
gradually began to intervene in the political
affairs of the kingdom. The Portuguese
attempted to build up relationships with the
then ruler of the Kandyan kingdom, King
Jayaweera Bandara, but they were proven
futile.

After King Jayaweera Bandara, his son

Karalliyadde Bandara became the king of
Kandyan Kingdom.

Rulers of Seethawaka kingdom were not

happy about Karalliyadde’s coming into power
in Kandy. Because of the threats posed by
the rulers of Seethawaka, King Karalliyadde
Bandara befriended with the Portuguese. The
elite in Kandy were disappointed that their
ruler had become friends with foreigners, Fig: 2.2 King Wimaladharmasooriya I

37
 King Rajasinghe I captured the Kandyan throne of Kandy making efforts to establish
kingdom around 1580 AD and ruled that a puppet rule in the Kandyan kingdom.
kingdom being in Seethawaka. Before long, In this situation, Konappu Bandara came
there arose a dispute between Weerasundara forward acting against the Portuguese and
Bandara and King Rajasinghe I of seized the power of the Kandyan kingdom.
Seethawaka. As a result King Rajasinghe I The Portuguese were furious that Konappu
killed Weerasundara Bandara. After the death Bandara, who had been baptized by them
of Weerasundara Bandara, his son Konappu as Don Juan, acted against them coming
Bandara ran away to the Portuguese to save to Kandy and therefore they were looking
his life. He was baptized by the Portuguese as forward to finding an opportunity to take
Don Juan and he became loyal to them. revenge on Konappu Bandara.

Renowned Kings of the Kandyan In 1952 AD, Prince Konappu Bandara became
Kingdom the King of Kandy as Wimaladharmasooriya
I, which is a distinctive landmark in the
history of the Kandyan kingdom. His coming
King Wimaladharmasooriya I into power prevented the establishment of a
(1592 AD – 1604 AD) rule that was loyal to the Portuguese.

When Seethawaka Rajasinghe was the King Importance of the Rule of King
of the Kandyan Kingdom, he embraced Wimaladharmasooriya
Sivaism (the cult of Siva) and acted against
certain Buddhist monks. This resulted in
disappointment among the elite in Kandy ■ King Wimaladharmasooriya I ruled the
about the rule of King Rajasinghe. Taking Kandyan kingdom from 1952 to 1604 AD.
advantage of that situation, the Portuguese When he ascended the throne of Kandy,
attempted to bring into power in Kandy a he was not a rightful heir to the throne.
ruler that was loyal to them. Therefore, he established his legal right to
the throne by marrying Kusumasana Devi
Accordingly, the Portuguese sent to (Princess Dona Catherina), daughter of
Kandy Yamasinghe Bandara, nephew Karalliyadde Bandara.
of Karalliyadde who was under their
protection, and made him the king of ■ Consequent to the marriage of King
Kandyan kingdom. Further, the Portuguese Wimaladharmasooriya I and Kusumasana
sent Prince Konappu Bandara, too, for the Devi, a new dynasty came in Kandy.
protection of Yamasinghe Bandara. However, King Senarath, King Rajasinghe II, King
Yamasinghe Bandara died before long and Wimaladharmasooriya II and King Weera
then the Portuguese attempted to put a Parakrama Narendrasinghe belong to that
young son of Yamasinghe Bandara’s on the royal lineage.

38
■ King Wimaladharmasooriya I freed ■ King Wimaladharmasooriya I brought to
the Kandyan kingdom from the control Kandy the Sacred Tooth Relic, which was
of Seethawaka kingdom. When King hidden inside a Kurahan grinding stone in
Seethawaka Rajasinghe invaded the Delgamuwa Viharaya for protection, and
Kandyan kingdom, he was defeated by king deposited it in Kandy.
Wimaladharmasooriya I.
King Senarath (1604 – 1635 AD)
■ Acting against Portuguese power was an
important service he rendered to this country. After King Wimaladharmasooriya I, his
He succeeded in defeating the Portuguese in cousin brother Senarath became king of
the battle of Danture in 1594 and in the battle Kandyan Kingdom. King Senarath valued
of Balana in 1602. keeping peace rather than fighting. Therefore
he entered into a peace treaty with the
■ King Wimaladharmasooriya I took various Portuguese in 1617. However, during King
measures to promote Buddhism. Bringing Senarath’s reign itself, Portuguese Captain-
back Upasampada (higher ordination) General Constantino De Sa came with a
from Burma to Sri Lanka and renovating huge army and invaded Uva area. Prince
Buddhist temples such as Lankathilaka and Maha Astana, the youngest son of King
Gadaladeniya are examples for his service to Senarath, led the Kandyan army and a fierce
Buddhism. battle was fought between the two armies
at Randeniwela. The Portuguese suffered a
devastating defeat in this
battle.

King Rajasinghe II
(1635 – 1687 AD)

After king Senarath,

Prince Maha Asthana
ascended the throne of
Kandy as King Rajasinghe
II. He was a great king
and acted with the
strong determination of
repelling the Portuguese
from this country.

Fig: 2.3 The Kurahan grinding stone in which the Sacred Tooth
Relic was hidden for protection in Delgamuwa Viharaya

39
 ■ King Rajasinghe II took measures to
expand the area that belonged to Kandyan
Kingdom. Although he had the intention of
becoming the King of the entire country after
repelling the Portuguese, he could not fulfil
his intentions because the Dutch retained
power in the areas which were freed from
Portuguese rule. However, he succeeded
in joining to the Kandyan kingdom many
areas which were previously ruled by the
Portuguese.

■ During the reign of King Rajasinghe II,

Portuguese Captain-General Diogo De
Melo invaded Kandy with a huge army in
1638. The armies of King Rajasinghe II
surrounded the invading army at a paddy-
field in Gannoruwa and launched a violent
attack on the Portuguese. In this battle, too,
the Portuguese suffered a crushing defeat
and King Rajasinghe II became victorious.

■ King Rajasinghe II, who ascended the

Fig: 2.4 King Rajasinghe II throne in 1635 AD after the death of king
Senarath, ruled the Kandyan kingdom until
1687 AD. Accordingly he was the king who
Importance of the Rule of King ruled the Kandyan kingdom for the longest
Rajasinghe II period of time.

■ King Rajasinghe II went on to get the King Wimaladharmasooriya II

support of the Dutch to repel the Portuguese. (1687 AD – 1707 AD)
Accordingly, an agreement was reached
between king Rajasinghe II and the Dutch in ■ After king Rajasinghe II, his son prince
1658. Later both these parties jointly fought Wimaladharmasooriya II became king of the
against the Portuguese and eventually the Kandyan kingdom. He was a peace-loving
Portuguese were repelled from this country leader.
in 1658.

40
■ Maintaining cordial relationships with the Weera Parakrama Narendrasinghe.
Dutch in the low country areas was a key
feature of his rule. ■ He supported Saranankara Sangaraja
Thero in the religious activities carried out
■ In order to promote Buddhism, he brought by the Thero. Under the directions of the
Upasampada from Burma and established Thero, he attempted to bring Upasampada
Kandyan Upasampada (a Kandyan-centric from Burma, but it was not successful.
form of Upasampada).
King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe
■ Renovating Temple of the Sacred Tooth (1747 AD – 1782 AD)
Relic was another valuable service he
rendered. As King Sri Vijaya Rajasinghe did not have an
heir to the throne, after his death, a brother
King Sri Weera Parakrama Narendrasinghe of his chief queen ascended the throne
(1707 AD – 1739 AD) of Kandy as King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe.

■ After the death of King

Wimaladharmasooriya II in 1707, his son
prince Weera Parakrama Narendrasinghe
became the king of the Kandyan kingdom.

■ He is considered to have been a very

weak ruler in the history of Kandyan
kingdom, and the power of the Kandyan
elite increased during his reign.

■ He had married an Indian princess, but

they did not have a son to be the heir to
the throne. As a result, rulers belonging
to Nayakkar Dynasty came to power in
Kandy.

King Sri Vijaya Rajasinghe

(1739 AD – 1747 AD)

■ King Sri Vijaya Rajasinghe was the

first king of Nayakkar Dynasty to come
to power in Kandyan Kingdom. He was
a brother of the Nayakkar queen of King Fig: 2.5 King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe

41
 Sources reveal that he was just 16 years when during his reign. Welivita Saranankara
he became king. Sangharaja Thero acted as the pioneer of this
revival giving necessary advice to the king.
King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe had learnt
Buddhism under Welivita Saranankara
Sangharaja Thero and possessed a sound By the time of King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe,
knowledge of Buddhism. Therefore he was there had been a severe decline in Buddhist
much respected by the people of Kandy. dispensation throughout the country as
previous kings had to give priority to war
The reign of King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe over a long period of time and also due to the
is particularly significant in the history of actions of the Europeans. It was difficult even
Kandyan kingdom because a great Buddhist to find Upasampada Bhikkus (Bhikkus of
revival was brought about in the kingdom higher ordination) in this country. Addressing

Fig: 2.5 King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe offering the Vijinipatha (the fan)
to Saranankara Sangharaja Thero

42
this situation, King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe this treaty to deprive the Kandyan kingdom
sent a mission to Siyam Deshaya (Thailand) of its right to use the sea beach thereby trying
on ships obtained from the Dutch, brought a to break off the relationships the king had
group of monks led by Upali Thero and held maintained with foreign countries. However,
an Upasampada ceremony in 1753 following most of the conditions contained in the treaty
the advice of Saranankara Thero. This was the were not practically implemented.
origin of Siyam Sect that has existed to date.
Further, the king promoted Saranankara King Rajadhirajasinghe
Thero to the position of Sangharaja. A large (1782 – 1798 AD)
number of temples and stupas which had
fallen into decay in both up country and low After King Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe, his
country areas were renovated by the king. brother became king as Rajadhirajasinghe.
He was a devoted Buddhist. It was during
Dambulla Viharaya is an example for a the reign of this king that the English seized
temple that was renovated by him. power in the coastal areas from the Dutch.
King Rajadhirajasinghe died in 1798.
Although king Keerthi Sri Rajasinghe was
a Hindu, he gave his patronage to hold the King Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe
annual Dalada Perahera and made it more (1798 – 1815 AD)
attractive by adding Devala Peraheras, too
(processions of devalas). When King Rajadhirajasinghe died,
there were two Nayakkar princes named
As Kandyan kingdom faced constant threats Kannasamy and Muththusamy who were
from the Dutch who were holding power in heirs to the throne. Prince Kannasamy
the coastal areas of this country, King Keerthi received the support of Pilimathalawwe, the
Sri Rajasinghe attempted to get the support then Maha Adikaram of Kandy. Accordingly,
of the English in India to repel the Dutch. with the intervention of Pilimathalawwe,
On request of the king, an English emissary Prince Kannasamy who was still at young
named John Fibers arrived in Kandy in 1762 age, ascended the throne of the Kandyan
and met the king. However, this effort did not kingdom as King Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe
yield results. When the Dutch got to know in 1798.
that the king was seeking the support of the
English, they intensified their threats on the Prince Muththusamy fled the kingdom and
Kandyan kingdom. Consequently, the Dutch went to the English who gave him protection.
invaded the Kandyan kingdom in 1765, but
they could not achieve their target. As threats Pilimathalawwe must have believed that he
from the Dutch continued, the king signed a could keep Prince Kannasamy loyal to him
treaty with the Dutch expecting long lasting by making him King of Kandy. At the
peace. The Dutch made attempts through beginning, the king listened to the words

43
 power and war strategies
of the Kandyan kingdom.
Therefore he launched
an invasion in 1803 to
capture the Kandyan
kingdom declaring Prince
Muththusamy, who was
under their protection,
the King of the Kandyan
kingdom. However, King
Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe
received the support of the
people and efforts of the
English were futile. Prince
Muththusamy died, too.

■ King Sri Wickrama

Rajasinghe ruled the
Kandyan kingdom from
1798 to 1815.

■ He took steps to add to

the Temple of the Sacred
Tooth Relic the attractive
Paththirippuwa.

Fig: 2.8 King Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe ■ It was during his reign that the lake called
‘Kiri Muhuda’ that lies opposite this Temple
of Pilimathalawwe, but later he began to was constructed.
act according to the wishes of his Nayakkar
relatives. This led to disputes between the king During the reign of King Sri Wickrama
and Pilimathalawwe. Then Pilimathalawwe Rajasinghe, a political crisis erupted
attempted to get the support of the English within Kandyan kingdom. As a result, the
and act against the King, but he was not relationships the king had with the elite and
successful. In the early period of King Sri with the people broke up. The king became
Wickrama Rajasinghe’s reign in Kandy, Sir unprotected within his own kingdom.
Fredrick North was the British Governor in Taking advantage of this situation, Sir Robert
the coastal regions of Lanka. Governor North Brownrigg, the then English Governor of
did not have an understanding about the war this country launched an invasion into the
Kandyan kingdom.
44
By this time, a dispute had arisen between
the king and Ehelepola, Maha Adikaram of 2.2 Pattern of Economy in the
Kandy. Therefore Ehelepola was under the Kandyan Kingdom
protection of the English and he supported
the English in the invasion they launched
Agriculture
against King Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe. As
most of the people of Kandy were not happy
with the King, none of them came forward to The agriculture-based economic pattern,
prevent the English from entering Kandy. As which had been the traditional livelihood of
Lankans, prevailed in the Kandyan kingdom,
a result, the English were able to enter the city
too. By the time when the Kandyan kingdom
of Kandy without any difficulty. The king who
was established, there was a rapid population
had run away from his palace and was hiding expansion in the wet zone of this country,
in a house in Medamahanuwara area was but, as the wet zone receives ample rain
caught by the people and was handed over throughout the year, there was no requirement
to the English. By taking the king a prisoner, of constructing tanks and anicuts for storing
the English succeeded in achieving in Kandy water. As the areas in Kandy are mostly hilly,
a victory that no other European had been terrace cultivation which was done using
able to. Later, Governor Brownrig signed a rainwater was very common. In low country
treaty with the elite in Kandy. It came to be areas, normal paddy cultivation was done.
known as the ‘Udarata Givisuma’ (Kandyan
convention) or ‘Convention of 02nd March, Trade
1815’. In terms of this treaty, the Kandyan
kingdom was accepted as an area under the
rule of the English and all the rights that King There was both internal and external trade
Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe and the Nayakkars during the Kandyan kingdom. Products from
had to the throne of Kandy were renounced. the coastal areas were traded to upcountry
As the sovereignty of the Kandyan kingdom areas and those from the upcountry areas
was ceded in this manner, the entire country were traded to low country areas.
became a British colony.
Money was used in trade, but a barter system,
King Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe, who too, seems to have existed. Gravets had
been constructed between the upcountry
surrendered to the English, was taken away
and the low country, and transportation
by the English to Vellore in India.
of merchandize was done through these
gravets. Gravets are the guard-posts that had
been established between the boundaries of
the areas under Dutch rule and those of the
Kandyan kingdom.

External trade during the Kandyan kingdom

45
 Fig:2.9 Bundling of cinnamon quills and preparing for trading

was done under the monopoly of the king.

The king maintained trade relationships Industries
through coastal areas with the Europeans and
there also were trade relationships between In addition to agriculture and trade,
India and the Kandyan kingdom. industries, too, had been given a prominent
place in the economic history of Kandyan
Merchandise that was traded during the kingdom. Industrial products and goods
Kandyan kingdom: that were required for most of the activities
of the Kingdom were produced within this
Goods and animals Goods and animals country itself. There was a separate group of
that were exported that were imported craftsmen for each industry based on their
castes. These castes had been maintaining
cinnamon horses the technology related to their crafts from
pepper ceramic ware generation to generation over a long period
arecanut textile of time. Various objects were produced using
ivory, elephants clayware clay, copper, brass, iron and other metals.
gems and pearls perfumes For each craft, villages of craftsmen had been
betel dried fish established. Leaders had been appointed
cardamom, cloves to give leadership to each group. Lacquer
nutmeg industry was used to add beauty to the
bees wax goods that were produced. Kotmale area was

46
famous for the iron industry while Dumbara There also was a practice of bringing one
area was famous for the reed products. bride for several brothers of the same family.
As property was important in an agricultural
society, a marriage of this nature would have
helped prevent dividing of family property
2.3 Social System in the Kandyan
among several members.
Kingdom

In the rural society of Kandyan kingdom, 2.4 Architecture and Arts and Crafts
village was a self sufficient unit. A separate of the Kandyan Era
village had been established for each caste
or craft guild. Majority of the people in the
kingdom were farmers, and there was a strong During Kandyan era, there was a form
relationship between these people and all of architecture that was developed from
craftsmen. Mutual cooperation, coexistence the forms of architecture that belonged to
and collectiveness were well protected in Gampola and Kotte kingdoms. Among the
society. There were three strata in society, buildings that were constructed during
namely the clergy, the elite and the common this period, religious buildings were given
masses. The elites were the most prominent a prominent place. Temple of the Sacred
force in society and, except for the king, Tooth Relic, Embekke Temple, Lankathilaka
the other chiefs involved in administration Viharaya, and other Hindu temples are
belonged to the elite class. They were also outstanding among them. During Kandyan
called aristocrats. Farmers, labourers, traders era, there also was a tradition of constructing
and various craftsmen described above temples on pillars. When buildings were
belonged to the common masses. constructed on wooden pillars that were
stood on the ground, insects such as termites
The family unit was very strong in the damaged the wooden pillars and ultimately
Kandyan society. There was a system of the entire building was damaged. In order
inheriting property from father to children. to prevent this, stone pillars were stood on
As father was the dominant person in the the ground and temples were constructed on
family, it can be called a patriarchal social those pillars by fixing wooden beams on top
system. of those pillars.

There were two forms of marriage in the Understanding about the arts skills of the
Kandyan system: Kandyan era can be gained by studying the
artistic creations such as temple murals,
‘deega’ marriage – marriage in which the wood carvings and images belonging to that
bride was taken to the bridegroom’s place era.
and the couple lived there.

‘binna’ marriage – marriage in which the

bridegroom came to live in the bride’s place.

47
 Fig:2.10 A wooden pillar of Embekke temple (on the left) and Embekke temple
(on the right)

There were several key features of paintings

Painting of Kandyan Era belonging to that era:

Painting was used in Kandyan era as a ■ Paintings have been created in a way
medium of transferring the core principles that they can be admired by everybody
of Buddhism to people. irrespective of their level of education.

■ Walls have been divided into

columns and a long narrative
style has been used presenting a
story step by step.

■ A relevant caption has been

written below each picture.

■ Blank spaces have been

painted with floral designs.

■ Proportionality of animal,
plant and human figures has
been neglected.

Fig: 2.11Medawela Tampita Viharaya (Temple on pillars)

48
 Fig:2.12 Lankathilaka Viharaya

■ Traditional colours had been prepared using plants and minerals and overuse of red colour
can be noticed.
■ Jathaka stories such as Vessanthara Jathaka, Dahamsonda Jathaka and Thelapaththa Jathaka
have been commonly depicted through paintings.
■ Paintings belonging to the Kandyan era can be seen even today at temples such as Dambulla,
Degaldoruwa, Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic, and Mulgirigala.

Fig: 2.13 A painting belonging to the Kandyan kingdom.

49
 Activity

1. Complete the following table with suitable information related to the services each king in the
Kandyan era had rendered.

Name of the king King Wimaladharma King Rajasinghe II King Keerthi Sri King Sri
sooriya 1 Rajasinghe Wickrama
Rajasinghe

Services

2. Answer the questions given below related to the following pictures.

(i). Name the building shown in the picture.

(ii). Where is it situated?
(iii). Name the king who constructed it.
(iv). What was added to this building by King Sri
Wickrama Rajasinghe?

(i). Name the building shown in the picture.

(ii). What is special about this building?
(iii). Where is this building situated?

50
 The Renaissance in Europe

03

Introduction

T he term ‘renaissance’ can simply be defined as a revival of something. The

reawakening that developed in the ancient Greco–Roman civilization in
a certain era of the European history is called the revival or ‘the renaissance’.
Wherever the term ‘renaissance’ is used in this chapter, it refers to the said
revival. Similarly, the term ‘renaissance’ is also used to refer to the dramatic
transformation that took place in the fields of art, religion and science in
Europe during the period from 14th to 16th centuries. This chapter focuses on
the contributory factors that brought about the renaissance; the development
that took place in the fields of literature; the progress achieved in art, sculpture
and architecture; and the reawakening that occurred in fields of science,
medicine, and philosophy.

51
 Towards the end of the medieval period, the
3.1 The Background of the Europeans began to develop a great interest
Renaissance in the ancient Greco-Roman civilization.
Accordingly they began to study the writings
Historians use the term ‘the Renaissance’ to belonging to that civilization and also to
refer to the revolutionary transformation learn Greek and Latin languages that had
that took place in the fields of arts and science been used in the ancient civilization. It was
in Europe during the period from 14th to a significant feature that in-depth studies
16th centuries. The Renaissance originated were carried out into the Greco-Roman
in Italy and it had a huge impact in shaping civilization and that the cultural trends
the history of the modern world. When that had prevailed during that civilization
you were in Grade 07, you learnt about the were becoming popular once again in
highly developed Greco-Roman civilization Europe. Because of this transformation that
of ancient Europe. With the collapse of the underwent in philosophical and practical
Roman civilization in the 5th century AD, terms, Greco-Roman civilization seemed to
the thriving period that had so far existed have reawakened. This situation was indeed
in Europe came to an end. The succeeding a renaissance or revival in the European
period of about 1000 years (500-1500 AD) is history.
called the medieval era of Europe. This broad transformation that took place
in the fields of arts and science from 14th to
16th centuries affected to mould the present
history of the world. This transformation
started from Italy.

Fig: 3.1 A city in Italy

52
 Fig: 3.2 A painting which portrays Johannes Gutenberg and his printing press

Contributory Factors that brought

By this time, there had erupted a dispute
about the Renaissance
between the Christians in Europe and
Muslims outside. As Muslim Turks captured
1. City of Constantinople becoming under the city of Constantinople, the Christian
Turkish power traders in Europe could no longer use that
city for their trade activities. Consequently,
There had been trade relationships between the scholars who lived in Constantinople
Asia and Europe since ancient times. City fled the city to their countries carrying with
of Constantinople became very significant them the valuable Greek and Roman books
as a commercial centre where the goods that were kept in the libraries of the city, and
that were brought from Asia to Europe they also took measures to promote in their
through traditional trade routes were traded. cities Greek and Latin languages that were
Traders from European countries came to required for studying those books. Those
Constantinople, bought goods and sold them books were studied extensively in institutes
in the European countries. such as University of Bologna in Italy and
this resulted in a revitalization of the ancient
The trade in Europe suffered a crippling blow Greek and Roman civilizations.
consequent to the conquest of Constantinople
in 1453 by the Muslim Turks.

53
 2. Expansion of Trade and Creation of a These universities produced many modern
Wealthy Class scholars since various subjects such as
classical literature, history and drama were
Growth that had occurred in the field of trade taught there. Further, Greek and Roman
in Europe since 12th century AD was a major books were used in research activities of
factor that contributed to the Renaissance. those universities and study of classical
Well-developed commercial cities such as literature was given a prominent place. This
Venice, Genoa and Florence in Italy came up resulted in a revival of the science and arts
because of the trade that increased between knowledge that had sunk.
countries in the East and the West during that
period. The rich who lived in those cities had Up to that time, even at universities the
not only enough leisure to pay attention to books that were necessary for studies had
various fields of art, but also enough wealth to be hand copied. Having to hand copy
to sponsor such activities. The creation of manuscripts, and limiting of education only
this wealthy class was a causative factor for to a particular social group restricted the
the Renaissance to originate in Italy. The expansion of knowledge. In such context,
wealthy family named the Medici in the city invention of the printing press by Johannes
of Florence was an example for a family who Gutenberg during the Renaissance era
gave patronage for arts activities of the city. brought about a revolution in the expansion
of knowledge. Making of thousands of copies
3. Intellectual Revival of a book within a short period of time was
a great achievement. The invention of this
During the period that succeeded the printing press was a key causative factor that
collapse of the Roman civilization, there contributed to the Renaissance of Europe.
existed an education system that was centred
on the Christian Church of Europe and
the priests. Only a few subjects such as the
scriptures, philosophy and law were taught 3.2 Coming of the Renaissance
under that system. However, after 12th
century, universities began to be established
in Europe.  Creation of new scholars

Universities that were established in Before the Renaissance period, the languages
Europe towards the end of the Medieval that were used in the European countries
era. were limited to a particular group of countries
Country University or areas. During the Renaissance era there
Italy Bologna, Padua was an increase in the use of books written
France Paris in Greek and Latin languages resulting in a
England Oxford, Cambridge revival of those languages. Further, learning

54
of Greek and Latin languages had also more attention was drawn towards the
become a fashion during that period. As a path man had taken so far in world history
result, there was a wide expansion not only and also towards the artistic skills of man.
in learning of those languages, but also in Consequently, a number of new subjects
learning of literature, too, due to which many such as history and arts emerged. In this way,
modern scholars were created. The following education was not limited merely to the study
table gives the names of some of the writers of religion, it transformed into studying of
that belong to the Renaissance period. man and man’s living.

Writer Country
Dante Italy Arts and Crafts
William Shakespeare England
Erasmus France
The dramatic transformation that took place
 Coming up of Humanism in the Renaissance era was remarkable. In
the preceding period, the artistic creations
Before the Renaissance era the concept that that received the patronage of the church
‘god is supreme’ reigned which is called were shaped based on religious philosophy.
‘theism’, but during the Renaissance more The objective of such creations was to inspire
and more studies began to be carried into people’s devotion to religion. In contrast, the
the affairs of humans. Thereby the concept artistic creations of the Renaissance era that
of humanism became popular. As a result, received the Roman and Greek influence

Nature of arts and crafts before the Renaissance Arts and crafts of the Renaissance period
Having religious features Giving prominence to worldly affairs

The theme of artistic creations had been the Jesus Making kings, queens, princes and princesses,
Christ, Mother Mary or popular saints. too, the theme of creations.
Artists had been organized into ranks and their Works of arts were identified by the name of the
creations were identified by the name of the artist.
relevant rank.

Only the church had given patronage for creating The rich gave their patronage.
works of art.

The main objective had been to inspire devotion The main objective was to inspire appreciation.
to religion.
It had not been allowed to do works of art Works of art were done independently displaying
independently the skills of the individuals.

55
 Fig: 3.3 The Last Supp
Fig:Fig:
3.33.3
TheThe Last
Last Supp
Supper

gave prominence to aesthetic feeling. This is using themes such as Jesus Christ or Mother
evident from the fact that the paintings or Mary which had a religious significance.
images that were done during this period
contained nude or half-nude figures. Further, You may have already seen the painting
giving to the artists of the Renaissance era named ‘Mona Lisa’ shown here. It was during
the patronage of the rich who valued worldly the Renaissance era that artists who created
such masterpieces emerged. Let us learn
pleasures, too, helped immensely in bringing
about a few of such artists and about their
about a revival in artistic creations. The
creations.
following table describes the features of the
artistic creations of the preceding period
and how they differed from those of the
Renaissance era.

Painting

Painting was a form of art that was subject

to a dramatic change during the Renaissance
era. City of Florence in Italy was the centre in
which a new form of painting was introduced.
In this period, paintings were done giving
prominence to worldly matters instead of
Fig: 3.4 Mona Lisa

5656
 Leonardo da Vinci is an Italian. He was
an artist, architecture, engineer, poet and
musician as well. The paintings titled ‘Mona
Lisa’ and ‘The Last Supper’ are widely
regarded as his masterpieces.

Fig: 3.5 Leonardo da Vinci

Fig: 3.6 Another painting by

Leonardo da Vinci

57
 Michelangelo was a great painter. He was
also a renowned sculptor and architecture.
Ceiling paintings of the Sistine Chapel in
Rome are widely known as Michelangelo’s
masterworks. The painting titled ‘Last
Judgment’ is one of his great works.

Fig: 3.7 Michelangelo

Fig: 3.8 Michelangelo’s ceiling paintings at Sistine Chapel

58
 Fig: 3.9 The Pieta
Fig: 3.10 The David Statue sculptured
by Michelangelo

Architecture
Sculpture
Imitating certain features of ancient Roman
architecture was a special feature of the
Sculpture is another art that flourished during buildings constructed in the Renaissance
the Renaissance era. Creating sculptures out era. Accordingly, the buildings constructed
of marble was a special feature of this period. during this period included round arches,
Michelangelo was an accomplished sculptor tall pillars and hemispherical domes which
of the Renaissance era. His works ‘The Pieta’, were used in the buildings that had been
‘David’ and ‘Moses’ are among the world’s constructed in ancient Rome. St Peter’s
greatest sculptures. Donatello was another Basilica in Rome can be described as one of
great sculptor of the Renaissance era. The the greatest works that features the elements
statue of St. John in the City of Florence of Greek and Roman architecture of the
displays Donatello’s extraordinary skill. Renaissance era. Many works created by
Michelangelo and the great architect Raphael
can be seen here.

59
  New scientific inventions of the Renaissance
Activity era.

Complete the following grid using The remarkable development in thought

information about artists of the Renaissance achieved during the Renaissance era was not
era. just limited to the field of arts. As European
scholars studied in depth subjects such as
Title of the Name of the ancient history, literature and philosophy,
Field of art
creation artist there occurred a great development
Painting in judgment in society. Through this
Sculpture development people were encouraged to
Architecture reason everything rather than following
the convention. It contributed to the
advancement of the field of science paving
the way for a number of new scientific
inventions.

New theories presented about the universe

Copernicus discovered that the Earth is

spherical and that the Earth and the other
planets revolve around the sun. Accordingly,
the belief that had been established earlier
which said that the earth is flat was given up.
These discoveries of Copernicus paved the
way for scientific studies of stars and planets.
Because of the invaluable service he rendered
to the field of astronomy he is called the
‘father of astronomy’.
Fig: 3.11 Nicolaus Copernicus

60
 Johannes Kepler further established the
theories presented by Copernicus and went
on to work on them. The fact that had been
established by that time was that the earth and
the other planets move around the sun along
a circular path. However, Kepler discovered
that all the planets in the solar system move
around the sun not along a circular path, but
Fig: 3.12 Johannes Kepler along an elliptical path.

Galileo Galilei, who was a

university professor, invented
the telescope and observed
celestial bodies. Because of
this great invention, craters
and mountains on the Moon,
sunspots and the moons of
Jupiter could be observed.

Fig: 3.13 Galileo Galilei

61
 The Renaissance reform movement that was
launched against the Christian Church grew
Development in Medicine further under the leadership of protestant
leaders such as Martin Luther and John
Calvin.
William Harvey – He discovered important
facts about the blood circulatory system of Martin Luther who was born in Germany
the human body. became a professor at the University of
Wittenberg. He realized that the teachings
Dr Paracelsus – He carried out experiments of the Church contained many things that
on the causes of diseases and treatment were contrary to the teachings of the Bible.
for diseases. His discoveries contributed During this period he met a priest who was
a lot towards the development of modern engaged in selling indulgences in the City
pharmacology, too. of Wittenberg in Germany. Father Martin
Luther was shocked to see indulgences being
Michael Sertex - Michael Sertex discovered sold and pasted on the door of the church
facts about how blood is pumped from the in Wittenberg a leaflet containing his views
right ventricle into the lungs, purified there about selling of indulgences.
and travels back to the heart, and finally
circulates through the body. As a result of Martin Luther’s action, he was
removed from the Catholic Church. Then he
began to further express views against the
teachings of the church. After the invention
Reforms in Religion of the printing press in the 15th century, the
views of Luther began to spread not only
in Germany, but in the entire Europe. The
Consequent to the scientific advancement reformation movement which contained
and new inventions of the Renaissance era the views of such leaders was called the
that led to a revolution in thought, people Protestant Reform Movement.
began to reason things in every field.
Accordingly, people also began to critically
look at religious teachings and the unlimited Activity
powers enjoyed by the Catholic Church. The
groups that rose against the powers of the
church are called Protestants. 1. Prepare a booklet containing questions on
the Renaissance in Europe.
From the latter part of the medieval
period, severe criticism was leveled against 2. Collect information about the arts of
corruption of certain priests. Among those painting, sculpture and architecture, and
who expressed such criticism, John Wycliffe new inventions of the Renaissance era.
of England and Erasmus of France were
prominent.

62
Explorations and Arrival of the Europeans
in the East

04

Introduction

T he term ‘exploration’ refers to the act of searching for the purpose of

discovering countries. ‘Exploration’ is defined as discovering of unknown
countries by the Europeans by way of following new sea routes. By the end
of the 15th century, Europeans had an avid interest in discovering countries
located far away from the European continent. As a result, the Europeans were
able to discover countries in the continents of Asia, America and Africa, and
uncover information about the people and the resources available in those
countries. This chapter focuses on the reasons that led Europeans to carry out
explorations, their major explorations, the persons who led those explorations
and the arrival of Europeans in the East.

63
 Before explorations began, most of the
4.1 Background of Explorations world trade was limited to areas around the
Mediterranean. Commercial cities such as
Genoa, Alexandria and Venice which were
Before starting explorations that took place located around the Mediterranean, and
towards the end of the 15th century, the Constantinople located close to the Black
Europeans did not know about many parts Sea had flourished because of trade. There
of the world and countries in them except were three main routes along which trade
for Europe and a small part of North Africa relationships were maintained between Asia
and Asia. Europeans had only a limited and Europe during this period:
knowledge that was gained from traders
and heroic authors such as Marcopolo about 1. Silk route; i.e., the route from the city of
countries in Asia such as India and China; Constantinople to China through Persia and
and little was known about the other parts Central Asia,
of the Asian region. Further, they had little
understanding about the continents of 2. Arriving in Misra (Egypt) from
America and Australia and most parts of Constantinople through the Mediterranean
Africa. and reaching the Indian Ocean sailing
through the Red Sea, and

Fig: 4.1 An imaginary painting depicting Vasco da Gama’s arrival in India.

64
3. Reaching the western coast of India from supplying essential items in time by the Turks
Constantinople through the Persian Gulf. who captured the city of Constantinople. As
the traditional trade routes were blocked in
The goods that were transported on land this manner, the Europeans had to come to
along the Silk Route were sent to the city of Asia in search of spices. By this time, the
Constantinople. Pack animals were used to trade dominance in Asia was in the hands
transport goods along overland routes that of Muslims and therefore, Europeans had
had to be taken while transporting goods the intention of gaining that dominance for
along the sea routes which lay through the themselves. Accordingly, there seem to have
Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The goods that been economic interests or intentions of
were transported through the Persian Gulf gaining profits behind the search of new sea
were traded in Constantinople while those routes to Asia.
that were transported through the Red Sea
and through Misra were bought at Alexandria
by traders from Venice and Genoa. Having a fitting background formed in
Europe for explorations

Factors that influenced carrying out of

explorations New scientific inventions and the
transformation that took place in thought
during the Renaissance era gave rise to
 Conquest of Constantinople by Turks and
the formation of a fitting environment in
blocking of the traditional trade routes of
Europe for explorations. During this period
Europeans
mathematicians and astronomers such as
Nicolaus Copernicus proved that the Earth
Conquest of Constantinople by Turks
is spherical and Ptolemy’s map of the world
can be considered as the leading cause
helped expand the knowledge that people
for the beginning of explorations. City of
possessed about the position of the world.
Constantinople was the main commercial
Use of the compass and measuring of the
centre at which the European traders bought
angle of the North Star in long voyages
the goods that were transported to Europe
helped explorers carry out their long voyages.
through the trade routes mentioned above.
Further, the knowledge gained during the
However, this city was conquered by Muslim
Renaissance era enabled explorers to build
Turks in 1453 and it became difficult for
huge ships that had the capacity to sail in the
European traders, who were Christians, to
high seas.
use the traditional trade routes that they had
used earlier. Further, the trade activities of
the European traders were disturbed due to
several actions such as increasing of prices
of goods, raising of duty on goods and not
65
 l

Map 4.1 – Ancient sea routes through which trade relationships between Asia and Europe were
carried out

Fig : 4:2 – Ruins of the ancient overland trade route (Silk Route)

66
 4.2 Receiving state patronage for
explorations

When going in search of countries in

various parts of the world, a large amount
of money had to be spent on long voyages
that took several months to complete and
such voyages also involved certain risks.
Further, it was uncertain that profits could
be gained through such voyages. Because of
such reasons, individuals did not have the
capacity to spend money that was required
for explorations. However, several emerging
national governments in Europe gave their
patronage for explorations and it resulted in
a progress of such activities. Portugal, Spain
and England are examples for countries
which gave patronage for explorations.

Fig: 4.3 Vasco da Gama

Religious intentions of the Europeans

The leading countries that were involved

The Europeans expected through explorations in explorations
to gain for themselves the trade dominance
that the Muslims had already established
in Asia and also to spread Christianity in Portugal
countries that they newly discovered. Vasco
da Gama, after arriving in India, is said to Portugal, the motherland of the Portuguese,
have stated, “We have come here in search of is situated in the Iberian Peninsula.
Christians and spices”. Therefore, the Portuguese had to handle their
relationships with foreign countries through
The economic and religious intentions the sea routes. Further, the Portuguese naturally
Europeans had in carrying out explorations were good navigators. Therefore they had
are evident from this statement, too. Some been keen on explorations even before the
Europeans believed a myth about a Christian conquest of Constantinople by Turks.
state in the East under the leadership of a
ruler named Prester John. Therefore they
had the hope of finding that ruler in order to
get his support to spread Christianity.
67
 Henry the Navigator Storms’ as ‘Cape of Good Hope’. Later, a group
of navigators led by Vasco da Gama followed
this route and reached the City of Calicut in
India in 1498 fulfilling the expectations of
the Europeans in finding a new sea route to
Asia.

Fig: 4.4 Henry the Navigator

Henry the Navigator who was a Portuguese

started a school of oceanic navigation in the Fig 4.5 Christopher Columbus
15th century to train people in navigation. At
this school, people were trained in subjects Spain
such as navigation, ship building, studying
maps and astronomy. Spain which is situated to the east of
Portugal is the largest country in the Iberian
Because of the efforts of Henry the Navigator, Peninsula. The Spanish, too, had been
the Portuguese succeeded in achieving great interested in navigation since ancient times.
victories in the field of navigation. By the latter half of the 15th century, Spain
In 1488, a team of Portuguese navigators led had been emerging as a strong state under
by Bartolomeu Dias sailed to the western the leadership of the royal couple named
coast of Africa and then they reached Ferdinand and Isabella. As Spain had a strong
the Southern end of Africa. There, these economy, the Spanish government came
navigators were caught up in a storm and forward to give patronage for explorations.
therefore they named that place as ‘Cape of While the Portuguese were finding a sea
Storms’ and returned to Portugal. The King route to Asia by way of sailing around Africa,
of Portugal who considered this to be a good Spanish navigators were engaged in finding a
indication as well as a great victory achieved route to Asia by travelling to the west of the
by the Portuguese renamed the ‘Cape of Atlantic Ocean.

68
Christopher Columbus who carried out an Apart from Portugal and Spain, countries
exploration in 1492 under the auspices of the such as England, France and Holland,
royal couple Ferdinand and Isabella landed too, contributed towards carrying out
on the Hispaniola Island in the Bahamas explorations. The following table contains a
situated in the west of the Atlantic Ocean. brief account of the countries and persons
He thought that island to be India and that were involved in explorations and of the
therefore those islands are called West Indies parts of the world they explored.
even today. Later Spain gave patronage for
the voyages of Amerigo Vespucci and for
Ferdinand Magellan’s voyage around the
world.

Sponsor
Explorer Parts of the world explored and countries discovered
countries
Sailing up to the cape in the southern end of Africa and naming
Bartolomeu Dias it as Cape of Storms. (Renaming of the Cape of Storms as “Cape
Portugal of Good Hope” by King of Portugal.)

Sailing further along the route taken by Bartolomeu and landing

Vasco da Gama
on India.

Sailing to the west of the Atlantic Ocean and landing on the

Christopher
Caribbean Island (Hispaniola). His explorations helped
Columbus
discover the route to America.
Amerigo He followed the route that Columbus had taken and discovered
Vespucci America. (The continent he discovered was named after him.)

Spain Ferdinand Sailing around the world for the first time. Landing on the Phil-
Magellan ippines. This voyage proved the fact that the earth is spherical.

Ferdinando
Mexico
Cortes

Francisco Pizarro Peru

England Cabot Brothers Coastal areas of Canada

France Jacques Cartier St. Lawrence area in North America

Area around the Hudson river and Hudson’s Bay in North

Holland Henry Hudson
America.

69
 Map 4.2 Explorations in 14th and 15th centuries

Ferdinand Magellan was born in

Portugal in about 1480. He became a
navigator by the age of about 25 years.
Because of his curiosity to find a new
route to Asia by travelling towards
the west from Europe, he made
arrangements for a long voyage. He
received the patronage of the King of
Spain for his voyage. In 1519, Magellan
launched his voyage from Spain
Fig: 4.6 – Ferdinand Magellan
together with several other ships.

After arriving in the Atlantic Ocean, this fleet of ships discovered at the southern end
of the North American Continent the strait through which the Pacific Ocean can be
reached. This strait was named after Magellan as ‘Strait of Magellan’.

Then these navigators who travelled across the Pacific Ocean experienced severe hardships.
However, after a very long voyage across the Pacific Ocean, Magellan was able to reach the
Philippines. Although Magellan died in a fight that broke out with the native people of the
Philippines, the rest of the crew in the fleet of ships sailed around the west of Africa and returned
to Spain. Magellan’s voyage helped prove the idea that the earth is spherical.

70
 Map 4.3 – The route of Magellan’s voyage

Fig: 4.7 – Ancient explorers carried out their explorations using sailing vessels like these

71
 parts of Asia. As a result of that, Muslim
4.3 Arrival of the Europeans in Asia traders who came from countries such as
Arab, Persia and Misra acted as middlemen
of the trade activities that took place between
Asia and Europe. These traders travelled
from country to country on sailing vessels
There had been trade relationships between
collecting necessary commodities and took
Asia and Europe even during times as ancient
those commodities to Constantinople along
as Greco-Roman civilization of Europe.
the sea routes mentioned above.
As Greek ruler Alexander the Great, together
The most prominent among the commodities
with a very strong army, invaded countries up
that were taken from Asia to Europe were
to India, and then went towards the lands in
silk, perfumes and ceramic ware from
Arab, the trade relationships that had existed
China, silver from Japan, and pearl, gems,
between Asia and Europe further flourished.
spices, elephants and ivory from Sri Lanka.
After the collapse of the Greek Civilization,
Further, commodities such as pepper,
the Roman Civilization developed centred
cinnamon, opium, and cotton clothes from
around the City of Rome in Italy. Rome later
India and spices such as clove, cardamom
became a very powerful empire in Europe.
and nutmeg from East Indian islands such
Even during the Roman Civilization, there
as Java, Sumatra and Borneo were taken to
were trade relationships between Europe and
Europe. There was a big demand in Europe
Asia.
for the spices that were brought from Asia as
the Europeans needed those spices to make
The collapse of the Roman Civilization
their food tasty.
paved the way for a number of changes in
the political arena of Europe. In place of
In this way, Muslims made hefty profits
the empire that had existed up to that time,
by acting as middlemen in trade that
separate regional states were established
took place between Asia and Europe and
centred around various cities. The rulers of
became powerful. While the Muslims
these states carried out administrative affairs
were spreading their political power after
with the support of the nobility or the elites
becoming financially stable, the City of
who were holding powerful positions in
Constantinople was conquered by Turkey
regional areas. Under this system, these elites
where Muslims were powerful. The conquest
possessed the ownership of lands while the
of Constantinople was a huge blow to the
farmers who were common masses had to
trade activities of the Europeans. As a result
cultivate their lands which is called a feudal
the Europeans started looking for a new sea
system. Under the feudal system the power
route to come to Asia as described at the
of the Europeans did not spread beyond
beginning of this chapter.
Europe.

While the political arena in Europe was of

this nature, the power of Muslim traders
spread in the Middle East and in several

72
Objectives of the Europeans’ coming to Asia Meanwhile, they captured several islands
in South-Eastern Asia where spices grew
■ Buying from Asia the spices and other and eventually built up a tremendous trade
commodities produced in Asia, taking them power centred around the Indian Ocean.
to Europe and generating profits by selling
them in Europe.

■ Gaining for Europeans the trade monopoly Arrival of the Dutch

in Asia that was in the hands of the Muslims.

■ Spreading their religion in Asian countries. The Dutch was not able to come to Asia until
a period of about one century had lapsed since
Such were the primary objectives of the the arrival of the Portuguese in Asia. It was after
Europeans in coming to Asia at the beginning 1595 that the Dutch began to come to Asia.
of the 16th century, but those objectives seem From that time, several trading companies that
to have changed from time to time with the were established in Holland came to Asia from
political and economic changes that took time to time until about 1602. As several trading
place in Europe with the passage of time. companies from the same country had come to
Asia, they began to compete with one another.
Further, since they came as small companies,
they could neither capture areas in Asia nor
overcome the threats posed by the Portuguese.
Arrival of the Portuguese in Asia Having realized this situation, the ruler of
Holland merged several companies in 1602 and
established the Dutch East India Company or the
The Portuguese were the first European ‘VOC’ company as a very strong organization.
nation to arrive in Asia. The way for the Since then, the VOC company handled all
matters relating to Asia on behalf the Dutch.
Portuguese to come to Asia was opened
up with the arrival of Vasco da Gama in
At the beginning, the Dutch were more concerned
Calicut in India in 1498. King of Portugal about a south-eastern island in Asia where spices
had been delighted when Vasco da Gama were produced in large-scale. Moreover, they
returned to Portugal with a huge amount established a number of warehouses along the
of wealth. The King realized that they could coastal line of India and went on to drive away
generate massive profits by developing trade the Portuguese from countries in South-East
relationships with Asia. Accordingly, the Asia. The eastern headquarters of the Dutch was
Portuguese first built up relationships with established in Batavia, an area in South-East Asia.
the kingdoms in the coastal areas of India. In this way, by the middle of the 17th century, the
Later they arrived in Lanka, too, and built Dutch had succeeded in gaining for themselves
up relationships with Kotte Kingdom. As the dominance in trade in the East, which was
previously in the hands of the Portuguese.
they found it difficult to handle the affairs
in Asia being in Portugal, the Portuguese
captured the city of Goa in India and made
it the Centre of the Portuguese in the East.

73
 Arrival of the British and the French Activity

The Dutch, as well as the Portuguese, could not 1. Mark on a map of the world the following
hold the trade dominance in Asia for too long. countries and places:
The reason for that was the arrival of the British
and the French. The English started coming Portugal, Holland, Spain, France, England,
to Asia from the beginning of the 17th century Cape of Good Hope, Calicut Harbour,
and established the British East India Company Constantinople, Rome, Genoa.
setting up the monopoly of the Queen of England
in trade in Asia. They first established several 2. Explain the reasons that led Europeans to
warehouses in the coastal areas of India and take to explorations.
began to gradually spread their power to other
areas. As a result, India, Burma and Sri Lanka,
too, became colonies of the British Empire.

By the middle of 17th century, the French had

established the French East India Company
and had started coming to Asia. Initially they
established their warehouses in Pondicherry,
Karaikal and Chander Nagar in India and went
on to spread their power. In this way, several
European nations had arrived in Asia by the
end of the 17th century and there arose disputes
among themselves in their efforts to spread their
political power and to gain dominance in trade
in Asia. This opened up the opportunity for
rulers of countries in Asia to get the support of
one European nation against another.

74
Capture of Coastal Areas of Sri Lanka by the
Portuguese

05

Introduction

D uring the long history of Sri Lanka, threats of foreign powers were posed
to it only from the neighbouring Asian countries until the 16th century,
but after the 16th century, Europeans, namely the Portuguese, the Dutch, and
the English arrived in Sri Lanka respectively and exerted a huge impact on
the political history of the country. As a number of Asian countries including
India and Burma were under the rule of the Europeans from the 16th century
until the middle of the 20th century, it is no wonder that the impact of the
Europeans was exerted on Sri Lanka, too. This chapter focuses on how the
attention of the Portuguese was drawn to Sri Lanka, the political situation that
had existed in Sri Lanka by the time the Portuguese arrived in the country, the
key features of their activities in Sri Lanka, and the socio-economic impact
they exerted on this country.

75
 King of Portugal sent the General named
Francisco Almeida as the Portuguese viceroy
5.1 Directing the attention of the
in the East in 1505, the King had instructed
Portuguese towards Sri Lanka
Almeida to find the island named “Seylon”.
While the Portuguese were trying in this
Before long since the arrival of the Portuguese manner to build up relationships with Sri
explorer Vasco da Gama in India, the Lanka, Lorenzo de Almeida, son of Francisco
Portuguese received information about Sri Almeida, and his team arrived in this country
Lanka. By that time, they had come to know by chance.
that cinnamon of very high quality grows
in Sri Lanka. During the contemporary Arrival of Lorenzo de Almeida in Sri Lanka
period, there was a very high demand in
the European market for spices such as Lorenzo de Almeida and his team, who
cinnamon. Therefore the Portuguese had the were engaged in an operation to catch
intention of discovering Sri Lanka. the Muslim merchant ships plying in the
Indian Ocean were caught up in a storm
By this time the Portuguese had known and landed in this country by chance in
Sri Lanka by the name “Seylon”. When the 1505.

Fig: 5.1 – King Wimaladharmasooriya getting a fortress constructed by the Portuguese prisoners

76
Map 5.1 Sri Lanka of the early 16th century

77
 Sources report that the Portuguese, after
The political situation that prevailed in landing at the Colombo harbour, had
this country by the time of the arrival sent their representatives to the King of
of the Portuguese Kotte. There is a legend which says that
the king’s men had ushered the Portuguese
representatives along a long, tortuous route
in order to give them the impression that the
Kotte kingdom was a long way away from
By the time when the Portuguese arrived in
Colombo harbour. Based on this incident,
Sri Lanka, there were three kingdoms in the
the local proverb ‘Parangiya Kotte giya vagei’
country, namely Kotte kingdom, Kandyan
which means ‘like how the Portuguese went
kingdom and Jaffna kingdom. King Weera
to Kotte’ was created.
Parakramabahu VIII was the ruler of the Kotte
Kingdom at that time; King Sena Sammatha The Portuguese who had discussions with
Wickramabahu was the ruler of the Kandyan the ruler of Kotte made efforts to build up
kingdom while King Pararajasekaram ruled trade relationships with Kotte kingdom.
the Jaffna kingdom. Then the Portuguese, after obtaining
permission from the King, went on to build
In addition to them, the Vanni region a warehouse needed for their trade activities.
was ruled by the Vanni chieftains. These Meanwhile, the Muslim traders who lived
chieftains often acted under the rule of a in this country were worried that the
main kingdom. By the beginning of the Portuguese had built up relationships with
16th century Kotte kingdom had become Kotte kingdom and had been making efforts
the most prominent of all kingdoms of the to engage in trade activities in this country.
country. The Portuguese who arrived in this By the time the Portuguese arrived in this
country built up relationships with the Kotte country, the monopoly of trade between
kingdom first. Sri Lanka and foreign countries had been
in the hands of Muslim traders. Therefore
these Muslim traders, with the support of
the people of Kotte kingdom, put pressure
Relationships between the Portuguese on the Portuguese against their activities. As
and the Kotte kingdom a result, the Portuguese had to remove their
warehouse as a temporary measure. However,
the Portuguese, under the instructions of
It seems that King Weeraparakramabahu the Portuguese viceroy of the East, started
VIII had been in his old age by the time the constructing a fortress in Colombo in 1518.
Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka. The king
had several sons including Prince Dharma Consequent to the political turmoil called
Parakramabahu and Prince Vijayabahu. ‘Vijayaba Kollaya’ (sack of Vijayabahu) that
Prince Dharma Parakramabahu was handling took place in 1521, Kotte kingdom was
the affairs of Kotte area under the directions divided and it was advantageous for the
of his father. The other princes were handling Portuguese. Prince Vijayabahu VI, who
the affairs of the other parts of the kingdom. became the ruler of Kotte after his father King

78
Weera Parakramabahu VIII, had three sons Although King Buvanekabahu VII got the
from a queen of Keerawelle lineage. These support of the Portuguese, he was not loyal
princes were named Buvanekabahu, Raigam to the Portuguese. He was not happy with
Bandara and Mayadunne. After the death of the Portuguese because they purchased
this queen, the king married a second queen goods from Kotte Kingdom at very low
who gave birth to a son named Devaraja. prices and they also oppressed the people
There arose a dispute as King Vijayabahu of Kotte. The ultimate result of this dispute
VI tried to inherit the kingship to Prince was that King Buvanekabahu was shot dead
Devaraja without inheriting it to the three by a Portuguese soldier. Later, in about 1551,
sons born to his first queen. Consequently, Prince Dharmapala became king of Kotte.
Prince Buvanekabahu and his two brothers
got the support of the king of the Kandyan
kingdom, too, and surrounded the palace of
the king. On this occasion, King Vijayabahu
VI had been killed by somebody; this is King Buvanekabau had a daughter named
called “Vijayaba Kollaya”. After this the Kotte Samudradevi who married Veediya
kingdom was divided into three kingdoms. Bandara. Prince Dharmapala was the
The names of the rulers of each kingdom are son of this couple and grandson of King
as follows: Buvanekabahu.
■ Kotte - Buvanekabahu VII
■ Raigama - Raigam Bandara
■ Seethawaka - Mayadunne

With the lapse of a short period of time after While King Buwanekabahu was still living, he
the Kotte Kingdom had been divided into had Prince Dharmapala’s image made of gold,
three, there arose controversies between then sent it to Portugal and got it crowned
the Kotte kingdom and the Seethawaka by the king of Portugal. He did this in order
kingdom. The main incident that gave rise to gain recognition of the Portuguese for the
to a dispute between the two parties was future king of Kotte. As Prince Dharmapala
King Buvanekabahu’s inheriting the throne became the king of Kotte, the powers of the
to his grandson Prince Dharmapala and Portuguese, who were his guards, increased
Mayadunne’s objection to it. After the death from every aspect. King Dharmapala, who
of Raigam Bandara, Mayadunne, who ruled followed the instructions of the Portuguese,
Seethawaka, added Raigama kingdom to embraced Catholicism and was baptized
Seethawaka and then made efforts to spread as Don Juan Dharmapala. People of Kotte
his power in the Kotte Kingdom, too. Then seemed to have been disappointed that their
King Buvanekabahu sought the support of king had embraced some other religion.
the Portuguese for his protection. This is how Even the Sacred Tooth Relic, which had been
the Portuguese, who landed on this island by deposited in the Dalada Maligawa (Temple of
chance, began to intervene in the affairs of the Sacred Tooth Relic) of Kotte by that time
Kotte Kingdom by acting as the guards of was taken to Seethawaka by the Diyawadana
that Kingdom. Nilame (Custodian of the Tooth Relic) named

79
 Hiripitiye Raala as it was not safe to keep it Because of these attacks from the Seethawaka
in Kotte. With this incident, Bhikkus such as kingdom, King Dharmapala had to flee the
Buddhawansa Thero began to support King Kotte kingdom. After that, he lived in the
Mayadunne and consequently most of the Colombo Fort under the protection of the
people in Kotte began to support Seethawaka Portuguese.
kingdom.
In 1580, King Dharmapala vested the
kingdom of Kotte in the Portuguese by a deed
of gift. After the death of King Dharmapala
in 1597, the Portuguese became the owners
of Kotte kingdom.

Seethawaka Kingdom

Establishment of Seethawaka kingdom was a

result of Vijayaba Kollaya. Seethawaka is an
area situated by the Kelani River close to the
city presently called Avissawella. This area
previously belonged to Kotte kingdom. Then
King Mayadunne built the Seethawaka city
and established the Seethawaka kingdom
adjoining the surrounding areas.

Fig: 5.2 Anointing of Prince Dharmapala, Azevedo

grandson of King Buvanekabahu VII, by the
Portuguese
Don Jeronimo de Azevedo is the Portuguese
When King Dharmapala was ruling the Kotte national who became Captain General after
kingdom, the Portuguese could act as they the Portuguese ruler of this country was
wished and they bought the produce of the killed in the Battle of Danture. By the time he
people of Kotte at very low prices and sold became the ruler, people in the low country
their goods to people of Kotte at very high areas of this country had been rising up
prices earning huge profits. Veediya Bandara, against the Portuguese. Therefore Azevedo
the King’s father, rose against such acts of the adopted a very stern policy to suppress the
Portuguese, but the king acted as a puppet of uprising of the people of Kotte.
the Portuguese.
After the death of King Dharmapala,
After King Dharmapala had become the Azevedo called the local administrative
ruler of Kotte, King Mayadunne carried officers to Malwana, had negotiations with
out continuous attacks on Kotte kingdom. them, and reached an agreement regarding

80
the manner in which administrative affairs of King Mayadunne to act against the
Kotte kingdom should be carried out. It was Portuguese. This also resulted in Mayadunne’s
called the ‘Convention of Malwana of 1957’. receiving the support of Zamorin who was
a Muslim ruler in Calicut kingdom that is
situated in the coastal part of India.

During his rule King Mayadunne extended

the power of Seethawaka kingdom. After the
death of Raigam Bandara who was the ruler
of Raigam Kingdom, king Mayadunne added
the areas of Raigam Kingdom to Seethawaka
kingdom. Later, he started fighting against
Kotte kingdom and brought many areas
under the rule of Seethawaka kingdom. As
mentioned above, King Mayadunne fought
against the Portuguese on several occasions
with the support of Zamorin in the State of
Calicut, but he could not win because of the
naval power the Portuguese had.

King Mayadunne had a son named Tikiri

Bandara who became the king of Seethawaka
as King Rajasinghe I after the death of King
Mayadunne. Prince Tikiri Bandara, like his
father, was a valiant warrior and from his
Fig: 5.3 Don Jeronimo de Azevedo adolescence he seemed to have assisted King
Mayadunne in his battles. It is also believed
that Prince Tikiri Bandara had handled the
affairs of the kingdom on behalf of his father
King Mayadunne while King Mayadunne was in his old age.

King Mayadunne was the first ruler of the

Seethawaka kingdom. He was a son of King Battle of Mulleriya
Vijayabahu VI. King Mayadunne ruled the
Seethawaka kingdom from around 1521 to
The history of the Seethawaka kingdom was
1581 AD. From the very beginning, King
one full of battles. Rulers of Seethawaka
Mayadunne followed an anti-Portuguese
constantly fought battles against the
policy. Arrival of the Portuguese in Lanka
Portuguese and also against the Kotte and
and their building up of relationships with
Kandyan kingdoms. Of all these battles,
the Kotte kingdom caused disappointment
the Battle of Mulleriya which the armies of
among Muslim traders who lived in this
Seethawaka fought against the Portuguese
country. Therefore those Muslims supported
was prominent.
81
 By the time the Battle of Mulleriya was fought, the side of the Portuguese were killed in this
the armies of Seethawaka had been led by battle. This was one of the most catastrophic
Prince Tikiri Bandara (King Rajasinghe I). defeats that the Portuguese had suffered in
As he had won the battles he fought such an Eastern country.
as the battle against Veediya Bandara, he
had been leading the armies of Seethawaka King Rajasinghe I and Expansion of
as a formidable warrior. Rajavaliya records
the Power of Seethawaka Kingdom
that King Dharmapala, during this period,
was making plans to invade the Seethawaka
kingdom using a Portuguese army and After the death of King Mayadunne, King
battalions from Kotte Kingdom. In response Rajasinghe I became King of Seethawaka in
the armies of Seethawaka, too, got ready to around 1581. King Rajasinghe I, like his father,
fight against them. When these two parties followed an anti-Portuguese Policy, and
met at Mulleriyawa, there erupted a fierce went on to expand the power of Seethawaka
battle. The armies of Seethawaka that were kingdom. Before long after he had become
highly organized surrounded the Portuguese king, he was able to drive away Karalliyedde
army strategically and launched a violent Bandara, the ruler of the Kandyan kingdom,
attack on them which ended with a crushing and join the Kandyan kingdom, too, to
defeat for the Portuguese army. According Seethawaka. Accordingly, by about 1582,
to Rajavaliya, 1600 persons who were on King Rajasinghe I succeeded in restricting
the Portuguese power to Colombo fort and

Fig: 5.4 Berendi Kovil constructed during the Seethawaka kingdom

82
a few other areas. On two occasions he made Raala who was a head layman and custodian
efforts to invade the Colombo fort and drive of the Sacred Tooth Relic brought the Relic
away the Portuguese from this country, to Seethawaka. As the ruler who owned the
but those efforts did not yield the expected Sacred Tooth Relic was considered to be the
results because of the weaponry power and lawful ruler of the country, the Bhikkus and
the naval power of the Portuguese. the Buddhist people supported the King of
Seethawaka.
In his second attempt to invade the Colombo
fort King Rajasinghe I made a tremendous Anti-Portuguese policy adopted by the
effort to make the water of the Beira Seethawaka kings
Lake flow into the sea by digging a canal
connecting the Lake and the sea in order Both kings who ruled Seethawaka kingdom
to make way to enter the fort. Seethawaka followed an anti-Portuguese policy. People of
armies kept the fort surrounded for several the low country areas had to suffer various
months and tried to enter the fort, but they hardships because of the activities of the
did not succeed because of the naval power Portuguese. Therefore most of those people
of the Portuguese. However, during the and the Muslims seemed to have supported
reign of King Rajasinghe I, the power of the Seethawaka kingdom.
Seethawaka kingdom had expanded to the
maximum level. There were several factors  Capturing Raigama and Kandyan
that contributed to the advancement of the kingdoms and adding them to Seethawaka
Seethawaka kingdom in this manner. kingdom

After the death of Raigam Bandara, King

Factors that contributed to the Mayadunne merged the areas belonging to
Raigam kingdom with Seethawaka kingdom.
advancement of Seethawaka kingdom
Further, King Rajasinghe I drove away
Karalliyedde Bandara, the ruler of Kandyan
 King Mayadunne and King Rajasinghe I kingdom and merged the Kandyan kingdom,
being great warriors too, with Seethawaka kingdom. This resulted
in expansion of the area of Seethawaka
Both King Mayadunne and his son, King kingdom.
Rajasinghe I, were mighty warriors. They
fought against the Kotte kingdom and the  Decline of the Kotte kingdom
Portuguese and expanded the area of their Kotte kingdom suffered a rapid decline after
kingdom. the death of King Buvanekabahu VII. King
Dharmapala who succeeded him was a puppet
 Bringing the Sacred Tooth Relic to ruler of the Portuguese. Therefore he was not
Seethawaka powerful enough to overcome the challenges
that Kotte kingdom had to face. Some of the
After King Dharmapala, the ruler of Kotte people of Kotte kingdom seemed to have
kingdom, embraced Catholicism, Hiripitiye supported Seethawaka Kingdom. Most of the

83
 areas belonging to Kotte kingdom gradually
came under the rule of Seethawaka kingdom.

Downfall of Seethawaka Kingdom

Although Seethawaka kingdom became

very powerful under King Rajasinghe I,
some of the policies he adopted towards
the latter period of his reign seem to have
contributed to the downfall of the Kingdom.
Seethawaka rulers constantly engaging
in war, anti-Buddhist activities of King
Rajasinghe I, murdering of Weerasundara
Bandara who supported King Rajasinghe I
to capture the Kandyan kingdom, and not
having an heir to the throne of Seethawaka
after King Rajasinghe I were some of the
factors that contributed to the downfall of Fig: 5.5 The bush of thorny bamboo that is
the Seethawaka kingdom. Further, gaining of presently seen at Pethangoda Park
independence for Kandyan Kingdom from
the rule of Seethawaka kingdom under the
leadership of King Wimaladharmasooriya
I also contributed to the downfall of Invasions of the Kandyan Kingdom by
Seethawaka kingdom. the Portuguese

While King Rajasinghe I was returning to After the collapse of the Seethawaka
Seethawaka after losing the battle he fought Kingdom, the greatest threat that was posed
against King Wimaladharmasooriya, King to the power of the Portuguese in this country
Rajasinghe I died of a wound he suffered was from the Kandyan Kingdom. Therefore
when a bamboo thorn pricked his foot while capturing the Kandyan kingdom was one
passing the Pethangoda Park. As there was no of the key objectives of the Portuguese. In
rightful heir to the throne of Seethawaka after order to achieve this object, they invaded
King Rajasinghe I, the kingdom could not the Kandyan kingdom on several occasions.
resist the attacks launched by the Portuguese. Some useful information about the invasions
In this context, many of the areas belonging of the Kandyan kingdom by the Portuguese
to Seethawaka Kingdom were captured by is given in the following Table 5.1.
the Portuguese soon after the death of King
Rajasinghe I. This table shows that the Portuguese had
launched four invasions in order to capture

84
 Venue of the battle
Year Name of Kandyan king Leader of the Portuguese army where the Portuguese
were defeated

1594 King Wimaladharmasooriya I Pero Lopes de Souza Danture

1602 King Wimaladharmasooriya I Don Jeronimo de Azevedo Balana

King Senarath (The army was

Constantino da Saa
1630 led by Prince Maha Asthana Randenivela
and later by King Rajasinghe II)

1638 King Rajasinghe II Diogo da Melo Gannoruwa

the Kandyan kingdom, but they lost all the  Fighting tactics of the Kandyans and
four battles. Except for Don Jeronimo de effective strategies worked out by the kings
Azevedo, all the other three captains who
led the Portuguese armies were killed in the Example: When the Portuguese invasions
battles they fought. All these battles ended in were launched, the king fled the city to a
crushing defeats for the Portuguese due to safe location and then organized the armies,
several reasons. surrounded the Portuguese at a strategic
location and launched attack with all their
might.
Reasons for the Failure of invasions of
 Native people who went with the
the Kandyan Kingdom by the Portuguese
Portuguese to support them joining the king
of the Kandyan kingdom

 King of the Kandyan Kingdom receiving Example: This happened in almost all the
the full support of the people invasions of the Kandyan kingdom by the
Portuguese. In the invasion led by Azevedo,
Examples: although Dona Catharina was most of the native people who went with
declared by the Portuguese as the queen of him joined the king of Kandy and therefore,
the Kandyan kingdom in the Portuguese Azevedo had to retreat with the army that
invasion that was led by Pero Lopes de remained with him.
Souza, people did not accept her as their
ruler and gave their fullest support to King
Wimaladharmasooriya I.

85
  The geographical position and the physical North of the country and it was ruled by
environment of the Kandyan kingdom being kings of the Aria Chakrawarthi royal lineage.
advantages for the Kandyans. During the reign of King Parakramabahu
VI, Jaffna kingdom was captured and
The Portuguese were good at fighting in brought under the rule of Kotte kingdom,
coastal areas. The land in the hill country but later it became independent from the
with its mountains, hills, rivers and valleys rule of Kotte kingdom. By the time of the
was not familiar to the Portuguese. Surprise arrival of the Portuguese in Sri Lanka, King
attacks of the Kandyans, obstructing of roads, Pararajasekaram had been ruling the Jaffna
and attacks been surrounded on the ground kingdom. In 1519 King Cankili I became
were disadvantageous for the Portuguese. the ruler of the Jaffna kingdom and during
his reign there arose disputes between Jaffna
kingdom and the Portuguese. Portuguese
priests started spreading Catholicism in
The Jaffna Kingdom and the Portuguese certain parts of Jaffna kingdom and King
Cankili I rose against it. Then the Portuguese
sent armies to Jaffna in 1543 and in 1560,
After the collapse of the Rajarata civilization, but King Cankili I had negotiations with
the Jaffna kingdom was established in the the Portuguese and secured peace in Jaffna

Fig: 5.6 Yamuna Pond that is situated close to Nallur Kovil in Jaffna is believed to have been
constructed in the 14th century.

86
Kingdom. After the end of the long reign of After the death of King Dharmapala in 1597,
King Cankili I in 1561, there arose a dispute the areas belonging to Kotte kingdom came
on succeeding to the throne of the Jaffna under Portuguese rule. In the same year,
kingdom. Some of those involved in the Azevedo who was the Portuguese Captain
dispute sought the support of the Portuguese General of this country, called the heads
to resolve this dispute and as a result those of the people for a meeting at Malwana,
who were loyal to the Portuguese came to and held discussions as to how the future
power in the Jaffna kingdom. Portuguese administration of the Kingdom should
did not want the kings of Jaffna to maintain be carried out. There an agreement was
relationships with the Kandyan kingdom reached that the administration system that
and with India. Therefore, a Portuguese had already existed should be continued. It
army that was sent to Jaffna in 1619 under is called the Convention of Malwana. The
the leadership of Philip de Olivera captured administration system that had existed in the
Jaffna kingdom. Kotte kingdom for a long time was familiar
to people and the Portuguese knew that this
5.2 Political, Economic and Cultural system was sufficient for them to achieve
their objectives. Therefore, the Portuguese,
Activities of the Portuguese
too, continued with the same traditional
administration system with slight changes.
 Administrative affairs of the coastal
regions under the Portuguese According to the traditional administration
system, for easy administration, a region had
By the time the Portuguese arrived in Sri been divided into three smaller divisions,
Lanka, each of the kingdoms of Kotte, Kandy namely Korala, Paththu and Villages.
and Jaffna had administrative systems unique Accordingly the officers that had been
to them. The areas belonging to the Kotte appointed in charge of those divisions are as
kingdom with which the Portuguese built up follows:
relationships first had been divided into four
divisions at that time. They were: Disavaniya (region) - Disave
Korala` - Korale Vidane
Paththu - Athukorala
Sath Koralaya
Village - Village headman

Sabaragamuwa Kotte Kingdom Sathara Koralaya

Mathara

87
 Managing the revenue was done in a well-
Special Features of the Portuguese organized manner. Preparing documents
Administration including details of sources of revenue (lands)
was a special feature. Those documents were
called ‘registers’.
According to the administration system of
the Portuguese, the highest political power
Collection of revenue was done in the same
of the areas of this country that were under
traditional way that had existed. The main
the rule of the Portuguese was vested in the
source of revenue was trading cinnamon.
king of Portugal. By order of the king of
There was a good demand in the European
Portugal, the centre for ruling the areas in
countries for the spices (such as cinnamon)
Asia that were under the Portuguese had
produced in Asia. Therefore the Portuguese
been established in Goa in India. A viceroy
were particularly interested in trading
that had been appointed by the king of
cinnamon.
Portugal handled the functions of this centre.
Accordingly, next to the king of Portugal, the The Portuguese did not cultivate cinnamon.
viceroy of Goa was the highest Portuguese They traded cinnamon that was produced
authority in Asia. The official title of the head from the naturally grown cinnamon plants.
of the Portuguese officials in this country
was Captain General. There was an advisory Because of the great interest they had in
council to assist the Captain General. The cinnamon trade, they established a separate
power to handle the affairs of the areas of this department for cinnamon industry.
country which were under Portuguese rule This Cinnamon Department was called
was vested in the Captain General. Maha-badde. Mahabadde Captain was the
Head of this Department. This officer was
responsible for handling the affairs related to
Economic Affairs under the Portuguese the cinnamon peelers of rural areas.

Trading arecanut, pepper, elephants, and

Earning maximum profits from trade and pearl and gems was another source of income
from colonial affairs was one of the main of the Portuguese. Officials of lower ranks
objectives of the Portuguese. Therefore, were responsible for collecting as many of
during their rule they paid particular such animals and as much of these goods as
attention towards managing revenue. They possible for exporting.
organized their economic affairs under a
special official named Vidor da Fazenda. The following minor officials had been
Implementing the economic activities of appointed for collecting revenue:
the Portuguese in this country was arranged
under two areas: - Kanakapullai
- Clerks
■ collecting revenue - Mayoralas
■ sending merchandise to foreign countries
(handling exports) Only the Portuguese government had the
right to sell arecanut and pepper. Local
traders and Muslim traders were not allowed

88
to trade in elephants, pearl and gems, etc. The had been given a prominent place by the
Portuguese government had the monopoly Portuguese rulers.
of trade. In this way, the Portuguese earned
massive profits from trade activities in Sri From the very beginning after the Portuguese
Lanka. had arrived in Sri Lanka, they had carried
out their Catholic mission with great
perseverance.
Expansion of Catholicism under the
Portuguese Converting Prince Dharmapala to
Catholicism is a good example which proves
this fact.
Another primary objective of the Portuguese
was to promote Catholicism in the countries The Portuguese adopted various measures to
they had captured. Therefore the state gave convert people to Catholicism. They are:
full patronage for spreading their religion in
1. Granting privileges, allowances and
the areas that were under Portuguese rule.
positions in the government to those who
embraced Catholicism.
Introducing Religious Sects into This
2. Granting tax exemptions.
Country
3. Giving education.
Priests belonging to various sects played a big 4. Organizing interesting events and pageants
role in affairs relating to spreading of religion. to attract people.
For this, priests belonging to four sects
arrived in this country during Portuguese 5. Welfare activities.
rule. They were called missionaries. The missionaries established very friendly
■ Franciscans relationships with the villagers and won
■ Dominicans their hearts. Those who were suffering from
■ Augustinians diseases were given treatment with western
■ Jesuits medicine and were nursed. A hospital named
‘Spiriton’ was constructed to treat the sick.
Franciscans were the first missionaries to There is a popular belief that the Sinhala word
arrive in this country. “Ispirithalaya” is derived from that name.

Priests of these sects had been engaged in

Establishment of Madama (homes for
promoting their religion in-charge-of various
parts of this country as follows: the destitutes)

Matara – Franciscans The Portuguese established madamas in

Sathara Korale – Augustinians various parts of the country for purposes
Sath Korale – Jesuits such as looking after the destitutes and
Sabaragamuwa – Dominicans teaching orphans. They were called Misary
Cossea. These madamas were constructed in
Appointing a priest to the advisory council
areas such as Colombo, Galle, Mannar and
of the Captain General shows that religion
Jaffna.
89
 Schools were run adjoining churches. They were called Parish schools. The Portuguese used
educational activities to promote religion. It was compulsory for the children of these schools
to study religion. Parish schools were constructed in villages with financial assistance of the
government.

Additions to the culture of this country due to the influence of the Portuguese

The local culture underwent changes due to the influence of the activities of the Portuguese
that continued for about one and a half century. Some features of the Portuguese culture were
added to the local culture. They are deeply rooted in our culture and are in use even today. These
features can be identified under various fields such as names and surnames of people, food,
clothes, ornaments, arts and music.

Foo
Activity ds
Ite
m
s s
he Bread

ot
Vine
1. Mark on a map of Sri Lanka the following
Cl
Shirts Salad
Skirts
places: Coats
Pickle
Trousers
Colombo, Kotte, Kottiyarama, Mannar, Architecture under the
Galle, Kandy, Jaffna City, Seethawaka influence of Europeans

Arts and
Baila
Kapirinna - Arts
c

Influence of
Musi

- Sculptures
2.Write an article to a newspaper on Portuguese

C
Culture

raf
administrative affairs and economic - Catherine

s
- Joha
activities of the Portuguese and socio- - Silva
economic information relating to the - Perera
- Almeda
period of the Portuguese rule. Names of pe
ople

Fig: 5.7 How clothes and ornaments of the people of this country
changed with the influence of Portuguese
90