2) Depth-first Search

o Depth-first search is a recursive algorithm for traversing a tree or graph data

structure.
o It is called the depth-first search because it starts from the root node and
follows each path to its greatest depth node before moving to the next path.
o DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.
o The process of the DFS algorithm is similar to the BFS algorithm

Implementation:
DFS can be implemented with stack(LIFO) data structure which will explore the
latest added nodes first, suspending the exploration of all previous nodes on
the path. This can be done using recursive procedure thar can itself on each
of the children in turn.

ALGORITHM:
Algorithm DFS(v)

Visited [v]:=1;

for each vertex w adjacent from v to do

If(visited [w]=0 then DFS(w));

}
Example:
In the below search tree, we have shown the flow of depth-first search, and it will follow
the order as:

Root node--->Left node ----> right node.

It will start searching from root node S, and traverse A, then B, then D and E, after
traversing E, it will backtrack the tree as E has no other successor and still goal node is
not found. After backtracking it will traverse node C and then G, and here it will
terminate as it found goal node.

The path will be S->A->B->D->E->C->G (G is the goal node). goal node is

reached.

The performance evaluation:

1 ) Completeness: DFS search algorithm is complete within finite state space as
it will expand every node within a limited search tree.

2) Time Complexity: Time complexity of DFS will be equivalent to the node

traversed by the algorithm. It is given by:

T(n)= 1+ n2+ n3 +.........+ nb=O(nb)

Where, b= maximum depth of any node and this can be much larger than d (Shallowest
solution depth)
Space Complexity: DFS algorithm needs to store only single path from the root node,
hence space complexity of DFS is equivalent to the size of the fringe set, which is O(b
pow b +1 ).

3) Optimal: DFS search algorithm is non-optimal, as it may generate a large number

of steps or high cost to reach to the goal node

Advantages:
o DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes on
the path from root node to the current node.
o It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it traverses in
the right path).

Disadvantages:
o There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no
guarantee of finding the solution.
o DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometimes it may go to the
infinite loop.

3. Depth-Limited Search Algorithm:

A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a predetermined
limit. Depth-limited search can solve the drawback of the infinite path in the Depth-
first search. In this algorithm, the node at the depth limit will treat as it has no successor
nodes further.

Depth-limited search can be terminated with two Conditions of failure:

o Standard failure value: It indicates that problem does not have any solution.
o Cut off failure value: It defines no solution for the problem within a given depth
limit.

Algorithm:
DLS (node , goal, depth)

{
 If(depth>=0)

If(node==goal)

Return goal

for each child expand (node)

DLS (child, goal ,depth-1)

General steps for DLS:

1) Determine the node where the search should start and assign the
maximum search depth.
2) Check if the current node is the goal state.

-if not: do nothing

-if yes: return

3) check if the current node is within the maximum search depth

-if not: do nothing

-if yes: a) expand the vertex and save all of its successors in stack.

b) call DLS recursively for all the nodes of the stack and go back to
step2.

Example for DLS:

The path will be S-> A->C-> D->B->I->J (j is the goal node) goal node is reached.

If the depth limit is 2,then the nodes on level 2 are not expanded.

Advantages:
Depth-limited search is Memory efficient.

Disadvantages:
o Depth-limited search also has a disadvantage of incompleteness.
o It may not be optimal if the problem has more than one solution.

The performance evaluation:

1) Completeness: DLS search algorithm is complete if the solution is above the depth-
limit.
2) Time Complexity: Time complexity of DLS algorithm is O(bℓ).
3) Space Complexity: Space complexity of DLS algorithm is O(b×ℓ).
 4) Optimal: Depth-limited search can be viewed as a special case of DFS, and it is also
not optimal even if ℓ>d

4. Uniform-cost Search Algorithm:

Uniform-cost search is a searching algorithm used for traversing a weighted tree or
graph. This algorithm comes into play when a different cost is available for each edge.
The primary goal of the uniform-cost search is to find a path to the goal node which
has the lowest cumulative cost. Uniform-cost search expands nodes according to their
path costs form the root node.

It can be used to solve any graph/tree where the optimal cost is in demand. A uniform-
cost search algorithm is implemented by the priority queue. It gives maximum priority
to the lowest cumulative cost. Uniform cost search is equivalent to BFS algorithm if the
path cost of all edges is the same.
Uniform-cost search is complete, such as if there is a solution, UCS will find it.

Time Complexity:

Let C* is Cost of the optimal solution, and ε is each step to get closer to the goal
node. Then the number of steps is = C*/ε+1. Here we have taken +1, as we start from
state 0 and end to C*/ε.

Hence, the worst-case time complexity of Uniform-cost search isO(b1 + [C*/ε])/.

Space Complexity:

The same logic is for space complexity so, the worst-case space complexity of Uniform-
cost search is O(b1 + [C*/ε]).

Optimal: Uniform-cost search is complete, such as if there is a solution, UCS will find
it.

Advantages:

o Uniform cost search is optimal because at every state the path with the least
cost is chosen.

Disadvantages:

o It does not care about the number of steps involve in searching and only
concerned about path cost. Due to which this algorithm may be stuck in an
infinite loop.

5. Iterative deepening depth-first Search:

The iterative deepening algorithm is a combination of DFS and BFS algorithms. This
search algorithm finds out the best depth limit and does it by gradually increasing the
limit until a goal is found.

This algorithm performs depth-first search up to a certain "depth limit", and it keeps
increasing the depth limit after each iteration until the goal node is found.

This Search algorithm combines the benefits of Breadth-first search's fast search and
depth-first search's memory efficiency.

The iterative search algorithm is useful uninformed search when search space is large,
and depth of goal node is unknown.
Example:
Following tree structure is showing the iterative deepening depth-first search. IDDFS
algorithm performs various iterations until it does not find the goal node. The iteration
performed by the algorithm is given as:

1'stIteration----->A
2'ndIteration---->A,B,C
3'rdIteration------>A,B,D,E,C,F,G
4'thIteration------>A,B,D,H,I,E,C,F,K,G
In the fourth iteration, the algorithm will find the goal node.

The performance evaluation:

Completeness:

This algorithm is complete is if the branching factor is finite.

Time Complexity:

Let's suppose b is the branching factor and depth is d then the worst-case time complexity
is O(bd).

Space Complexity:
The space complexity of IDDFS will be O(bd).

Optimal:

IDDFS algorithm is optimal if path cost is a non- decreasing function of the depth of
the node

Advantages:
o It combines the benefits of BFS and DFS search algorithm in terms of fast search
and memory efficiency.

Disadvantages:
o The main drawback of IDDFS is that it repeats all the work of the previous phase.

6. Bidirectional Search Algorithm:

Bidirectional search algorithm runs two simultaneous searches, one form initial state
called as forward-search and other from goal node called as backward-search, to find
the goal node. Bidirectional search replaces one single search graph with two small
subgraphs in which one starts the search from an initial vertex and other starts from
goal vertex. The search stops when these two graphs intersect each other.

Bidirectional search can use search techniques such as BFS, DFS, DLS, etc.

Example:
In the below search tree, bidirectional search algorithm is applied. This algorithm
divides one graph/tree into two sub-graphs. It starts traversing from node 1 in the
forward direction and starts from goal node 16 in the backward direction.

The algorithm terminates at node 9 where two searches meet.

Completeness: Bidirectional Search is complete if we use BFS in both searches.

Time Complexity: Time complexity of bidirectional search using BFS is O(bd).

Space Complexity: Space complexity of bidirectional search is O(bd).

Optimal: Bidirectional search is Optimal.

Advantages:

o Bidirectional search is fast.

o Bidirectional search requires less memory

Disadvantages:

o Implementation of the bidirectional search tree is difficult.

o In bidirectional search, one should know the goal state in advance.