IIA Notes

Department of EEE EET
Christ College of
Engineering, Irinjalakuda 468
Lecture Notes:
Industrial
Instrumentation
and Automation
Prepared By:
Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan
Prepared By
Dr.Vishnu P Madhanmohan
D EPARTMENT OF E LECTRICAL AND E LECTRONICS
C HRIST C OLLEGE OF E NGINEERING , I RINJALAKUDA
1
2
Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

Contents
DEPARTMENT OF EEE, CCE IJK
I Module 1
1 Sensors and Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.1 Introduction to Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.2 Examples of Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.3 Process-Control Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.3.1 Example of process control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4 Block diagram of process control loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.4.1 Elements of a process-control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.4.2 Advantages of Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.4.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.5 Sensor time response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.5.1 First-Order Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.5.2 Second Order Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.6 Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.6.1 Basic Requirements of Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.7 Classification Of Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.7.1 On the basis of transduction form used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.7.2 Primary and Secondary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.7.3 Active and Passive Transducers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.7.4 Analog and Digital Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.7.5 Transducers and Inverse Transducers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.8 Characteristics of transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.8.1 Input Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.8.2 Transfer Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.8.3 Output Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

1.9 Factors influencing choice of transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.10 Applications of Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.11 Displacement measurement using Resistance Potentiometer . . . . . . . . . 39
1.12 Capacitive differential pressure measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.13 Flow measurement using Hotwire anemometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.13.1 Constant Current Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.13.2 Constant Temperature Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.13.3 Measurement of the rate of a fluid using a Hot Wire Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.14 Speed measurement using Variable reluctance tachometers . . . . . . . . 45
1.15 Phase measurement- Analog and digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.15.1 Phase Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.15.2 Digital Phase Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.16 Important Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
II Module 2
2 Signal conditioning circuits and Final control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

2.1 Electronic amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2 Differential Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2.1 Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2.2 Common Mode Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2.3 Advantages of Differential Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.2.4 Disadvantages of Differential Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3 Instrumentation amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3.1 Main features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.3.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4 Precision rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4.1 Precision Half Wave Rectifier(PHWR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4.2 Precision Full wave Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.5 Log amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.6 Charge amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6.1 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6.2 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.7 Isolation Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.7.1 Transformer coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.7.2 Optical coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.8 Phase sensitive detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.9 Carrier Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.10 Lock-in amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.10.1 Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.11 Final Control Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.11.1 Signal Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.11.2 Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.11.3 Control element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan 6 DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

2.12 Electromechanical / Electrical Actuating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.12.1 Solenoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.12.2 Electrical Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.13 Pneumatic Actuating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.14 Components of Pneumatic Actuating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.14.1 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.14.2 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.14.3 Drawbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.15 Hydraulic Actuating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.15.1 Principle Used in Hydraulic Actuator System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.16 Advantages of Hydraulic Actuator Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.16.1 Drawbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.17 Control Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.17.1 Mechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.17.2 Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.18 Fluid Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.18.1 Gate Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.18.2 Globe Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.18.3 Ball Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.18.4 Butterfly Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.18.5 Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.19 Important Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
III Module 3
3 Data transmission and Virtual instrumentation system . . . . . . . . . . 87

3.1 Cable transmission of analog and digital data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.1.1 Advantages of Cable Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.1.2 Disadvantages of Cable Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2 Fiber optic data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2.1 Element of an Optical Fiber Transmission link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3 Pneumatic Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3.1 Characteristics of pneumatic transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3.2 Composition of pneumatic transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.3.3 Advantages of pneumatic transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.3.4 Disadvantages of pneumatic transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4 Process control network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.5 Functions and General characteristics of a process control network . . . 92
3.6 Fieldbus and Profibus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.7 Radio Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.8 Wireless communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.8.1 Wireless communication Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.9 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.9.1 WLAN Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

3.10 Virtual instrumentation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.10.1 Virtual Instrument Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.10.2 Compare traditional instruments and virtual instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.11 Concept of Graphical programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.12 Important Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
IV Module 4
4 Programmable logic controllers (PLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.1 Introduction to Programmable logic controller (PLC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.2 Types of PLCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.3 PLC architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.3.1 Input/ Output Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.3.2 Processor section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.3.3 Program loader or monitor section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.4 Advantages of PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.5 Comparison of PLC & PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.6 Processing cycle of a PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.7 Sequential control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.8 Main elements of ladder logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.9 Instruction codes of PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.10 ladder language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.11 Basic rules Ladder logic programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.12 Latching in PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.13 Timers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.14 Functions in TIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.15 Classification of timers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.15.1 TIMER ON DELAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.15.2 TIMER OFF DELAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.15.3 RETENTIVE AND NON-RETENTIVE TIMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.16 Counters in PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.17 Counter Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.18 Important questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
V Module 5
5 SCADA and DCS systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.1 SCADA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.2 History of SCADA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.3 SCADA System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4 Supervision and Control in SCADA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.5 Human-machine interfaces-HMI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

5.6 Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.7 Supervisory station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.8 Protocol-IEC 60870-5-101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.9 Protocol- DNP3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.10 Benefits of SCADA for Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.11 Demerits of SCADA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.12 Applications of SCADA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.13 Leading SCADA software providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.14 Distributed control system (DCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.15 Architecture of Distributed Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.16 Control modes in DCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.17 Advantages of DCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.18 Disadvantages of DCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.19 Applications of Distributed Control Systems (DCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.20 Major DCS providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.21 Important Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

List of Figures
1.1 Process inputs and outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1.2 Self regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.3 Human-Aided Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.4 Automatic Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.5 Temperature control(a)Human aided control (b) Automatic Control . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6 Block diagram of process control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.7 Example of process control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.8 Sensor that produces an output, b(t), as a function of the input, c(t) . . . . . . . . . 30
1.9 Characteristic first-order exponential time response of a sensor to a step change of
input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.10 Characteristic second-order oscillatory time response of a sensor . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.11 Block diagram of Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.12 Zero error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.13 Sensitivity error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.14 Non conformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.15 Hysteresis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.16 Linear Potentiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.17 Linear Potentiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.18 Rotary Potentiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.21 Constant Current Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.22 Constant Temperature Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.23 Variable reluctance tachometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.24 Analog Phase Detector-Block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.25 Analog Phase Detector- wave forms and pulse outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.26 Digital Phase Detector- block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.27 Digital Phase Detector- wave forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.1 Differential Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2.2 Emitter Biased Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.3 Circuit diagram of a typical instrumentation amplifier using opamp . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4 Precision Half Wave Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2.5 Transfer characteristics and input-output waveforms of Precision half-wave rectifier 59
2.6 Precision Full wave Rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.7 Transfer characteristics and input-output waveforms of Precision full-wave rectifier 61
2.8 circuit diagram of an op-amp based logarithmic amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.9 charge amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.10 Isolation Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.11 Transformer coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.12 Optical coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.13 Phase sensitive detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.14 A block diagram of a carrier amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.15 Lock-in amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.16 Final Control Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.17 Solenoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.18 Block Diagram of Motor Based Electrical Actuator System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.19 Single Acting Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.20 Double Acting Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.21 Various components of Hydraulic Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.22 Single Acting Cylinder & Double Acting Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.23 Solid-Material Hopper Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.24 Paper Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.25 Motor-Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.26 Temperature Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.27 Fluid Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.1 Block diagram of OFC system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3.2 Pneumatic transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.3 Radio Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4 WLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.5 BSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.6 WLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.7 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.1 PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

4.2 Block Diagram of a PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.3 Detailed Block Diagram of the processor section of a PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.4 Comparison of PLC & PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.5 Processing cycle of a PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.6 Instruction codes of PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.7 Ladder logic programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.8 Numbering system of Inputs & Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.9 Realization of logic gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.10 Realization De morgans Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.11 Examples of ladder diagram for some equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.12 Exercise 4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.13 Latching in PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.14 Timer function block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.15 Classification of timers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.16 TIMER ON DELAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.17 FUNCTIONS OF AN ON-DELAY TIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

4.18 FUNCTIONS OF TIMER OFF DELAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.19 Function block of CTU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.20 Function block of CTD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.1 SCADA System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

5.2 SCADA System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.3 DCS System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

List of Tables
5.1 Comparison of DCS and PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

5.2 Key differences between SCADA and DCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, CCE IJK

Vision of the Department
To excel in fostering competent Electrical and Electronics Engineering professionals with sound
knowledge and practical skills for social upliftment.
Mission of the Department

1. To impart the excitement of modern technology and problem-solving skill among students
through the development of an inspiring teaching-learning environment.
2. To mould the young minds to provide cost-effective and sustainable solutions, for the
challenges faced by the society, through fundamental research and training.
3. To develop ethical values, leadership skills and lifelong learning practices that leads the
students to become responsible citizens.
Programme Educational Objectives (PEO)

1. Transform students into skilled professionals in Electrical and Electronics Engineering with
strong foundation in Mathematics, Basic Science and Management.
2. Mould the students to achieve and excel in their engineering profession or higher studies.
3. Promote the students to emerge as an expert in Electrical and Electronics Engineering with
excellent oral and written communication skills, ethical and human values, life-long learning
capabilities and professionalism for the benefit of industry and society.
Programme Specific Outcomes (PSO)

1. Apply the fundamental knowledge of Mathematics, Science, Electrical and Electronics
Engineering to identify, analyse and solve the real-life problems in Electrical, Electronics
and allied interdisciplinary areas.
2. Provide techno-economic solutions to implement systems such as smart electricity distribu-
tion, renewable energy, electric drive and transportation.
3. Attain competence in developing, testing and implementing electrical and/or electronic
systems by the effective use of relevant scientific and technological solutions.
SUBJECT EET468 Industrial Instrumentation & Automation

FACULTY Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan
CO1 Identify the sensonrs / trasducers suitable for industrial applications
CO2 Design the signal conditioning circuits for industrial instrumentation and automation
CO3 Analyse the concept of data trasmission, virtual instrumentation, SCADA systems and DCS
Develop the logic using PLC programming for the process
CO4
control applications

I
Module 1
1 Sensors and Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.1 Introduction to Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.2 Examples of Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.3 Process-Control Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4 Block diagram of process control loop . . . . . . 28
1.5 Sensor time response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.6 Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.7 Classification Of Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.8 Characteristics of transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.9 Factors influencing choice of transducers . . . 38
1.10 Applications of Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.11 Displacement measurement using Resistance Po-
tentiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.12 Capacitive differential pressure measurement . 41
1.13 Flow measurement using Hotwire anemometer 43
1.14 Speed measurement using Variable reluctance
tachometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.15 Phase measurement- Analog and digital . . . . 45
1.16 Important Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

1. Sensors and Transducers
Course Outcomes
• CO1: Identify the sensors/transducers suitable for industrial applications
• CO2: Design the signal conditioning circuits for industrial instrumentation and automa-
tion
• CO3: Analyse the concept of data transmission, virtual instrumentation, SCADA
systems and DCS
• CO4: Develop the logic using PLC programming for the process control applications
Syllabus
Introduction to Process Control - block diagram of the process control loop, definition of elements.
Sensor time response - first and second-order responses. Transducers- Characteristics and Choice
of the transducer. Applications of Transducers- Displacement measurement using Resistance
Potentiometer- Capacitive differential pressure measurement, Flow measurement using Hotwire
anemometer, speed measurement- Variable reluctance tachometers, Phase measurement- Analog
and digital
1.1 Introduction to Process Control

Process control is the branch of engineering that deals with the control of industrial processes. It
involves the use of various control systems and techniques to regulate and control the behavior of
a process in order to achieve a desired output. This can include regulating temperature, pressure,
flow, and other process variables. The goal of process control is to maintain consistent and stable
operation of the process, while also maximizing efficiency and minimizing waste.
A process is defined as a series of operations (physical, chemical, etc.) that results in an output.
A chemical plant unit (like a distillation column), a manufacturing system (like an assembly shop),
a food processing industry, etc. are all examples of processes. .
Notice that the inputs are classified as either manipulated or disturbance variables and the
outputs are classified as measured or unmeasured. In general, a process may have several input
variables and several output variables. But only one or two (at most few) of the input variables are
used to control the process. These inputs, used for manipulating the process are called manipulating
variables.
In process control, the inputs to a process are known as manipulated variables, and the outputs

Figure 1.1: Process inputs and outputs
are known as controlled variables. The manipulated variables are the inputs that the control system
can change in order to affect the controlled variables. For example, in a temperature control system,
the manipulated variable might be the flow rate of a coolant, while the controlled variable is the
temperature of the process.
The output of a process, or the controlled variable, is typically measured by a sensor and used
as feedback for the control system. The control system then compares the measured output to the
desired setpoint, and makes adjustments to the manipulated variables in order to bring the output
closer to the setpoint.
Additionally, there are also disturbance variables, which are external factors that can affect the
process and are not controlled by the control system. These can include things like temperature
changes outside the process or changes in the chemical composition of a feed stream. The control
system must be able to account for and respond to these disturbance variables in order to maintain
stable operation of the process.
A simple example of a control system is a person driving an automobile. The driver must have a goal
or objective; normally, this would be to stay in a specific lane. First, the driver must determine the
location of the automobile, which she does by using her eyes to see the position of the automobile
on the road. Then, the driver must determine or calculate the change required to maintain the
automobile at its desired position on the road. Finally, the driver must change the position of the
steering wheel by the amount calculated to bring about the necessary correction. By continuously
performing these three functions, the driver can maintain the automobile very close to its desired
position as disturbances like bumps and curves in the road are encountered.
1.2 Examples of Process

• Unit process like an alkylation reactor
• Unit operation like evaporator, distillation column or storage vessel.
• Manufacturing Industries
• Space heating/cooling
• Water temperature control
1.3 Process-Control Principles

In process control, the basic objective is to regulate the value of some quantity . To regulate means
to maintain that quantity at some desired value regardless of external influences. The desired value
is called the reference value or set point
1.3.1 Example of process control

Let us have an example, a specific system will be used to introduce terms and concepts employed
to describe process control

Figure 1.2: Self regulation
1.3.1.1 Self-regulation
• Liquid is flowing into a tank at some rate, Qin , and out of the tank at some rate, Qout
• The liquid in the tank has some height or level, h √
• It is known that the output flow rate varies as the square root of the height, Qout = K h
• so the higher the level, the faster the liquid flows out
• If the output flow rate is not exactly equal to the input flow rate,
• The level will drop, if , Qout > Qin or rise, if Qout < Qin
• This process has a property called self-regulation
• This means that for some input flow rate, the liquid height will rise until it reaches a height
for which the output flow rate matches the input flow rate.
• Suppose we want to maintain the level at some particular value, H, in Figure 1.2, regardless
of the input flow rate. Then something more than self-regulation is needed
1.3.1.2 Human-Aided Control

• Figure 1.3 shows a modification of the tank system to allow artificial regulation of the level
by a human.
• To regulate the level so that it maintains the value H, it will be necessary to employ a sensor
to measure the level. This has been provided via a “sight tube,” S
• The actual liquid level or height is called the controlled variable
• In addition, a valve has been added so that the output flow rate can be changed by the human
• The output flow rate is called the manipulated variable or controlling variable
• Now the height can be regulated apart from the input flow rate using the following strategy:
• The human measures the height in the sight tube and compares the value to the set point
• If the measured value is larger, the human opens the valve a little to let the flow out increase,
and thus the level lowers toward the set point
• If the measured value is smaller than the set point, the human closes the valve a little to
decrease the flow out and allow the level to rise toward the set point
• By a succession of incremental opening and closing of the valve, the human can bring the
level to the set point value, H
1.3.1.3 Automatic Control

• In this machines, electronics, or computers replace the operations of the human

Figure 1.3: Human-Aided Control
Figure 1.4: Automatic Control

Figure 1.5: Temperature control(a)Human aided control (b) Automatic Control
• An instrument called a sensor is added that is able to measure the value of the level and
convert it into a proportional signal, s
• This signal is provided as input to a machine, electronic circuit, or computer called the
controller
• The controller performs the function of the human in evaluating the measurement and
providing an output signal, u, to change the valve setting via an actuator connected to the
valve by a mechanical linkage
• When automatic control is applied to systems like the one in Figure 1.6, which are designed
to regulate the value of some variable to a set point, it is called process control.
Another example of process control is temperature control as shown in fig. 5. A temperature sensor
attached to the outlet pipe senses the temperature of the water flowing. As the demand for hot water
increases or decreases, a change in the water temperature is sensed and converted to an electrical
signal, amplified, and sent to a controller that evaluates the signal and sends a correction signal to
an actuator. The actuator adjusts the flow of steam to the heat exchanger to keep the temperature of
the water at its predetermined value.

Figure 1.6: Block diagram of process control
1.4 Block diagram of process control loop

To provide a practical, working description of process control, it is useful to describe the elements
and operations involved in more generic terms
• Controlled variable c
• Process variable u
• Measured variable b
• Set pointr (reference)
• Output signalp
• The control element operates on the process by changing the value of the controlling process
variable u
• Error detector e = r − b
1.4.1 Elements of a process-control system
The elements of a process-control system are defined in terms of separate functional parts of the
system.
1. PROCESS
A process can consists of a complex assembly of phenomena that relate to some manufactur-
ing sequences. Many variables my be involved in such a process and it may be desirable to
control all these variables at the same time.The process is often also called the plant.
2. MEASUREMENT
Measurement refers to the conversion of the variable into some corresponding analog of the
variable, such as a pneumatic pressure, , an electrical voltage or current, or a digitally encoded
signal. A sensor is a device that performs the initial measurement and energy conversion of a
variable into analogous digital, electrical, or pneumatic information
3. ERROR DETECTOR
The human looked at the difference between the actual level, h, and the set point level, H,
and deduced an error. This error has both a magnitude and polarity.
4. CONTROLLER
The controller requires an input of both a measured indication of the controlled variable and
a representation of the reference value of the variable, expressed in the same terms as the

Figure 1.7: Example of process control
measured value
5. CONTROL ELEMENT
The final element in the process-control operation is the device that exerts a direct influence
on the process; that is, it provides those required changes in the controlled variable to bring it
to the set point. This element accepts an input from the controller, which is then transformed
into some proportional operation performed on the process.
Figure 1.7 shows how all the control system operations are condensed to the standard block diagram
operations of measurement, error detection, controller, and final control element.
1.4.2 Advantages of Process Control

• Increase the productivity
• Improve the quality
• Improve the consistence product dimension
• Increase stability
• Optimize the performance
• Meet the environmental regulations
• Minimize the influence of External Disturbance
1.4.3 Applications
• Process industries
• Goods manufacturing
• Transport system
• Power machines
1.5 Sensor time response

The static transfer function of a process-control loop element specifies how the output is related to
the input if the input is constant. An element also has a time dependence that specifies how the
output changes in time when the input is changing in time. It is independent from the static transfer
function. This dynamic transfer function, which is independent from the static transfer function, is
often simply called the time response.

Figure 1.8: Sensor that produces an output, b(t), as a function of the input, c(t)
The static transfer function determines the output when the input is not changing in time
The dynamic transfer function specifies how a sensor output varies when the input changes instan-
taneously in time (i.e., a step change)
output->b(t), Input->c(t).
Figure 1.8 shows a sensor that produces an output, b(t), as a function of the input, c(t). The
static transfer function determines the output when the input is not changing in time. To specify the
time response, the nature of the time variation in output, b(t), is given when the input exhibits a
step change as shown. Note that at t = 0 the input to the sensor is suddenly changed from an initial
value, ci, to a final value, cf. If the sensor were perfect, its output would be determined by the static
transfer function to be bi before t = 0 and bf after t = 0. However, all sensors exhibit some lag
between the output and the input and some characteristic variation in time before settling on the
final value.
1.5.1 First-Order Response

The simplest time response is shown in Figure 1.9 as the output change in time following a step
input as in Figure 1.8. This is called first order because, for all sensors of this type, the time
response is determined by the solution of a first-order differential equation. Note that at the input
to the sensor is suddenly changed from an initial value , Ci , to a final value C f , . If the sensor
were perfect, its output would be determined by the static transfer function to be bi before t=0 and
b f after t=0 . However, all sensors exhibit some lag between the output and the input and some
characteristic variation in time before settling on the final value.
Time response is determined by the solution of a first-order differential equation. A general
equation can be written for this response independent of the sensor, the variable being measured, or
the static transfer function.
The equation gives the sensor output as a function of time following the step input.
−t
b(t) = bi + (b f − bi )[1 − e τ ] (1.1)

Figure 1.9: Characteristic first-order exponential time response of a sensor to a step change of input
Where bi = initial sensor output from static transfer function and initial input
b f = final sensor output from static transfer function and final input
τ= sensor time constant
Time constant, τ
The time constant, τ , is part of the specification of the sensor. Its significance can be seen by
writing Equation
−t
b(t) − bi = (b f − bi )[1 − e τ ] (1.2)
In this equation, the quantity on the left is the change in output as a function of time, whereas (bf -
bi) is the total change that will occur. Thus, the square-bracketed term in above Equation is the
fraction of total change as a function of time.Suppose we wish to find the change that has occurred
at a time numerically equal to τ. Then we set t = τ in above Equation
b(τ) − bi = (b f − bi )[1 − e− 1] (1.3)
b(τ) − bi = 0.6321(b f − bi ) (1.4)
• one time constant τ represents the time at which the output value has changed by approxi-
mately 63% of the total change.
• The time constant is sometimes referred to as the 63% time, the response time, or the e-folding
time.
• For a step change, the output response has approximately reached its final value after five
time constants
b(5τ) − bi = 0.993(b f − bi ) (1.5)
Real-Time Effects: The concept of the exponential time response and associated time constant is
based on a sudden discontinuous change of the input value. In the real world, such instantaneous
changes occur rarely, if ever, and thus we have presented a worst case situation in the time response.
In general, a sensor should be able to track any changes in the physical dynamic variable in a time
less than one time constant
1.5.2 Second Order Response

• In some sensors, a step change in the input causes the output to oscillate for a short period of
time before settling down to a value that corresponds to the new input. Such oscillation (and
the decay of the oscillation itself) is a function of the sensor.

Figure 1.10: Characteristic second-order oscillatory time response of a sensor
• This output transient generated by the transducer is an error and must be accounted for in any
measurement involving a transducer with this behavior.
• This is called a second-order response because, for this type of sensor, the time behavior is
described by a second-order differential equation. It is not possible to develop a universal
solution, as it is for the first-order time response
R(t) = R0 e−at sin(2π fnt) (1.6)
Where R(t)= the transducer output

a = output damping constant
fn = natural frequency of the oscillation
R0 = amplitude
• In general, such a transducer can be said to track the input when the input changes in a time
that is greater than the period represented by the natural frequency.
• The damping constant defines the time one must wait after a disturbance at for the transducer
output to be a true indication of the transducer input.
1.6 Transducers
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. Usually a transducer
converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another. Transducers are often employed
at the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control systems, where electrical signals are
converted to and from other physical quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.).
The process of converting one form of energy to another is known as transduction.

Figure 1.11: Block diagram of Transducer
1.6.1 Basic Requirements of Transducers

1. Ruggedness
2. Linearity
3. Repeatability
4. High output signal quality
5. High reliability and stability
6. Good dynamic response
7. No hysteresis
8. No residual deformation.
1. Ruggedness: It should be capable of withstanding overload and some safety arrangement
should be provided for overload protection.
2. Linearity: Its input-output characteristics should be linear and it should produce these
characteristics in symmetrical way.
3. Repeatability: It should reproduce same output signal when the same input signal is applied
again and again under fixed environmental conditions e.g. temperature, pressure, humidity
etc.
4. High Output Signal Quality: The quality of output signal should be good i.e. the ratio
of the signal to the noise should be high and the amplitude of the output signal should be
enough.
5. High Reliability and Stability: It should give minimum error in measurement for tempera-
ture variations, vibrations and other various changes in surroundings.
6. Good Dynamic Response: Its output should be faithful to input when taken as a function of
time. The effect is analyzed as the frequency response.
7. No hysteresis: It should not give any hysteresis during measurement while input signal is
varied from its low value to high value and vice-versa.
8. Residual Deformation: There should be no deformation on removal of local after long
period of application.
1.7 Classification Of Transducers

The transducers may be classified in various ways such as on the basis of electrical principles
involved, methods of application, methods of energy conversion used, nature of output signal etc.
1. On the basis of transduction form used
2. Primary and Secondary
3. Active and Passive Transducers
4. Analog and Digital Transducer
5. Transducers and Inverse Transducers

1.7.1 On the basis of transduction form used
Electrical transducers can be classified based on the type of electrical signal that is generated in the
transduction process. Some common forms of electrical transduction include:
1. Resistive Transduction: Converts physical changes, such as changes in pressure, temperature,
or position, into electrical signals through resistance changes.
2. Capacitive Transduction: Converts physical changes, such as changes in position or motion,
into electrical signals through changes in capacitance.
3. Inductive Transduction: Converts physical changes, such as changes in position, into electrical
signals through changes in inductance.
4. Piezoelectric Transduction: Converts mechanical stress or pressure into electrical signals
through the generation of electrical charges in certain materials.
5. Hall Effect Transduction: Converts physical changes, such as changes in magnetic fields,
into electrical signals through changes in voltage.
1.7.2 Primary and Secondary

When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical phenomenon is converted
into the electrical form directly then such a transducer is called the primary transducer.
For example, in case of pressure measurement, bourdon tube is a primary sensor which converts
pressure first into displacement, and then the displacement is converted into an output voltage by
an LVDT. In this case LVDT is secondary transducer.
For example a thermistor used for the measurement of temperature fall in this category. The
thermistor senses the temperature directly and causes the change in resistance with the change in
temperature. When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output
being of some form other than input signals is given as input to a transducer for conversion into
electrical form, then such a transducer falls in the category of secondary transducers.
1.7.3 Active and Passive Transducers.

Transducers, on the basis of methods of energy conversion used, may be classified into active and
passive transducers. Self-generating type transducers i.e. the transducers, which develop their
output the form of electrical voltage or current without any auxiliary source, are called the active
transducers. Such transducers draw energy from the system under measurement. Normal such
transducers give very small output and, therefore, use of amplifier becomes essential.
Transducers, in which electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance or capacitance changes
with the change in input signal, are called the passive transducers. These transducers require
external power source for energy conversion. In such transducer electrical parameters i.e. resistance,
inductance or capacitance causes a change in voltages current or frequency of the external power
source. These transducers may draw sour energy from the system under measurement. Resistive,
inductive and capacitive transducer falls in this category.
1.7.4 Analog and Digital Transducers

Transducers, on the basis of nature of output signal, may be classified into analog and digital
transducers. Analog transducer converts input signal into output signal, which is a continuous
function of time such as thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermo-couple etc. Digital transducer
converts input signal into the output signal of the form of pulse e.g. it gives discrete output.
These transducers are becoming more and more popular now-a-days because of advantages as-
sociated with digital measuring instruments and also due to the effect that digital signals can be
transmitted over a long distance without causing much distortion due to amplitude variation and
phase shift. Sometimes an analog transducer combined with an ADC (analog-digital convector) is

called a digital transducer.
1.7.5 Transducers and Inverse Transducers.

Transducer, as already defined, is a device that converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical
quantity. Normally a transducer and associated circuit has a non-electrical input and an electrical
output, for example a thermo-couple, photoconductive cell, pressure gauge, strain gauge etc. An
inverse transducer is a device that converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity. It is
a precision actuator having an electrical input and a low-power non-electrical output.
For examples a piezoelectric crystal and transnational and angular moving-coil elements can be
employed as inverse transducers. Many data-indicating and recording devices are basically inverse
transducers. An ammeter or voltmeter converts electric current into mechanical movement and the
characteristics of such an instrument placed at the output of a measuring system are important. A
most useful application of inverse transducers is in feedback measuring systems.
1.8 Characteristics of transducers

While choosing a transducer for any application the input, transfer and output characteristics have
been taken into account.
1.8.1 Input Characteristics

1.8.1.1 Type of input and operating range
The for most consideration for the choice of a transducer is the input quantity it is going to
measure and its operating range. The upper limit of operating range is decided by the transducers
capabilities and lower limit is normally determined by the transducer error or by the unavoidable
noise originating in the transducer.
1.8.1.2 Loading effect

Ideally a transducer should have no loading effect but, in practice steps may be taken to reduce
the loading effects. The magnitude of loading effects can be expressed in terms of force, power
or energy extracted from the quantity under measurement for working of the transducers. The
transducer that is selected for a particular application should ideally extract no force, power or
energy from the quantity under measurement.
1.8.2 Transfer Characteristics

Transfer characteristics includes transfer function, error and response of a transducer to environ-
mental influences.
1.8.2.1 Transfer Function

The transfer function of a system represents the mathematical relationship between the input and
output of the system. In the case of a transducer, the transfer function describes how the input
signal, such as a physical quantity, is transformed into an output signal, such as an electrical signal.
The transfer function can be expressed as a mathematical equation and can be used to characterize
the behavior of the transducer, including its frequency response, stability, and accuracy.
The transfer function is an important tool for analyzing and designing transducers, as it provides
a concise way to describe the input-output relationship of the transducer. By analyzing the transfer
function, engineers can gain a better understanding of the behavior of the transducer, including its
strengths and weaknesses, and can make design improvements to enhance its performance.

Figure 1.12: Zero error
Figure 1.13: Sensitivity error
1.8.2.2 Errors
Error in the context of transducers refers to the difference between the actual output of the trans-
ducer and the expected or desired output for a given input. Error can be caused by a variety of
factors, including limitations in the transducer design, manufacturing inaccuracies, environmental
conditions, and aging of the transducer.
There are several types of errors that can affect the performance of a transducer, including:
Scale error, Dynamic error, error on account of noise, drift and error due to change of frequency.
1. Scale error
a. Zero error: In case of the output deviates from the correct value by constant factor over
the entire range of transducer.Refer 1.12
b. Sensitivity error: sensitivity error occurs where the observed output deviates from the
correct value by a constant value.If correct output is q0 , observed output is Kq0 over
the entire range, where K is a constant.Refer figure 1.13
c. Non conformity: A case in which the experimentally obtained transfer function deviates
from the theoretical transfer function for almost every input. This error is called non
linearity or non linear distortion. Refer Figure 1.14
d. Hysteresis:All transducers are subject to the effects of hysteresis. The output of a

Figure 1.14: Non conformity
Figure 1.15: Hysteresis
transducer not only depends upon the input quantity but also upon in input quantities
previously applied to it. A different output is obtained when the same value of input
quantity is applied depending upon whether it is increasing/ decreasing. Refer figure
1.15.
2. Dynamic error: Dynamic error in the context of transducers refers to the deviation of the
transducer output from the expected output due to changes in the input signal over time.
Dynamic error can be caused by several factors, including limitations in the transducer design,
the electrical and mechanical properties of the transducer, and environmental conditions.
3. Error due to noise and drift: Error due to noise and drift in the context of transducers refers
to the deviation of the transducer output from the expected output due to the presence of
unwanted signals and changes in the transducer over time.
Noise Error: The presence of unwanted signals in the transducer output, such as electrical
noise, thermal noise, or electromagnetic interference, can affect the accuracy of the transducer.
Drift Error: Over time, the characteristics of the transducer may change, leading to a
deviation of the transducer output from the expected output. This is known as drift error,
and can be caused by changes in temperature, aging of the transducer components, or other
environmental factors.
4. Errors due to changes in frequency: The deviation of the transducer output from the expected
output due to changes in the frequency of the input signal. This type of error can occur
when the transducer is designed to operate over a limited frequency range, and the input
signal exceeds that range.To minimize errors due to changes in frequency, it is important to
choose a transducer that is well-suited for the specific application, with a wide frequency
range and high frequency stability. Additionally, it may be necessary to implement signal
processing techniques, such as filtering or frequency response correction, to further improve

the accuracy of the transducer output.
1.8.2.3 Transducer response
The response of a transducer to environmental influences is of great is of great importance. This
is often given insufficient attention when choosing the best transducer for a particular application.
This give rise to unexpected results.
1.8.3 Output Characteristics

It includes type of electrical output, output impedance and useful range
1. Type of electrical output: The type of output may be voltage, current, impedance or a time
function of these amplitudes
2. Output impedance: The output impedance of a transducer can affect the accuracy and
precision of the measurement by introducing errors into the output signal. If the output
impedance of the transducer is high, it can cause a significant drop in the amplitude of the
output signal when the transducer is connected to a load. This can result in measurement
errors and a reduction in the overall performance of the transducer.
To minimize the effects of output impedance, it is important to choose a transducer with a
low output impedance and to carefully consider the properties of the load when designing the
transducer. Additionally, it may be necessary to use impedance matching techniques, such as
the use of an amplifier, to further improve the performance of the transducer.
3. Useful output range: Output range is limited at the lower end by noise signals. Upper limit is
set by the maximum useful input level.
1.9 Factors influencing choice of transducers

Some of the factors to be taken into consideration in the selection of transducer for a particular
application are,
1. Operating Principle: The first important factor for selecting a transducer is the operating
principle. There are various transducers that use different operating principles like resistive,
capacitive, piezoelectric, inductive, optoelectronic principle, etc.
2. Operating Range : The operating range is also one of the important factors to be considered
because every instrument has its operating rating for satisfactory operation. The input applied
must lie within this operating range, so that the transducer can function with good resolution
without any breakdown. The operating range of a transducer can be determined with its
capabilities and error in the measurement.
3. Accuracy : It is one of the most desirable characteristics of any transducer. The accuracy of
a transducer is the degree of closeness of the output obtained to the true or ideal value. A
transducer with high sensitivity can produce errors easily to other stimuli. The errors can
be reduced using in-place system calibration and monitoring so that corrections are made
accordingly to have a high degree of accuracy and repeatability.
4. Sensitivity : It is also a desirable selection factor of a transducer. Every transducer should be
sufficiently sensitive to the input applied to produce an output. The sensitivity of a transducer
is the output obtained per unit change in the input quantity. Also, the sensitivity should not
be either very high or low that leads to errors.
5. Stability and Reliability : A transducer should have high stability and reliability. It should
be stable to the external disturbances during its operation without deviating the output. The
stability of the transducer also describes storage life.
6. Usage and Ruggedness : A transducer should be mechanically rugged depending upon the
application where it is used.
7. Transient Response and Frequency Response : The transducer should have required time
domain specifications such as settling time, rise time, peak overshoot and small dynamic

error, etc.
8. Loading Effects : The loading effect should be as minimum as possible so that errors in the
measurement will be low. A transducer should have high input impedance and low output
impedance for minimum loading effect.
9. Electrical Parameters : The requirement for the type and length of cable signal to noise ratio
when the transducer is used with amplifiers and the drawbacks of frequency response should
also be considered.
10. Environmental Compatibility : The factors of selection also include the consideration of
environmental conditions. An incorrect choice of the transducer at a location to be operated
where it can be subjected to temperature variation, vibration, and electromagnetic interference
can affect the output.
11. Static Characteristics : The selected transducer should have low hysteresis, high linearity,
and high resolution.
12. Cost: The cost of the transducer is also an important factor, as it can impact the overall budget
of the project and must be considered along with the other requirements of the application
By carefully considering these factors, it is possible to choose a transducer that is well-suited
to the task at hand and provides accurate and precise measurements. Additionally, it may be
necessary to use signal processing techniques, such as filtering or amplification, to further improve
the performance of the transducer.
1.10 Applications of Transducers

Measurement and control systems: Transducers are widely used in measurement and control
systems to convert physical quantities, such as temperature, pressure, and force, into electrical
signals that can be easily processed and analyzed.
Medical equipment: Transducers are used in medical equipment, such as ultrasound machines,
to convert acoustic energy into electrical signals that can be processed and analyzed.
Automation and process control: Transducers are used in automation and process control
systems to convert physical quantities, such as temperature and pressure, into electrical signals that
can be used to control processes and machinery.
Energy management: Transducers are used in energy management systems to monitor and
control the use of energy in buildings and other facilities.
Entertainment: Transducers are used in entertainment devices, such as speakers and micro-
phones, to convert electrical signals into sound waves and vice versa.
Aerospace and defense: Transducers are used in aerospace and defense systems, such as aircraft
and missile guidance systems, to measure physical quantities and convert them into electrical
signals that can be processed and analyzed.
Automotive: Transducers are used in automotive systems, such as engine control systems and
airbag deployment systems, to measure physical quantities and convert them into electrical signals
that can be processed and analyzed.
1.11 Displacement measurement using Resistance Potentiometer

A resistance potentiometer, also known as a potentiometer or a "pot," can be used to measure
displacement by converting a change in physical position into a change in electrical resistance. The
potentiometer consists of a resistive element, a sliding contact that moves along the element, and a
voltage source connected to the element at both ends.
The displacement of the sliding contact is proportional to the change in resistance between the
fixed end and the sliding contact. This change in resistance can be measured using a voltmeter, and
the displacement can be calculated from the resistance measurement.
The accuracy of the displacement measurement depends on factors such as the stability and

Figure 1.16: Linear Potentiometer
Figure 1.17: Linear Potentiometer
linearity of the resistive element, the smoothness of the sliding contact, and the precision of the
voltage measurement.
ρL
R= (1.7)
A
R— Resistance in Ω L— Length of the conductor A– cross sectional area of the conductor in
square metre ρ–resistivity of the conductor
Any method of varying one of the quantities involved in the above relationship can be the design
basis of an electrical resistive transducer. There are several types of resistance potentiometers,
including:
1. Linear potentiometers: A linear potentiometer is a type of position sensor. They are used
to measure displacement along a single axis, either up and down or left and right. Linear
potentiometers are devices that measure linear displacement or position by converting it into
an electrical signal. They consist of a resistive element, a sliding contact that moves along
the element, and a voltage source connected to the element at both ends.

Figure 1.18: Rotary Potentiometer
The resistance between the fixed end and the sliding contact varies linearly with the displace-
ment of the sliding contact, and this change in resistance can be measured to determine the
displacement. The electrical output of a linear potentiometer is typically a voltage or current
proportional to the position of the sliding contact.
2. Rotary potentiometers: These have a resistive element that is circular, and the sliding contact
moves along it in an arc. Rotary potentiometers are devices that measure rotary or angular
displacement or position by converting it into an electrical signal. They consist of a resistive
element, a rotating shaft connected to a sliding contact that moves along the element, and a
voltage source connected to the element at both ends.
The resistance between the fixed end and the sliding contact varies with the angular displace-
ment of the shaft, and this change in resistance can be measured to determine the angular
position. The electrical output of a rotary potentiometer is typically a voltage or current
proportional to the angle of the shaft.
1.12 Capacitive differential pressure measurement

, The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement, pressure and other physical
quantities. It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for operation. The
capacitive transducer works on the principle of variable capacitances. The capacitance of the
capacitive transducer changes because of many reasons like overlapping of plates, change in
distance between the plates and dielectric constant.
The capacitive transducer contains two parallel metal plates. These plates are separated by the
dielectric medium which is either air, material, gas or liquid. In the normal capacitor the distance
between the plates are fixed, but in capacitive transducer the distance between them are varied.
The capacitive transducer uses the electrical quantity of capacitance for converting the mechan-
ical movement into an electrical signal. The input quantity causes the change of the capacitance
which is directly measured by the capacitive transducer.


Capacitive differential pressure measurement is a technique used to measure the difference
in pressure between two points in a fluid system. It works by using a capacitor whose capacitance
changes with changes in pressure. The change in capacitance is then measured and converted into a
pressure reading using electronic circuitry. This method is accurate, reliable, and is commonly used
in industrial, HVAC, and medical applications to measure pressure differences in gases and liquids.
FLOW MEASUREMENT
• Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement.
• A flow meter works by measuring the amount of a liquid, gas, or steam flowing through or
around the flow meter sensors
• Flow is the volume of fluid that passes in a unit of time
1.13 Flow measurement using Hotwire anemometer
• The Hot Wire Anemometer is a device used for measuring the velocity and direction of the
fluid. This can be done by measuring the heat loss of the wire which is placed in the fluid
stream. The wire is heated by electrical current.
• The hot wire when placed in the stream of the fluid, in that case, the heat is transferred from
wire to fluid, and hence the temperature of wire reduces. The resistance of wire measures the
flow rate of the fluid
• The hot wire anemometer is used as a research tool in fluid mechanics. It works on the
principle of transfer of heat from high temperature to low temperature.
Construction of Hot Wire Anemometer

The hot wire anemometer consists two main parts.
1. Conducting wire
2. Wheat stone bridge.
• The conducting wire is housed inside the ceramic body. The wires are taking out from the
ceramic body and connecting to the Wheatstone bridge. The wheat stone bridge measures
the variation of resistance.
1.13.1 Constant Current Method

• In the constant current method, the anemometer is placed in the stream of the fluid whose
flow rate needs to be measured. The current of constant magnitude is passed through the
wire. The Wheatstone bridge is also kept on the constant voltage.
• When the wire is kept in the stream of liquid, in that case, the heat is transferred from the wire
to the fluid. The heat is directly proportional to the resistance of the wire. If heat reduces,
that means the resistance of wire also reduces. The Wheatstone bridge measures the variation
in resistance which is equal to the flow rate of the liquid.
1.13.2 Constant Temperature Method

• In this arrangement, the wire is heated by the electric current. The hot wire when placed in
the fluid stream, the heat transfer from wire to the fluid. Thus, the temperature of the wire
changes which also changes their resistance. It works on the principle that the temperature of
the wire remains constant. The total current requires to bring the wire in the initial condition
is equal to the flow rate of the gas.
1.13.3 Measurement of the rate of a fluid using a Hot Wire Instrument

• In hot wire anemometer, the heat transferred electrically to the wire which is placed in the
fluid stream. The Wheatstone bridge is used for measuring the temperature of wire regarding

Figure 1.21: Constant Current Method
Figure 1.22: Constant Temperature Method

their resistance. The temperature of the wire remains constant for measuring the heating
current. Thus, the bridge remains balanced.
• The standard resistor is connected in series with the heating wire. The current across the wire
is determined by knowing the voltage drop across the resistor. And the value of voltage drop
is determined by the potentiometer.
• The equation determines the heat loss from the heated wire
= a(vρ + b)1/2
Where, v – velocity of heat flow, ρ – the density of fluid,
• The a and b are the constants. Their value depends on the dimension and the physical
properties of the fluid and wire.
• Suppose I, is the current of the wire and the R is their resistance. In equilibrium condition,
• Heat generated = Heat Lost
I 2 R = a(vρ + b)1/2
• Using the above expression we can find the velocity

• The resistance and temperature of the instrument are kept constant for measuring the rate of
the fluid by measuring the current I.
1.14 Speed measurement using Variable reluctance tachometers

• Consists of a metallic toothed rotor mounted on the shaft whose speed is to be measured and
a magnetic pickup is placed near the toothed rotor.
• Magnetic pickup consists of a housing containing a small permanent magnet with a coil
wound around it
• When the rotor rotates, the reluctance of the gap between the pickup and the toothed rotor
changes giving rise to an induced e.m.f. in the pickup coil. This output is in the form of
pulses.
• The frequency of the pulses of the induced voltage will depend upon the number of teeth
and the speed of rotor. Since the number of teeth is known, the speed of rotation can be
determined by measuring the frequency of pulses with an electronic counter.
• If number of teeth is T and rotational speed is n rps and number of pulses per second is P,
then n= P/T rps = (P*60)/T rpm.
• A typical rotor has 60 teeth. Thus if a counter counts 60 pulses, it will directly display the
speed in rpm.
• Simple and rugged construction
• Maintenance free
• Easy to calibrate
• Information can be easily transmitted.
1.15 Phase measurement- Analog and digital

1.15.1 Phase Detectors
• A phase detector or phase comparator is a frequency mixer, analog multiplier or logic circuit
that generates a voltage signal which represents the difference in phase between two signal
inputs.
• It is an essential element of the phase-locked loop (PLL).
• Detecting phase difference is very important in many applications, such as motor control,
radar and telecommunication systems, servo mechanisms, and demodulators.
• A phase-locked loop or phase lock loop (PLL) is a control system that generates an output
signal whose phase is related to the phase of an input signal

Figure 1.23: Variable reluctance tachometer
1.15.1.1 Analog Phase Detectors

• The phase difference between two sinusoidal waves of same frequency is indicated by a
simple analogue DC voltmeter.
• The scheme shows that the two waves are sent through two channels, each consisting of
1. An amplifier
2. A zero crossing detector
3. Differentiator
Figure 1.24: Analog Phase Detector-Block diagram
• The output from the two differentiators are used to trigger a bistable circuit.
• With a phase difference between the two waves , bistable is switched alternatively by pulses
received from two differentaitors, and the bistable output produces a series of pulses of with
dependent on the difference of the phases of the signals in the two channels.
• A voltmeter connected to the bistable output with an appropriate filtter would indicate the
phase difference when properly calibrated.

Figure 1.25: Analog Phase Detector- wave forms and pulse outputs
• Figure 1.25 shows the wave forms and pulse outputs at appropriate points of the scheme of
Figure 1.24.
1.15.2 Digital Phase Detector

• A kind of digital phase meter also uses zero-crossing phase detectors as discussed earlier.

Figure 1.26: Digital Phase Detector- block diagram
Figure 1.27: Digital Phase Detector- wave forms

• The outputs from such detectors are processed by a digital processor to which the digital
display unit may be attached.
• A frequency counter along with standard frequency source can simultaneously give the value
the frequency as well.
• A simplified scheme of such a phase frequency meter is shown in the figure 1.27
• Corresponding wave forms are depicted in the figure ??
1.16 Important Questions

1. Define the terms process and process control with two examples each. What are the require-
ments of a process?
2. With necessary diagrams, distinguish between self-regulation, human aided control and
automatic control in a process.
3. Draw the neat sketch of a process control loop and explain about different process control
elements.
4. What is meant by sensor-time response?
5. With necessary diagram and equations explain about first order response of a sensor. What is
the significance of time constant in first order response?
6. With necessary diagram and equations explain about second order response of a sensor. What
are the significance of damping constant and natural frequency of oscillation in second order
response?
7. Briefly explain about various characteristics that should be considered while selecting a
transducer.
8. What are the various factors influencing the choice of a transducer?
9. Explain the working of hotwire anemometer for flow measurement with neat diagram
10. What is the principle behind the phase measurement?
11. Explain the analog and digital phase measurement
12. What are the application of transducers?
13. Explain different characteristics of transducers
14. How we can select transducers for various applications
15. Explain different modes of operation of hotwire anemometer.
16. With the help of a diagram explain the process control loop.
17. Explain second order time response of sensor
18. Explain the principal and operation of variable reluctance tachometer
19. Discuss the working principle of Capacitive differential pressure measurement
20. Explain displacement measurement using Resistance Potentiometer
21. Explain Capacitive differential pressure measurement
22. Explain Flow measurement using Hotwire anemometer
23. Explain speed measurement using Variable reluctance tachometers
24. Explain Phase measurement using Analog and digital phase detectors

II
Module 2
2 Signal conditioning circuits and Final con-

trol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.1 Electronic amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2 Differential Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3 Instrumentation amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4 Precision rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.5 Log amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.6 Charge amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.7 Isolation Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.8 Phase sensitive detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.9 Carrier Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.10 Lock-in amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.11 Final Control Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.12 Electromechanical / Electrical Actuating System 70
2.13 Pneumatic Actuating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.14 Components of Pneumatic Actuating System 75
2.15 Hydraulic Actuating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.16 Advantages of Hydraulic Actuator Systems . . . 77
2.17 Control Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.18 Fluid Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

2. Signal conditioning circuits and Final
control
Syllabus
Electronic amplifiers-Differential Amplifier, Instrumentation Amplifiers, Precision rectifiers, Log
amplifiers, Carrier Amplifiers, Lock-In Amplifiers, Isolation Amplifiers, Charge amplifiers, Phase-
sensitive detectors. Final control operation- signal conversion- actuators- control elements, Actuators-
Electrical – Pneumatic- Hydraulic, Control elements-mechanical- electrical- fluid valves
2.1 Electronic amplifiers

Electronic amplifiers are primarily used for amplification of the low-level dc or ac signals obtained
from electrical measuring system and transducers. The input signal may be a voltage or current
but the output signal required either as voltage or current or power. Amplifiers might also be used
as buffer and isolation amplifiers and should be able to respond only to the desired signals in the
presence of unwanted interfering signals.
2.2 Differential Amplifier

Differential Amplifier is a device that is used to amplify the difference in voltage of the two input
signals. Differential Amplifier is an important building block in integrated circuits of analog system.
It is a device that amplifies the difference of 2 input signals.Refer figure 2.1
V0 = Ad (V1 −V2 ) assuming V1 > V2 (2.1)
Here, the voltage difference present at the inverting and non-inverting terminal gets amplified and
thus an amplified output is received. Because of input configuration, all op-amps are considered to
be differential amplifiers. Ad is the differential gain
Consider emitter biased circuit 2.2(a), to obtain a single circuit 2.2(b) connect Q1 and Q2 of
same characteristics,
RE1 = RE2
RE = RE1 parallel RE2 Rc1 = Rc2 = Rc

and magnitude of VCC = magnitude VEE .

h!
Figure 2.1: Differential Amplifier
Figure 2.2: Emitter Biased Circuit

There are mainly four configurations
1. Dual Input Balanced Output- In this configuration two inputs are given an output is taken
from both the transistors collectors.
2. Dual Input Unbalanced Output- The input is given to both the transistors but the output is
taken from a single transistor.
3. Single Input Balanced Output- Here, by providing single input we take the output from two
separate transistors.
4. Single Input Unbalance Output- It is a type of configuration in which a single input is given
an output is taken from only a single transistor.
2.2.1 Working
• When two inputs are applied at the two terminals the voltage difference produced resultantly
will be proportional to the difference of the two applied input signals.
• Differential amplifier behaves as subtractor circuit, that basically subtracts the two-input
signal.
• The differential amplifier can be constructed by making use of BJTs and FETs.
• As we can see in the circuit diagram there are two inputs and two outputs are used.
• Here, two separate transistor Q1 and Q2 are employed so as to apply separate inputs at the
base of both the transistor.
• The two separate transistors possess similar characteristics ideally.
• Common emitter resistor RE , common positive supply VCC and common negative supply VEE
is shared by both the transistors.
• In a differential amplifier, the voltage generated at the output is proportional to the difference
of the two input signals.
• So, when the two applied inputs are equal i.e., there is no difference between the two-input
voltage the resulting output voltage will be 0.
• But practically when two similar inputs are applied at both the input terminal, the output
does not exactly equal to 0.
• The output in case of common mode signal is of the order of several 100 micro V.
2.2.2 Common Mode Gain

V0
Ac = (2.2)
Vc
Here, Vc is the value of common input applied at both the input terminals (if the two halves of the
amplifier are not perfectly matched and balanced), a voltage will appear at output Vo The signals
appearing at inputs are known as common mode signals represented by Vc is the output signal.
CMMR: CMMR stands for Common Mode Rejection Ratio, it is given as the ratio of differential
mode gain to the common mode gain.
Ad
CMMR = , In dB (2.3)
Ac
Ad
CMMR = 20log10 (2.4)
Ac
For an ideal amplifier CMMR should be practically infinite but in actual practice, it is not so and has
a finite value. It is defined as the ratio of the desired signal to the undesired signal. The larger the
CMMR the better is the amplifier. Differential amplifier provides excellent bias stability because of
use of emitter current bias.

h!
Figure 2.3: Circuit diagram of a typical instrumentation amplifier using opamp
2.2.3 Advantages of Differential Amplifier

• Provides faster switching action
• No capacitor is used in the circuit, the absence of capacitor reduces the size and cost of the
amplifier.
• Noise immunity: When we use a differential amplifier, it responds to the only difference
signal between input terminals and ignores all common mode signals such as noise pick-up
and ground voltages.
2.2.4 Disadvantages of Differential Amplifier

One major problem that arises in amplifiers are offset voltage and drift voltage. The lightly
unbalanced in the characteristics of the transistor and the difference in component value results in
non- zero output voltage, referred to as output offset voltage. Since the transistor parameter are
very much depend on temperature fluctuation offset voltage varies with temperature. This is called
drift voltage.
2.3 Instrumentation amplifiers

Instrumentation amplifier is a kind of differential amplifier because it amplifies between two input
signals with additional input buffer stages. The addition of input buffer stages makes it easy to
match (impedance matching) the amplifier with the preceding stage. Instrumentation is commonly
used in industrial test and measurement application. The importance of an instrumentation amplifier
is that it can reduce unwanted noise that is picked up by the circuit. Major characteristic high
CMRR, high input Impedance, low noise and drift moderate bandwidth and limited range of gain.
The circuit diagram of a typical instrumentation amplifier using opamp is shown in the figure 2.3.
• The above shown is a three-opamp instrumentation amplifier. In this circuit, a non inverting
amplifier is connected to both inputs of the differential amplifier.

• The two amplifiers at the left side are connected together to form a combined Non-inverting
amplifier which offers very high input impedance to both the signals
• The amplifier at the right side is a standard differential amplifier. Two resistors R and Rg is
gain setting resistors.
• The Rg resistor increases the differential mode gain of the buffer pair amplifiers, this increase
the CMRR of the amplifier.
• Op-amp input carry no current (Ri = infinity)
−V2 +V1 + Ig Rg = 0 (2.5)
• Let V01 be the output of first stage then,
V01 2R
= (1 + ) (2.6)
V2 −V1 Rg
• Decrease in value of Rg will result in increase in output voltage. Therefore, to increase the
value of gain, value of Rg should be decreased.
• Second stage of the instrumentation amplifier is a unity gain differential amplifier
• The configuration can be analyzed by treating the combination as a linear system and
obtaining the expression for Vo ut by using the superposition theorem.
• With one terminal applied with the voltage and the other ground, V01 and V02 can be obtained
separately.
• With V1 applied to terminal 1 and terminal 2 grounded V01 and V02 are given by
R R
V01 = V1 (1 + ) V02 = −V1 (2.7)
Rg Rg
• Similarly, when V2 applied to terminal 2 and terminal 1 grounded V01 and V02 are given by
R R
V02 = V2 (1 + ) V01 = −V2 (2.8)
Rg Rg
Net effect of the application of V1 and V2 is given by V01 and V02

• Net V01
R R
V01 = V1 (1 + ) −V2 ( ) (2.9)
Rg Rg
• Net V02
R R
V02 = V2 (1 + ) −V1 ( ) (2.10)
Rg Rg
•
2R
V0 2 −V0 1 = (V2 −V1 )(1 + ) (2.11)
Rg
•
V0
=1 (gain) (2.12)
V02 −V01

2.3.1 Main features
• High CMRR: The ability of amplifier to reject noise or unwanted large common signals
to all IC pins and amplify the small signal. The CMRR should be infinity by ideally. A
good instrumentation amplifier must amplify only the differential input, completely rejecting
common mode inputs
• High input impedance: Ideally the input impedance should be infinity. The sensor con-
nected to the amplifier cannot provide energy to amplifier, so the amplifier input must have a
high input impedance to avoid overloading of sensor.
• DC coupled: Industrial low frequency requires a DC coupled amplifier. This means no
capacitor must be used at the input side.
• Low output impedance: The output impedance of a good instrumentation amplifier must be
very low (ideally zero), to avoid loading effect on the immediate next stage.
• Differential input: The noise generated at the sensors is induced into both the inverting and
non-inverting terminals of differential input and it is subtracted from itself by the op-amp.
• Single ended output: The output of the instrumentation amplifier is single ended and
designed to match with displays and following amplifier.
• Higher slew rate: The slew rate of the instrumentation amplifier will be as high as possible
to provide maximum undistorted output voltage swing.
2.3.2 Applications
• Strain Gauge Bridge interface for pressure and temperature sensing.
• A variety of low side and high side current sensing application
• Medical instrumentation, used in ECG connection
• Current/voltage monitoring
• Audio application involving weak audio signal
• High speed signal conditioning
2.4 Precision rectifiers

The major limitation of conventional rectifiers is that it cannot rectify AC voltages below forward
voltage drop VD (0.7V) of a diode. The precision rectifier will make it possible to rectify input
voltage of a very small magnitude even less than forward voltage drop of diode. Rectifier circuits
used for circuit detection with op-amps are called precision rectifiers. The precision rectifiers are
classified in two categories.
1. Precision HWR
2. Precision FWR
2.4.1 Precision Half Wave Rectifier(PHWR)

Non-saturated types of precision half wave rectifiers are suitable for high frequency applications.
In HWR, the diode conducts in one of the half cycles of applied ac input signal. The HWR can
classified as positive PHWR (output is positive) and negative PHWR (output is negative). The
following figure shows the circuit diagram of a positive Precision HWR.
In positive half cycle of applied ac input signal output of op-amp is negative, so diode D1 is
forward biased and D2 is reversed biased. The output of op-amp is virtually shorted to ground and
prevented going into saturation. Thus, output voltage is zero.
Vo = 0 V (2.13)
In negative half cycle of applied ac input signal output of op-amp is positive, so diode D2 is forward
−R
biased and D1 is reversed biased. The circuit now works as an inverting amplifier with gain of R1 f
and V0 = Vin A.

h!
Figure 2.4: Precision Half Wave Rectifier
Figure 2.5: Transfer characteristics and input-output waveforms of Precision half-wave rectifier
But in negative half cycle input magnitude is negative therefore we get,

−R f
V0 = (−Vin )[ ] (2.14)
R1
Rf
V0 = (Vin ) (2.15)
R1
R
Thus in negative half cycle output is positive with a gain of R1f . The transfer characteristics and
input-output waveforms of Precision half-wave rectifier are shown in Figure 2.5
2.4.2 Precision Full wave Rectifier

In PFWR, for both the half cycles output is produced & in one direction only. The diagram
below shows an inverting type of Precision FWR with positive output. It is also called as absolute
value circuit because output signal swing is only in positive direction. So we get absolute value
of input signal. In positive half cycle of applied ac input signal, output of first op-amp (A1 ) is

Figure 2.6: Precision Full wave Rectifier
Negative. Therefore, diode D2 is forward biased & diode D1 is reverse biased. Here op-amp
A1 works as an inverting amplifier with gain = (−R/R) = −1 Therefore, output of op-amp A1 is,
V = (−1)Vin = −Vin Op-amp A2 works as an inverting adder. The two inputs to the op-amp A2 are
voltage V (output of A1 ) and input voltage Vin . Thus output of op-amp A2 i.e. Output voltage is
given as
R R
V0 = −[ Vin + R V ] (2.16)
R R
V0 = −[Vin + 2V ] (2.17)
Substituting V = −Vin , Vo = Vin In negative half cycle of applied ac input signal, output of first
op-amp (A1 ) is positive. Therefore, diode D2 is reversed biased & diode D1 is forward biased. Due
to virtual ground concept output of op-amp A1is zero. (V=0). Thus, output of op-amp A2 , i.e.
Output voltage is given as
R R
V0 = −[ Vin + R V ] (2.18)
R R
R R
V0 = −[ Vin + R (0)] (2.19)
R R
But in negative half cycle input magnitude is negative therefore we get
R
V0 = −[ (−Vin )] (2.20)
R
V0 = Vin (2.21)
Thus in both the half cycles output is positive & in one direction & also have same magnitude. Thus
it is also called as non-saturating type of PFWR because op-amp A1 is not going in saturation.The
transfer characteristics and input-output waveforms of PFWR are shown below,

Figure 2.7: Transfer characteristics and input-output waveforms of Precision full-wave rectifier

Figure 2.8: circuit diagram of an op-amp based logarithmic amplifier
2.5 Log amplifiers

The electronic circuits which perform the mathematical operations such as logarithm with am-
plification are called as Logarithmic amplifier. A logarithmic amplifier, or a log amplifier, is an
electronic circuit that produces an output that is proportional to the logarithm of the applied input.
The op-amp based logarithmic amplifier produces a voltage at the output, which is proportional to
the logarithm of the voltage applied to the resistor connected to its inverting terminal. The circuit
diagram of an op-amp based logarithmic amplifier is shown in figure 2.8. In the figure 2.8, the
non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is connected to ground. That means zero volts is applied
at the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp. According to the virtual short concept, the
voltage at the inverting input terminal of an op-amp will be equal to the voltage at its non-inverting
input terminal. So, the voltage at the inverting input terminal will be zero volts. The nodal equation
at the inverting input terminal’s node is
0 −Vi
+ If = 0 (2.22)
Ri
Vi
If = (2.23)
Ri
The following is the equation for current flowing through a diode, when it is in forward bias
Vf
I f = Is e µVT (2.24)
Is is the saturation current of the diode, V f is the voltage drop across diode, when it is in forward
bias, VT is the diode’s thermal equivalent voltage and µ is emission coefficient. The KVL equation
around the feedback loop of the op amp will be
0 −V f −V0 = 0 (2.25)
V f = −V0 (2.26)
Substituting the value of Vf in Equation 2.24, we get
V0
I f = Is e µVT (2.27)
Observe that the left-hand side terms of both equation 2.23 and equation 2.27 are same. Hence,
equate the right-hand side term of those two equations as shown below
Vi −V0
= Is e nVT (2.28)
Ri

Vi −V0
= e nVT (2.29)
Ri Is
Applying natural logarithm on both sides, we get
Vi V0
ln( )= (2.30)
R1 Is nVT
Vi
V0 = −nVT ln (2.31)
R1 Is
Note that in the above equation, the parameters n, VT and Is are constants. So, the output voltage V0
will be proportional to the natural logarithm of the input voltage Vi for a fixed value of resistance R1 .
Therefore, the op-amp based logarithmic amplifier circuit discussed above will produce an output,
which is proportional to the natural logarithm of the input voltage VT , when R1 Is = 1V . Observe
that the output voltage V0 has a negative sign, which indicates that there exists a 180 degree phase
difference between the input and the output.
2.6 Charge amplifiers

A charge amplifier is an electronic current integrator that produces a voltage output proportional to
the integrated value of the input current. This is effectively a measurement of the electrical input
charge; hence the naming of the device. The amplifier offsets the input charge using a feedback
reference capacitor, and produces an output voltage inversely proportional to the value of the
reference capacitor but proportional to the total input charge flowing during the specified time
period; hence the circuit acts as a charge-to-voltage converter. The gain of the circuit depends
on the values of the feedback capacitor and the feed-in resistor. Piezo electric transducers are
extensively used in accelerometers, pressure pickups, and load cells. This has led to development
of a special kind of an amplifier called a charge amplifier
Charge amplifiers are usually constructed using an operational amplifier or other high gain
semiconductor circuit with a negative feedback capacitor.
Output voltage V0 is linaerly related to input displacement X − i. It indicates that the output
changes instantaneously with input without loss in the steady state response. In practice the
amplifier gets saturated due to the bias current through the op amp charging the feedback capacitor
C f . The capacitor does not process infinite resistance. Thus problem is overcome by connecting a
resistance R f of high value across the C f in the feedback
2.6.1 Disadvantages
• The signal to noise ratio tends to be small.
• The natural frequency of the transducer is reduced due to loss of stiffness caused by what
amounts to a short circuit across the crystal
2.6.2 Advantages
• Enables quasi-static measurements in certain situations, such as constant pressures on a piezo
lasting several minutes.
• Piezo element transducer can be used in much hotter environments than those with internal
electronics.
• The output voltage is proportional to the charge produced by the piezo electric transducer.
• The amount of charge present is not affected by the cable capacitance
Gain is dependent only on the feedback capacitor, unlike voltage amplifiers, which are affected
greatly by the input capacitance of the amplifier and the parallel capacitance of the cable

Figure 2.9: charge amplifier

Figure 2.10: Isolation Amplifier
2.6.3 Applications
• Accelerometer signal conditioning
• Guitar pickup amplifiers
• Vibration transducers
2.7 Isolation Amplifier

• An isolation amplifier (also called a unity-gain amplifier/ isolator) is an op-amp circuit which
provides isolation of one part of a circuit from another, so that power is not used, drawn, or
wasted in a part of the circuit.
• It is an amplifier circuit with its input circuit galvanically isolated from its power supply and
output.
• The purpose of an isolation amplifier is not to amplify the signal. The same signal that is
input into the op amp gets passed out exactly the same. This means that output voltage is the
same exact as the input voltage, meaning if 10V AC is input into a circuit, 10V AC is output.
Isolation amplifiers serve as buffers.
• It is specifically recommended for the use when accurate amplification measurement of dc
and low frequency voltage signals are required with high CMRR and high common mode
voltages of the order of few kV are present along with desired signals.
• Isolation result in low drift
• The purpose of an isolation amplifier is to isolate the circuit which appears before the
amplifier from the circuit that appears after it.
• Isolation amplifiers are used in medical instruments to ensure isolation of a patient from
power supply leakage current.
• Isolation amplifiers are commercially available as hybrid integrated circuits made by several
manufacturers
• An op amp is a device with very high input impedance. This high input impedance causes
isolation. When a circuit has very high input impedance, very little current is drawn from a
power source. Thus, an op amp, being of very high impedance, does not cause any significant
amount of current to be drawn from the power. It draws very little current; thus, practically
no current is drawn and transferred from the first part of the circuit to the second. The high-
impedance load of the op amp ensures this. Thus, the op amp serves as an isolation device
from one part of a circuit to the next or of different circuits.
• To provide isolation two techniques are employed.
1. Transformer coupling
2. Optical coupling

Figure 2.11: Transformer coupling
Figure 2.12: Optical coupling
2.7.1 Transformer coupling

To allow signal transmission from input to output without a conductive connection, transformer
method is used. Refer Figure 2.11.
2.7.2 Optical coupling

Isolators transduce input voltage to proportional light intensity by using LEDs. This light is
transduced back to output voltage by light sensitive diodes. The photodiode is mounted inside a
package along with the LED so that the electrical signals converted into light signals in the LED
are received by the photodiode. Thus electrical isolation is achieved by optical coupling. The
combination is known as optocoupler. Refer figure 2.12.
Advantages
Simple circuit, smaller dimension, low cost, excellent electromagnetic compatibility.
2.8 Phase sensitive detectors

• The phase sensitive detector circuit is used for detection and measurement of the amplitude
and phase of a periodic signal with respect to another reference signal of the same frequency.
• It is also known as lock in amplifier and synchronous demodulator. The circuit diagram is
given below.
• The reference signal is assumed to be a square wave driving the switch towards the contactor
1during the positive half cycle and to contactor 2 during the negative half cycle. The sinusoidal
test signal is amplified to get reasonable amplitude and then applied to the switching system.
• The reference and test signals are of the same frequency and hence the output of the adder

Figure 2.13: Phase sensitive detectors
consist of full wave rectified signal, if the signals are in phase.

• When the test and reference signals are in phase, the operation is similar to an ac-to-dc
converter.
• When there is a phase difference between them, the average output voltage and the meter
reading become the functions of the phase angle θ of the test voltage with respect to the
reference voltage.
• When θ = 1800 , the reading reaches a negative maximum.
• When θ = 900 , the reading is zero.
• The low pass filter removes the ac ripple components and presents ripple free dc output
voltage for indication.
• If the frequency of the test signal and reference signal is not exactly the same, the output
of the adder in each half cycle becomes erratic changing positive to negative values. Thus,
finally becoming zero when averaged over many cycles.
• For use with test signals of low to moderate frequencies, the circuit of a phase sensitive
detector with an FET acting as a single pole double throw switch.
• The output response is limited by a capacitor C in the low pass filter. The op amp 2 provides
the output voltage with respect to ground.
• Most of the phase sensitive detectors may be designed with additional provision for shifting
the phase of the reference signal until a maximum or a zero reading is obtained.
• Noise signal should not constitute so large an amplitude in comparison to the component
being searched as to cause saturation of the amplifier at the input end.
2.9 Carrier Amplifiers

• The carrier amplifiers are used with transducers which require an external source of excitation.
• They are characterized by high gain, negligible drift, extremely low noise and the ability to
operate with resistive, inductive or capacitive transducers.
• A carrier amplifier is made up of a carrier oscillator, a bridge balance, with a calibration
circuit, a high gain ac amplifier, a phase-sensitive detector, and a dc output amplifier.
• The dc input signal is filtered by a lowpass filter, then used to modulate a carrier so it can be
amplified conventionally as an alternating-current signal.
• The amplified dc output is obtained by rectifying and filtering the rectified carrier signal.
• Oscillator is used to energize the transducer with an alternating carrier voltage. Transducers
require ac excitation and whose impedance is not purely resistive.
• Transducer shall change the amplitude of the carrier voltage in relation to changes in the
physiological variable being measured.

Figure 2.14: A block diagram of a carrier amplifier
• Output of transducer would be an amplitude modulated signal.

• Modulated signal is given to multi stage capacitance coupled amplifier.
• First stage produces amplification of AM signal.
• Second stage is constructed that it can respond only to signal frequency of the carrier. It can
be further amplified in the following stage.
• Then signal is demodulated in phase sensitive demodulator circuit. It helps to extract
amplified signal voltage after filter circuit.
• The voltage produced by the demodulator can then be applied to the driver stage of the
writing system.
• Carrier amplifiers can be used with a resistance strain gauge transducer such as a semicon-
ductor strain gauge.
• When used with pressure gauges, a calibration control is provided on the carrier amplifier
2.10 Lock-in amplifiers

A lock-in amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that is used to extract a small signal that
is buried in noise. It is commonly used in scientific research, particularly in experimental
physics, to measure weak signals in the presence of noise. The basic principle of a lock-in
amplifier is to use a reference signal to extract a signal of interest. The reference signal is
typically a sine wave that is generated by an oscillator. This sine wave is then multiplied with
the signal of interest, and the resulting product is then passed through a low-pass filter. The
low-pass filter is used to remove any high-frequency noise that may be present in the signal.
By adjusting the frequency of the oscillator, the lock-in amplifier can be tuned to extract
a particular frequency component of the signal of interest. The lock-in amplifier can also
be used to measure the amplitude and phase of the extracted signal. Lock-in amplifiers are

Figure 2.15: Lock-in amplifiers
commonly used in a variety of scientific applications, including spectroscopy, magnetometry,

and imaging. They are particularly useful in situations where the signal of interest is weak
and buried in noise, as they allow researchers to extract the signal with a high degree of
accuracy.
2.10.1 Working
• The lock-in amplifier is used to detect a modulated signal (i.e., a signal that oscillates at a
well-defined frequency and phase) that is typically buried in a large noise background.
• To do so, a reference signal (i.e. a clean sinusoidal voltage whose frequency is the same as
the one that you wish to detect) is supplied into the "lock-in."
• This reference provides both the frequency and phase of the expected signal. To narrow its
output to a small bandwidth around the expected frequency at the specified phase, the signals
are multiplied together ( mixed or demodulated).
• If the signal and reference are correlated their multiplication will be positive on average since
a positive number times a positive number and a negative number times a negative number
are both result in positive answers.
• Random noise and the reference are uncorrelated and their multiplied value will fluctuate in
time and average to zero.
• A low pass filter picks out the part of the signal that is correlated with the reference essentially
by averaging the output of the mixer, This is the lock-in output.
2.11 Final Control Operation

Final control element operations involve the steps necessary to convert the control signal (generated
by a process controller into proportional action on the process itself. Thus, to use a typical 4 to
20mA control signal to vary a large flow rate from say 10m3 /min to 50m3 /min certainly requires
some intermediate operations. The specific intermediate operations vary and depends upon the
process control design, but generalization is done regarding the steps leading from the control
signal to the final control element. The control signal may be electric current, digital signal or
pneumatic pressure.
2.11.1 Signal Conversions

This step modifies the control signal to properly interface with the next stage, actuator. Objective of
signal conversion is to convert the low energy control signal to high energy signal. If a valve control
element is to be operated by an electric motor actuator, then 4- 20 mA dc control signal must be
modified to operate a motor. If the dc motor is used, modification might be current to voltage
conversion and amplification. The devices that perform signal conversion are called transducers
because they convert control signals from one form to another such as current to pressure, current
to voltage etc.

Figure 2.16: Final Control Operation
2.11.2 Actuators
The results of signal conversions provide am amplified or converted signal designed to operate
(actuate) a mechanism that changes a controlling variable in the process. The direct effect is usually
implemented by something in the process such as a valve or heater that must be operated by some
device. The actuator is a translation of the (converted) control signal into action on the control
element. If a valve is to be operated then the actuator is a device that converts the control signal
into the physical action of opening or closing the valve.
2.11.3 Control element

This device has direct influence on the process and is designed as an integral part of the process, If
flow is to be controlled then the control element a valve must be built directly into the flow system.
Similarly if temperature is to be controlled then control element (mechanism to OFF the heater/fan),
that has a direct influence on temperature is to be controlled.
2.12 Electromechanical / Electrical Actuating System

• This type of actuators converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
• There are different ways to achieve this conversion. Includes all motors, responsible for
moving or controlling a mechanism.
• One of the popular methods which is used by many electromechanical actuators is by
generating magnetic field in which “when current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic
field it experiences mechanical force” - Lorentz’s Law of Electromagnetic Force. This
generated force will further be converted into mechanical motion.
• DC and AC motors, solenoids, voice coils, Active materials (piezoelectric, electrostrictive
etc.) and MEMS.
2.12.1 Solenoid
• A solenoid is an elementary device that converts an electrical signal into mechanical motion,
usually rectilinear.
• Consists of a coil and plunger. The plunger may be freestanding or spring loaded.
• The coil will have some voltage or current rating and may be dc or ac.
• Solenoid specifications include the electrical rating and the plunger pull or push force when

Figure 2.17: Solenoid
excited by the specified voltage.

• Are used when a large, sudden force must be applied to perform some job.
• Solenoid is used to change the gears of a two-position transmission as shown in 2.17.
2.12.2 Electrical Motors

• Electrical motors are devices that accept electrical input and produce a continuous rotation as
a result.
• Motor styles and sizes vary as demands for rotational speed (revolutions per minute, or rpm),
starting torque, rotational torque, and other specifications vary.
• Most common control situation is where motor speed drives some part of a process, and must
be controlled to control some variable in the process- e.g.: the drive of a conveyor system
• There are many types of electrical motors, each with its special set of characteristics- dc
motor, ac motor, stepping motor etc.
Components of Electric Motor

• • Electric Motor- Electric motors has wide applications in the industrial as well as in automa-
tion sector and popularly used in robotics application because of its high speed of response,
finer speed control capability. The magnetic field of stator interacts with magnetic field of
rotor to produce rotating torque. There are two basic types of electric motor - AC & DC
motor which consist of basic element such as
• Stator– It is stationery outer part of motor made up of permanent magnet or coil winding.
• Rotor – It is rotating part of motor made up of permanent magnet or ferromagnetic coil.
• Armature–Rotor winding that generates rotor magnetic field.
• Field Coil – Part of stator which generates stator magnetic field.
• Air Gap – Small gap between stator and rotor where two magnetic fields interact with each
other to generate mechanical torque.
DC Motor
The rotation of a dc motor is produced by the interaction of two constant magnetic fields. Many dc
motors use an electromagnet instead of a PM to provide the static field. The coil used to produce
this field is called the field coil. This kind of dc motor is called a wound field motor. There are

Figure 2.18: Block Diagram of Motor Based Electrical Actuator System
different types of wound field DC motor based on the way in which the field winding is connected.
• Series Field DC motors: This motor has large starting torque but is difficult to speed control.
Good in applications for starting heavy, non-mobile loads and where speed control is not
important, such as for quick-opening valves.
• Shunt Field DC motors: This motor has a smaller starting torque, but good speed- control
characteristics produced by varying armature excitation current. Good in applications where
speed is to be controlled, such as in conveyor systems
• Compound Field DC motors: This motor attempts to obtain the best features of both of the
two previous types. Generally, starting torque and speed-control capability fall predictably
between the two pure cases.
Applications of DC Motor
• The use of dc motors in control systems ranges from very low energy, delicate control
applications, to heavy-duty control operations in elevators and vehicles.
• In general, PM types are used for motors of less than 10 hp (7.5 kW) and wound field types
for units up to about 100 to 200 hp (75 to 150 kW).
• Control of the speed and torque of these large machines requires very high power dc electricity.
Such power is derived from the power electronics devices.
• In general, three-phase ac power is rectified using switching technology to produce the
required high-voltage, high-current dc electricity.
• Control is often made possible by variation of the voltage amplitude.
AC Motors
The basic operating principle of ac motors still involves the interaction between two magnetic fields.
In this case, however, both fields are varying in time in consonance with the ac excitation voltage.
Therefore, the force between the fields is a function of the angle of the rotor but also the phase of
the current passing through the coils. There are two basic types of ac motors, synchronous and
induction. The primary motor for application to the control industry is the induction motor.
Synchronous Motor
• In a synchronous motor the ac voltage is applied to the field coils, called the stator in an ac
motor.
• This means the magnetic field is changing in time in phase with the impressed ac voltage.

• The armature, called the rotor for ac motors, is either a permanent magnet or a dc electro-
magnet, and possesses a fixed magnetic field.
• Synchronous motors can be operated using single-phase ac but such units are used for only
very low power (0.1 hp) and suffer from very low starting torque.
• When operated from three-phase, ac synchronous motors can be operated at very high power,
up to 50,000 hp
Induction Motors
• Induction ac motors are characterized by a rotor which is neither a PM nor a dc excited
electromagnet.
• Instead current induced in a coil wound on the rotor generates the interacting magnetic field
of the rotor.
• This current is induced from the stator coils.
• Single-phase induction motors are used for applications of relatively low power, say less
than 5 hp . Such motors are typical of those found in household appliances, for example. For
higher power we use three-phase ac excitation. Such motors are available up to 10,000 hp.
Steppier Motor
• The stepper motor has increased in importance in recent years because of the ease with which
it can be interfaced with digital circuits.
• A stepper motor is a rotating machine that actually completes a full rotation by sequencing
through a series of discrete rotational steps.
• Each step position is an equilibrium position in that, without further excitation, the rotor
position will stay at the latest step.
• Thus, continuous rotation is achieved by the input of a train of pulses, each of which causes
an advance of one step.
• It is not really continuous rotation, but discrete, stepwise rotation.
• The rotational rate is determined by the number of steps per revolution and the rate at which
the pulses are applied.
• A driver circuit is necessary to convert the pulse train into proper driving signals for the
motor.
• Most common stepper motor does not use a PM, but rather a rotor of magnetic material (not
a magnet) with a certain number of teeth.
• This rotor is driven by a phased arrangement of coils with a different number of poles so that
the rotor can never be in perfect alignment with the stator.
• The direction of rotation of stepper motors can be changed just by changing the order in
which different poles are activated and deactivated.
2.13 Pneumatic Actuating System

• Devices used for converting pressure energy of compressed air into the mechanical energy to
perform useful work.
• Actuators are used to perform the task of exerting the required force at the end of the stroke
or used to create displacement by the movement of the piston.
• The pressurized air from storage is supplied to pneumatic actuator to do work.
• The air cylinder is a simple and efficient device for providing linear thrust or straight line
motions.
• Pneumatic actuator consists of a piston and rod moving inside a closed cylinder.
• This actuator can be sub-divided into two types based on the operating principle: single
acting and double acting.
• The principle is based on the concept of pressure as force per unit area.

Figure 2.19: Single Acting Cylinder
• If we imagine that a net pressure difference is applied across a diaphragm of surface area A,
then a net force acts on the diaphragm given by F= A(P1-P2).
• P1-P2 = pressure difference (Pa) A = diaphragm area (m2), F = force (N)
• If we need to double the available force for a given pressure, it is merely necessary to double
the diaphragm area
• Very large forces can be developed by standard signal-pressure ranges of 3 to 15 psi(20 to
100 kPa).
• Many types of pneumatic actuators are available, but perhaps the most common are those
associated with control valves.
• Widely used in automation filed because of its low weight and compact size.
• Control of pneumatics system is slightly difficult as compare to hydraulic system because of
compressed air governing equations of pneumatics are nonlinear in nature.
Types of Pneumatics Actuators are
• Linear Actuator or Pneumatic cylinders
– Single acting cylinder
– Double acting cylinder
• Rotary Actuator or Air motors
• Limited angle Actuators
Single Acting Cylinder
• Cylinders have single air inlet line- One working port.
• Forward motion of the piston is obtained by supplying compressed air to working port while
return motion of piston is obtained by spring placed on the rod side of the cylinder.
• Used where force is required to be exerted only in one direction such as clamping, feeding,
sorting, locking, ejecting, braking etc.
• Available in short stroke lengths [maximum length up to 80 mm] due to the natural length of
the spring.
• Single acting cylinders require only about half the air volume consumed by a double acting
cylinder for one operating cycle.
Double Acting Cylinder
• Cylinders have two air inlet lines- Two working ports- one on the piston side and the other
on the rod-side.
• To achieve forward motion of the cylinder, compressed air is admitted on the piston side and
the rod side is connected to exhaust.

Figure 2.20: Double Acting Cylinder
• During return motion supply air admitted at the rod side while the piston side volume is
connected to the exhaust.
• Force is exerted by the piston both during forward and return motion of cylinder.
• Double acting cylinders are available in diameters from few mm to around 300 mm and
stroke lengths of few mm up to 2 meters
2.14 Components of Pneumatic Actuating System

• Compressor: Acts as power source for pneumatic system.
• Air Treatment Unit: Consist of Filter Regulator Lubricator(FRL) unit which comprises of
filter to filter the compressed air, a pressure regulator to regulate a flow of compressed air
and a lubricator to lubricate air.
• Valve: Controls the direction and regulates the air flowing to actuating system
• Actuator: Convert the pneumatic force or compressed air pressure into mechanical fore or
movement.
• Pipes: Used to connect various elements of actuating system with each other. Sensors: It
act as feedback element for a controller in pneumatic system. Controller: Monitors whole
system to provide required output.
2.14.1 Applications
• Tied rod cylinders,
• Rotary actuators, grippers,
• Rod-less actuators with magnetic linkage or rotary cylinders,
• Rod-less actuators with mechanical linkage,
• Pneumatic artificial muscles,
• Speciality actuators that combine rotary and linear motion (frequently used for clamping
operations)
• Vacuum generators.
2.14.2 Advantages
• High force rating
• Pneumatic actuators generate precise linear motion by providing accuracy, for example,
within 0.1 inches and repeatability within .001 inches.
• Pneumatic actuators typical applications involve areas of extreme temperatures. A typical
temperature range is -40°F to 250°F.

Figure 2.21: Various components of Hydraulic Actuators
• In terms of safety and inspection, by using air, pneumatic actuators avoid using hazardous
materials. They meet explosion protection and machine safety requirements because they
create no magnetic interference due to their lack of motors.
• In recent years, pneumatics has seen many advances in miniaturization, materials, and
integration with electronics and condition monitoring.
• The cost of pneumatic actuators is low compared to other actuators.
• Pneumatic actuators are also lightweight, require minimal maintenance, and have durable
components that make pneumatics a cost-effective method of linear motion
2.14.3 Drawbacks
• Pressure losses and air’s compressibility make pneumatics less efficient than other linear-
motion methods. Compressor and air delivery limitations mean that operations at lower
pressures will have lower forces and slower speeds. A compressor must run continually
operating pressure even if nothing is moving.
• To be truly efficient, pneumatic actuators must be sized for a specific job. Hence, they
cannot be used for other applications. Accurate control and efficiency requires proportional
regulators and valves, but this raises the costs and complexity.
• Even though the air is easily available, it can be contaminated by oil or lubrication, leading
to downtime and maintenance. Companies still have to pay for compressed air, making it a
consumable, and the compressor and lines are another maintenance issue.
2.15 Hydraulic Actuating System

It uses fluid power to produce mechanical force. Fluid power is technology that deals with the
generation, control and transmission of forces responsible for movement of mechanical element.
The fluid used in hydraulic actuator is highly incompressible so that pressure applied can be
transmitted instantaneously to the member attached to it.
Hydraulics is based on Pascal’s law which states that when there is an increase in pressure at any
point in a confined fluid, there is an equal increase at every other point in the container. Pressure
applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted undiminished and equally throughout the
fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of the confining vessel at right angles to its interior
surfaces. In simple words intensity of pressure in fluid is equal in all direction. Hydraulic actuators
are used where high speed and large forces are required.

• Pump: Hydraulic power generation system. Pump pressurizes fluid to the level required by
an actuating system.
• Valve: Controls the direction, pressure, flow rate of hydraulic fluid. It basically acts as a
regulating system.
• Actuator: Converts the fluid pressure into mechanical movement either linear or rotary.
• Pipes: Used to connect various elements of actuating system with each other. Accumulator,
• Reservoir and Filter: Filter is used to filter the hydraulic fluid to prevent damage to system
components by contaminants. Reservoir accumulator is use for storage purposes.
• Sensors: Crucial part of any automation process. Provide some kind of feedback signal to
evaluate the end result by controller.
• Control Device: Control whole actuating system by providing signals. (Microcontroller or
PLC are popularly used)
Hydraulic Actuators, as used in industrial process control, employ hydraulic pressure to drive an
output member. The fluid used in hydraulic actuator is highly incompressible so that pressure
applied can be transmitted instantaneously to the member attached to it. A hydraulic actuator
consists of a cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic power to facilitate mechanical operation.
The mechanical motion gives an output in terms of linear, rotary or oscillatory motion. Because
liquids are nearly impossible to compress, a hydraulic actuator can exert considerable force.
2.15.1 Principle Used in Hydraulic Actuator System

Pascal’s Law
Pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted undiminished and equally throughout
the fluid in all directions and acts upon every part of the confining vessel at right angles to its
interior surfaces.
Amplification of Force
Since pressure P applied on an area A gives rise to a force F, given as, F = PA Thus, if a force is
applied over a small area to cause a pressure P in a confined fluid, the force generated on a larger
area can be made many times larger than the applied force that crated the pressure. This principle is
used in various hydraulic devices to such hydraulic press to generate very high forces.
Hydraulic Actuators are of three types

• Linear Actuator
– Single Acting cylinder
– Double Acting cylinder
• Rotary Actuator
• Oscillatory Actuator
2.15.1.1 Linear Actuator: Single Acting Cylinder

In single acting cylinder actuator, there is only one opening for the fluid to enter and leave. The
forward motion is due to the hydraulic pressure of the fluid entering through the opening, while the
reverse motion is due to the spring.
2.15.1.2 Double Acting Cylinder

In double acting cylinder actuator, there are two openings for the fluid to enter and leave. The
forward motion is due to the hydraulic pressure of the fluid entering through one opening, while the
reverse motion is due to the hydraulic pressure of the fluid entering through one opening.
2.16 Advantages of Hydraulic Actuator Systems

Variable Speed and Direction: The actuator (linear or rotary) of a hydraulic system, can be driven
at speeds that vary by large amounts and fast, by varying the pump delivery or using a flow control

Figure 2.22: Single Acting Cylinder & Double Acting Cylinder
valve. A hydraulic actuator can be reversed instantly while in full motion without damage. This is
not possible for most other prime movers.
• Power-to-weight ratio: Hydraulic components, because of their high speed and pressure
capabilities, can provide high power output with vary small weight and size.
• Stall Condition and Overload Protection: A hydraulic actuator can be stalled without damage
when overloaded, and will start up immediately when the load is reduced. The pressure relief
valve in a hydraulic system protects it from overload damage. During stall, or when the load
pressure exceeds the valve setting, pump delivery is directed to tank with definite limits to
torque or force output.
• Hydraulic actuators are rugged and suited for high-force applications. They can produce
forces 25 times greater than pneumatic cylinders of equal size. They also operate in pressures
of up to 4,000 psi.
• Hydraulic motors have high horsepower-to-weight ratio by 1 to 2 hp/lb greater than a
pneumatic motor.
• A hydraulic actuator can hold force and torque constant without the pump supplying more
fluid or pressure due to the incompressibility of fluids
• Hydraulic actuators can have their pumps and motors located a considerable distance away
with minimal loss of power.
2.16.1 Drawbacks
• Hydraulics will leak fluid. Like pneumatic actuators, loss of fluid leads to less efficiency.
However, hydraulic fluid leaks lead to cleanliness problems and potential damage to sur-
rounding components and areas.
• Hydraulic actuators require many companion parts, including a fluid reservoir, motors, pumps,
release valves, and heat exchangers, along with noise-reduction equipment. This makes for
linear motions systems that are large and difficult to accommodate.
2.17 Control Elements

The actual control element (which is a part of the process itself) can be many different devices
2.17.1 Mechanical
Control elements that perform some mechanical operation in a process (by virtue of operations) are
called mechanical control elements. Examples of these types are
Solid-Material Hopper Valves

Consider the grain supply bin shown. The control system is to maintain the flow of grain from the
storage bin to provide a constant flow rate on the conveyor. This flow depends on the height of
grain in the bin, and hence the hopper valve must open or close to compensate for the variation. In

Figure 2.23: Solid-Material Hopper Valves
this case, an actuator operates a vane-type valve to control the grain flow rate. The actuator could
be a motor to adjust shaft position, a hydraulic cylinder, or some other mechanism.
Paper Thickness
The essential features of a system for controlling paper thickness are shown. The paper is in a wet
fibre suspension and is passed between rollers. By varying the roller separation, paper thickness is
regulated. The mechanical control element shown is the movable roller. The actuator, which could
be electrical, pneumatic, or hydraulic, adjusts roller separation based on a thickness measurement.
2.17.2 Electrical
There are numerous cases where a direct electrical effect is impressed in some process control
situation.
Motor-Speed Control
The speed of large electrical motors depends on many factors, including supply voltage level, load,
and others. A process-control loop regulates this speed through direct change of operating voltage
or current, as shown in Figure for a dc motor. Voltage measurements of engine speed from a
tachometer are used in a process-control loop to determine the power applied to the motor brushes.
In some cases, motor speed control is an intermediate operation in a process- control application.
Temperature Control
Temperature often is controlled by using electrical heaters in some application of industrial control.
Thus, if heat can be supplied through heaters electrically in an endothermic reaction, then the

Figure 2.24: Paper Thickness
Figure 2.25: Motor-Speed Control

Figure 2.26: Temperature Control
process-control signal can be used to ON or OFF cycle a heater or set the heater within a continuous
span of operating voltages, as in Fig 2.26 In this example, a reaction vessel is maintained at some
constant temperature using an electrical heater. The process-control loop provides this by smoothly
varying excitation to the heater.
2.18 Fluid Valves

Industrial valves are devices that are used to regulate liquids, gases, and slurries. The flow of
liquids or gases can be controlled using these valves. This can be done through pipes and other
passageways by opening, closing, and partially obstructing the passageway or pipe.
Different types of Industrial Valves include:
1. Gate Valves
2. Globe Valves
3. Ball Valves
4. Butterfly Valves
5. Check Valves
2.18.1 Gate Valves

Gate Valves are designed to serve as isolation valves. These valves help to control the flow of
liquid through the pipes. To start or stop the water flow or any other kind of liquid, these valves are
affixed to the pipelines. Gate valves are used for various purposes and they can be seen commonly
in homes and commercial centers. Different materials such as stainless steel, cast iron, alloy steel,
forged steel etc are used to manufacture these valves.
Gate valves are used to either halt or start the flow of water. Functioning of gate valves includes
the lifting of a circular of the rectangular gate out of the fluid path. When gate valves are open,
there will be nothing to obstruct the flow as the pipeline diameter and gate have the same opening.
The valve size can be determined with this bore diameter

Applications:
• Gate valves are suitable to use in high temperature and pressure conditions. • They are used for
on-off applications
2.18.2 Globe Valves

Globe Valves are among the most popular type of valves used in various applications. These valves
are similar to gate valves and use linear motion to throttle flow. They are used to control the flow in
a pipeline and they regulate by the position of a movable disk (or plug) in relation to the stationary
ring seat. The major advantage of a globe valve is, it does not leak as much as other valves.
Globe valves are composed of a baffle that splits the inside of the pipe, which is typically
parallel to the pipe’s length. They are named for their spherical body shape with the two halves of
the body being separated by an internal baffle. It consists of a movable disk-type element and a
stationary ring seat in a generally spherical body.
Applications: Global valves are used primarily for throttling purposes. They may be considered as
general purpose flow control valves that are used for high-temperature applications.
2.18.3 Ball Valves

As the name suggests, ball valves are valves that use a ball to control the flow of substances from
one opening to the next. These valves work by allowing the hole to be open, blocked, or open
partially to regulate the flow of gas/liquid. Ball valves are the ideal choice for using with gases as
they are able to offer better sealing. They are very versatile as they support pressures up to 700 bars
and temperatures up to 200 Degree C and sizes typically range from 0.5 cm to 30 cm. They are
easy to operate and repair as they contain a simple structure.
They are designed with special measures that permit only a 90-degree rotation which is required
for the opening and closing of ball valves. These valves are a notable industrial choice because of
their reliable and air-tight sealing when in the closed position.
Applications: • Ball Valves are used for flow and pressure control and shut off for corrosive fluids,
slurries, normal liquid and gases. • They are used in the oil and natural gas industry, but also find a
place in many manufacturing sectors, chemical storage, and even residential uses.
2.18.4 Butterfly Valves

Butterfly Valves are designed to regulate flow, but with limited control capability. Butterfly valves
are easily operated by rotating a handle 90 degrees. It consists of a metal disc in the body of the
valve which is positioned perpendicular to the flow in the closed position. Regulation of liquid
flow can be allowed through intermediate rotations. Butterfly valves are configured to operate
electronically, manually or pneumatically.
They can be used for a broad range of applications within water supply, wastewater treatment,
fire protection and gas supply, in the chemical and oil industries, in fuel handling systems, power
generation etc. These valves can be operated by handles, gears or actuators according to specific
needs.
Applications: • Butterfly valves can be used in pharmaceutical, chemical, and food processing
services. • They are used for corrosive liquids at low temp and pressure.
2.18.5 Check Valves

Check Valves are also known as Non Return Valve (NRV). They allow liquid to flow in one direction
only and prevents back flow of media in the reverse direction. The purpose of check valves is to
prevent process flow from reversing in the system which could damage equipment or upset the
process.
They are commonly found protecting pumps in liquid applications or compressors in gas

Figure 2.27: Fluid Valves
systems where backflow could cause the pump or compressor to shut down. The basic design of a
check valve reduces backflow in a line.
As they have a simpler design, they can operate without human interaction and automation.
They rely on the flow velocity of the fluid to open and close. The higher the flow rate, the more
open the valve will be until it reaches it maximum, full open position.
Applications:
• Check valves are used in a variety of markets and applications as they contain simple design
and versatile material options. • They help to prevent backflow and maintain pressure. • Check
valves can be seen in industries such as refining, petrochemical, chemical, etc., oilfield production,
water, steam, refining petro, and viscous fluids. • They are also commonly found in waste-water
management systems and in manufacturing.

1. How can a log amplifier be used for signal conditioning?
2. Describe the working of electrical actuators
3. Explain different types of actuators.
4. Explain the working principle of charge amplifier
5. Explain the operation of Instrumentation amplifier
6. How phase sensitive detectors can be employed for phase measurement.
7. Explain amplifier circuits used for signal conditioning in instrumentation systems
8. Explain the working principle of a differential amplifier and give an example of its application.
9. What is an instrumentation amplifier? How does it differ from a standard operational
amplifier?
10. Describe the operation of a precision rectifier and give an example of its use.
11. What is a log amplifier and what are some of its applications?
12. What is a carrier amplifier and how is it used in communication systems?
13. What is a lock-in amplifier and what are some of its applications?
14. What is an isolation amplifier and how is it used in industrial applications?
15. Explain the operation of a charge amplifier and give an example of its use.
16. What is a phase-sensitive detector and what are some of its applications?
17. Describe the final control operation in a control system and explain how signal conversion
and actuators are used in this process.
18. What are the different types of actuators used in control systems?
19. Explain the differences between electrical, pneumatic, and hydraulic actuators.
20. What are control elements in a control system?
21. Explain the differences between mechanical and electrical control system,
22. Write about different fluid valves.

III
Module 3
3 Data transmission and Virtual instrumenta-

tion system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.1 Cable transmission of analog and digital data . 87
3.2 Fiber optic data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.3 Pneumatic Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4 Process control network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.5 Functions and General characteristics of a process
control network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.6 Fieldbus and Profibus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.7 Radio Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.8 Wireless communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.9 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) . . . . . . . 95
3.10 Virtual instrumentation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.11 Concept of Graphical programming . . . . . . . 100

3. Data transmission and Virtual
instrumentation system
Syllabus
Cable transmission of analog and digital data, Fiber optic data transmission, Pneumatic transmission.
Process control Network- Functions- General characteristics- Fieldbus and Profibus, radio-wireless
communication, WLAN architecture. Virtual instrumentation system: The architecture of virtual
instruments – Virtual instruments and traditional instruments – concepts of graphical programming
3.1 Cable transmission of analog and digital data

Cable transmission of analog and digital data refers to the use of cables to transmit information
in the form of analog or digital signals. This type of transmission is used in various applications,
including telecommunications, broadcasting, and networking.
Analog Transmission
Analog transmission is a method of transmitting data in the form of analog signals. This involves
the use of cables to transmit information through electrical signals, which vary continuously over
time. Analog signals can be used to transmit voice and video signals, and they are commonly used
in applications such as cable TV and radio broadcasting.
Digital Transmission
Digital transmission is a method of transmitting data in the form of digital signals. This involves
the use of cables to transmit information through a series of discrete digital signals, represented as
0s and 1s. Digital signals can be used to transmit various types of data, including text, images, and
audio, and they are commonly used in applications such as the Internet and computer networks.
Cable Transmission
Cable transmission of analog and digital data can be achieved using various types of cables,
including coaxial cables, twisted pair cables, and fiber optic cables. Coaxial cables are commonly
used for cable TV and broadband Internet, while twisted pair cables are used for telephone lines
and local area networks (LANs). Fiber optic cables are used for long-distance data transmission,
such as in telecommunications and the Internet.

3.1.1 Advantages of Cable Transmission
Cable transmission of analog and digital data offers several advantages, including high data transfer
rates, low interference, and high reliability. Cable transmission also allows for long-distance data
transmission without the need for signal boosters or repeaters, which can be expensive and introduce
additional noise and distortion to the signal.
3.1.2 Disadvantages of Cable Transmission

Cable transmission of analog and digital data also has some disadvantages, including high installa-
tion costs, vulnerability to physical damage, and limited bandwidth capacity. Additionally, different
types of cables have different limitations, such as the maximum distance over which they can
transmit data and the type of signal they can support.
3.2 Fiber optic data transmission

Fiber optic data transmission is a method of sending information over long distances using light
signals that travel through optical fibers.An optical Fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent Fiber that
acts as a waveguide, or "light pipe", to transmit light between the two ends of the Fiber.Optical
fibers are widely used in Fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer
distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communication.Fibers are used
instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also immune to
electromagnetic interference. Here are some key notes on fiber optic data transmission:
1. The basic principle of fiber optic data transmission is that light is used to carry information
through a thin glass or plastic fiber. This is done by transmitting pulses of light down the
fiber, which are then received and converted back into electrical signals at the other end.
2. Fiber optic cables consist of one or more strands of optical fibers that are surrounded by
protective coatings. These coatings are designed to protect the fragile fibers from damage
and to ensure that the light signals remain focused and travel in the correct direction.
3. Fiber optic data transmission offers several advantages over traditional copper wiring, includ-
ing greater bandwidth, faster data transfer speeds, and longer transmission distances. This
makes it ideal for applications such as high-speed internet, video streaming, and long-distance
telecommunications.
4. There are two types of fiber optic cables: single-mode and multimode. Single-mode fibers
have a small core diameter and are designed for long-distance transmission, while multimode
fibers have a larger core diameter and are better suited for shorter distances.
5. Fiber optic data transmission is immune to electromagnetic interference, which can cause
problems for copper wiring. It is also less susceptible to signal loss over long distances,
which can degrade the quality of the signal and slow down data transfer speeds.
6. Fiber optic data transmission is commonly used in telecommunications networks, including
long-distance telephone, cable television, and internet infrastructure. It is also used in other
applications such as medical imaging, military communication, and industrial automation.
7. The installation and maintenance of fiber optic data transmission systems can be more com-
plex and expensive than traditional copper wiring, but the benefits of the technology make it
a popular choice for many applications.
Overall, fiber optic data transmission is a powerful and reliable technology that offers many
advantages over traditional copper wiring. As the demand for high-speed, long-distance data
transmission continues to grow, fiber optic technology is likely to play an increasingly important
role in our lives.

Figure 3.1: Block diagram of OFC system
3.2.1 Element of an Optical Fiber Transmission link

Basic block diagram of optical fiber communication system consists of following important blocks
1. Transmitter
2. Information channel
3. Receiver.
• The light beam pulses are then fed into a fiber– optic cable where they are transmitted over
long distances.
• At the receiving end, a light sensitive device known as a photocell or light detector is used to
detect the light pulses.
• This photocell or photo detector converts the light pulses into an electrical signal.
• The electrical pulses are amplified and reshaped back into digital form.
3.3 Pneumatic Transmission

Pneumatic transmission is transfer power by gas pressure or information fluid by compressed gas
as the working medium.
The system of transfer power is to transfer the compressed gas through the pipe and control
valve to the pneumatic actuator, which can transform the pressure of the compressed gas into the
work of mechanical energy.
The system of transmitting information is to use the pneumatic logic element or the jet element
to realize the function of logic operation, also called pneumatic control system.
3.3.1 Characteristics of pneumatic transmission

Low working pressure, the average of 0.3 - 0800000 mpa, gas viscosity is small, a small loss in
pipelines is advantageous for the gas supply and middle distance transportation, the use is safe, no
explosion and shock hazard, with overload protection ability; but the air pressure is low and needs
an air supply.

Figure 3.2: Pneumatic transmission
3.3.2 Composition of pneumatic transmission

• Pneumatic transmission consists of air source, pneumatic actuator, pneumatic control valve
and pneumatic auxiliary.
• Air sources are generally supplied by compressors.
• The pneumatic actuator converts the pressure of the compressed gas into mechanical energy
used to drive the working parts, including the cylinder and the pneumatic motor.
• The pneumatic control valve is used to adjust the direction, pressure and flow of the air,
which is correspondingly divided into directional control valve, pressure control valve and
flow control valve.
• Pneumatic accessories include: air purifier, Air lubricator, noise mufflers, pipe joints, etc.
• There are also aerodynamic sensors that are used to sensor and transmit information in a
pneumatic transmission.
3.3.3 Advantages of pneumatic transmission

1. Use air as the medium, inexhaustible, source is convenient, direct discharge after use, do
not pollute the environment, do not need to go back to the windpipe so the pipeline is not
complicated;
2. Small air viscosity, small flow energy dissipation, suitable for centralized gas supply and
long-distance transportation;
3. Safe and reliable, do not need fire and explosion protection, can work in an environment such
as high temperature, radiation, humidity, dust and so on;
4. The pneumatic transmission is quick;
5. The structure of pneumatic components is simple, easy to process, long service life, easy
to maintain, the pipeline is not easy to clog, and the medium does not have the problem of
metamorphic replacement.
3.3.4 Disadvantages of pneumatic transmission

1. Air compressibility is large, so the dynamic stability of the pneumatic system is poor, and the
impact of load change on working speed is great.
2. Low pressure of the pneumatic system, not easy to make large output and torque;
3. Air control signal transmission is slower than the electron and the speed of light, not suitable
for high-speed and complex transmission system;
4. Large exhaust noise;

3.4 Process control network
A process control network (PCN) is a specialized type of computer network used in industrial
process control and automation. It is designed to support the operation of critical infrastructure,
such as chemical plants, oil refineries, and power stations.
• Process control networks are used to monitor and control industrial processes, such as
the production of chemicals or the generation of electricity. They typically consist of a
combination of hardware and software components, including sensors, programmable logic
controllers (PLCs), human-machine interfaces (HMIs), and other specialized devices.
• The primary goal of a process control network is to ensure the safe and efficient operation
of critical infrastructure. This requires strict control over the flow of data and the access to
control systems, in order to prevent unauthorized access or malicious attacks.
• Process control networks are typically isolated from other types of computer networks, such
as corporate IT networks or the Internet. This isolation helps to prevent external threats from
compromising the integrity of the network.
• Due to the critical nature of the systems being controlled by a process control network,
reliability and availability are key design considerations. This includes redundancy in
hardware and communications pathways, as well as the use of fault-tolerant architectures.
• Despite their isolation from other networks, process control networks can still be vulnerable
to cyber attacks. Malicious actors can exploit vulnerabilities in software, hardware, or
communications protocols to gain unauthorized access to control systems, potentially causing
physical damage or disrupting operations.
• To mitigate these risks, process control networks often incorporate a range of security
measures, such as firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and access controls. Regular
security audits and testing are also important to ensure that the network remains secure over
time.
• As the demand for automation and digitalization in industrial processes grows, process
control networks are likely to become increasingly complex and interconnected. This will
require ongoing efforts to balance the benefits of automation with the need for security and
resilience in critical infrastructure.
• So a process control network is a specialized computer network used to monitor and control
industrial processes. Due to the critical nature of these systems, security and reliability are
key considerations in the design and operation of these networks. Ongoing efforts to balance
automation and digitalization with security and resilience will be essential as these networks
continue to evolve.
PCN networks more or less consist of the following components:
1. Human-Machine Interface (HMI): The Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is a device which
shows data to the human operator for monitoring and controlling remotely installed systems.
Examples include command-line interfaces, web-based interfaces, touchscreen interfaces and
Graphical User Interface (GUI)
2. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC): The Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a kind
of controller for various processes like water flow and water level, speed, status of valve,
temperature and so on. A PLC has a set of inputs for various processes and accordingly
produces outputs for controlling them
3. Remote Terminal Unit (RTU): The Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) is a system which is
connected to various sensors involved in the process. It converts sensor data to digital form
and sends it to SCADA systems
4. Master Terminal Units (MTU): Master Terminal Units (MTUs) is the master of the PCN
network. What the CPU is to the computer, MTU is to the PCN. They are central monitoring
and control stations which control multiple RTUs placed at remote locations

3.5 Functions and General characteristics of a process control
network
1. Monitoring and control: The primary function of a PCN is to monitor and control industrial
processes in real-time. This involves collecting data from sensors and other devices, analyzing
the data, and sending commands to control systems to adjust the process as needed.
2. Data storage and analysis: PCNs also store data about the industrial processes they monitor,
which can be used for analysis and optimization. This includes historical data that can be
used for trend analysis and predictive maintenance, as well as real-time data that can be used
for process control.
3. Communication: PCNs rely on communication protocols to facilitate the exchange of data
between devices on the network. These protocols must be reliable and secure, and they may
need to support real-time communication for time-critical applications.
4. Redundancy: To ensure reliable operation, PCNs typically incorporate redundant hardware
and communications pathways. This helps to ensure that the network can continue to operate
even if one component fails.
5. Security: As mentioned earlier, security is a critical function of a PCN. This includes
measures to prevent unauthorized access, detect and respond to security incidents, and ensure
the integrity and availability of the network.
6. Maintenance and troubleshooting: PCNs require ongoing maintenance and troubleshooting to
ensure that they continue to operate effectively. This may involve software updates, hardware
upgrades, or diagnostic testing
3.6 Fieldbus and Profibus

• Fieldbus and PROFIBUS are two common industrial communication protocols used in
process control networks (PCNs) to enable communication and control between devices such
as sensors, actuators, controllers, and other industrial equipment.
• Fieldbus is a generic term used to describe a family of industrial communication protocols
that use digital signaling to enable communication between devices in a PCN. Fieldbus
protocols are designed to operate over a single two-wire cable, allowing multiple devices
to share the same physical communication network. Fieldbus protocols can support a wide
range of functions, including control, data acquisition, and device diagnostics.
• PROFIBUS, on the other hand, is a specific type of Fieldbus protocol that was developed by
Siemens in the early 1990s. PROFIBUS uses a master/slave architecture to allow a controller
(the master) to communicate with multiple devices (the slaves) on the network. PROFIBUS
supports a wide range of applications, including process control, motion control, and safety
systems.
• PROFIBUS is widely used in many industrial applications, including manufacturing, process
automation, and building automation. It has been adopted as a standard by many organi-
zations, including the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and the European
Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC).
Overall, both Fieldbus and PROFIBUS are important communication protocols in industrial au-
tomation, enabling reliable and efficient communication between devices in PCNs.
3.7 Radio Communication

In radio communication systems, information is carried across space using radio waves. At the
sending end, the information to be sent is converted by some type of transducer to a time-varying
electrical signal called the modulation signal. The modulation signal may be an audio signal
representing sound from a microphone, a video signal representing moving images from a video

Figure 3.3: Radio Communication
camera, or a digital signal consisting of a sequence of bits representing binary data from a computer.
The modulation signal is applied to a radio transmitter. In the transmitter, an electronic oscillator
generates an alternating current oscillating at a radio frequency, called the carrier wave because it
serves to "carry" the information through the air. The information signal is used to modulate the
carrier, varying some aspect of the carrier wave, impressing the information on the carrier. Radio
communication. Information such as sound is converted by a transducer such as a microphone to an
electrical signal, which modulates a radio wave produced by the transmitter. A receiver intercepts
the radio wave and extracts the information-bearing modulation signal, which is converted back to
a human usable form with another transducer such as a loudspeaker. Different radio systems use
different modulation methods:
1. AM (amplitude modulation) – in an AM transmitter, the amplitude (strength) of the radio
carrier wave is varied by the modulation signal;
2. FM (frequency modulation) – in an FM transmitter, the frequency of the radio carrier wave is
varied by the modulation signal;
3. FSK (frequency-shift keying) – used in wireless digital devices to transmit digital signals,
the frequency of the carrier wave is shifted between frequencies.
4. OFDM (orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing) – a family of digital modulation meth-
ods widely used in high bandwidth systems such as Wi-Fi networks, cellphones, digital
television broadcasting, and digital audio broadcasting (DAB) to transmit digital data using a
minimum of radio spectrum bandwidth. It has higher spectral efficiency and more resistance
to fading than AM or FM.
3.8 Wireless communication

Wireless communication involves the transmission of information over a distance without the help
of wires, cables or any other forms of electrical conductors.
Wireless communication is a broad term that incorporates all procedures and forms of con-
necting and communicating between two or more devices using a wireless signal through wireless
communication technologies and devices.
Wireless communication is the transfer of information between two or more points that are
not physically connected by a wired medium, such as cables or fiber optic lines. Instead, wireless
communication uses electromagnetic waves to carry the information over the air.
Some common types of wireless communication include:
1. Wi-Fi: A wireless networking technology that allows devices to connect to the internet or
other networks without the need for cables.
2. Bluetooth: A short-range wireless technology used to connect devices such as smartphones,
headphones, and speakers.

3. Cellular communication: A wireless communication technology that allows mobile phones
to connect to cellular networks to make calls, send texts, and access the internet.
4. Satellite communication: A wireless communication technology that uses satellites orbiting
the earth to send and receive data over long distances.
Wireless communication has become increasingly important in our daily lives, as more devices
become connected to the internet and each other. However, there are also concerns around privacy,
security, and potential health effects of long-term exposure to electromagnetic waves.
3.8.1 Wireless communication Advantages

Wireless communication involves transfer of information without any physical connection be-
tween two or more points. Because of this absence of any ’physical infrastructure’, wireless
communication has certain advantages. This would often include collapsing distance or space.
Wireless communication has several advantages; the most important ones are discussed below
3.8.1.1 Cost effectiveness
Wired communication entails the use of connection wires. In wireless networks, communication
does not require elaborate physical infrastructure or maintenance practices. Hence the cost is
reduced.
Example: Any company providing wireless communication services does not incur a lot of
costs, and as a result, it is able to charge cheaply with regard to its customer fees.
3.8.1.2 Flexibility
Wireless communication enables people to communicate regardless of their location. It is not
necessary to be in an office or some telephone booth in order to pass and receive messages.
Example:Miners in the outback can rely on satellite phones to call their loved ones, and thus,
help improve their general welfare by keeping them in touch with the people who mean the most to
them.
3.8.1.3 Convenience
Wireless communication devices like mobile phones are quite simple and therefore allow anyone
to use them, wherever they may be. There is no need to physically connect anything in order to
receive or pass messages.
Example: Wireless communications services can also be seen in Internet technologies such as
Wi-Fi. With no network cables hampering movement, we can now connect with almost anyone,
anywhere, anytime.
3.8.1.4 Speed
Improvements can also be seen in speed. The network connectivity or the accessibility were much
improved in accuracy and speed.
Example: A wireless remote can operate a system faster than a wired one. The wireless control
of a machine can easily stop its working if something goes wrong, whereas direct operation can’t
act so fast.
3.8.1.5 Accessibility
The wireless technology helps easy accessibility as the remote areas where ground lines can’t be
properly laid, are being easily connected to the network.
Example:In rural regions, online education is now possible. Educators no longer need to travel
to far-flung areas to teach their lessons. Thanks to live streaming of their educational modules
3.8.1.6 Constant connectivity
Constant connectivity also ensures that people can respond to emergencies relatively quickly.

h!
Figure 3.4: WLAN
Example: A wireless mobile can ensure you a constant connectivity though you move from
place to place or while you travel, whereas a wired land line can’t.
3.9 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

A WLAN (wireless local area network) is a network that enables devices to connect and communi-
cate wirelessly. In contrast to a standard wired LAN, where devices connect via Ethernet cables,
WLAN devices interact via Wi-Fi. While a WLAN differs from a standard LAN in appearance,
it performs the same services. DHCP is commonly used to add and set up new devices. They
can communicate with other network devices in the same manner as wired devices can. The
fundamental distinction is in the manner in which data is conveyed. In a LAN, data is sent in a
sequence of Ethernet packets through physical connections. Packets are transmitted over the air in
a WLAN.
WLANs have expanded in popularity in tandem with wireless gadgets. In fact, wireless
routers currently account for the majority of router sales. A wireless router acts as a base station,
allowing any Wi-Fi-enabled device within range of the router’s wireless signal to connect wirelessly.
Laptops, tablets, smartphones, and other wireless devices, such as smart appliances and smart home
controllers, are included in this category. Wireless routers are usually connected to a cable modem
and perhaps another Internet-connected device in order to enable Internet access to connected
devices.
3.9.1 WLAN Architecture

1. Stations: Stations are network components that communicate wirelessly. They might be
access points or endpoints, and each has its own network address
2. Basic Service Set (BSS): A BSS is a network that connects a group of stations. An Indepen-
dent BSS is a set of stations in ad hoc networks (IBSS). An Extended Service Set (ESS) is a

Figure 3.5: BSS
Figure 3.6: WLAN

collection of connected BSSs, such as those found in a network with many access points.
3. Distribution system: In an ESS, the distribution system connects access points. Wired or
wireless connectivity are available. Mesh or its own WDS protocol can be used by a wireless
distribution system (WDS). Fixed wireless is a type of radio transmission used to connect
two geographically separated access points.
4. Bridge : A WLAN bridge connects a WLAN to a LAN or an access point.
5. Endpoint: An endpoint is a computer, mobile device, printer, or Internet of Things (IoT)
device used by a user.
6. Access point: The base station that serves as a connection point for other stations is known
as the access point. The term "access" refers to the stations’ network connection, but it could
also refer to internet access because many routers also function as modems. Ethernet cables
or wireless connections can be used to connect access points in an ESS.
3.10 Virtual instrumentation system

A virtual instrumentation system is a type of measurement and control system that uses software
and hardware components to acquire, process, display, and analyze data. The term "virtual" refers
to the fact that the system is implemented using a computer, rather than traditional hardware-based
systems.
In a virtual instrumentation system, the hardware components typically consist of sensors or
transducers that convert physical signals such as temperature, pressure, or voltage into electrical
signals that can be processed by the computer. These signals are then digitized using analog-to-
digital converters and processed using software to perform tasks such as filtering, analysis, and
control.
The software component of the system is typically implemented using graphical programming
environments such as LabVIEW, MATLAB, or Simulink. These environments allow users to create
virtual instruments that can be used to perform a wide range of tasks, from simple data acquisition
and analysis to complex control systems.
Virtual instrumentation systems have a number of advantages over traditional hardware-based
systems. They are often more flexible and adaptable, allowing users to easily modify and customize
their systems as needed. They can also be more cost-effective, since they can be implemented using
off-the-shelf hardware components and standard software tools. Additionally, virtual instrumenta-
tion systems can be easily integrated with other software tools and data analysis platforms, allowing
users to easily share and analyze their data.
KEY POINTS
• Virtual instrumentation is an inter disciplinary field that merges sensing, hardware and
software technologies in order to create flexible and sophisticated instruments for control
and monitoring applications
• Virtual Instrumentation is the use of customizable software and modular measurement
hardware to create user defined measurement systems called virtual instruments.
• Virtual instrument provides all the software and hardware needed to accomplish the measure-
ment or control task
• Virtual instrumentation combines mainstream commercial technologies, such as the PC, with
flexible software and a wide variety of measurement and control hardware
3.10.1 Virtual Instrument Architecture

A virtual instrument is composed of the following blocks:
• Sensor Module,
• Sensor Interface,
• Medical Information Systems Interface,

• Processing Module,
• Database Interface, and
• User Interface
The sensor module detects physical signal and transforms it into electrical form, conditions the
signal, and transforms it into a digital form for further manipulation. Through a sensor interface, the
sensor module communicates with a computer. Once the data are in a digital form on a computer,
they can be processed, mixed, compared, and otherwise manipulated, or stored in a database. Then,
the data may be displayed, or converted back to analog form for further process control. Biomedical
virtual instruments are often integrated with some other medical information systems such as
hospital information systems. In this way the configuration settings and the data measured may be
stored and associated with patient records.
1. Sensor module
• The sensor module performs signal conditioning and transforms it into a digital form
for further manipulation.
• Once the data are in a digital form on a computer, they can be displayed, processed,
mixed, compared, stored in a database, or converted back to analog form for further
process control.
• The database can also store configuration settings and signal records.
• The sensor module interfaces a virtual instrument to the external, mostly analog world
transforming measured signals into computer readable form.
A sensor module principally consists of three main parts:
1 The sensor,
2 The signal conditioning part, and
3 The A/D converter.
According to their position, biomedical sensors can be classified as:
1.Implanted sensors, where the sensor is located inside the user’s body, for example, intracra-
nial stimulation.
2. On-the-body sensors are the most commonly used biomedical sensors. Some of those
sensors, such as EEG or ECG electrodes, require additional gel to decrease contact resistance.
3. Noncontact sensors, such as optical sensors and cameras that do not require any physical
contact with an object.
The signal-conditioning module performs (usually analog) signal conditioning prior to AD
conversion, such as . This module usually does the amplification, transducer excitation, lin-
earization, isolation, or filtering of detected signals. The A/D converter changes the detected
and conditioned voltage into a digital value
2. Sensor interface
There are many interfaces used for communication between sensors modules and the com-
puter
According to the type of connection, sensor interfaces can be classified as wired and wireless
3. Processing Module
Integration of the general purpose microprocessors/microcontrollers allowed flexible imple-
mentation of sophisticated processing functions.
• As the functionality of a virtual instrument depends very little on dedicated hardware, which
principally does not perform any complex processing, functionality and appearance of the
virtual instrument may be completely changed utilizing different processing functions.
• Broadly speaking, processing function used in virtual instrumentation may be classified as
analytic processing and artificial intelligence techniques.
Analytic processing

Analytic functions define clear functional relations among input parameters. Some of
the common analyses used in virtual instrumentation include spectral analysis, filtering,
windowing, transforms, peak detection, or curve
Artificial intelligence techniques
Artificial intelligence technologies could be used to enhance and improve the efficiency, the
capability, and the features of instrumentation in application areas related to measurement,
system identification, and control . These techniques exploit the advanced computational
capabilities of modern computing systems to manipulate the sampled input signals and extract
the desired measurements.Artificial intelligence technologies, such as neural networks, fuzzy
logic and expert systems, were applied in various applications, including sensor fusion to
high-level sensors, system identification, prediction, system control, complex measurement
procedures, calibration, and instrument fault detection and isolation. Various nonlinear signal
processing, including fuzzy logic and neural networks, are also common tools in analysis of
biomedical signals
4. Database interface
Computerized instrumentation allows measured data to be stored for off-line processing, or
to keep record as a part of the patient record There are several currently available database
technologies that can be used for this purpose
5. Medical information system interface
Virtual instruments are increasingly integrated with other medical information systems, such
as hospital information systems.They can be used to create executive dashboards, supporting
decision support, real time alerts and predictive warnings .
3.10.2 Compare traditional instruments and virtual instruments

Traditional instrumentation and virtual instrumentation are two different approaches to acquiring
and measuring data in various fields. Here are some of the key differences between these two types
of instrumentation:
Physical Presence: Traditional instrumentation involves the use of physical instruments, such as
gauges, sensors, and meters, which are placed at the point of measurement. Virtual instrumentation,
on the other hand, involves the use of software-based instruments that operate on data collected
from sensors or other sources.
Measurement Techniques: Traditional instrumentation typically relies on analog measurement
techniques, such as measuring voltage or current, while virtual instrumentation relies on digital
techniques, such as sampling and processing data.
Data Acquisition: Traditional instrumentation typically involves manual data collection, where
readings are taken from physical instruments and recorded manually. In contrast, virtual instrumen-
tation uses automated data acquisition systems that can collect, process, and analyze large amounts
of data in real-time.
Flexibility: Virtual instrumentation offers more flexibility and customization than traditional
instrumentation. With virtual instrumentation, the data can be displayed in different formats and
can be manipulated to extract more information than with traditional instrumentation.
Cost: Traditional instrumentation can be more expensive than virtual instrumentation due to the
cost of physical instruments, especially if the instruments are rare or specialized. Virtual instrumen-
tation can be much cheaper and accessible, since it requires only software-based instruments and
standard computer hardware.
Learning Curve: Traditional instrumentation requires a certain level of expertise to set up and
operate, while virtual instrumentation can be set up and configured easily by individuals with
limited technical knowledge.

Figure 3.7: Comparison
3.11 Concept of Graphical programming

• Graphical programming is a visually-oriented approach to programming.
• Graphical programming is easier and more intuitive to use than traditional textual program-
ming.
• Textual programming requires the programmers to be reasonably proficient in the program-
ming language.
• Non-programmers can easily learn the graphical approach faster at less amount of time.
• The main advantage of textual languages like C is that they tend to have faster graphical
approach execution time and better performance than graphical programs.
• Textual programming environments are popular and many engineers are trained to use these
standardized tools.
• Graphical environments are better for nonprogrammers and useful for developing virtual
instruments quickly and need to be reconfigured rapidly.
• The most important task is to understand how to use standard analysis packages that can
directly input data from the instruments and can be used to analyze, store and present the
information in a useful format.
• Irrespective of whether it is classical or graphical environment any system with a graphical
system design can be looked at as being composed of two parts—the user interface and the
underlying code. The code in a conventional language like C comprises a number of routines
while in the graphical language G it is a collection of icons interconnected by multi-colored
lines

1. Compare Profibus and Fieldbus used in data transmission
2. List the advantages of virtual instrumentation systems
3. Explain the architecture of Virtual instrumentation system
4. Describe the concept of graphical programming
5. Explain the different types of communication networks used for data collection and control
in industrial applications
6. Explain Field bus
7. Explain Cable transmission of analog and digital data

8. Explain about Fiber optic data transmission
9. Describe Pneumatic transmission
10. Compare radio and wireless communication
11. Explain WLAN architecture
12. Compare traditional instruments and virtual instruments

IV
Module 4
4 Programmable logic controllers (PLC) 105

4.1 Introduction to Programmable logic controller (PLC)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.2 Types of PLCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.3 PLC architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.4 Advantages of PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.5 Comparison of PLC & PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.6 Processing cycle of a PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.7 Sequential control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.8 Main elements of ladder logic . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.9 Instruction codes of PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.10 ladder language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.11 Basic rules Ladder logic programming . . . . . . 113
4.12 Latching in PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.13 Timers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.14 Functions in TIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.15 Classification of timers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.16 Counters in PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.17 Counter Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.18 Important questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

4. Programmable logic controllers (PLC)
Syllabus
Programmable logic controllers- Organization- Hardware details- I/O- Power supply- CPU- Stan-
dards Programming aspects- Ladder programming- realization of AND, OR logic, the concept of
latching, Introduction to Timer/Counters, Exercises based on Timers and Counters.
4.1 Introduction to Programmable logic controller (PLC)

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is an industrial digital com-
puter which has been ruggedized and adapted for the control of manufacturing processes, such
as assembly lines, or robotic devices, or any activity that requires high reliability control and
ease of programming and process fault diagnosis. PLCs were first developed in the automobile
manufacturing industry to provide flexible, ruggedized and easily programmable controllers to
replace hard-wired relays, timers and sequencers. Since then, they have been widely adopted as
high-reliability automation controllers suitable for harsh environments. A PLC is an example of
a "hard" real-time system since output results must be produced in response to input conditions
within a limited time, otherwise unintended operation will result.
• The term logic is used because programming is primarily concerned with implementing logic
and switching operations; eg. if A or B occurs, switch on C.
• Input devices (that is, sensors such as switches) and output devices (motors, valves, etc.) in
the system being controlled are connected to the PLC.
Figure 4.1: PLC

• The operator then enters a sequence of instructions, a program, into the memory of the PLC.
The controller then monitors the inputs and outputs according to this program and carries out
the control rules for which it has been programmed.
4.2 Types of PLCs

Two types- unitary PLCs and modular PLCs
1. Unitary PLCs : Unitary PLCs have a fixed number of input/output (I/O) points and are
typically used in small-scale applications that require basic control functions. These types of
PLCs have a compact design and are often used in standalone machines or as part of a larger
control system.
2. Modular PLCs : Modular PLCs, on the other hand, consist of separate modules for power
supply, CPU, and I/O. They are more versatile and can be easily expanded or upgraded
as per the requirement of the application. Modular PLCs are typically used in large-scale
applications that require a high degree of flexibility and customization.It can be sub divided
into
a. Small PLC: PLC having less than 100 inputs and outputs are small PLCs. Out of the
I/Os, 20 inputs and 12 outputs are mounted locally with the processor. Additional I/Os
can be added through remote I/O racks to accommodate the extra inputs and outputs.
These PLCs have memory from 2KB to 10KB to store logic programs.
b. Medium PLC:Have extended instruction set that include mathematical functions, file
functions, PID process control etc. This can have between 4000 to 8000 inputs and out-
puts. They also support ASCII communication modules, basic programming modules,
16bit multiplexing modules. Analog input and output modules and communication
modules.
c. Large PLC:Provide enough memory space and I/O for complete factory automation.
Main disadvantage is that whole factory may collapse if PLC starts malfunctioning
LAN helped to introduce the concept of distributed control where small and medium
PLCs are connected together through proper network.
4.3 PLC architecture

PLC has three sections- I/O section, processor section and program loader/ monitor section.
4.3.1 Input/ Output Section

Input module forms the interface by which input field devices (like sensors, switches) are connected
to the controller. Output module forms the interface by which output field devices (like motor /
lamp) are connected to the controller. The signals from machines or instruments of a systems are
received through the input section by a PLC, after processing the output signals are transmitted
to the machines or the instruments for the desired control action through the output section. The
tasks of the 1/0 section can be classified as: (a) conditioning, (h) isolation, (c) termination and (d)
indication. The field signal available is 220V or 440V. Since a PLC can only support a voltage of
0-10 volts, the field signal has to be conditioned, before it is applied to the Pl,C. To protect a PLC
from any incoming surges from the field, isolating devices such as a transformer or an opto-isolator
are used. The I/O module provides a proper terminal. It indicates the status of the I/O terminal, i.e.,
when the voltage is off, the status indicator is off.
4.3.2 Processor section

Processor section: has four major elements Power Supply, Memory, I/O interface and CPU

Figure 4.2: Block Diagram of a PLC
Figure 4.3: Detailed Block Diagram of the processor section of a PLC

4.3.2.1 Power Supply
It generally works on a power supply of about 24 V, used to power input and output devices. The
basic function of the power supply is to supply conditioned power to the components of a PLC.
The power supply is one of the most critical components of the PLC for two reasons:
• Failure of the PLC power supply can cause the entire control system to fail.
• It contains high voltage components. Hence, an insulation failure can be a serious potential
for injury or fire.
The following guidelines should be followed when choosing the power supply of a PLC: The
power supply should be packed properly, so that the heat generated by the power supply can be
dissipated in order to prevent overheating. This increases reliability. The power supply should
be tested for temperature and electrical insulation by a proper certification agency. The power
supply should meet at least one reputable standard for noise immunity. It should also be capable of
withstanding line voltage variations such as chop outs. brownouts and surges, which are common
industrial faults.
4.3.2.2 Memory
There are two types of memory in a PLC: (i) volatile memory and (ii) non-volatile memory. Non-
volatile memories are generally used for storing users’ programs so that they are preserved during
power cuts. All non-volatile memory in a PLC uses some form of error checking to ensure that
the memory has not changed. In order to ensure safe execution of the users’ programs, this error
hecking should also be done while the PLC is controlling a machine or a process. Different types
of memory that are generally used in a PLC are as follows:
1. Battery-backed-up CMOS RAM: This is probably the most widely used type of memory.
Although most RAMs are inherently valatile, the CMOS variety consumes such a small
amount of power that a small battery will retain the memory during power losses. The
batteries used vary from short-life primary cells (alkaline and Hg), which require periodic
replacement, after 6 months to a year, to long life cells (such as lithium) which may last up
to 10 years, to rechargeable secondary cells.
2. EPROM Memory: An electrically programmable read only memory is programmed using
electrical pulses and can only be erased by exposing the circuit to UV light also called
UV-EPROM.
3. EEPROM Memory: This memory is similar to EPROM memory, but it can also be erased
using electrical pulses. In some PLCs, the use of EEPROM only alleviates the need of an UV
light source, while in other PLCs EEPROM is the only type of memory used. This allows for
flexibility of reprogramming.
The total memory area is sub-divided into four sections namely, executive memory section, internal
RAM, user memory and I/O image memory.
4.3.2.3 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

It is the brain of the PLC as it carries out all the processing. The CPU controls and processes all the
operations within the PLC. It is supplied with a clock that has a frequency of typically between 1
and 8 MHz. This frequency determines the operating speed of the PLC and provides the timing
and synchronization for all elements in the system. The information within the PLC is carried by
means of digital signals. The internal paths along which digital signals flow are called buses. In
the physical sense, a bus is just a few conductors along which electrical signals can flow. It might
be tracks on a printed circuit board or wires in a ribbon cable. The CPU uses the data bus for
sending data between the constituent elements, the address bus to send the addresses of locations
for accessing stored data, and the control bus for signals relating to internal control actions. The
system bus is used for communications between the input/output ports and the input/output unit.
A real program that uses other functions such as timers, counters and other mathematical functions,

may take a considerably longer time to execute. When procuring a PLC, one should include the
scan time of the I/O, the scan time of the memory and any additional time overheads the processor
requires to make a prediction of the overall scan time for a given application.
4.3.3 Program loader or monitor section

The program loader or monitor section in a programmable logic controller (PLC) is a software
program that is responsible for loading, monitoring, and controlling the PLC’s operation.
When a new program is created or modified, it needs to be loaded into the PLC’s memory
to replace the existing program. This is done through the program loader section of the PLC,
which typically consists of a software program that runs on a computer connected to the PLC. The
program loader section transfers the new program from the computer to the PLC’s memory.
Once the program is loaded, the monitor section of the PLC takes over and continuously checks
the status of the inputs and outputs, executes the program instructions, and updates the outputs as
required. The monitor section also performs error checking and fault diagnosis to ensure that the
PLC is operating correctly and to identify any problems that may arise.
4.4 Advantages of PLC

1. Faster scan time: PLCs have a faster scan time compared to traditional relay-based control
systems. This means that they can respond quickly to changes in the input signals and control
the output devices more accurately.
2. Intelligent I/O: PLCs have intelligent I/O modules that can perform various functions such as
filtering, scaling, and linearization of the input signals. This makes the system more reliable
and accurate.
3. High-speed counters: PLCs have high-speed counters that can count pulses at a very high
frequency. This is useful in applications that require precise measurement and control of
time-based events.
4. Small physical size: PLCs are compact and take up less space compared to traditional
relay-based control systems. This makes them suitable for applications where space is a
constraint.
5. Reliable: PLCs are highly reliable and can operate continuously for long periods without
requiring any maintenance. They are designed to operate in harsh industrial environments
and can withstand extreme temperatures, dust, and vibration.
6. Minimum maintenance: PLCs require minimum maintenance as they have a modular design
and can be easily replaced if there is a fault in any of the components. They also have built-in
diagnostic tools that help in identifying faults quickly, reducing downtime.
7. Flexibility in programming and reprogramming in the plant: PLCs are flexible and can
be easily programmed and reprogrammed to accommodate changes in the manufacturing
process. This makes them ideal for applications that require frequent modifications to the
control system.
8. Ability to communicate with computer systems in the plant: PLCs can communicate with
other computer systems in the plant such as supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
systems and enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems. This enables real-time monitoring
and control of the entire manufacturing process.
9. Flexibility in control techniques: PLCs provide flexibility in implementing various control
techniques such as PID control, fuzzy logic control, and neural network control. This makes
them suitable for a wide range of industrial automation applications.
4.5 Comparison of PLC & PC

1. PLCs are similar to computers, but computers are optimized for calculation and display tasks

Figure 4.4: Comparison of PLC & PC
2. PLCs are optimized for control tasks and the industrial environment.
3. PLCs: – Are rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity, and noise
4. PLCs: – Have interfacing for inputs and outputs, already inside the controller –
5. PLCs: –Are easily programmed and have an easily understood programming language –
Primarily concerned with logic and switching operations.
PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) and PC (Personal Computer) are two types of computing
devices with distinct differences in their design, functionality, and applications. Here are some of
the key differences between PLCs and PCs:
Design: PLCs are designed specifically for industrial control applications, while PCs are
general-purpose computing devices designed for personal or business use.
Operating System: PLCs have proprietary operating systems that are optimized for real-time
control applications, while PCs run general-purpose operating systems like Windows or Linux.
Hardware: PLCs are typically more rugged and durable than PCs, and are designed to operate
in harsh industrial environments. PCs, on the other hand, are not designed for harsh environments
and require additional protection.
I/O Interfaces: PLCs are designed to interface with a wide range of industrial sensors, actuators,
and devices, while PCs typically have a limited set of I/O interfaces.
Programming Languages: PLCs are programmed using ladder logic or other specialized
programming languages that are optimized for real-time control applications. PCs are programmed
using general-purpose programming languages like C++, Python, or Java.
Performance: PLCs are designed for high-speed, deterministic control applications and have
low latency, while PCs have higher latency and are not optimized for real-time control applications.
Cost: PLCs are typically more expensive than PCs, due to their specialized hardware and
software, while PCs are relatively inexpensive and widely available.
4.6 Processing cycle of a PLC

The processing cycle of a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) consists of several steps that allow
the PLC to perform its control functions. The following is a general flow of the processing cycle in

Figure 4.5: Processing cycle of a PLC
a PLC is shown in Figure 4.5
4.7 Sequential control

Sequential control in PLC refers to the ability of a PLC to execute a series of control operations in
a specific order or sequence. Sequential control is used in industrial automation systems to control
complex processes that require a specific sequence of operations.
The sequential control in PLC is achieved through programming the PLC with a set of instruc-
tions that specify the order in which the inputs are processed, the conditions that must be met
to proceed to the next step, and the actions that are to be taken at each step. The programming
language used for sequential control in PLC is typically ladder logic.
Sequential control in PLC is commonly used in manufacturing applications such as assembly
lines, packaging lines, and material handling systems. For example, in an assembly line, the
PLC can be programmed to ensure that each part is assembled in the correct order and that the
finished product meets the required specifications. Similarly, in a packaging line, the PLC can be
programmed to ensure that each package is filled, labeled, and sealed in the correct sequence. • The
software design procedure is as follows:
• The process is verbally described

• This description is translated into a function diagram
• The conditions are identified and converted into Boolean equations
• The Boolean equations are converted into ladder logic for the PLC

Figure 4.6: Instruction codes of PLC
4.8 Main elements of ladder logic

Ladder logic is a graphical programming language used to program PLCs. It is called ladder
logic because the program is visually represented as a ladder, with vertical rails and horizontal
rungs.Main elements of ladder logic are
1. Rails: These are the two vertical lines that provide the electrical power to the PLC’s inputs
and outputs.
2. Rungs: These are the horizontal lines that contain the instructions for the PLC. Each rung
typically includes at least one input instruction and one output instruction.
3. Branches: These are lines that can be used to connect different rungs in the program. Branches
can be used to create complex control structures, such as loops or conditional statements.
4. Inputs: These are the devices that provide information to the PLC. Inputs can be physical
sensors, such as limit switches or photoelectric sensors, or they can be digital signals from
other devices.
5. Outputs: These are the devices that are controlled by the PLC. Outputs can be physical
devices, such as motors or solenoid valves, or they can be digital signals sent to other devices.
6. Timers: These are instructions that can be used to create time delays in the program. Timers
can be used to control the duration of certain events, such as turning on a motor for a specific
amount of time.
7. Counters: These are instructions that can be used to count events. Counters can be used to
track the number of times a specific event has occurred, such as the number of bottles that
have passed through a filling station.
4.9 Instruction codes of PLC

PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) instruction codes are the commands used to create programs
in a PLC. These codes are written in ladder logic, a graphical programming language that uses sym-
bols to represent different functions and instructions. Some examples of common PLC instruction
codes are depicted in the Figure 4.7

4.10 ladder language
ladder language is still the main language of the PLC. It has many advantages.
• A ladder logic program is exactly similar to an electrical ladder diagram. It is readily
understood and maintained by skilled workers familiar with relay logic. lt simplifies training
ladder language, however, it generally lacks good flow control instructions.
• It provides a graphic display of program execution by showing power flow through a ladder
diagram, thereby making it easier to debug.
• The program is fast.
• It generates more readable programs for sequence control.
• Modern PLCs are very powerful and have vast manuals that describe all their features.
• PLC languages are of the graphical programming type. One can drag and drop any function
block to develop a complete program line.
• The program development environment is user friendly.
• Ladder logic was originally derived from relay logic.
• Relay logic needs to hard wire each and every control circuit for every single control function.
Whereas ladder logic uses the assistance of a microprocessor-based device (PLC).
• Wiring is greatly reduced because only the input & output devices need hard wiring. The
control relays that are used to form the control functionality & logic functions are replaced
by the ladder logic program stored internally within the PLC memory.
• Ladder logic program is stored in an industrial microprocessor called a PLC.
• Industrial PLC shapes and sizes are varied and extensive.
• The memory size, functionality, communication options, number of inputs and output and
expansion capability are all factors that determine the size of PLC.
• There are various PLC programming languages used in industrial automation, but the most
popular is PLC ladder logic.
• PLC ladder logic programming code looks like a relay logic electrical schematic drawing.
• There is power rail on the left-hand side and a power rail on the right hand side drawn as
vertical lines.
• The logic programming is inserted in between the power rails and connected with horizontal
lines to form a logic expression.
• Each line of the ladder logic diagram is called a rung.
• They are called "ladder" diagrams because they resemble a ladder, with two vertical rails
(supply power) and as many "rungs“ (horizontal lines).
4.11 Basic rules Ladder logic programming

Ladder logic programming has some basic rules. They are
1. The power will flow from the left-hand side bus rail to the right-hand side bus rail.
2. Each rung must start with a contact from the left and end with an output on the right.
3. Outputs cannot be connected to the left bus rail.
4. Contacts cannot be connected to the right bus rail
5. Only one output may be placed on each rung.
6. Each output can be used once in a program.
7. Inputs with the same terminal number can be used many times.

Figure 4.7: Ladder logic programming
Figure 4.8: Numbering system of Inputs & Outputs

Figure 4.9: Realization of logic gates

Figure 4.10: Realization De morgans Theorem
Figure 4.11: Examples of ladder diagram for some equations

Figure 4.12: Exercise 4.1

Figure 4.13: Latching in PLC
4.12 Latching in PLC

There are often situations in which it is necessary to hold an output energized, even when the input
ceases. A simple example of such a situation is a motor that is started by pressing a push-button
switch. Though the switch contacts do not remain closed, the motor is required to continue running
until a stop push-button switch is pressed. The term latch circuit is used for the circuit that carries
out such an operation. It is a self-maintaining circuit in that, after being energized, it maintains
that state until another input is received. An example of a latch circuit is shown in Figure. When
the input A contacts close, there is an output. However, when there is an output, another set of
contacts associated with the output closes. These contacts form an OR logic gate system with the
input contacts. Thus, even if input A opens, the circuit will still maintain the output energized.
The only way to release the output is by operating the normally closed contact B. As an illustration
of the application of a latching circuit, consider a motor controlled by stop and start push-button
switches and for which one signal light must be illuminated when the power is applied to the motor
and another when it is not applied. Figure shows a ladder diagram with Mitsubishi notation for the
addresses. X401 is closed when the program is started. When X400 is momentarily closed, Y430
is energized and its contacts close. This results in latching as well as the switching off of Y431 and
the switching on of Y432. To switch the motor off, X401 is pressed and opens. Y430 contacts open
in the top rung and third rung but close in the second rung. Thus Y431 comes on and Y432 goes
off. Latching is widely used with startups so that the initial switching on of an application becomes
latched on.
4.13 Timers
A timer in a PLC is a special type of instruction that allows a user to create time delays in a
control program. Timers are commonly used in automation applications to control the duration
of a particular process, such as turning on a motor for a certain amount of time or controlling the

Figure 4.14: Timer function block
duration of a valve opening.

• The contacts on the left side of the timer function block are the timer enable contacts
• When they are closed, power passes to the left terminal of the timer, its clock is enabled and
it starts timing.
• When they are open, power stops flowing through this terminal, and the timer stops function-
ing
• A timer function block has three output contacts.
– When the timer is timed
– The ENABLE BIT follows the input enable contact status.
– If the enable contact is true then output ENABLE BIT(EN) is true.
– The timer timing (TT) bit is set when the timer is operating.
4.14 Functions in TIMER

1. Variety of time base is available. The most common time bases are 0.01 sec, 0.1 sec and 1 sec
2. Accumulator value (ACC) This is the time that has elapsed, since the timer was last reset.
When enabled, a timer updates this continuously
3. Preset Value (PRF)- This specifies the value that the timer must reach before the controller
sets the DONE BIT
4. The programmer determines the preset time.
5. When the accumulator value becomes equal to or greater than the preset value, the timer
stops
6. This bit can be used to control an output device
4.15 Classification of timers

PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) timers are classified into different types based on their
functionality and the application requirement. Here are the most common types of timers used in
PLC programming:
1. On-Delay Timer (TON)
2. Off-Delay Timer (TOF)
3. Retentive Timer and non retentive timer
4.15.1 TIMER ON DELAY

The instruction is used to delay turning an output ON or OFF. The TON instruction begins to count
time base intervals when the rung condition become true. As long as the rung condition remains
true the time increments its accumulator value, over each scan until reaches the preset value. The

Figure 4.15: Classification of timers
Figure 4.16: TIMER ON DELAY
accumulator value is reset when the rung condition becomes false, regardless of whether the timer
has timed out
4.15.2 TIMER OFF DELAY

The TOFF instruction begins t count time base intervals when the rung condition makes a true to
false transition. As long as the rung condition remains false the timer increments its accumulator
vale over each scan until it reaches the preset value. The controller resets the accumulated value
when the rung conditions becomes true regardless of whether the timer has timed out
Figure 4.17: FUNCTIONS OF AN ON-DELAY TIMER

Figure 4.18: FUNCTIONS OF TIMER OFF DELAY
Figure 4.19: Function block of CTU
4.15.3 RETENTIVE AND NON-RETENTIVE TIMERS
Retentive refers to the device’s ability to remember its exact status such that when the circuit is
again activated, the timer continues from the previous point. RTO - Retentive Timer. Counts time
base intervals when the instruction is true and retains the accumulated value when the instruction
goes false or when power cycle occurs. The Retentive Timer instruction is a retentive instruction
that begins to count time base intervals when rung conditions become true.Non-retentive timers
reset to zero and start from zero each time the timer function block is energized.
4.16 Counters in PLC

Counters in PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) are used to count the number of events or
pulses that occur in a process. PLC counters are classified into three main types based on their
functionality: up counters and down counters
1. Up Counters(CTU): Up counters are used to count the number of events or pulses that occur
in a process in an increasing manner. The counter starts from zero and increases by one
with each input pulse. Once the counter reaches the preset value, an output is activated. Up
counters are used when a certain number of events or pulses need to be counted before an
output can be activated.
2. Down Counters (CTD): Down counters are used to count the number of events or pulses
that occur in a process in a decreasing manner. The counter starts from a preset value and
decreases by one with each input pulse. Once the counter reaches zero, an output is activated.
Down counters are used when a certain number of events or pulses need to be counted before
an output can be activated in a decreasing manner.

Figure 4.20: Function block of CTD
4.17 Counter Parameters

1. Accumulative value(ACC)-number of false to true transitions that have occurred since the
counter was last reset
2. Preset value(PRE)- Specifies the value that the counter must reach, before the controller sets
the done bit. When the accumulator value becomes equal to or greater than the preset value,
the done status bit is set. This can be used to control an output device
4.18 Important questions

1. Implement basic gate operations using PLC ladder logic
2. Write a PLC program to obtain a delay of 10ms for process control
3. Devise a ladder program to switch on a pump for 100 s. It is then to be switched off , and a
heater switched on for 50 s. Then the heater is switched off, and another pump is used to
empty the water.
4. Draw a block diagram of a PLC showing the main functional items and how buses link them,
explaining the functions of each block
5. What is a PLC and how does it differ from other control systems?
6. What are the main components of a PLC hardware system?
7. What are the different types of I/O modules used in PLCs?
8. What is the importance of power supply in a PLC system?
9. How does the CPU of a PLC function and what are its main responsibilities? What are the
different standards that PLCs must adhere to?
10. What is ladder programming and how is it used in PLCs?
11. How can AND and OR logic be realized in PLC ladder programming?
12. What is latching and how is it used in PLC programming?
13. What are timer/counters in a PLC and how are they programmed?
14. Can you give an example of an exercise based on timer/counters in a PLC system?

V
Module 5
5 SCADA and DCS systems . . . . . . . . . . . 125

5.1 SCADA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.2 History of SCADA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.3 SCADA System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4 Supervision and Control in SCADA . . . . . . . . . 127
5.5 Human-machine interfaces-HMI . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.6 Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.7 Supervisory station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.8 Protocol-IEC 60870-5-101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.9 Protocol- DNP3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.10 Benefits of SCADA for Power Systems . . . . . . . . 130
5.11 Demerits of SCADA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.12 Applications of SCADA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.13 Leading SCADA software providers . . . . . . . . 131
5.14 Distributed control system (DCS) . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.15 Architecture of Distributed Control System . . . 132
5.16 Control modes in DCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.17 Advantages of DCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.18 Disadvantages of DCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.19 Applications of Distributed Control Systems
(DCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.20 Major DCS providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

5. SCADA and DCS systems
Syllabus
SCADA: Introduction, SCADA Architecture, Common System Components, Supervision and
Control, HMI, RTU and Supervisory Stations, Protocols-IEC 60870-5-101 and DNP3. DCS:
Introduction, DCS Architecture, Control modes
5.1 SCADA
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) is a control system architecture that is used
to monitor and control industrial processes and machinery. SCADA systems typically consist of
a central computer or server, which is connected to remote devices such as programmable logic
controllers (PLCs), sensors, and other control devices.
The primary function of a SCADA system is to provide operators with a high-level view of the
industrial process, enabling them to monitor the system and make decisions about how to optimize
it. SCADA systems typically use graphical user interfaces (GUIs) to present this information in a
clear and intuitive way.
SCADA systems are commonly used in a variety of industrial settings, such as power plants,
water treatment facilities, and manufacturing plants. They are also used in transportation systems,
such as traffic control systems and railway networks.
One of the key benefits of SCADA systems is that they enable real-time monitoring of industrial
processes, allowing operators to quickly identify and respond to any issues that arise. This can help
to prevent downtime, reduce maintenance costs, and improve overall productivity.
5.2 History of SCADA

Earlier, the controlling of industrial plants and manufacturing floors can be done manually with the
help of analog equipment and push-buttons. As the industry’s size is growing, so they employed
timers and relays to provide supervisory control to a fixed level for minimal automation. So, a fully
automated with a more efficient system was necessary for all the industries.
We know that, for industrial control purposes, computers were implemented in the year 1950.
After that, the concept of telemetry was implemented for data transmission as well as virtual com-
munication. In the year 1970, the SCADA system was developed along with the microprocessors
as well as PLC.
So these concepts were fully helped while developing automation that is operated in industries

Figure 5.1: SCADA System
remotely. The distributed SCADA systems were implemented in the year 2000. After that, new
SCADA systems were developed to monitor & control real-time data anyplace in the globe.
5.3 SCADA System Architecture

Generally, the SCADA system is a centralized system that monitors and controls the entire area. It
is a pure software package that is positioned on top of the hardware. A supervisory system gathers
data on the process and sends the commands control to the process. The SCADA is a remote
terminal unit which is also known as RTU.
Most control actions are automatically performed by RTUs or PLCs. The RTUs consists of
the programmable logic converter which can be set to specific requirement. For example, in the
thermal power plant, the water flow can be set to a specific value or it can be changed according to
the requirement.
The SCADA system allows operators to change the set point for the flow, and enable alarm
conditions in case of loss of flow and high temperature, and the condition is displayed and recorded.
The SCADA system monitors the overall performance of the loop. The SCADA system is a
centralized system to communicate with both wired and wireless technology to Clint devices. The
SCADA system controls can run completely all kinds of the industrial process.
For example, if too much pressure is building up in a gas pipeline the SCADA system can
automatically open a release valve.
The architecture of a Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system typically
consists of the following components:
Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) or Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

These are the devices that are used to interface with the physical processes or machinery being
monitored and controlled. RTUs or PLCs are responsible for collecting data from sensors and other
devices, making decisions about how to adjust the process, and sending commands to actuators and
other control devices.

Figure 5.2: SCADA System Architecture
Communication Infrastructure
The communication infrastructure is responsible for transmitting data between the RTUs or PLCs
and the central SCADA system. This can include wired or wireless communication networks, such
as Ethernet, Modbus, or Profibus.
Central SCADA Server

The central SCADA server is responsible for processing and storing data received from the RTUs or
PLCs, as well as presenting this data to operators in a clear and intuitive way. The server typically
runs specialized software designed for SCADA systems, such as Wonderware, Ignition, or WinCC.
Human-Machine Interface (HMI)

The HMI is the graphical user interface used by operators to interact with the SCADA system. The
HMI displays real-time data, alarms, and alerts, and allows operators to monitor and control the
process being supervised.
Database Server
The database server is used to store historical data collected by the SCADA system. This data can
be used for analysis, reporting, and optimization purposes.
Overall, the SCADA architecture provides a comprehensive view of the industrial process being
monitored, enabling operators to make informed decisions about how to optimize the process and
prevent downtime or other issues.
5.4 Supervision and Control in SCADA

Supervision and control are the two primary functions of a SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition) system.
Supervision refers to the process of monitoring and collecting data from sensors and other
devices in the field. SCADA systems use a variety of communication protocols such as Modbus,
DNP3, and IEC 61850 to collect data from devices such as sensors, meters, and RTUs (Remote

Terminal Units). The collected data is typically stored in a database and displayed to operators
through graphical user interfaces (GUIs) or human-machine interfaces (HMIs).
Control refers to the process of taking action based on the collected data. SCADA systems use
algorithms and control logic to analyze the collected data and make decisions about how to control
the process. Control actions can be initiated automatically by the system or manually by operators
through the HMI.
SCADA systems enable supervision and control functions through a combination of hardware
and software components. The hardware components typically include sensors, RTUs, and commu-
nication networks, while the software components include SCADA software, database management
systems, and HMI software.
5.5 Human-machine interfaces-HMI

HMI (Human-Machine Interface) is an important component of a SCADA (Supervisory Control
and Data Acquisition) system. The HMI is the interface between the operators and the SCADA
system, allowing operators to monitor and control industrial processes in real-time.
The primary function of the HMI in a SCADA system is to provide a visual representation of
the process being monitored and controlled. This is typically done through graphical displays, such
as process diagrams, trend charts, and alarm screens. The HMI can also provide real-time status
information, allowing operators to quickly identify issues and take corrective action.
In addition to displaying process information, the HMI can also be used to control the process.
Operators can use the HMI to initiate control actions, such as starting or stopping equipment,
adjusting setpoints, and changing control modes. The HMI can also be used to acknowledge alarms
and take corrective actions.
Modern HMIs used in SCADA systems are typically web-based and can be accessed from
anywhere using a web browser. This allows operators to monitor and control industrial processes
remotely, improving efficiency and reducing downtime. Mobile applications can also be used to
access the HMI from mobile devices, allowing operators to stay connected to the process even
when they are away from the control room.
5.6 Remote Terminal Units (RTUs)

Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) are a key component of SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition) systems. They are small, specialized computers that are located in the field near the
equipment being monitored and controlled. RTUs collect data from sensors and other devices, and
transmit it to the central control system.
RTUs are designed to operate in harsh environments and are typically installed in remote
locations such as oil and gas pipelines, water treatment plants, and power generation facilities.
They are capable of collecting data from a variety of analog and digital sensors, such as pressure,
temperature, flow rate, and level sensors.
RTUs typically have multiple communication ports that allow them to connect to a variety of
devices and networks. They use a variety of communication protocols such as Modbus, DNP3, and
IEC 61850 to communicate with the central control system and other devices in the field.
In addition to collecting data, RTUs can also perform simple control functions, such as turning
pumps on and off, opening and closing valves, and changing setpoints. This allows for local control
of the process, even if the central control system is not available.
Overall, RTUs are a critical component of SCADA systems, providing reliable and secure data
collection and control capabilities in remote and harsh environments.

5.7 Supervisory station
They serve as the primary interface between the SCADA system and the human operators who
monitor and control industrial processes.
A supervisory station is a computer system that runs the SCADA software and provides the user
interface for operators. It typically consists of a workstation or server computer running specialized
software that communicates with the various components of the SCADA system, such as RTUs
(Remote Terminal Units), PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers), and HMIs (Human-Machine
Interfaces).
The supervisory station collects data from the field devices through communication protocols
such as Modbus, DNP3, and IEC 61850. The collected data is then stored in a database and
displayed to operators through the HMI. The supervisory station can also send control commands
to field devices, such as turning pumps on or off or adjusting setpoints.
Supervisory stations are typically located in a centralized control room or operations center,
where operators can monitor multiple processes and systems simultaneously. The station may
include multiple displays or monitors, allowing operators to view different parts of the process or
system at the same time.
The SCADA software used in supervisory stations provides operators with real-time monitoring
and control capabilities, allowing them to quickly identify and respond to issues, optimize process
performance, and ensure safety and reliability.
5.8 Protocol-IEC 60870-5-101

IEC 60870-5-101 is a protocol used in SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems
for communication between a control center and remote devices. The protocol is part of a family of
standards developed by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) for telecontrol and
telemetry systems.
The IEC 60870-5-101 protocol is a binary protocol that uses asynchronous transmission of
characters (start bit, data bits, stop bit) for communication over serial communication networks.
It defines the protocol for communication between a master station (usually located at a control
center) and one or more remote terminal units (RTUs) or intelligent electronic devices (IEDs).
The protocol specifies the format and structure of messages that are exchanged between the
master station and the remote devices. The messages can be used for a variety of purposes,
such as reading and writing data, issuing commands to control equipment, and exchanging status
information.
IEC 60870-5-101 is used in a variety of industries, including power generation and distribution,
water and wastewater management, and transportation systems. It is known for its reliability and
robustness in harsh environments and has been widely adopted as a standard for SCADA systems
in many countries.
While IEC 60870-5-101 is still in use, it has been largely replaced by newer protocols such as
IEC 61850, which offer greater functionality and flexibility. However, many legacy systems still
rely on IEC 60870-5-101 and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future.
5.9 Protocol- DNP3

DNP3 (Distributed Network Protocol version 3) is a widely used protocol for communication
between devices in SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems. The protocol
was developed by the Westronic Division of Harris Corporation in the 1990s and has since become
an industry standard for communication in critical infrastructure systems.
DNP3 is a binary protocol that uses a master/slave architecture for communication between
devices. The protocol supports both serial and Ethernet communication and is designed to operate

in harsh and noisy environments.
DNP3 provides a number of features that make it suitable for use in SCADA systems. These
features include:
Data integrity: DNP3 provides checksums and error detection mechanisms to ensure the
integrity of data transmitted between devices.
Time synchronization: DNP3 supports time synchronization between devices, which is critical
for maintaining accurate timestamps for data.
Scalability: DNP3 supports multi-level hierarchies of devices, allowing for the creation of
complex systems with multiple levels of control and supervision.
Security: DNP3 includes several security features, such as authentication and encryption, to
protect against unauthorized access and data tampering.
DNP3 is used in a wide range of industries, including power generation and distribution, water
and wastewater management, and oil and gas pipelines. It is known for its reliability and robustness
in harsh environments and is widely used in critical infrastructure systems around the world.
5.10 Benefits of SCADA for Power Systems

1. Remote Monitoring and Control: SCADA systems enable remote monitoring and control of
power generation, transmission, and distribution equipment. This allows operators to monitor
the system in real-time and respond quickly to changing conditions or problems.
2. Improved Reliability: With SCADA, power system operators can quickly identify and
respond to equipment failures, reducing downtime and improving overall system reliability.
3. Increased Efficiency: SCADA systems can help optimize power generation and distribution,
reducing waste and improving efficiency. By monitoring real-time data, operators can adjust
system parameters to ensure that power is generated and distributed at optimal levels.
4. Improved Safety: SCADA systems provide a safer working environment for power system
operators. With remote monitoring and control, operators can avoid working in hazardous
conditions, reducing the risk of accidents.
5. Enhanced Security: SCADA systems provide increased security for power systems. By
monitoring and controlling access to critical equipment and data, operators can ensure that
the system is protected from cyberattacks and other security threats.
6. Predictive Maintenance: SCADA systems can provide early warning of equipment failure,
allowing operators to perform preventive maintenance before a failure occurs. This can
reduce maintenance costs and improve system reliability.
5.11 Demerits of SCADA

• Vulnerability to cyber attacks: SCADA systems are often connected to public or corporate
networks, making them vulnerable to cyber attacks. As SCADA systems control critical
infrastructure, any security breach can have serious consequences.
• High implementation costs: SCADA systems can be expensive to implement, particularly for
smaller organizations or systems. The cost of hardware, software, and personnel to maintain
the system can be substantial.
• Complex system integration: SCADA systems often require the integration of various
hardware and software components from different vendors, which can be complex and
time-consuming.
• Dependence on reliable communications: SCADA systems rely on reliable communica-
tion channels between remote devices and the central control system. Any disruption in
communication can lead to data loss, system downtime, or even safety hazards.
• Potential for human error: Despite their automation and sophisticated algorithms, SCADA
systems still require human operators to make decisions and take actions. Any human error,

such as misinterpretation of data or incorrect operation of equipment, can have serious
consequences.
• Limited scalability: SCADA systems may not be easily scalable, particularly when adding
new devices or expanding the system beyond its original design.
5.12 Applications of SCADA

1. Power Generation and Distribution: SCADA systems are used to monitor and control power
generation, transmission, and distribution equipment, including generators, transformers, and
switchgear.
2. Water and Wastewater Treatment: SCADA systems are used to monitor and control water
treatment and distribution systems, as well as wastewater collection and treatment systems.
3. Oil and Gas: SCADA systems are used to monitor and control oil and gas pipelines, refineries,
and production facilities.
4. Manufacturing: SCADA systems are used to monitor and control manufacturing processes,
including assembly lines and robotic systems.
5. Transportation: SCADA systems are used to monitor and control traffic signals, railway
signaling systems, and other transportation infrastructure.
6. Building Automation: SCADA systems are used to monitor and control building systems,
including HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning), lighting, and security systems.
7. Telecommunications: SCADA systems are used to monitor and control telecommunications
infrastructure, including cell towers, fiber optic networks, and satellite communication
systems.
8. Agriculture: SCADA systems are used to monitor and control irrigation systems, greenhouses,
and other agricultural processes.
5.13 Leading SCADA software providers

1. Siemens: Siemens offers a range of SCADA software solutions, including WinCC, which is
a scalable and flexible SCADA system for monitoring and controlling industrial processes.
2. Schneider Electric: Schneider Electric offers the Wonderware SCADA software, which is a
comprehensive suite of tools for real-time operations management and visualization.
3. GE Digital: GE Digital offers the iFIX SCADA software, which is a powerful, flexible, and
scalable platform for industrial automation and control.
4. ABB: ABB offers the System 800xA SCADA software, which provides a unified control and
information platform for a variety of industries.
5. Rockwell Automation: Rockwell Automation offers the FactoryTalk View SE SCADA
software, which is a scalable and flexible solution for monitoring and controlling industrial
processes.
6. Honeywell: Honeywell offers the Experion SCADA software, which provides a unified
platform for process control, safety, and operations management.
7. Yokogawa: Yokogawa offers the FAST/TOOLS SCADA software, which is a flexible and
scalable platform for monitoring and controlling industrial processes.
5.14 Distributed control system (DCS)

A distributed control system (DCS) is a computerised control system for a process or plant usually
with a large number of control loops, in which autonomous controllers are distributed throughout
the system, but there is central operator supervisory control. This is in contrast to systems that
use centralized controllers; either discrete controllers located at a central control room or within a
central computer. The DCS concept increases reliability and reduces installation costs by localising

Figure 5.3: DCS System
control functions near the process plant, with remote monitoring and supervision The key attribute
of a DCS is its reliability due to the distribution of the control processing around nodes in the
system. This mitigates a single processor failure. If a processor fails, it will only affect one section
of the plant process, as opposed to a failure of a central computer which would affect the whole
process. This distribution of computing power local to the field Input/Output (I/O) connection racks
also ensures fast controller processing times by removing possible network and central processing
delays
5.15 Architecture of Distributed Control System

In a DCS architecture, the control processing unit is distributed to all nodes present in the system
and the entire system has increased reliability and minimizes failure of a single processor. When a
single processor fails, the entire process will be affected by the failure in the centralized computer
unit. The spread of computing power capability to racks connected to the I/O area also ensures for
accelerated controller functionality by eliminating potential central and network operating delays.
The structure of the DCS can be clearly explained at each level.
• Level 0 – This level is included with field equipment such as control valves, temperature
sensors and final control components such as flow elements.
• Level 1 – This level includes technologically advanced I/O modules and their respective
distributed types of electronic processors.
• Level 2 – Here, regulators help collect data from processor nodes present in the computer
system and then offer operator managed screens.
• Level 3 – This is called the production-managed stage where it is not directly concerned with
controlling the process but is involved in checking production and monitoring goals.
• Level 4 – This is called the production scheduling stage.
Level 1 and Level 2 are considered as the operational phase of common type of DCS where all the
components are covered under the integrated system of a single manufacturing person. Whereas
Level 3 and Level 4 manages to control and schedule activities.

5.16 Control modes in DCS
Basically DCS has 4 modes
1. Manual Mode (MAN): In this mode, the operator directly controls the process equipment by
manually adjusting the input values. This mode is useful during maintenance activities or
when the automatic control is temporarily disabled.
2. Automatic Mode (AUT): In this mode, the DCS automatically adjusts the process equipment
based on the input from field devices and the control algorithms programmed into the system.
3. Cascade Mode (CAS): In this mode, multiple controllers are used to adjust different process
variables in a coordinated manner. The output of one controller is used as the setpoint for
another controller, resulting in a more precise control of the process.
4. Primary Direct Mode (PRD): In this mode, the operator directly controls the process equip-
ment without any intervention from the control system. This mode is useful for emergency
situations where immediate action is required.
Other control modes that may be available in a DCS include Override Mode, Ratio Control,
Feedforward Control, and Adaptive Control. The specific control modes available will depend on
the DCS configuration and the requirements of the process being controlled.
5.17 Advantages of DCS

DCSs have several advantages over other types of control systems, including:
• Improved process control: DCSs use advanced control algorithms, such as PID control, to
provide precise and accurate control of processes. Scalability: DCSs can be easily expanded
to control larger and more complex processes.
• Remote access: DCSs can be accessed remotely using a computer or mobile device, which
allows for remote monitoring and control of processes.
• Redundancy: DCSs often have redundant components, such as controllers and servers, which
improves the system’s reliability and helps to prevent downtime.
• Flexibility: DCSs can be easily configured to control a wide range of processes and can be
used with a variety of input and output devices.
• Improved data collection and analysis: DCSs can collect and store large amounts of process
data, which can be used for analysis and process optimization.
• Improved safety: DCSs can be used to implement safety interlocks and alarms to improve
the safety of processes.
• Integration: DCSs can be easily integrated with other systems, such as SCADA systems,
PLCs, and MES systems, to provide a comprehensive control and monitoring solution.
• Easy Maintenance: DCSs often have a modular design, which makes it easy to maintain,
upgrade or replace parts of the system.
• Cost-effective: DCSs are cost-effective solutions for automating and controlling large and
complex processes, they are more cost-effective than traditional hardwired control systems.
5.18 Disadvantages of DCS

While distributed control systems (DCSs) have many advantages, they also have some disadvantages,
including:
• High initial cost: DCSs can be expensive to purchase, install, and maintain.
• Complexity: DCSs can be complex systems with many components, which can make them
difficult to understand and operate.
• Training: DCSs require specialized training to operate and maintain, which can be costly.
• Dependency on software and hardware: DCSs rely on software and hardware components,
which can make them vulnerable to software bugs and hardware failures.

• Network dependency: DCSs rely on networks to communicate between controllers and
servers, if the network goes down the entire system will not work.
• Cybersecurity: DCSs are vulnerable to cyber attacks, which can cause the system to mal-
function or shut down. Limited compatibility: DCSs are not always compatible with other
systems, which can make it difficult to integrate them into existing processes.
• Limited scalability: Some DCSs have limited scalability, which can make it difficult to
expand the system as the process grows.
• Limited data visualization: DCSs may not have advanced data visualization capabilities,
which can make it difficult to analyze and understand process data.
• Limited mobility: Some DCSs have limited mobility, which can make it difficult to access
and control the system remotely.
5.19 Applications of Distributed Control Systems (DCS)

Distributed Control Systems (DCS) have various applications across different industries. Some of
the common applications of DCS are:
• Chemical and Petrochemical Plants: DCS is widely used in chemical and petrochemical
plants for process control, safety monitoring, and environmental compliance. It helps to
improve process efficiency, reduce downtime, and ensure product quality.
• Power Generation Plants: DCS is used in power generation plants to monitor and control
various processes such as fuel supply, combustion, steam generation, and turbine control. It
helps to improve efficiency, reduce emissions, and ensure safety.
• Metallurgical Plants: DCS is used in metallurgical plants to control and monitor various
processes such as smelting, refining, and casting. It helps to ensure product quality, reduce
energy consumption, and improve safety.
• Automobile Engineering: DCS is used in automobile engineering for quality control, process
monitoring, and automation. It helps to improve efficiency, reduce waste, and ensure product
quality.
• Food Processing Industries: DCS is used in food processing industries for process control,
quality monitoring, and regulatory compliance. It helps to ensure food safety, reduce waste,
and improve product consistency.
• Pharmaceutical Industry: DCS is used in the pharmaceutical industry for process control,
quality monitoring, and regulatory compliance. It helps to ensure product safety, reduce
waste, and improve product consistency.
• Water Handling and Sewage Plants: DCS is used in water handling and sewage plants for
process control, quality monitoring, and environmental compliance. It helps to ensure water
quality, reduce energy consumption, and improve safety.
• Environmental Management Systems: DCS is used in environmental management systems for
monitoring and controlling various environmental parameters such as emissions, water quality,
and waste management. It helps to ensure regulatory compliance, reduce environmental
impact, and improve safety.
5.20 Major DCS providers

Some of the major DCS providers in the market include:
1. ABB
2. Emerson Electric Co.
3. Honeywell International Inc.
4. Schneider Electric SE
5. Siemens AG
6. Yokogawa Electric Corporation

Table 5.1: Comparison of DCS and PLC
DCS PLC
With the prevailing function To create custom logic, a high level
blocks, custom logics are created of programming languages are used
There is more probability Redundancy is not
of system redundancy that much required
The whole system acts There must be provisions for the integration
as one complete solution of functions into one single architecture
Most of the algorithms are complicated
This requires customized routines
and there will be no variation across the applications
It has simple to Advanced PID PLC has simple PID only
Table 5.2: Key differences between SCADA and DCS

DCS SCADA
Not capable of handling Capable of handling
communication failure communication failure
Slower communication
Faster communication
when compared to DCS
Short distance communication Long-distance communication
Really costly Not as much costlier as DCS
Maintenance and downtime
Less downtime and maintenance
would be more than DCS
Distributed type of control Supervisory level control
SCADA would be composed
Dependent on instrumentation of a data network,
computer network, graphical interface
Pre-programmed Not pre-programmed
Process safety can be ensured Not as safe as the DCS
Process related Data gathering

1. List the main components associated with SCADA Systems.
2. Explain different protocols used in SCADA communication
3. Explain role of MTU in SCADA communication
4. With neat diagram explain the architecture of SCADA system
What is SCADA? What are its main functions and features?
5. Explain the architecture of SCADA. What are the different system components in a typical
SCADA system?
6. What is Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) and how does it differ from
Distributed Control System (DCS)?
7. Explain the concept of Human-Machine Interface (HMI) in SCADA.
8. What is the role of Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) and Supervisory Stations in SCADA
systems?
9. Explain the significance and features of the IEC 60870-5-101 and DNP3 protocols used in
SCADA systems.
10. What are the challenges and security risks associated with SCADA systems?
11. What is Distributed Control System (DCS)? How is it different from SCADA?
12. Explain the architecture of DCS. What are the different components in a typical DCS system?
13. What are the different control modes used in DCS? Explain each one of them.
14. How do DCS systems differ from Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)?
15. Explain the concept of Human-Machine Interface (HMI) in DCS.
16. What are the benefits and challenges of using DCS systems in process control?
17. How do DCS systems help in process optimization and plant performance improvement?

Bibliography
1. Curtis D Johnson , “Process Control Instrumentation Technology”, PHI Learning Pvt Ltd
New Delhi, 1997
2. Doeblin E.O, “Measurement Systems: Application and Design”, Fourth Edition, McGraw
Hill, Newyork, 1992
3. DVS. Murty, “Transducers and Instrumentation”, Second Edition, PHI Learning Pvt Ltd New
Delhi, 2013
4. Jovitha Jerome, “Virtual instrumentation using LabVIEW”, Prentice Hall of India, 2010.
5. William Bolton, “Programmable Logic Controllers”, Fifth edition, ELSEVIER INDIA Pvt
Ltd New Delhi, 2011
6. Stuart A. Boyer, "SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition", Fourth edition,
International Society of Automation, 2010
7. G.K.McMillan, ‘Process/Industrial Instrument and control and hand book’ McGraw Hill,
New York,1999
8. Michael P .Lucas, ‘Distributed Control system’, Van Nastrant Reinhold Company, New York
9. Patranabis, D., ‘Principles of Industrial Instrumentation’, Second Edition Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co. Ltd. New Delhi
10. Robert B. Northrop, ‘Introduction to instrumentation and measurements’, CRC, Taylor and
Francis 2005

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
Model Question Paper
QP CODE:
PAGES:2
Reg. No:______________
Name:______________
APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY EIGHTH SEMESTER

B. TECH DEGREE EXAMINATION,
MONTH & YEAR
Course Code: EET468
Course Name: INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION AND AUTOMATION
Max. Marks: 100 Duration: 3 Hours

PART A
Answer all questions. Each Question Carries 3 mark
1. State the factors to be considered while selecting a transducer for a specific application.
2. Explain different modes of operation of hotwire anemometer.
3. How can a log amplifier be used for signal conditioning?
4. Describe the working of electrical actuators
5. Compare Profibus and Fieldbus used in data transmission
6. List the advantages of virtual instrumentation systems
7. Implement basic gate operations using PLC ladder logic
8. Write a PLC program to obtain a delay of 10ms for process control
9. List the main components associated with SCADA Systems.
10. Explain different protocols used in SCADA communication
PART B
Answer any one full question from each module. Each question carries 14 marks.
Module 1
11. a) With the help of a diagram explain the process control loop. (10)
b) Explain second order time response of sensor. (4)
12. a) Explain the principal and operation of variable reluctance tachometer (7)
b) Discuss the working principle of Capacitive differential pressure measurement (7)
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
Module 2
13. a) Explain different types of actuators. (10)

b) Explain the working principle of charge amplifier. (4)
14. a) Explain the operation of Instrumentation amplifier (7)

b) How phase sensitive detectors can be employed for phase measurement. (7)
Module 3
15. a) Explain the architecture of Virtual instrumentation system (10)
b) Describe the concept of graphical programming (4)
16. a) Explain the different types of communication networks used for data collection
and control in industrial applications (10)
b) Explain Field bus. (4)
Module 4
17. Devise a ladder program to switch on a pump for 100 s. It is then to be switched off
, and a heater switched on for 50 s. Then the heater is switched off, and another pump
is used to empty the water. (14)
18. Draw a block diagram of a PLC showing the main functional items and how buses
link them, explaining the functions of each block (14)
Module 5
19. a) With neat diagram explain the architecture of Distributed control system (7)
b) Describe in detail protocols for SCADA communication (7)
20. a) Explain role of MTU in SCADA communication (4)

b) With neat diagram explain the architecture of SCADA system (10)
Note: University question paper based on old syllabus
B 04000EE404052003 Pages: 2
Reg No.:_______________ Name:__________________________

APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
Eighth Semester B.Tech Degree Supplementary Examination October 2022 (2015 Scheme)
Course Code: EE404

PART A
Answer all questions, each carries 5 marks. Marks
1 Explain the working of variable reluctance tachometer. (5)

2 Write the application of Capacitive transducers in instrumentation (5)
measurements.
3 Explain instrumentation amplifier and sketch the basic circuit diagram. (5)
4 List five advantages and disadvantages of MEMS. (5)
5 What is the necessity of actuators in automation industry? (5)
6 Discuss about the Nickel-Titanium shape memory alloy used in robotic (5)
applications.
7 Explain the architecture of a PLC. (5)
8 What is a SCADA system? Explain its salient features. (5)
PART B
Answer any two full questions, each carries 10 marks.
9 a) Draw and explain the working of a LVDT transducer. (5)
b) Draw the response characteristics of a system with the following elements (5)
connected in series.
Resistance 9 Ω; Inductance 1 H; Capacitance 0.05 F; input DC Voltage 20 V
10 a) Explain the factors influencing the choice of a transducer for an instrumentation (5)
system.
b) Explain the different types of electrical circuits used for flow measurement. (5)
11 a) With the help of a diagram explain the working of an eddy current sensor. (5)
b) Explain the operation of capacitive differential pressure transducer. (5)
Page 1of 2
04000EE404052003
PART C
12 a) Derive an expression for the non-linearity in the output signal of a Wheatstone’s (5)
bridge. What are the factors to be considered for reducing the non-linearity?
b) Explain the signal conditioning circuit used for bridge linearization using (5)
OpAmp.
13 a) Explain the bulk micromachining and surface micromachining MEMS (10)
fabrication techniques with proper block diagram.
14 a) What is an isolation amplifier? Discuss its application in instrumentation. (5)
b) Explain the concept of graphical programming in virtual instruments. (5)
PART D
15 a) Explain the architecture of industrial automation system with suitable diagrams. (5)
b) Write the advantages and disadvantages of industrial automation system. (5)
16 a) Draw the PLC ladder logic diagrams to realize two input AND, OR and XOR (5)
gates.
b) What are the major differences between DCS and SCADA? (5)
17 a) What are the different types of industrial automation systems? (5)
b) Discuss the salient features and disadvantages of DCS in process industry. (5)
****
Page 2of 2
Note: University question paper based on old syllabus
B 04000EE404052104 Pages: 2
Reg No.:_______________ Name:__________________________

APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
Eighth Semester B.Tech Degree Examination June 2022 (2015 Scheme)
Course Code: EE404

PART A
Answer all questions, each carries 5 marks. Marks
1 Draw the step response of a first order sensor. Explain the effect of time constant (5)
on the nature of response of the sensor.
2 Explain shaft torque measurement using strain gauge. (5)
3 How can you realize a resistor using switched capacitor circuits? Explain with (5)
suitable diagram.
4 Differentiate between bulk and surface micromachining process (5)
5 Explain shape memory alloys. (5)
6 List any five advantages of industrial automation. (5)
7 Explain PLC architecture. (5)
8 Draw the PLC ladder diagrams to realize two input AND, OR and XOR gates. (5)
PART B
9 a) Draw the block diagram representation of a process control system and explain (6)
the function of each block.
b) Explain the transfer characteristics of a transducer due to scale error. (4)
10 a) Explain the different methods of flow measurement using hot wire anemometer. (6)
b) List any two advantages and disadvantages of resistive transducer. (4)
11 a) With the help of diagram explain the self-regulating process. (5)
b) Explain digital phase detector. (5)
PART C
12 a) With the help of a circuit diagram, explain how bridge can be linearization can be (6)
achieved using op amps.
b) Explain the purpose of signal conditioning in instrumentation systems. (4)
Page 1 of 2
04000EE404052104
13 a) Explain the principle of MEMS accelerometer. (6)

b) Compare virtual and traditional instrument process. (4)
14 a) Explain the working of Precision rectifier. (5)
b) Illustrate photolithography in micromachining. (5)
PART D
15 a) Explain the architecture of automation system. (6)
b) Explain classification of control valves based on number of plugs. (4)
16 a) Explain architecture of SCADA with the help of a diagram. (5)
b) Explain different Counter parameters of PLC (5)
17 a) What is the role of actuators in automation system? How are they classified based (5)
on source of energy?
b) What is CNC? Mention advantages and disadvantages. (5)
****
Page 2 of 2

IIA Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

IIA Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

IIA Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Department of EEE EET

D EPARTMENT OF E LECTRICAL AND E LECTRONICS

C HRIST C OLLEGE OF E NGINEERING , I RINJALAKUDA

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

DEPARTMENT OF EEE, CCE IJK

1 Sensors and Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

2 Signal conditioning circuits and Final control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan 6 DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

3 Data transmission and Virtual instrumentation system . . . . . . . . . . 87

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan 8 DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

1.1 Process inputs and outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.1 Differential Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

3.1 Block diagram of OFC system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

4.1 PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan 12 DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

5.1 SCADA System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

5.1 Comparison of DCS and PLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

Mission of the Department

Programme Educational Objectives (PEO)

Programme Specific Outcomes (PSO)

SUBJECT EET468 Industrial Instrumentation & Automation

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

1 Sensors and Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

1.1 Introduction to Process Control

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

1.2 Examples of Process

1.3 Process-Control Principles

1.3.1 Example of process control

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan 24 DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

1.3.1.2 Human-Aided Control

1.3.1.3 Automatic Control

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

Figure 1.4: Automatic Control

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan 26 DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

1.4 Block diagram of process control loop

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan 28 DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

1.4.2 Advantages of Process Control

1.5 Sensor time response

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

1.5.1 First-Order Response

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan 30 DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

b(τ) − bi = (b f − bi )[1 − e− 1] (1.3)

b(τ) − bi = 0.6321(b f − bi ) (1.4)

1.5.2 Second Order Response

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

Where R(t)= the transducer output

Dr. Vishnu P Madhanmohan 32 DEEE, Christ College of Engineering, IJK

1.6.1 Basic Requirements of Transducers

1.7 Classification Of Transducers