MR22 Beee Manual 10-09-2022 Final

Basic Electrical and Electronics
Engineering Handbook
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING BASIC ELECTRICAL AND
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Preface
Engineering institutions have been modernizing and updating their curriculum to keep pace with the
continuously developing technological trends so as to meet the correspondingly changing educational
demands of the industry. As the years passed by, multi-disciplinary education system also has become
more and more relevant in the present global industrial development. Thus, just as Computer Systems
& Applications, Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering also has become an integral part of all
the industrial and engineering sectors be it infrastructure, power generation, minor & major Industries,
Industrial Safety or process industries where automation has become an inherent part. Accordingly,
several universities have been bringing in a significant change in their graduate programs of
engineering starting from the first year to meet the needs of these important industrial sectors to
enhance the employability of their graduates. Thus, at college entry level itself Basic Electrical &
Electronics Engineering has become the first Multidisciplinary core engineering subject for almost
all the other core engineering branches like Computer Engineering, Civil, Mechanical, Production
engineering, Industrial Engineering, Aeronautical, Instrumentation and Control Systems. As a further
impetus, since for understanding of this subject a practical knowledge is equally important, a hands
on session course is also added in the curriculum. The experiments are so chosen that the student
comprehends all the important theoretical concepts with good practical insight.
This handbook of manual cum observation for Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering is
brought out in a simple and lucid manner highlighting the important underlying concepts &
objectives along with sequential steps to conduct the experiment. Every experiment is further
provided with format of test results and most importantly the safety precautions to be taken.
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Instructions to Students
1. Before entering the practice session, the student should carry the following things.
 Identity card issued by the college.
 Class notes.
 Observation book/ manual.
 Session book.
2. Student must sign in and sign out in the register provided when attending the hands on session
without fail. Students need to maintain 100% attendance in session if not a strict action will be.
3. Come to the practice session in time. Students, who are late more than 15 min., will not be
allowed to attend the session.
4. All students must follow a Dress Code while in the session.
5. Foods, drinks are NOT allowed and all bags must be left at the indicated place.
6. The objective of the practice session is learning. The exercises/ demonstrations are designed to
illustrate the need and operation of an equipment/ machine and to expose you, how to use
different measuring instruments in industry or our daily life, conduct the exercises with interest
and an attitude of learning.
7. Students must take care of their valuable things, Work quietly and carefully.
8. Be honest in recording and representing your data.
9. If a particular reading appears wrong repeat the measurement carefully, to get a better fit for a
graph
10. All presentations of data, tables and graphs calculations should be neatly and carefully done
11. If you finish early, spend the remaining time to complete the calculations and drawing graphs.
Graphs should be neatly drawn with pencil. Always label graphs and the axes and display
units.
12. Come equipped with calculator, scales, pencils etc. Before entering to session, must
prepare for Viva for which they are going to conduct exercise.
13. Do not fiddle with apparatus. Handle instruments with care. Report any breakage to the
instructor.
14. When the exercise is completed, students should disconnect the setup made by them, and
should return all the components/instruments taken for the purpose.
15. Any damage of the equipment or burn-out of components will be viewed seriously either by
putting penalty or by dismissing the total group of students from the session for the
semester/year.
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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINE
Do’s and Donot’s

Do’s:
 Proper Dress Has to Be Maintained While Entering in The s e s s i o n . (Boys Tuck in

AndShoes, Girls with Apron).
 Students Should Carry Observation Notes and manual Completed in All Aspects.
 Correct Specifications of The Equipment Have to Be Mentioned in The Circuit

Diagram.
 Student Should Be Aware of Operating Equipment.
 Students Should Be at Their Concerned Exercise Table, Unnecessary Moment Is

Restricted.
 Student Should Follow the Indent Procedure to Receive and Deposit the Equipment from
the session Store Room.
 After Completing the Connections Students Should Verify the Circuits by th e s e s s

i o n Instructor.
 The Readings Must Be Shown to The Lecturer In-Charge for Verification.
 Before Leaving the r o o m , Students Must Ensure That All Switches Are in The
OffPosition and All the Connections Are Removed.
 All Patch Cords and Stools Should Be Placed at Their Original Positions.
Don’ts:
 Don’t Come Late to The session.
 Don’t Enter into The session with Golden Rings, Bracelets and Bangles.
 Don’t Make or Remove the Connections with Power On.
 Don’t Switch on The Supply Without Verifying by The Staff Member.
 Don’t Switch Off the Machine with Load.
 Don’t Leave the session Without the Permission of The Staff In- Charge.
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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGIN
Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Course Objectives:
1. To verify the basic electrical circuit laws and theorems.
2. To plot the V-I characteristics of PN junction Diode, Zener Diode and itsapplications as half
wave & full wave rectifier.
3. To study and verify the logic gates.
4. To study various Electrical Measuring Instruments, Machines and microprocessor.
List of Exercises:
1. Demonstration:Safety precautions,measuring instruments,Switch gear, Earthing and Cut-out sections of

electrical machines.
2. Verification of KCL and KVL .
3. Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem.
4. Verification of Superposition Theorem.
5. P-N Junction Diode Characteristics.
6. Zener Diode Characteristics.
7. Half Wave Rectifier with and without Filter.
8. Full Wave Rectifier with and without Filter.
9. Study of logic gates.
10. Introduction to Microprocessor/controller.
11. Mesh Analysis and Kirchhoff’s Laws using PSPICE Simulation.
12. Verification of Maximum power transfer Theorem using Virtual lab.
Course Outcomes:
At the end of the course, the students are able to:
1. Apply the basic circuit laws and theorems for a given electrical circuit.
2. Plot the V-I characteristics of PN junction Diode, Zener Diode and study the halfwave
and full wave rectifier.
3. Realize the various logic gates.
4. Understand operation of various Electrical Measuring Instruments, microprocessors
and Electrical Machines.
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List of Exercises
S.No. Name of The Exercise Page No.
1. Demonstration: Safety precautions, measuring instruments, 1-26

switchgear, Earthing and Cut-out sections of electrical machines.
2. Verification of KCL and KVL. 27-35
3. Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem. 36-45
4. Verification of Superposition Theorem. 46-55
5. P-N Junction Diode Characteristics. 56-64
6. Zener Diode Characteristics. 65-71
7. Half Wave Rectifier with and without Filter. 72-79
8. Full Wave Rectifier with and without Filter. 80-86
9. 87-89
Study of Logic gates.
10. Introduction to Microprocessor/controller. 90-98
11. 99-105
Mesh Analysis and Kirchhoff’s Laws using PSPICE Simulation
12. Verification of Maximum power transfer Theorem using Virtual lab 106-108
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SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGI
Exercise No. 1
A. Demonstration of Measuring Instruments andElectrical Components
Aim:
To know the general rules and precautions are to be observed for safe handling of electricity at different
working conditions and how to use different measuring instruments.
Apparatus Required:
S. No. Name of The Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1. RPS (0-30) V Digital 1No
2. Ammeter (0-200) mA Digital 1No
3. Voltmeter (0-20) V Digital 1No
4. Resistors 470Ω, 560Ω, 1KΩ - Required number
5. DMM - Digital 1No
6. Bread Board - - 1No
7. Oscilloscope 30MHz Digital 1No
8. Connecting Wires - - Required number
Demonstration on Measuring Instruments:
1. Multi-Meter
The multimeter can be used as a voltmeter, ammeter, or ohmmeter, depending on how it is
configured. The work stations have other equipment, which will be investigated in more detail in later
sessions. Please be careful with these (and all other) measuring instruments. A voltmeter is designed to
measure the voltage between any two points in a circuit, when the circuit is energized. If the voltage to
be measured is V12 = V1− V2, then the black probe is placed on node 2 (corresponding to V2) and the
red probe is placed on node 1 (corresponding to V 1). Since the voltmeter is placed in parallel with a part
of the circuit it potentially can disrupt circuit operation. Ideally, a voltmeter’s resistance is infinite in
which case there would be no change in circuit operation.
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Fig.1: Model Multi-Meter
Fig.2: Model bread board
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Element Sectional view Symbol
Resistor (R)
Inductor (L)
Capacitor (C)
Fig.3: Model sectional view and symbol of Resistor, Inductor and

Capacitor
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Fig.4: Resistance value calculation
Fig.5: Model inductors and capacitors
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Voltmeter And Ammeter
Fig.6: Analog Voltmeter and Ammeter
Fig.7: Digital Voltmeter and Ammeter.
Fig.8: Regulated Power Supply
www.mallareddyuniversity.ac.in 5
Fig.9: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Fig.10: Function generator
Result:
Post Exercise Questions:

1. What are the various components of an electrical circuit?
2. How resistance is measured using colour bands?
3. What is an oscilloscope?
B. Demonstration of Components of LT Switchgear (SFU, MCB,

ELCB, MCCB) and Earthing
Aim:
To Demonstrate the Components of LT switchgear (SFU, MCB, ELCB, MCCB) and Earthing.
Apparatus Required:
S. No. Name of The Apparatus Quantity

1. MCB 1No.
2. ELCB 1No.
3. MCCB 1No.
4. SFU 1No.
1.Switching Fuse Unit (SFU):

It has one switch unit and one fuse unit. When we operate the breaker, the contacts will get
close through switch and then the supply will pass through the fuse unit to the output.
The Rewireable Switch Fuse Units are used for distributing power and protecting electrical devices and
cables from damage due to fluctuations. This fuse unit is housed in an enclosure made using quality
Cold Rolled (CR) steel sheet.
Porcelain Fuse Units (Kit Kat) are specifically utilized in industrial, commercial and domestic
electrical fittings for ensuring flawless power distribution.
Features:
 Excellent overload protection
 Shock proof
 Compact and sturdy design
 Cable is connected at both ends
 High conductivity
 Protection from short circuit
 Rewireable
Available for the ratings:

16, 32, 63, 100, 200, 300 & 400 Amp, 240/415 V AC.
Fig.1. Switching Fuse Unit
2. MCBS or Miniature Circuit Breakers:
Now-a-days we use more commonly miniature circuit breaker or MCB in low voltage electrical
network instead of fuse. The MCB has some advantages compared to fuse. It automatically switches off
the electrical circuit during abnormal condition of the network means in over load condition as well as
faulty condition.
MCBs are electromechanical devices which protect an electrical circuit from an over current. The
over current, in an electrical circuit, may result from short circuit, overload or faulty design. An MCB is
a better alternative to a Fuse since it does not require replacement once an overload is detected. Unlike
fuse, an MCB can be easily reset and thus offers improved operational safety and greater convenience
without incurring large operating cost. The principal of operation is simple. An MCB functions by
interrupting the continuity of electrical flow through the circuit once a fault is detected. In simple terms
MCB is a switch which automatically turns off when the current flowing through it passes the
maximum allowable limit.
There are two contacts one is fixed and the other moveable. When the current exceeds the
predefined limit a solenoid forces the moveable contact to open and the MCB turns off thereby stopping
the current to flow in the circuit. In order to restart the flow of current the MCB is manually turned on.
This mechanism is used to protect from the faults arising due to over current or overload.
To protect against fault arising due to over heating or increase in temperature a bi-metallic strip is
used. MCBs are generally designed to trip within 2.5 millisecond when an over current fault arises. In
case of temperature rise or over heating it may take 2 seconds to 2 minutes for the MCB to trip.
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Fig.2. MCB
3. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker :
If any current leaks from any electrical installation, there must-be any insulation failure in the
electrical circuit, it must be properly detected and prevented otherwise there may be a high chance of
electrical shock if-anyone touches the installation. ELCB detects the earth leakage current and makes
the power supply off by opening the associated circuit breaker. There are two types of earth leakage
circuit breaker, one is voltage ELCB and other is current ELCB.
I. Voltage ELCB:
The working principle of Voltage ELCB is quite simple. One terminal of the relay coil is
connected to the metal body of the equipment to be protected against earth leakage and other terminal is
connected to the earth directly. If any insulation failure occurs or live phase wire touches the metal
body, of the equipment, there must be a voltage difference appears across the terminal of the coil
connected to the equipment body and earth.
This voltage difference produces a current to flow the relay coil. If the voltage difference
crosses, a predetermined limit, the current through the relay becomes sufficient to actuate the relay for
tripping the associated circuit breaker to disconnect the power supply to the equipment. The typicality
of this device is, it can detect and protect only that equipment or installation with which it is attached. It
cannot detect any leakage of insulation in other installation of the system.
Fig.3: Voltage ELCB
II. Current ELCB :
Actually, ELCBs are of two kinds, but it is general practice to refer voltage based ELCB as
simple ELCB. And current based ELCB is referred as residual current device (RCD) or RCCB. Here
one CT core is energized from both phase wise and neutral wire. Current ELCB consists of a 3-winding
transformer, which has two primary windings and 1 secondary winding.
Neutral and line wire act as the two primary windings. During balanced condition current
through the secondary winding is zero. Normal (Balanced) condition – the flux due to current
through the phase wire will be neutralizing the current through the neutral wire. Current is same for line
and neutral. Fault (Unbalanced) condition – flux produced in the secondary winding (Line current not
equal-= neutral current). This induces the current through the secondary winding. This is connected to
the sensing circuit. This will sense the leakage and send a signal to the tripping system and trips the
contact.
Fig.4: Current ELCB
2.Molded Case Circuit Breaker:
A MCCB is a type of electrical protection device that can be used for a wide range of voltages,
and frequencies of both 50 Hz and 60Hz.The main distinctions between MCCB and MCB are that the
MCCB can have current ratings that range from 15 A to 2,500 amperes, and its trip settings are
normally adjustable. An additional difference is that MCCBs tend to be much larger than MCBs.
MCCB has three main functions:
 Protection against overload – currents above the rated value that last longer than what is
normal for the application.
 Protection against electrical faults – During a fault such as a short circuit or line fault,
there are extremely high currents that must be interrupted immediately.
 Switchingacircuitonandoff–Thisisalesscommonfunctionofcircuitbreakers, but they can
be used for that purpose if there isn’t an adequate manual switch.
Operating Mechanism:
Overloadprotectionisaccomplishedbymeansofathermalmechanism.MCCBs have a bimetallic
contact what expands and contracts in response to changes in temperature. Under normal operating
conditions, the contact allows electric current through the MCCB. However, as soon as the current
exceeds the adjusted trip value, the contact will start to heat and expand until the circuit
isinterrupted.Thethermalprotectionagainstoverloadisdesignedwithatimedelaytoallowshort duration over
current, which is a normal part of operation for many devices. However, any over current conditions
that last more than what is normally expected represent an overload, and the MCCB is tripped to protect
the equipment and personnel.
3. Earthing:
Themainreasonfordoingearthinginelectricalnetworkisforthesafety.Whenallmetallic parts in
electrical equipment are grounded then if the insulation inside the equipment fails there are no
dangerous voltages present in the equipment case. If the live wire touches the grounded case then the
circuit is effectively shorted and fuse will immediately blow. When the fuse is blown then the
dangerous voltages are away.
Purpose of Earthing
1. Safety for Human life / Building/Equipment
2. Over voltage protection
3. Voltage stabilization
Conventional methods of earthing
1. Plate type Earthing
2. Pipe type Earthing
Fig.5: Earthing
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Grounding or Earthing :
To connect the metallic (conductive) Parts of an Electric appliance is called Earthing or Grounding.
1. Earthing through a Galvanized iron (G.I.) Pipe:
• Pipe earthing is best form of earthing, It is cheap
• GI pipe used as an earth electrode.
• The size of the pipe depends upon the current to be carried and the type of soil in which the earth
electrode is buried.
2. Earthing through a plate:

GI or copper plate is used as an earth electrode.
Fig.6: GI pipe earthing
If a GI plate is used it shall be of dimensions 0.3m × 0.3 m and 6.35 mm thick and if a copper
plate is used it shall be a dimension 0.3m × 0.3 m and 3.2 mm thick. The plate is buried to a depth of
not less than 2 m in as moist a place as possible preferably in close proximity of water tap and at least
0.6 m away from all the building foundations. The plate shall be completely covered by 80 mm of
charcoal with the layer of common salt 30 mm all around it, keeping the face of the vertical. The
charcoal and salt decreases the earth resistance.
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Fig.7: Effect of earthing
Result:
Post-Exercise Questions:
1. What is the Purpose of a Circuit Breaker?

2. What are different types of Circuit Breakers?
3. What is Earthing?
4. What are different types of Earthing Methods?
5. Why we require a earth leakage circuit breaker?
C. Demonstration of Cut-Out Sections of Machines: DC

MachineSynchronous Machine and Single-Phase Induction Machine
Aim:
Demonstration of cut-out sections of machines: DC machine, Induction machine, Synchronous
machine and Single-phase transformer.
Apparatus Required:
S. No. Name of The Apparatus Quantity

1. Single Phase Induction Motor 1No.
2. Dc Shunt Motor 1No.
3. Synchronous Motor 1No.
4. Single Phase Transformer 1No.
Single Phase Induction Motor:
Fig .1: Single Phase Induction Motor
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Single Phase Transformer:
Fig.2: Single Phase Transformer
Synchronous Machine:
Fig.3. Synchronous machine
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DC Machine:
Fig.4: DC machine
Theory of DC And AC Machines:
A) Construction of Single phase Induction motor:
Like any other electrical motor asynchronous motor also have two main parts namely rotor and stator.
Stator:
As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A single phase AC supply is given
to the stator of single phase induction motor.
Rotor:
The rotor is a rotating part of an induction motor. The rotor connects the mechanical load
through the shaft. The rotor in the single-phase induction motor is of squirrel cage rotor type. The
construction of single phase induction motor is almost similar to the squirrel cage three-phase
induction motor. But in case of a single phase induction motor, the stator has two windings instead of
one three-phase winding in three phase induction motor.
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Fig.5: Cut section of Single phase capacitor start induction motor.
Stator of Single Phase Induction Motor:
The stator of the single-phase induction motor has laminated stamping to reduce eddy current
losses on its periphery. The slots are provided on its stamping to carry stator or main winding.
Stampings are made up of silicon steel to reduce the hysteresis losses.
When we apply a single phase AC supply to the stator winding, the magnetic field gets
produced, and the motor rotates at speed slightly less than the synchronous speed Ns. Synchronous
speed Ns is given by
Where,
f = supply voltage frequency,
P = No. of poles of the
motor.
The construction of the stator of the single-phase induction motor is similar to that of three
phase induction motor except there are two dissimilarities in the winding part of the single phase
induction motor.
1. Firstly, the single-phase induction motors are mostly provided with concentric coils. We can
easily adjust the number of turns per coil can with the help of concentric coils. The mmf
distribution is almost sinusoidal.
2. Except for shaded pole motor, the asynchronous motor has two stator windings namely the main
winding and the auxiliary winding. These two windings are placed in space quadrature to each
other.
Rotor of Single Phase Induction Motor:
The construction of the rotor of the single-phase induction motor is similar to the squirrel cage
three-phase induction motor. The rotor is cylindrical and has slots all over its periphery. The slots are
not made parallel to each other but are a little bit skewed as the skewing prevents magnetic locking of
stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of induction motor more smooth and quieter.
The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars. These aluminum or copper
bars are called rotor conductors and placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The copper or
aluminum rings permanently short the rotor conductors called the end rings.
To provide mechanical strength, these rotor conductors are braced to the end ring and hence
form a complete closed circuit resembling a cage and hence got its name as squirrel cage induction
motor. As end rings permanently short the bars, the rotor electrical resistance is very small and it is not
possible to add external resistance as the bars get permanently shorted. The absence of slip ring and
brushes make the construction of single phase induction motor very simple and robust.
Working Principle of Single Phase Induction Motor

NOTE: We know that for the working of any electrical motor whether its AC or DC motor, we
require two fluxes as the interaction of these two fluxes produced the required torque.
When we apply a single phase AC supply to the stator winding of single phase induction motor, the
alternating current starts flowing through the stator or main winding. This alternating current produces
an alternating flux called main flux. This main flux also links with the rotor conductors and hence cut
the rotor conductors.
According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf gets induced in the rotor. As
the rotor circuit is closed one so, the current starts flowing in the rotor. This current is called the rotor
current. This rotor current produces its flux called rotor flux. Since this flux is produced due to the
induction principle so, the motor working on this principle got its name as an induction motor.
Now there are two fluxes one is main flux, and another is called rotor flux. These two fluxes produce
the desired torque which is required by the motor to rotate.
Why Single Phase Induction Motor is not Self Starting?
According to double field revolving theory, we can resolve any alternating quantity into two
components. Each component has a magnitude equal to the half of the maximum magnitude of the
alternating quantity, and both these components rotate in the opposite direction to each other.
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B) Single phase Transformer:

Transformer is electromagnetic static electrical equipment which transforms magnetic energy to
electrical energy. It consists of a magnetic iron core serving as a magnetic transformer part and
transformer cooper winding serving as electrical part. The transformer is high-efficiency equipment,
and its losses are very low because there isn’t any mechanical friction inside. Transformers are used in
almost all electrical systems from low voltage up to the highest voltage level. It operates only with
alternating current (AC), because the direct current (DC) does not create any electromagnetic induction.
Depending on the electrical network where the transformer is installed, there are two transformer types,
three-phase transformers and single phase transformers. The operation principle of the single-phase
transformer is: the AC voltage source injects the AC current through the transformer primary winding.
The AC current generates the alternating electromagnetic field. The magnetic field lines are moving
through iron transformer core and comprise the transformer secondary circuit. Thus the voltage is
induced in the secondary winding with the same frequency as the voltage of the primary side. The
induced voltage value is determined by Faraday’s Law.
Fig.6: Single phase Transformer
The main parts of a transformer are windings, core, and isolation. The windings should have
small resistance value and usually they are made of copper .They are wound around the core and must
be isolated from it. Also, the windings turns have to be isolated from each other. The transformer core
is made from very thin steel laminations which have high permeability. The laminations have to be thin
because of decreasing power losses. They have to be isolated from each other, and usually, the
insulating varnish is used for that purpose. The transformer insulation can be provided as dry or as
liquid-filled type. The dry-type insulation is provided by synthetic resins, air, gas or vacuum. It is used
only for small size transformers. The liquid insulation type usually means using mineral oils. The oil
has a long life cycle, good isolation characteristics, overload capability and also provides transformer
cooling. Oil insulation is always used for big transformers.
The single phase transformer contains two windings, one on primary and the other on the
secondary side. They are mostly used in the single-phase electrical power system. The three-phase
system application means using three single phase units connected in the three-phase system. This is a
more expensive solution, and it is used in the high voltage power system.
C) DC Machine:
A dc machine is an electrical machine which converts mechanical/electrical energy into
electrical/mechanical energy. This energy conversion is based on the principle of Faraday’s laws.
Construction of A DC Machine:
A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes and vice versa is
also possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a DC machine. These
basic constructional details are also valid for the construction of a DC motor. Hence, let's call this point
as construction of a DC machine instead of just 'construction of a dc generator.
The above figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DC machine
consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are described
below.
Fig.7: Cut-section view of DC machine
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i) Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel. It not
only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic flux produced by
the field winding.
ii) Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They carry field
winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes ; (i)they support field coils
(ii)spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
iii) Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and
placedoneachpoleandareconnectedinseries.Theyarewoundinsuchawaythat, when energized, they form
alternate North and South poles.
iv) Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots to
carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy
current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes. Armature is
keyed to the shaft.
Armature core (rotor)

Fig.8: Rotor
v) Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots. The
armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core. Armature winding
can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap or wave windings are
generally used. A double layer winding means that each armature slot will carry two different coils.
Fig.9: Commutator and brushes
vi) Commutator and brushes:

Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a commutator - brush
arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the current generated in
armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a DC motor, commutator helps in providing current to the
armature conductors. A commutator consists of a set of copper segments which are insulated from each
other. The number of segments is equal to the number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to
an armature coil and the commutator is keyed to the shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or
graphite. They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates
keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current.
D) Synchronous Machine:
synchronous machine is a device which converts the mechanical/electrical power or energy into
electrical/mechanical power or energy. The construction of a synchronous machine is very similar to
the DC machine but the main difference between them in DC machine the armature winding is the
rotating part and field winding is the stationary part whereas in synchronous machine the armature
winding is stationery and field winding is the rotary part.
Fig.10: Cut-section view of Synchronous motor

Stator:
As the name suggests it is the stationary part of the machine and it is made up of special magnetic
material which can allow high magnetic permeability and low magnetic hysteresis such as fabricated
steel. The stator core is laminated to minimize the effect of eddy current losses. The lamination is
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insulated from each other by a thin coating of an oxide and has space between them to allow passage of
cool air flow.
For the small machine, the laminations are stamped out in the complete ring structure and for the
large machine; the laminations are divided into the number of segments. The slots are provided in the
inner periphery of the core and the armature conductors or coils are assembled init .Generally, open
slots are used permitting easy installation or removal of the stator coil. The fractional number of slots
per pole is used in order to eliminate the harmonic in the waveform. The armature winding of an
alternator is usually connected in star and its neutral is connected to the ground.
Rotor:
The revolving field structure of the electrical machine is called as the rotor. In a synchronous
generator, the rotor carries a field winding which is supplied by the DC source. The DC source is also
called an exciter which is generally a small d.c shunt or compounded generator mounted on the shaft of
the alternator.
There are two types of rotor construction
1. Salient Pole Type
2. Cylindrical Type (non-salient pole)
Salient Type:
The salient pole type rotor is used for low and medium speed machines (less than 1200 rpm) and
has the large diameter and small axial length.
Fig.11: Salient Pole Rotor
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The poles are made up of thick steel lamination to reduce eddy current heating loss and it is
attached to a rotor by means of the dove tail joint .In salient pole rotor, the poles are always projected in
the outward direction as shown in the figure. The field winding in the salient pole type is connected in
series in such a way that when the field winding is energized by the Exciter, then adjacent poles will
have opposite polarities.
The number of poles does not affect the number of phases in the alternator output.
Toreducetheeffectofhauntingdamperwindingisprovidedinthepolefaces.They don’t let the motor to
oscillate abruptly; they damp the oscillations thus increasing the stability of the machine. Salient pole
rotor found application for diesel engine and water turbine because they both required medium speed
(120-1000rpm).The pole and Pole shoe cover 2/3 of the pole pitch. The rating of salient pole rotor is
less than 500kW.
Cylindrical Type Rotor:

The Rotor is made up of smooth solid forgings of alloy steel cylinder having the number of slots
along the outer periphery. The field windings of cylindrical type rotor are connected in series to the slip
rings through which they are excited by the DC exciter. The top portion of the slot is covered with the
help of steel or manganese wedges and the unslotted portion of the cylinder acts as the poles of an
alternator. The field windings are arranged in such a way that its flux density is maximum on the polar
central line. In cylindrical rotor, the pole doesn’t project out from the smooth surface of the rotor hence
they maintain the uniform air gap between stator and rotor. Since steam turbine runs at very high speed,
therefore, they required less number of poles hence the diameter of the rotor is small and axial or rotor
length is large.
Fig.12: Non-Salient Pole Alternator
25
Result:
Post-Exercise Questions:
1. Why we need starter for machines?

2. Name any four the domestic electrical machines with name plate details.
3. Difference between 3-phase squirrel cage and slip-ring induction motor?
4. What are the various types of rotors used in the alternators?
5. What are the applications of DC motors?
26
Exercise No. 2
Verification of Kirchhoff’s Laws
Aim:
To verify the Kirchhoff’s voltage law and Kirchhoff’s current law for the given circuit.
Apparatus Required:
S.No. Name of The Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1. -
RPS (0-30V) 1No.
2. Voltmeter (0-20 V) Digital 4 No.
3.
Ammeter (0-200mA) Digital 4 No.
4. Bread board - - 1 No.
5. Connecting wires - - Required Number
6. 330 Ω - 1 No.
Resistors 390 Ω - 1 No.
470Ω - 1 No.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
1. KVL:
Fig.1
27
Practical Circuit For KVL:
Fig.1(a)
2. KCL:
Fig.2
28
Practical Circuit For KCL:
Fig.2 (a)
Theory:
a. Kirchhoff’s Voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the voltage around any closed path in a
given circuit is always zero. In any circuit, voltage drops across the resistors always have polarities
opposite to the source polarity. When the current passes through the resistor, there is a loss in
energy and therefore a voltage drop. In any element, the current flows from a higher potential to
lower potential. Consider the fig (1) shown above in which there are 3 resistors are in series.
According to kickoff’s voltage law….
V = V1 + V2 + V3
b. Kirchhoff’s current law states that the sum of the currents entering a node equal to the sum of the
currents leaving the same node. Consider the fig (2) shown above in which there are 2 parallel
paths. According to Kirchhoff’s current law...
I1 = I2 + I3
Procedure:
I. Kirchhoff’s Voltage law:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig (1a).
2. Apply the voltage at the input terminals of the circuit.
3. Measure the voltages across the resistors and tabulate the values.
4. Observe that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed loop is zero.
5. Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 for different values of voltages.
29
II. Kirchhoff’s current law:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig (2a).
2. Apply the voltage at the input terminals of the circuit.
3. Measure the currents through the resistors and tabulate the values.
4. Observe that the algebraic sum of the currents at a node is zero.
5. Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 for different values of voltages.
Precautions:
1. Avoid loose connections.

2. Keep all the knobs in minimum position while switch on and off of the supply.
3. Take the readings without any error.
4. Avoid short circuit at the input terminals.
Caluculations:KVL:
Applying KVL for the loop, we get
V= V1+V2+V3-----------------------(1)
Where,
V1= I *R1 Volts; V2= I*R2 Volts; V3= I*R3 Volts

V
I= mA
R1 + R2 + R3
Therefore, V= IR1+ IR2+ IR3 Volts
KCL:
(R3 + R4) ∗ R2
Req = R1 +
R2+R 3+R4
𝑉
I1 = mA
𝑅𝑒𝑞
Applying Current Division Rule:
I1 = I2 + I3----------------------(2)
(R3 + R4)
I2 = I1 ∗ mA
R2+R3 +R4
and I3 = I1 - I2 mA
31
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Tabular Columns:
KVL:
Theoretical (in Volts) Practical (in Volts)
Applied Voltage (V in
S.No.
Volts) V1 V2 V3 V=V1+V2+V3 V1 V2 V3 V = V1 +V2 +V3
1.
2.
3.
KCL:
Theoretical (in mA) Practical (in mA)
Applied Voltage (V in
S.No.
Volts) I1 I2 I3 I1=I2+I3 I1 I2 I3 I1=I2+I3
1.
2.
3.
Result:
Viva Questions:
1.What is another name for KCL &
KVL? 2.Define network and circuit?
3. What is the property of inductor and capacitor?
Exercise Question-I :
In the circuit given below. Find
a) the current through 30 ohm resistor and b) the voltage across 40 Ω resistance.
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Exercise Question-II :
Determine the current in all resistors in the circuit shown in Fig (ii).
.
Fig (ii)
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Exercise No. 3
Verification of Thevenin’s
Theorem
Aim:
To verify Thevenin’s theorem for the given circuit.
Apparatus Required:
S.No. Name of The Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1. Voltmeter (0-20) V Digital 2 No
2. Ammeter (0-200) mA Digital 1 No
3. RPS (0-30V) Digital 1 No
82 Ω,47Ω - 1 No
4. Resistors 150Ω - 1 No
100 Ω - 1 No
5. Breadboard - - 1 No
6. DMM - Digital 1 No
7. Connecting wires - - Required
number
Circuit Diagram:
Given Circuit:
To Find IL:
Fig.1
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ENGINEERING
To Find VTh:
Fig.1 (a)
To Find RTh:
Fig.1 (b)
Thevenin’s equivalent Circuit: To find IL:
Fig.1(c) Fig.1(d)
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Practical Circuit Diagrams:
To Find IL:
Fig.2
To Find VTh:
Fig.2 (a)
To Find RTh:
Fig.2(b)
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ENGINEERING
To Find IL from Thevenin’s equivalent circuit:
Fig.2 (c)
Theory:
Thevenin’s Theorem:
It states that in any lumped, linear network having a greater number of sources and elements,
the equivalent circuit across any branch can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of
Thevenin’s equivalent voltage source VTh in series with Thevenin’s equivalent resistance RTh. Where,
VTh is the open circuit voltage across (branch) the two terminals and R Th is the resistance seen from the
same two terminals by replacing all other sources with their internal resistances.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in fig. 2.

2. Adjust the input voltage to an appropriate value.
3. Note down the response (current, IL) through the load resistance branch i.e. A B .
4. Reduce the input voltage supply to 0V and switch-off the supply.
5. Now, make the connections as per the circuit shown in fig.2 (a).
6. Adjust the input voltage to an appropriate value.
7. Note down the voltage across the load terminals AB (Voltmeter reading) that gives VTh.
8. Reduce the input voltage supply to 0V and switch-off the supply.
9. Now, make the connections as per the circuit shown in fig.2 (b).
10. Connect the digital multimeter (DMM) across AB terminals and it should be kept in resistance
ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
mode to measure Thevenin’s resistance (RTh).

11. Now, make the connections as per the circuit shown in fig.2 (c).
12. Note down the current through the load terminals AB (ammeter reading) that gives IL.
13. Tabulate all the measured values.
Precautions:
1. Initially keep the voltage knob in minimum position.
2. Take the readings without any parallax error.
Calculations:
To find IL:
As, the resistors RL and R3 are connected in series, the total branch resistance is RL+ R3. The total
(RL+R3)∗R2
resistance (RL+ R3) in turn is connected in parallel with R2 and is given by . This resistance
R2+R3+RL
is connected in series with R1. Therefore, the equivalent resistance is given by
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Step2: RTh
R1 ∗ R2
RTh = + R3 Ω
R 1 + R2
Step3: IL
From the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit:

VTh
IL = mA
R L + RTh
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Tabular Column:
S.No. Theoritical Values Practical Values

1. VTh= VTh=
2. RTh= RTh=
3. IL = IL =
Result:
Viva Questions:
1. The internal resistance of a source is 2 Ohms and is connected with an external Load of
10 Ohms Resistance. What is Rth?
2. In the above question if the voltage is 10 volts and the load is of 50 ohms. What is the
load current and Vth? Verify IL?
3. If the internal resistance of a source is 5 ohms and is connected with an external Load of
25 Ohms Resistance. What is Rth?
Exercise Question-I:
Determine the current flowing through the 7Ω resistor using Thevenin’s theorem.
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Exercise Question-II:
Determine the current I in the network by using Thevenin’s theorem
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Exercise No. 4
Verification Of Superposition
Theorem
Aim:
To verify the superposition theorem for the given circuit.

S.No Name of The Apparatus Range Type Quantity
Apparatus Required:
1. Bread board - - 1 No
2. Ammeter (0-20)mA Digital 1 No
3. RPS 0-30V Digital 1 No
82Ω - 1 No
4. Resistors 100Ω - 1 No
47Ω - 1 No
5. Connecting Wires - - Required

number
Circuit Diagram:
Given Circuit:
To Find I, when V1 and V2 sources acting simultaneously:
Fig.1
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To Find I1, when only V1 source is acting alone:
Fig.1(a)
To Find I2, when only V2 source is acting alone:
Fig.1(b)
Practical Circuits:
Case1: To Find I, when V1 and V2 sources acting simultaneously:
Fig.2
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Case2: To Find I1, when only V1 source is acting alone:
Fig.2(a)
Case2: To Find I2, when only V2 source is acting
alone:
Fig.2(b)
Theory:
Superposition Theorem:
It states that for a linear, bilateral network having more than one independent source, the
response (voltage or current) in any branch is equal to the algebraic sum of the responses caused by
each independent source acting alone, where all the other independent sources are replaced by their
internal resistance i.e., independent voltage sources with a short circuit and independent current
sources with an open circuit .
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ENGINEERING
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit shown in fig (2).
2. Adjust the input voltage of sources V1 and V2 to appropriate values (Say 10V and 15V respectively).
3. Note down the current (I) through the 47 0hm resistor by using the ammeter.
4. Connect the circuit as per fig 2(a) and set the source V1 (say 10V).
5. Note down the current (I1) through 47ohm resistor by using ammeter.
6. Connect the circuit as per fig 2(b) and set the voltage source V2 (say 15V).
7. Note down the current (I2) through the 47ohm resistor by using ammeter.
8. Reduce the output voltage of the sources to 0V and switch off the supply.
9. Disconnect the circuit.
Precautions:
1. Initially keep the voltage knob in minimum position.
2. Take the readings without any parallax error.
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Calculations:
Case 1: when both the voltage sources V1 and V2 are
active: Assume the unknown voltage at node “A” as VA,
By using the nodal analysis:

VA−V1 VA VA−V2
+ + = 0------------(1)
R1 R2 R3
On substituting the values of V1, V2, R1, R2 and R3 in the above equation and on solving we get
the unknown voltage at node VA. Then, the current through the resistor R2 is given by
VA
I= mA
R2
Case2: When the voltage source V1 alone is active i.e., V2 is short circuited (V2=0):
R2∗R3
Req = R1 + Ω
R2+R3
V
IT = mA
R eq
R3
I1 = IT x mA
R +R
Case 3: When the voltage source V2 alone is active i.e., V1 is shorted circuited (V1=0)
R1 ∗ R2
Req = R3 + Ω
R 1+ R 2
V
IT = mA
R eq
R1
I2 = IT ∗ mA
R 1+ R 2
The algebraic sum of the individual responses I1 and I2 gives the current I flowing through the
resistor R2 (say 47 Ω) when both the sources acting at a time i.e.,
I=I1+I2 mA
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Tabular Column: Current through the resistor R2

Voltage Source Theoretical Practical Values
S. No Values
(in Volts) (in mA)
(in mA)
1. When both the sources are I= I=
active: V1= ; V2 =
2. When only one source is active: I1 = I1 =
V1 =
3. When only one source is active: I2 = I2 =
V2 =
Algebraic sum of currents: I = I1 + I2
Result:
Viva Questions:
1) What do you man by Unilateral and Bilateral network? Give the limitations
of Superposition Theorem?
2) What are the equivalent internal impedances for an ideal voltage source and for a Current source?
3) Transform a physical voltage source into its equivalent current source.
4) If all the 3 star connected resistors are identical and equal to R, then what is the Delta
connected resistors.
Determine the voltage across and current through 330Ω resistor by using the superposition theorem
for the circuit shown
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ENGINEERING
Exercise Question-II: Using superposition theorem calculate the current in 8 ohms resistances shown in
following figure 2 (All resistance are in ohms).
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Exercise No. 5
P-N Junction Diode Characteristics
Aim:
To observe and draw the Forward and Reverse bias V-I Characteristics of a P-N Junction diode.
Apparatus Required:
S.No. Name of The Apparatus Range Quantity

1. P-N Diode - 1No.
2. Regulated Power supply (0-30V) 1No.
3. Resistor 1KΩ 1No.
4. Ammeter (0-200mA) 1No
5. Ammeter (0-200µA) 1No.
6. Voltmeter (0-20V) 2No.
7. Breadboard - 1No.
8. Connecting wires - Required No.
Theory:
A P-N junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode are
curve between voltage across the diode and current flowing through the diode. When external voltage
is zero, circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the circuit
current is zero. When P-type (Anode) is connected to +ve terminal and n- type (cathode) is connected
to –ve terminal of the supply voltage is known as forward bias. The potential barrier is reduced when
diode is in the forward biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether
eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. Then diode is said to be
in ON state. The current increases with increasing forward voltage.
When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is connected –ve
terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the junction
increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current (reverse
saturation current) flows in the circuit. Then diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse bias current
is due to minority charge carriers.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENG
Circuit Diagram:
a) Forward Bias:
Fig.1
b) Reverse Bias:
Fig.2
57
Model Graph:
Fig.3: V-I characteristics of PN diode.
Proceduce:
A) Forward Bias
1. Connect the circuit as per figure 1.

2. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage in Steps of 0.1Volt.
3. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode (If) and voltage across the diode
(Vf) for each and every step of the input voltage.
4. The reading of current and voltage are tabulated in the tabular column.
5. Plot the graph between forward voltage (Vf) on X-axis and forward current (If) on Y-axis
for each and every step of the input voltage.
B) Reverse Bias

2. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage in Steps of 1Volt.
3. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode (IR) and voltage across the diode
(VR) for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. Plot the graph between forward voltage (VR) on X-axis and forward current (IR ) on Y-
axis for each and every step of the input voltage.
58
Precautions:
2. All the connections should be correct.
3. Avoid errors while taking the meter readings.
Tabular Columns:
A) Forward Bias:
Applied Forward Forward

S.No. Voltage(V) Voltage (Vf) Current (If)mA
59
B) Reverse Bias:
Applied Reverse Reverse

S.No. Voltage(V) Voltage (VR) Current (IR)µA
60
Calculations:
In forward bias condition:
Static resistance:
Vf
Rs = Ω
If
Dynamic resistance:
∆Vf
RD = Ω
∆I f
In Reverse bias conditions:
Static resistance:
VR
Rs = Ω
IR
Dynamic resistance:
∆VR
RD = Ω
∆I R
61
62
63
Result:
Viva Questions:
1. Define depletion region of a diode?
2. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
3. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes?
4. What are the applications of a p-n diode?
5. What is PIV?
6. What is the break down voltage?
7. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?
Exercise Questions-I :
Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode?
Exercise Questions-II :
Write the diode equation.
And specify the paramets names and units.
64
Exercise No. 6
Zener Diode Characteristics
Aim:
To Plot the V-I characteristics of a Zener diode.
Apparatus Required:
S.No. Name Of The Apparatus Range Quantity

1. Zener Diode - 1 No
2. Regulated Power Supply (0-30 V) 1 No
3. Voltmeter (0-20 V) 1 No
4. Ammeter (0-20 mA) 1 No
5. Bread Board - 1 No
6. Resistor 1 KΩ 1 No
7. Connecting wires - As per required
Circuit Diagram
A) Forward Bias:
Fig.1
65
B) Reverse Bias:
Fig.2
Model Graph:
Fig.3: V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode
66
Theory:
A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the break down
region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the reverse bias is
increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called Break down
Voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage the device
To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with zener diode. Once the diode starts
conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the current
through it i.e., it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.
Proceduce:
A) Forward Bias
2. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage in Steps of 0.1Volt.
3. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode (If) and voltage across the
diode (Vf) for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. Plot the graph between forward voltage (Vf )on X-axis and forward current (If) on Y-axis
B) Reverse Bias
2. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage in Steps of 1Volt.
3. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode (IR) and voltage across the
diode (VR) for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. Plot the graph between forward voltage (VR) on X-axis and forward current (IR ) on Y-axis
67
Precautions:
2. The terminals of the zener diode should be properly identified
3. While determined the load regulation, load should not be immediately shorted.
4. Should be ensured that the applied voltages & currents do not exceed the ratings of the diode.
Tabular Columns:
A) Forward Bias:
S.No. Applied Voltage(V) Forward Voltage(Vf) Forward Current(If(mA))
68
B) Reverse Bias:
S.NO Applied Voltage(V) Reverse Voltage(VR) Reverse Current(IR(mA))
69
70
Result:
Viva Questions:
1. What type of temp coefficient does the zener diode have?

2. If the impurity concentration is increased, how the depletion width effected?
3. Does the dynamic impendence of a zener diode vary?
4. Explain briefly about avalanche and zener breakdowns?
5. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be controlled?
6. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche breakdown has?
7. By what type of charge carriers the current flows in zener and avalanche breakdown diodes?
Draw the zener equivalent circuit.
In which region zener diode can be used as a
regulator? Draw the region and justify the answer .
71
Exercise No. 7
Half Wave Rectifier With and Without filter
Aim:
To examine the input and output waveforms of half wave Rectifier and also calculate its load
regulation and ripple factor with and without filter.
Apparatus Required:

1. Digital Multimeter - 1No.
2. Transformer 9V-0-9V 1No.
3. Diode - 1No.
4. Capacitor 100 μF 1No.
5. Decade Resistance Box - 1No.

6. Bread board - 1No.
7. CRO - 1No.
8. CRO probes Connecting wires - Required No.
Circuit Diagram:
A) Half Wave Rectifier Without Filter:
Fig.1
72
B) Half Wave Rectifier With Filter
Fig.2
Model Waveforms:
Fig.3: Waveforms of Half wave rectifier.
73
Theory:
In Half Wave Rectification, When AC supply is applied at the input, only Positive Half Cycle
appears across the load whereas, the negative Half Cycle is suppressed. How this can be explained as
follows:
During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward bias and conducts
through the load resistor RL. Hence the current produces an output voltage across the load resistor R L,
which has the same shape as the +ve half cycle of the input voltage.
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and there is no
current through the circuit. i.e., the voltage across R L is zero. The net result is that only the +ve half
cycle of the input voltage appears across the load. The average value of the half wave rectified o/p
voltage is the value measured on dc voltmeter.
For practical circuits, transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
1. The voltage can be stepped-up or stepped-down, as needed.

2. The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier. Thus, preventing shock hazards in
the secondary circuit.
The efficiency of the Half Wave Rectifier is 40.6%.
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the rectifier
input.
3. By the multimeter, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier, ac and dc voltage at the
output of the rectifier.
4. Find the theoretical value of dc voltage by using the formula, Vdc = Vm/П
5. Where, Vm = 2 xVrms, (Vrms = output ac voltage.)
6. The Ripple factor is calculated by using the formula,
Ripple factor = ac output voltage/dc output voltage.
74
Regulation Characterstics:
2. By increasing the value of the rheostat, the voltage across the load and current flowing through
the load are measured.
3. The reading is tabulated.
4. From the value of no-load voltages, the %regulation is calculated using the formula,
5. %Regulation= [(VNL-VFL)/VFL] *100.
Precautions:
1. The primary and secondary side of the transformer should be carefully identified
2. The polarities of all the diodes should be carefully identified.
3. While determining the % regulation, first full load should be applied and then it should be
decremented insteps.
Calculations:
Without Filter:
Vrms = Vm/2 Volts. Vm = 2 x Vrms Volts. Vdc =
Vm/П Ripple factor, r=√ (Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 =1.21
With Filter:
Ripple factor, r = 1/ (2√3 f C R)
75
76
Tabular Columns:
Without Filter:
No load Voltage (Vdc) =
Output Voltage (Vo in Ripple factor % Regulation

Load resistance 𝑽𝑵𝑳 − 𝑽𝑭𝑳
S.No. volts) 𝑽
RL ℽ = 𝑽𝒅𝒄
𝒂𝒄 ( ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎)
Vac Vdc 𝑽F𝑳
With Filter:

S.No. volts)
𝑽
RL Vac Vdc
𝒂𝒄
ℽ = 𝑽𝒅𝒄 ( ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎)
𝑽F𝑳
77
78
Result:
Viva Questions:
1. What is the PIV of Half wave rectifier?
2. What is the efficiency of half wave rectifier?
3. What is the o/p frequency of Bridge Rectifier?
4. What are the ripples?
5. What is the function of the filters?
6. What is TUF?
7. What is the average value of o/p voltage for HWR?
8. What is the peak factor?
What is the rectifier? And draw the block diagram of rectifier.
Compare the output waveforms between the half wave rectifier and Full Wave Rectifier?
79
Exercise No. 8
Full Wave Rectifier With and Without Filter
Aim:
To examine the input and output waveforms of Full Wave Rectifier and also calculate its load
regulation and ripple factor with filter and without Filter.
Apparatus Required:

1. Digital Multimeter - 1No.
2. Transformer 9V-0-9V 1No.
3. Diode - 2No.
4. Capacitor 100μF 1No.
5. Decade Resistance Box - 1No.
6. Breadboard - 1No.
7. CRO - 1No.
8. CRO probes Connecting wires - Required No.
Circuit Diagram:
A) Full Wave Rectifier Without Filter:
Fig.1
80
B) Full Wave Rectifier With Filter:
Fig.2
Model Waveforms:
Fig.3: Waveforms of full-wave rectifier
81
Theory:
The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2.During positive half
cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased.
So, the diode D1 conducts and current flows through load resistor RL.
During negative half cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse biased. Now,
D2 conducts and current flows through the load resistor RL in the same direction. There is a
continuous current flow through the load resistor RL, during both the half cycles and will get
unidirectional current as show in the model graph. The difference between full wave and half wave
rectification is that a full wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one way) current to the load during the
entire 360 degrees of the input signal and half-wave rectifier allows this only during one half cycle
(180degree).
Procedure:
2. Connect the ac mains to the primary side of the transformer and the secondary side to the rectifier.
3. Measure the ac voltage at the input side of the rectifier.
4. Measure both ac and dc voltages at the output side the rectifier.
5. Find the theoretical value of the dc voltage by using the formula Vdc =2Vm/П
6. Connect the filter capacitor across the load resistor and measure the values of Vac and Vdc at the
output.
7. The theoretical values of Ripple factors with and without capacitor are calculated.
8. From the values of Vac and Vdc practical values of Ripple factors are calculated. The practical
values are compared with theoretical values.
Precautions:
1. The primary and secondary side of the transformer should be carefully identified.
2. The polarities of all the diodes should be carefully identified.
82
Calculations:
Vrms = Vm/ √2 ; Vm = Vrms√2 ; Vdc = 2Vm/П
Without filter:
Ripple factor, ℽ = √ (Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 = 0.812
With filter:
Ripple factor, ℽ = 1/ (4√3 f C RL)
83
Tabular Columns:
Without Filter:

S.No volts)
𝑽
RL
Vac Vdc ℽ = 𝑽𝒅𝒄
𝒂𝒄
( ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎)
𝑽 F𝑳
With Filter:

S.No volts) 𝑽
RL
Vac Vdc ℽ = 𝑽𝒅𝒄
𝒂𝒄
( ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎)
𝑽 F𝑳
84
85
Result:
Viva Questions:
1.Define regulation of the full wave rectifier?
2.What is ripple factor of the Full-wave rectifier?
3.What is the necessity of the transformer in the rectifier circuit?
4.What are the applications of a rectifier?
Define peak inverse voltage (PIV)? And write its value for Full-wave rectifier?
What is meant by ripple and define Ripple factor?
86
Exercise No. 9
Study of Logic
Gates
Aim:
To study and verify the truth table of logic gates.
Apparatus Required:
S.No.Name of The Apparatus Quantity

Logic Gates trainer kit 1No.
Connecting patch chords Required No.
Theory:
The basic logic gates are the building blocks of more complex logic circuits. These logic gates
perform the basic Boolean functions, such as AND, OR, NAND, NOR, Inversion, Exclusive-OR,
Exclusive-NOR. Fig. below shows the circuit symbol, Boolean function, and truth. It is seen from the
Fig that each gate has one or two binary inputs, A and B, and one binary output, C. The small circle on
the output of the circuit symbols designates the logic complement. The AND, OR, NAND, and NOR
gates can be extended to have more than two inputs. A gate can be extended to have multiple inputs if
the binary operation it represents is commutative and associative.
These basic logic gates are implemented as small-scale integrated circuits (SSICs) or as part of
more complex medium scale (MSI) or very large-scale (VLSI) integrated circuits. Digital IC gates are
classified not only by their logic operation, but also the specific logic-circuit family to which they
belong. Each logic family has its own basic electronic circuit upon which more complex digital
circuits and functions are developed.
Truth Tables of Logic Gates:
Inputs Output
S.No. GATE Symbol
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1. AND
1 0 0
1 1 1
0 0 0
0 1 1
2. OR
1 0 1
1 1 1
0 - 1
3. NOT
1 - 0
0 0 1
0 1 1
4. NAND
1 0 1
1 1 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
5. NOR
1 0 0
1 1 0
88
SCHOOL OF
Procedure:
1. Check the components for their working.
2. Insert the appropriate IC into the IC base.
3. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
4. Provide the input data via the input switches and observe the output on output LEDs.
Result:
Viva Questions:
1. Why NAND & NOR gates are called universal gates?
2. Explain what is truth table?
3. Explain what are the basic logic elements?
4. Which logic family is fastest and which has low power dissipation?
Draw a 3 input OR gate and write the truth table.
Define Inverter Gate and draw the symbol and truth table.
89
Exercise No. 10
Study of 8086 Microprocessor
Aim:
To Study 8086 Microprocessor.
Apparatus Required: 8086 microprocessor kit.
THEORY:
Fig.1: Architecture of 8086 Microprocessor.
8086 Microprocessor is divided into two functional units, i.e., EU (Execution Unit) and BIU (Bus
Interface Unit).
90
EU :
Execution unit gives instructions to BIU stating from where to fetch the data and then decode and
execute those instructions. Its function is to control operations on data using the instruction decoder
& ALU. EU has no direct connection with system buses as shown in the above figure, it performs
operations over data through BIU.
ALU:
It handles all arithmetic and logical operations, like +, −, ×, /, OR, AND, NOT operations.
Flag Register:
It is a 16-bit register that behaves like a flip-flop, i.e. it changes its status according to the result
stored in the accumulator. It has 9 flags and they are divided into 2 groups − Conditional Flags and
Control Flags.
Conditional Flags :
It represents the result of the last arithmetic or logical instruction executed. Following is the list of
conditional flags −
 Carry flag − This flag indicates an overflow condition for arithmetic operations.
 Auxiliary flag − When an operation is performed at ALU, it results in a carry/barrow from

lower nibble (i.e. D0 – D3) to upper nibble (i.e. D4 – D7), then this flag is set, i.e. carry given
by D3 bit to D4 is AF flag. The processor uses this flag to perform binary to BCD conversion.
 Parity flag − This flag is used to indicate the parity of the result, i.e. when the lower order 8-
bits of the result contains even number of 1’s, then the Parity Flag is set. For odd number of
1’s, the Parity Flag is reset.
 Zero flag − This flag is set to 1 when the result of arithmetic or logical operation is zero else it
is set to 0.
 Sign flag − This flag holds the sign of the result, i.e. when the result of the operation is
negative, then the sign flag is set to 1 else set to 0.
91
 Overflow flag − This flag represents the result when the system capacity is exceeded.
Control Flags:
Control flags controls the operations of the execution unit. Following is the list of control flags −
 Trap flag − It is used for single step control and allows the user to execute one instruction at a
time for debugging. If it is set, then the program can be run in a single step mode.
 Interrupt flag − It is an interrupt enable/disable flag, i.e. used to allow/prohibit the

interruption of a program. It is set to 1 for interrupt enabled condition and set to 0 for interrupt
disabled condition.
 Direction flag − It is used in string operation. As the name suggests when it is set then string
bytes are accessed from the higher memory address to the lower memory address and vice-a-
versa.
General purpose registers:
There are 8 general purpose registers, i.e., AH, AL, BH, BL, CH, CL, DH, and DL. These
registers can be used individually to store 8-bit data and can be used in pairs to store 16bit data. The
valid register pairs are AH and AL, BH and BL, CH and CL, and DH and DL. It is referred to the
AX, BX, CX, and DX respectively.
 AX register − It is also known as accumulator register. It is used to store operands for

arithmetic operations.
 BX register − It is used as a base register. It is used to store the starting base address of the
memory area within the data segment.
 CX register − It is referred to as counter. It is used in loop instruction to store the loop

counter.
 DX register − This register is used to hold I/O port address for I/O instruction.
92
Stack pointer Register:
It is a 16-bit register, which holds the address from the start of the segment to the memory
location, where a word was most recently stored on the stack.
BIU (Bus Interface Unit):
BIU takes care of all data and addresses transfers on the buses for the EU like sending
addresses, fetching instructions from the memory, reading data from the ports and the memory as
well as writing data to the ports and the memory. EU has no direction connection with System Buses
so this is possible with the BIU. EU and BIU are connected with the Internal Bus.
It has the following functional parts −
 Instruction queue − BIU contains the instruction queue. BIU gets upto 6 bytes of next instructions
and stores them in the instruction queue. When EU executes instructions and is ready for its next
instruction, then it simply reads the instruction from this instruction queue resulting in increased
execution speed.
 Fetching the next instruction while the current instruction executes is called pipelining.
 Segment register − BIU has 4 segment buses, i.e. CS, DS, SS& ES. It holds the addresses of
instructions and data in memory, which are used by the processor to access memory locations. It
also contains 1 pointer register IP, which holds the address of the next instruction to executed by
the EU.
o CS − It stands for Code Segment. It is used for addressing a memory location in the code
segment of the memory, where the executable program is stored.
o DS − It stands for Data Segment. It consists of data used by the program and is accessed in
the data segment by an offset address or the content of other register that holds the offset
address.
o SS − It stands for Stack Segment. It handles memory to store data and addresses during
execution.
93
o ES − It stands for Extra Segment. ES is additional data segment, which is used by the
string to hold the extra destination data.
 Instruction pointer − It is a 16-bit register used to hold the address of the next instruction to
be executed.
Fig.2: Pin Diagram of 8086 Microprocessor
Power supply and frequency signals

It uses 5V DC supply at VCC pin 40, and uses ground at VSS pin 1 and 20 for its operation.
Clock signal
Clock signal is provided through Pin-19. It provides timing to the processor for operations. Its
frequency is different for different versions, i.e. 5MHz, 8MHz and 10MHz.
94
Address/data bus
AD0-AD15. These are 16 address/data bus. AD0-AD7 carries low order byte data and
AD8AD15 carries higher order byte data. During the first clock cycle, it carries 16-bit address and
after that it carries 16-bit data.
Address/status bus
A16-A19/S3-S6. These are the 4 address/status buses. During the first clock cycle, it carries 4-
bit address and later it carries status signals.
S7/BHE
BHE stands for Bus High Enable. It is available at pin 34 and used to indicate the transfer of
data using data bus D8-D15. This signal is low during the first clock cycle, thereafter it is active.
Read
It is available at pin 32 and is used to read signal for Read operation.
Ready
It is available at pin 22. It is an acknowledgement signal from I/O devices that data is
transferred. It is an active high signal. When it is high, it indicates that the device is ready to transfer
data. When it is low, it indicates wait state.
RESET
It is available at pin 21 and is used to restart the execution. It causes the processor to
immediately terminate its present activity. This signal is active high for the first 4 clock cycles to
RESET the microprocessor.
INTR
It is available at pin 18. It is an interrupt request signal, which is sampled during the last clock
cycle of each instruction to determine if the processor considered this as an interrupt or not.
NMI
It stands for non-maskable interrupt and is available at pin 17. It is an edge triggered input,
which causes an interrupt request to the microprocessor.
TEST
This signal is like wait state and is available at pin 23. When this signal is high, then the
processor has to wait for IDLE state, else the execution continues.
95
MN/MX
It stands for Minimum/Maximum and is available at pin 33. It indicates what mode the
processor is to operate in; when it is high, it works in the minimum mode and vice-versa.
INTA
It is an interrupt acknowledgement signal and id available at pin 24. When the microprocessor
receives this signal, it acknowledges the interrupt.
ALE
It stands for address enable latch and is available at pin 25. A positive pulse is generated each
time the processor begins any operation. This signal indicates the availability of a valid address on the
address/data lines.
DEN
It stands for Data Enable and is available at pin 26. It is used to enable Transreceiver 8286.
The trans receiver is a device used to separate data from the address/data bus.
DT/R
It stands for Data Transmit/Receive signal and is available at pin 27. It decides the direction of
data flow through the trans receiver. When it is high, data is transmitted out and vice-a-versa.
M/IO
This signal is used to distinguish between memory and I/O operations. When it is high, it
indicates I/O operation and when it is low indicates the memory operation. It is available at pin 28.
WR
It stands for write signal and is available at pin 29. It is used to write the data into the memory
or the output device depending on the status of M/IO signal.
HLDA
It stands for Hold Acknowledgement signal and is available at pin 30. This signal
acknowledges the HOLD signal.
HOLD
This signal indicates to the processor that external devices are requesting to access the
address/data buses.
96
Result:
Viva Questions:
1. What is microprocessor 8086?
2. What is interrupt in microprocessor?
3. What type of architecture used in 8086 microprocessor?
4. What is register in microprocessor?
5. What is microprocessor?
Exercise Questions-I:
Draw the Pin diagram of 8086 micro processor.
97
SCHOOL OF
Exercise Questions-II:
What are the registers available in 8086 microprocessors and give one example each.
98
Exercise No.11
Determination of Mesh Currents Using Pspice
Aim: - To determine mesh currents for a given DC electrical circuit using PSpice simulation.
Apparatus Required:
S.No Name of the Equipment Quantity

1 PC 1 NO
2 PSPICE software 1 NO
Circuit Diagram:
Theory:
PSPICE is a general-purpose circuit program that simulates electronic circuits.
PSPICE can perform various types of analysis of electronic circuits, the operating points of
transistors, time domain response, small signal frequency response, etc…
PSPICE contains models for common circuit elements, active as well as passive, and it
is capable of simulating most electronic circuits. It is a versatile program and is widely used
inindustries and universities.
The acronym PSPICE stands for Personal Simulation Program with
IntegratedCircuit Emphasis.
Until recently, PSPICE was available only on mainframe computers. In addition to the initial
cost of the computer system, such a machine can be unwieldy and inconvenient for class room
use. In 1984, MICROSIM introduced the PSPICE simulator, which is similar to Berkeley
PSPICE and runs on an IBM-PC or compatible. It was available at no cost to students for
99
classroom use. PSPICE, therefore widened the scope of the integrated computer aided circuit
analysis into electronic circuit courses at the under graduate level. Other versions of PSPICE
that will run on computers such as the Macintosh-II, VAX, SUN, and NEC are also available.
PSPICE allows the various types of analysis as follows:

1. DC Analysis:- Calculation of node voltages and branch currents and their
quiescent valuesare the outputs.
Eg:- DC sweep voltage (.DC),
Small-Signal transfer function (Thevenin‟s equivalent)
(.TF) DC Small-Signal sensitivities (.SENS)
2. Transient Analysis:- Responses of time-invariant systems, DC transient analysis
and Fourieranalysis
Eg:- Transient responses
(.TRAN)
Fourier Analysis
(.FOUR)
3. AC Analysis:- (.AC) & (.NOISE) etc.
Pspice Program: -
VIN 1 0 DC 10V ; Voltage Source of 10V DC
R1 1 2 5 ; 5 OHMS resistance between nodes 1 & 2
R2 2 3 10
R3 2 0 20
R4 3 0 40
.DC VIN 10 10 1
.PRINT DC I(R1) I(R2) I(R3)
.END ; End of the Program
Procedure:
1. Open PSPICE A/D windows
2. Create a new circuit file
3. Enter the program representing the nodal interconnections of various components
4. Run the program
5. Observe the response through all the elements in the output file
6. Observe the required outputs(Graphs) in output window.
Result:
Viva Questions:
1. Define Kirchhoff‟s Voltage law?
2. For which type of circuits Mesh Analysis can be used ?
3. What is the difference between planar and non-planar?
4. When there is a current source between two loops which method is preferred?
5. Kirchhoff‟s laws can not applied at ?
101
Verification of KCL using PSPICE

Aim: - To verify KCL for a given DC electrical circuit using PSpice simulation
Circuit Diagram:
Pspice Program: -

R2 2 3 10
R3 2 0 20
R4 3 0 40
.DC VIN 10 10 1
.PRINT DC I(R1) I(R2) I(R3)
Procedure:
4. Run the program
Result:
102
Viva Questions:
1. Define Kirchhoff‟s Voltage law?
2. For which type of circuits Mesh Analysis can be used ?
3. What is the difference between planar and non-planar?
4. When there is a current source between two loops which method is preferred?
5. Kirchhoff‟s laws can not applied at ?
Verification of KVL Using PSPICE
Aim: - To verify KVL for a given DC electrical circuit using PSpice simulation
Circuit Diagram:
Pspice Program: -
R2 2 3 30
R3 3 0 50
.DC VIN 20 20 1
.PRINT DC V(R1) V(R2) V(R3)
Procedure:
4. Run the program
Result:
104
Viva Questions:
1. Define Kirchhoff‟s Voltage law.
2. For which type of circuits Mesh Analysis can be used .
3. When there is a current source between two loops which method is preferred to calculate current.
4. Kirchhoff‟s laws can not applied at
105
Exercise No.12
Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem Using Virtual Lab
Aim: To Verify the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.
Appartus Required:
SI. No Equipment Range Quantity

1 Bread board - 1 No
2 DC Voltage source. 0-30V 1 No
3 Resistors 470 Ω 1 No
4 Decade resistance 0-10k Ω 1 No
box
5 Ammeter 0-20mA 1 No
6 Connecting wires 1.0.Sq.mm As required
Circuit Diagram:
Theory:
Statement:
It states that the maximum power is transferred from the source to load when the load resistance is equal
to the internal resistance of the source.
(or)
The maximum transformer states that “A load will receive maximum power from a linear bilateral network
when its load resistance is exactly equal to the Thevenin’s resistance of network, measured looking back
into the terminals of network.
106
SCHOOL OF BASIC ELECTRICAL AND
ENGINEERING
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the above figure.
2. Apply the voltage 12V from RPS.
3. Now vary the load resistance (RL) in steps and note down the corresponding Ammeter Reading
( IL) in milli amps and Load Voltage (VL) volts
6. Tabulate the readings and find the power for different load resistance values.
7. Draw the graph between Power and Load Resistance.
8. After plotting the graph, the Power will be Maximum, when the Load Resistance will be equal to
source Resistance
Tabular Column:
S.No RL IL(mA) Power(P max)=IL2*RL(mW)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
SCHOOL OF
Theoretical Calculations: -
R = (Ri + RL) =...Ω
IL = V / R =…mA
Power = (I 2)
L
RL =…mW
Precautions:
1. Initially keep the RPS output voltage knob in zero-volt position.
2. Set the ammeter pointer at zero position.
3. Take the readings without parallax error.
5. Avoid short circuit of RPS output terminals.
Result:
Viva Questions:
1) What is maximum power transfer theorem?
2) What is the application of this theorem?

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Basic Electrical and Electronics

Do’s and Donot’s

 Proper Dress Has to Be Maintained While Entering in The s e s s i o n . (Boys Tuck in

 Correct Specifications of The Equipment Have to Be Mentioned in The Circuit

 Student Should Be Aware of Operating Equipment.

 Students Should Be at Their Concerned Exercise Table, Unnecessary Moment Is

 After Completing the Connections Students Should Verify the Circuits by th e s e s s

 The Readings Must Be Shown to The Lecturer In-Charge for Verification.

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

1. Demonstration:Safety precautions,measuring instruments,Switch gear, Earthing and Cut-out sections of

S.No. Name of The Exercise Page No.

1. Demonstration: Safety precautions, measuring instruments, 1-26

3. Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem. 36-45

4. Verification of Superposition Theorem. 46-55

5. P-N Junction Diode Characteristics. 56-64

6. Zener Diode Characteristics. 65-71

7. Half Wave Rectifier with and without Filter. 72-79

8. Full Wave Rectifier with and without Filter. 80-86

S. No. Name of The Apparatus Range Type Quantity

Demonstration on Measuring Instruments:

Fig.1: Model Multi-Meter

Fig.2: Model bread board

Element Sectional view Symbol

Fig.3: Model sectional view and symbol of Resistor, Inductor and

Fig.4: Resistance value calculation

Fig.5: Model inductors and capacitors

Voltmeter And Ammeter

Fig.6: Analog Voltmeter and Ammeter

Fig.7: Digital Voltmeter and Ammeter.

Fig.8: Regulated Power Supply

Fig.9: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Fig.10: Function generator

Post Exercise Questions:

B. Demonstration of Components of LT Switchgear (SFU, MCB,

S. No. Name of The Apparatus Quantity

1.Switching Fuse Unit (SFU):

Available for the ratings:

Fig.1. Switching Fuse Unit

2. MCBS or Miniature Circuit Breakers:

3. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker :

Fig.3: Voltage ELCB

II. Current ELCB :

Fig.4: Current ELCB

2.Molded Case Circuit Breaker:

2. Earthing through a plate:

Fig.6: GI pipe earthing

Fig.7: Effect of earthing

1. What is the Purpose of a Circuit Breaker?

C. Demonstration of Cut-Out Sections of Machines: DC

S. No. Name of The Apparatus Quantity

Single Phase Induction Motor:

Fig .1: Single Phase Induction Motor

Single Phase Transformer:

Fig.2: Single Phase Transformer

Fig.3. Synchronous machine

Theory of DC And AC Machines:

A) Construction of Single phase Induction motor:

Fig.5: Cut section of Single phase capacitor start induction motor.

Stator of Single Phase Induction Motor:

V1= I R1 Volts; V2= IR2 Volts; V3= I*R3 Volts