CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Concept of Chemistry

Chemistry is one of the core subjects of science. As a building block for a range of
science disciplines, chemistry has the potential to link other sciences together and to foster
greater scientific literacy (Tera, 2018). Chemistry is the basic gateway and the key to modern
technology, medicine, engineering and other sciences (Okeke & Nwandinigwe, 2015). The
study of chemistry is needed to develop the necessary skills, intellectual and mental training
needed to observe measure and apply scientific attitude and skill towards natural phenomena
that include the eagerness to learn and the ability to think critically. In contemporary Nigeria,
great emphasis is placed on science for technological development and chemistry is an
important raw material for science. Students are encouraged to take-up science-related
subjects such as chemistry. In spite of the relevance of chemistry in the life of the society, the
study of chemistry in our secondary schools is challenged with poor performance and lack of
interest in the part of students (Uchegbu, Anozieh, MbadiughaIbe & Njoku, 2015).

Science, according to Njoku in Dike (2013) is the rational and systematic study of the
environment through observation and experimentation with a view to understanding the
environment and manipulating the resources of nature for human development. This implies
that teaching must be proactive, creative and student centered to achieve the objectives of
STEM at secondary school level. Nbina Viko and Birabil (2010) therefore assert that one of
the activities of science is experimenting, it provides a forum for putting the theoretical
knowledge acquired in the classroom into practice and also, to demonstrate the psychomotor
skills of the teacher and students. It helps chemistry students to assimilate abstract and
difficult concepts associated with the nature of science. Experimenting in science is however
dependent on the availability of instructional materials (Ogwo, 2014).

2.2 Concept of Instructional Materials

Instructional materials are items that are designed to serve as a major tool for assisting
in the teaching and learning of a subject or course. Instructional materials are educational
resources used to improve students’ knowledge, abilities and skills, to monitor their
assimilation of information and to contribute to their overall development and upbringing.
Instructional materials are designed for use by students and their teachers as learning
resources and help students to acquire facts, skills or opinion or develop cognitive process.
Instructional materials are tools that classroom teachers use to help their pupils quickly and
thoroughly. Instructional materials are the physical tools used to convey information in the
classroom. According to Ukpong (2014), an instructional material refers to all the resources
within the reach of the teacher and the learners which are employed to facilitate the teaching
and learning process. Such materials may be both human and non-human provided it
facilitates the acquisition and evaluation of knowledge, skills, attitude, morals and values.
Instructional materials are relevant materials for supplementary teaching and learning
process. Instructional materials are essential tools in the hands of the teacher as effective
teaching cannot take place without relevant and effective use of teaching materials to
motivate learning. This research addresses different types of learning aids essentially
necessary for teaching adult education Students are peculiar learners therefore; instructional
materials will help them to learn better and to prepare a more conducive environment that
could make teaching and learning quite stimulating to both the learners and the teacher. It
should be stressed that the teacher has the responsibility for ensuring properly selected,
prepared and used instructional materials for the students.

The lack of instructional materials, non-availability of equipped laboratories among

others in the teaching of science in schools is an established issue (Njoku, 2011). This is in
line with Odigie (2011) and Dike (2013) who agreed that educational instructional materials
and equipped laboratories are lacking in schools. Ibe (2014) is of the opinion that the use of
instructional materials to facilitate teaching and learning should be a welcome development.
This is in conformity with Dike (2013) who asserts that science teachers should work beyond
stereotyped science teaching-learning process and utilize the available materials in the
environment to facilitate science teaching-learning process. Therefore for effective teaching
of chemistry subjects like biology, the use of instructional materials to enrich instruction is
very vital.

2.3 Resources in Teaching and Learning of Chemistry

Learning is essentially a social process and teaching is only an instrument of learning.

It therefore becomes necessary that a teacher should use all types of equipment in guiding
students’ learning and these equipments that can be used in guiding learning are called
instructional or teaching materials (Sanni, 2011). Teaching and instructional materials come
under resources for teaching and learning. Teaching and learning resources are many and
varied covering a range of objects, facilities, processes, locations, and human, from which
teachers and learners can obtain information to meet their teaching and learning needs. For a
senior secondary school teacher, these resources are indispensable tools in his or her hands
for the achievement of the objectives of teaching. Gerhand (2010) stated that resources in
teaching process include anything or anybody to which or whom a teacher or a learner can
turn for information or help. Thus, you have teaching and learning resources e.g. teachers,
doctors, nurses, material resources e.g. chalkboard/whiteboard, textbooks, magazines, books
e.g. reference materials, textbooks, magazines, non- printed materials e.g. Pictures, drawings,
Community resources e.g. farms, hospitals. These resources are indispensable to good
science teaching and learning (Oyewole, 2011). Teaching materials or aids are those
equipment and materials that a teacher uses to illustrate, emphasize, and explain a lesson in
order to make it clearer to the students. These materials and equipment include simple
familiar objects that can be locally obtained (Odebode, 2013). Akinpelu, (2012) opined that
teaching materials are also referred to as instructional materials or teaching aids. It should be
noted that instructional materials or teaching aids are not and cannot be supplanted for the
teaching process itself. However, the value or importance of teaching materials/resources
cannot be over emphasized. Oyewole (2011) the importance of resources for teaching and
learning processes is to provide the teacher with the means of expanding the horizon of
experience of students, thereby seeking to have a counterpart of firsthand experience.
Teaching resources help to provide materials and opportunity for experiment. This ensures
students participation in the lesson, which promotes effective learning (Ogunsola, 2012). The
new science curriculum used in Nigerian schools is activity- based and emphasizes the
acquisition of productive skills for life- long learning. These require creativity on the part of
the teacher in sourcing for and using appropriate instructional resources for teaching and
learning (Adu, 2013). There are many factors or challenges militating against the process of
sourcing for and using appropriate instructional resources for teaching and learning of
Chemistry in senior secondary schools.

2.4 Types of Instructional Materials

Instructional materials are in various classes, they are audio, visual and audio-visual.
Apart from the classification of instructional materials based on sensory models, there are
other ways of classification and they are: Materials software, equipment, hardware,
electronics, Non projected media, two dimensional visual aid (2d), three dimensional visual
aid (3d) as stated earlier, the sensory mode comprises of three sub-groups which include;
audio, visual and audio visual (Obinne, 2014).

1. Visual material: They carry visual message through the eye, it is what we can face or seen
face to face i.e. they appeal to our sight alone, example are: picture, diagrams, buildings,
facilitators themselves, chart, real objects etc. These materials such as journals, books,
newspapers, magazines, pamphlets. Handout or NTI modules, bulletin board, pin boards are
also involved.

2. Audio: This only appeals to the sense of hearing they are tape recording cassette, cartridge,
radio, facilitators’ voice, mp3, teleconferencing, language laboratories etc.

3. Audio-visual materials: This involves both senses of hearing and sight i.e. what we can see
and hear. Examples are video films, television, film strip with sound, video recording, films
and multimedia etc.

4. Material/software: It includes graphic materials, printed materials film strips, overhead

transparency, tapes cassettes, maps and motion pictures.

5. Equipment/Hardware: Examples include; Blackboards, tapes recorder, projectors, video

recorders, radio, video player, track, machine and overhead projector, etc. They are used in
presenting materials, static or display such as chalkboard, flannel graph, flip charts, and
magnetic board. They are also used in presenting materials or lectures.

6. Electronics: This comprises of radio computer, e-mail multimedia. These teaching

materials make teaching and learning process more easy and concrete.
7. Non-projected media: These are books and other printed materials objects, specimens,
models, mock-up graphical materials bulletin boards that exhibits, black boards, buildings
field trips, simulation and games.

8. Two Dimensional visual Aids: These are two dimensional aids because they process only
length and breath. They are usually projected on screen using a projector. They could be still
or motion. Examples are flat pictures, graphs, charts diagrams, posters, comics, cartons,
slides, films, stile photographs and printed materials. They are also non-projected materials
which with characteristics of being flat and light and may be either in opaque or transparency
form. They have length but no height; hence they are 2 dimensional aids.

9. Three Dimensional Visual Aids: These are materials with length, breath and height. They
are mostly real objects and model examples include chalkboard, globe specimens of bears,
camera. The purpose of instruction therefore, is to help people learn. Instruction may include
a picture by television program or by a combination of physical object among other things.

Furthermore, instructional materials can then be describes as a systematic arrangement of

instruction in such a way that learning is facilitated. The arms of designing instructional
materials are to activate and supports the learning of an individuals. Muhammed (2015) aptly
declared that instructional materials are often used to compensate the in allegiances of the
sense organs or to reinforce the capacity of the dominant organs. They must be relevant for
the realization of the intentions of the curriculum. This, there is a shortfall in the available
instructional materials in our environment in order to effectively drive home the lesson
taught. Therefore, the inadequacies of sense organs are not compensated.

2.5 Factors affecting the use of Instructional Materials in Teaching Chemistry

Teachers have been found to have difficulties in selecting and using instructional
materials for teaching. Part of the difficulties has been that teachers tend to teach the way
they were taught in their training (Adu, 2013). Consequently, teachers use the materials they
were exposed to during their training. This habit is often difficult for teachers to change.
Other reasons advanced for the inability of teachers to use instructional resources effectively
include:

• Inability to identify/ locate resources;

• Inability to develop appropriate materials from local resources;

• Lack of school- based resource Centre; and

• Lack of short term training to update teachers’ knowledge and skill for instructional
materials development, selection and utilization (Adu, 2013).

In line with the stated reasons, the basic science laboratories are to be equipped
appropriately to make teaching and learning conducive. According to Adebowale (2014),
basic science laboratories are places where different types of experiments and researches
concerning all disciplines of life sciences take place for skills acquisition. However, these
skills cannot be acquired in the absence of well-equipped basic to enhance effective teaching
and learning which is geared towards empowering the students to become functionally and
qualitatively, educated, productive, self-reliant, sufficient and create enabling environment.
Despite the fact that most teachers are aware of the importance of instructional materials in
mediating teaching and learning process, many still fail to make effective classroom use of
them. The traditional mode of teaching (chalk and talk) is still in vogue. Adebowale (2014)
stated some factors affecting utilization of instructional materials in includes;
i. The Teachers’ Factor: Teachers are part of the problems in teaching junior secondary
schools in Nigeria today due to the following:

 Non-integration of instructional materials during teaching by the teacher

 Inaccessibility to instructional materials: a variety of materials may be available in a school

but inefficient distribution and delivery may not permit their being used by the teachers.

 Lack of devotion to the teaching profession: some teachers lack the enthusiasm to teach
because they are not genuinely interested in teaching.

 Leadership style: some school authorities look at the use of instructional materials as a
waste of time and a source of hindrances to the quick coverage of the school syllabus

 Lack of funds to produce materials or even to maintain or repair damages ones.

 Inadequate knowledge and skills in the use of instructional materials by teachers.

 Laziness on the part of the teachers that they hardly have the time either for design or use
of instructional materials in their teaching

ii. The Students’ Factor: The students are another factor that contributes to failure in utilizing
instructional materials. Some students see senior secondary schools as a joke, something to
take easy. Students do not pay total attention to the teacher when using instructional
materials. The student’s interest and maturation in the use of instructional materials has a lot
of effect on the output.

iii. The School Environment Factor: Teaching and learning are conducted in a physical
environment which influences the rate of learning achievement. The influence could be
positive or negative depending on the feature of such environment. It is therefore necessary
that the school environment in which learning processes are conducted are adequately
planned to ensure that they facilitate the teaching and learning process. School environment is
the physical plant which includes forms of educational buildings such as classrooms,
laboratories and administrative blocks. Environmental factors include lighting, visual
acoustics, thermal, spatial and aesthetic factors. About 70% of what is learned comes from
the sense of sight. Therefore, this fact is concerned about making things visible naturally or
artificially. In Nigeria, the natural light is mostly used because of low technological
development even when the atmosphere gets cloudy and dark; schools rely on natural light
for pupils to work. This makes learners’ vision difficult especially in pre-primary classes,
where pencils are used for writing. The minimum range of lighting for people to see without
straining their eyes is 63 foot candles which are usually not available.

iv. The Curriculum Factor: Curriculum is important for effective classroom teaching. It could
be viewed as a vehicle through which the school strives towards the achievement of
educational ends. The curriculum is the planned and guided learning experiences and
intended learning outcome through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and
experience under the auspices of the school.

2.6 Importance of Instructional Materials in Teaching and Learning of Chemistry

Instructional materials in teaching generally make the teaching process easier.

However, in order to appreciate the importance of instructional materials in the teaching–
learning process, Gerhard (2010) considered the reasons for using them. They include helping
to:

i. Gain and hold the attention of the learners.

ii. Provide visual aspects to a process or techniques.

iii. Focus attention on highlight of key points.

iv. Create impact.

v. Facilitate the understanding of abstract explanations.

vi. Provide a common framework of experience to a large number of learners.

vii. Stimulate reality.

With this, instructional materials in teaching help to concretize the learning process.
Badejoko (2012) stated that the value of audio-visual materials is a function of their degree of
realism. The authors arranged various teaching methods in a hierarchy of greater abstraction
beginning with the total situation and culminated in words to the top of the hierarchy. These
include words, diagrams, maps, flat pictures, slides, films, models and objects. Words only
convey little or no concreteness in the teaching-learning process. In effect, the type of
instructional materials used in teaching depends on what the tutor wants to demonstrate. For
instance, the reasons for media is to create clear idea of something, the purpose of different
types of instructional materials could be summarized as follow:

 To give usual access to something which may be inaccessible to clarity or abstract

information which may be difficult to communicate verbally. Examples are models, pictures,
photos, posters and diagrams.

 To condense large qualities of information. Examples include diagram and handouts.

 To promote mental activities of students. Examples are handouts, textbooks, films, and
pictures.

 To teach language pronouncement. Examples include audiotapes.

 To support the work of the tutors. Examples include sound recordings. Common types of
learning resources and instructional materials in teaching include the following:

a. Chalkboard

b. Books and other printed materials

c. Graphics

d. Real objects

e. Models

f. Overhead projector

g. Electronics: radio (cassette tape), television, video cassette recorder (VCR), computer etc.

Afanja (2013) stating different subjects at different levels in the educational system
showed that instructional materials in teaching, used by tutors serve to concretize abstract
concepts and ideas. They make learning more interesting, more real and lively. At all levels
of education, instructional materials in teaching are very important in the attainment of
desired goals and objectives. The traditional chalkboard method of teaching involves only the
learner’s sense of hearing and the learners easily lose interest after some time. However, the
utilization of instructional materials in teaching and learning involves not only the sense of
hearing but also the sense of sight and touching. The role of instructional materials in
teaching becomes clearer as Sanni (2011) summarized the importance of instructional
materials in teaching to include:

i. Making instruction more powerful and immediate.

ii. Speeding up learning by saving time through scientific mode of instruction.

iii. Enrichment of teaching and curriculum and making instruction scientific.

Other purposes of instructional materials include the following:

i. Instructional materials utilization enriches learners’ knowledge and also reinforces verbal
instruction.

ii. They help the teachers to communicate clearly, accurately and effectively.

iii. The classroom environment is made lively and interesting for the teacher and the learners.

iv. It promotes interest in learners about what they feel, touch and smell than what they learn
in abstract.
v. It saves teacher’s time and effort.

vi. It arrests pupils’ attention.

Nzeneri (2011) stated that one of the principles teachers have to continually bear in
mind is that man learns through his senses. To some, seeing is believing and to others the
sense of touch, hearing, smell and taste dominate in acquiring knowledge for intended
learning to take place. The teacher must communicate effectively in order to enhance speedy
understanding. A wide range of choice of channel of transmitting his message to the students
must be selected. Also justifying the importance of instructional materials in teaching,
Benseman (2010) wrote that rational selection of instructional materials in teaching is a
necessary step for effective teaching. He further added that the ability to select and utilize
methods and materials are important qualities of a professional teacher. He outlined the
criteria for selecting resources as follows:

i. Instructional objectives to be achieved by students

ii. The teaching resources available for use

iii. The characteristics of students to be taught

iv. The teacher’s ability and experience

Tonukari (2014) declared that the purpose of using teaching aids and materials is to
communicate more permanent information that are incidental to the process of teaching
because facts and information are retained better when supplemented with aids. He further
added that it is most certain, that if materials are carefully selected and skillfully used, they
make learning more meaningful. The centrality of instructional materials in the teaching and
learning situation is so convincing that Mahuta, (2015) said that if any subject is to be taught
well, it should be taught practically, Burne (1990) also asserted that the use of teaching aids
by the teacher in the course of teaching makes teaching more result oriented and effective.

Similarly, Nigeria Teacher Institute (NTI) (2011) commenting on the importance of teaching
aids in programmes asserted that teaching aids are important because they help learners
understand the language used and they add interest, colour and variety to the lesson. This, it
explained, motivates learners and allows for individual differences in learning styles. Also,
writing on the importance of resources and materials for the expansion of knowledge, he
noted that even though textbooks and classroom teaching supply the core of instruction, the
school library materials and other resources which include non-book material can supplement
and extend the education career of children, girl child and learners generally. Nwagbo (2014)
stated that most people gain new impression more readily and vividly through multi-sensory
experience than they do through reading and abstract reasoning. This further buttresses the
point that learning through sensory experience is the most natural way of learning which
makes a permanent impression on the learners. Commenting specifically on the facilities
necessary for a succesful performance, Ukpong (2012) noted that well equipped library is
required for effective teaching and learning. He further explained that school libraries provide
books and other useful materials for school educational programme and that it helps the
learners to develop interest in reading and stimulating their interest in many other subjects. It
is as a result of these roles that this study has focused on instructional materials in the
teaching of all courses to ascertain its availability and utilization in the teaching programme.

However, Adeogun (2013) argued that it is difficult for effective teaching and
learning to takes place without relevant and adequate instructional materials in teaching and
called for their improvement where they are not available in their original form. For teaching
and learning to succeed, the teacher must ensure availability and utilization of instructional
materials in teaching (material and human). Nwagbo (2014) asserted that availability of
instructional materials in teaching does not guarantee their utilization and called on teachers
to be up and doing in the classroom especially with regards to proper utilization of needed
resources as a means of realizing the objective in view.

2.7.1 Availability of Instructional Materials in Teaching of Chemistry

Availability of instructional materials in teaching refers to the provision of resources

that are necessary to carry out instructions in our educational institution. Availability of the
resources boosts learning and enhances efficiency in the act of teaching or transmitting
knowledge of business education. However, availability of instructional materials in teaching
does not guarantee their utilization. Many scholars have stressed the need for instructional
materials in teaching to be available if educational objectives are to be achieved. Nwagbo
(2014) asserted that there could be no effective transmission of instruction without
instructional materials in teaching. In the same vein, Uche (2011) attributed non-achievement
of educational objectives to unavailability of instructional materials in teaching and
postulated that stakeholders in education should collectively ensure availability of learning
materials especially in teacher training institutions. Availability of instructional materials in
teaching, according to the works cited, seemed to be an indispensable parameter for
achieving educational objectives. Amadi (2011) argued that availability of instructional
materials in teaching should be a compulsory prerequisite for approving new schools.
Adegbesan (2013) regretted non-availability of instructional materials when teaching science
subjects and identified the trend as a major challenge to education in the country. It is
therefore observed that availability of instructional materials in teaching is a serious indicator
in quality assurance in education. Similarly, instructional materials in teaching help to boost
the morale of education managers whose occupation is to ensure the realization of education
objectives in their institution. Nwagbo (2014) described insufficient availability of
instructional materials in teaching as a serious setback in achievement of most of the
educational objectives. Badejoko (2012) argued that realization of national educational
objective would remain a mirage until sufficient and adequate instructional materials in
teaching are provided for our schools especially for teacher training schools where it is
expected that education should be raised.
2.7.2 Adequacy of Instructional Materials in Teaching and Learning of Chemistry

Instructional materials in teaching are not only expected to be available but to

sufficient level to enable teaching and learning properly take place. In other words,
instructional materials in teaching can be available but not enough to cater for the teaching
and learning process leading to expected learning outcome. Nzeneri (2011) asserted that
instructional materials in teaching should not only be available but adequate for utilization.
However, in recent times, scholars and experts have stressed the need for government, to map
out reasonable amount of fund to cater for the provision of adequate instructional materials in
teaching which according to him is imperative for achieving educational goals. In a related
development, Ogunsola (2012) drew a conclusion that most of our educational institution
lack instructional materials in teaching and regretted the harm this can cause the process of
teaching and learning. Again, instructional materials in teaching are known to be capable of
achieving educational objectives if found in adequate quantity. It is against this background
that this study is poised to critically carry out investigation on the extent of adequacy of
instructional materials in teaching. In a related development, Ukpong (2012) asserted that
instructional materials in teaching when insufficiently available hinders the progress of
teaching and learning because of the key roles they play in imparting knowledge. According
to him, schools would not succeed in teaching and learning without adequate instructional
materials in teaching. In his own contribution, Gerhard (2010) agreed that instructional
materials in teaching should not only be made available but adequately too, since without
adequate instructional materials in teaching, educational objectives cannot be achieved. In the
same vein, Gbadegesin (2012) observed that adequate instructional materials in teaching were
not available in our institutions of learning. It is one thing to have teaching and learning aids
and resources in schools and another for them to be put to proper use. The teacher who uses
them should be able to manipulate and operate the available aids. They should be able to use
them to meet the learning needs of the particular group of learners they are dealing with. This
is why Uche (2011) pointed out that effectiveness of learning materials is determined by the
way they are manipulated by the teacher or instructor. He therefore concluded that the
knowledge in the use of instructional materials in teaching is very important. Apart from
being able to use instructional materials in teaching; he warned that the teachers should be
careful not to mis-use instructional aids as this is even more dangerous than not using them.
This explains why Bruise (1993) concluded that a properly equipped classroom is apparently
not a panacea for the problem to learning and that a better knowledge of how to use the
enriched materials would show greater gain in learner’s learning ability.
Hence, there is need to study the available resources in pre-primary schools.

2.7.3 Improvisation of Instructional Materials

Generally, improvisation of instructional materials in education particularly in senior

secondary school is an attempt to adapt and make use of local resources in the teaching and
learning process when the readymade materials are not available or are in short fall or not
within the reach of the users. The improvised instructional materials could be produced by
the teacher and the students. The production of the alternative resources is initiated by the
teacher and done either by him or the local craftsmen (e.g. the Carpenter, blacksmiths,
wielder, etc). The teacher may also use the students for improvising some of the needed
materials or equipment’s. Improvisation in the view of Amadi (2011) is a technique of
originating a totally new tool, instrument, materials, device or modifying existing ones for
serving a particular purpose. Muhammed (2015) sees improvisation as the process of making
equipment and materials by the teacher or by engaging the services of others in the absence
of the real or manufactured ones. Afanja (2013), described improvisation as the act of using
alternative materials and resources to facilitate instruction whenever there is a lack of or
shortage of some specific first hand teaching aid. When students are involved in the
production of improvised instructional materials through their creative ability and
imagination, it gives new concept of things outside the range of ordinary experience to the
students and makes learning last longer in their memory.

For a student to be able to improvise, he or she must be innovative, resourceful and creative
in both thinking and manipulative skills (Ukpong, 2012). Fajola (2013) looked at
improvisation from the level of creativity involved. These levels involve substitution and
construction. Substitution in improvisation simply implies the techniques whereby a local
material is used in place of a piece of equipment that is not available whereas construction
involves making of a new instrument in place of the unavailable original one where
substitution is not possible. It is expected that both substitution and construction of
improvised instructional materials will meet the demand for the real or original material with
as high precision as time, money and other facilities and factors will permit. According to
Nwagbo (2014), the major reason for improvisation stems from the fact that educational
funding is insufficient and in the recent years seriously dwindling. Educational authorities
find it increasingly difficult to provide the schools with all they need for teaching and
learning. Badejoko (2012), claimed that instructional resources ensure that the learners see,
hear, feel, recognize and appreciate as they learn, utilizing almost all the five senses at the
same time. Adu (2013), however, asserted that improvisation provides a cognitive ‘bridge’
between students abstract and real experience of teaching and learning. When a teacher
improvises, it enables him to re-think and research for cheaper, better, and faster methods of
making the learning process easy and safe for both the students and the teachers.

Nzeneri (2011), stated that improvisation of instructional materials provide direct experience
with reality as well as encourage active participation and acquisition of skills especially
where students are allowed to manipulate the materials. The attainment of affective and
psychomotor domains is increased by improvisation. When students are motivated by their
teacher to produce or source their own instructional materials, it greatly arouses the students’
interest to learning and development of scientific attitude. Improvisation, therefore, enables
students to exhibit their latent potentialities, improve their creativity and as well discover new
things. Uche (2011) was of the view that improvisation of instructional materials involves
diversifying and learning experientially which require versatility and flexibility of experience
on the part of the teacher. The use of improvised instructional materials makes the teaching
and learning process a result oriented exercise, and enhances students’ achievement.
Obinna (2014), however, discovered that the use of improvised concrete instructional
materials for instructional process enhances visual imagery, stimulate and as well scintillate
the learning, thereby creating room for higher concentration and individualized approach to
concept mastery.

2.8 Classroom Management

Classroom management is a complex exercise in the process of education. It demands

talent, skills, energy and ability from teachers to manage classrooms because it directly deals
with the behaviors of learners. The term classroom management refers to all those decisions
that teachers take to facilitate the learning process and provide the students maximum
opportunity for learning (Krause, 2013). Talabi (2015) stated that classroom management
includes all those essential activities which are important to maintain an environment which
generates necessary and positive conditions for learning. To achieve this purpose, teachers
may plan rationally for their lessons, prepare teaching and learning materials more
judiciously, organize the content, decorate classroom and establish daily routines. Classroom
management not only related to management of students’ behavior but also to lesson
planning of teacher, organizing of the materials, controlling of behaviors, goal based learning
process, supportive atmosphere and maintaining a highly effective teaching and learning
experiences within classrooms. Smith (2010) informs that classroom environment is not a
place where only transfer of information takes place rather it encompasses other essential
aspects of learning such as physical space, materials, attitudes of teacher and the taught,
feelings and emotions, and other social dynamics of life.

2.9 Motivational Teaching Strategies in Teaching and Learning of Chemistry

Motivation can be classified into intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation,

intrinsic motivation is the pleasure and interest in activities that exists within an individual
rather than outside pressure (Ayodeji, 2010). It is the foundation of having enjoyment in
performing activity without any external incentives. Whereas individuals who are
extrinsically motivated need, rewards and the punishments to engaged in any activity. For
students’ rewards can be in the form of grades and marks in examination. Achievement
motivation is concerned with achieving the successful outcomes at the end of the process
(Ngozi, 2011). In teaching and learning process with the help of motivation teachers can
maintain, controlling and arousing interest of the learners. Learner is motivated by support
his concerns with the ongoing activities and interest (Folani, 2011). In education motivation
is implemented in terms of what and how student learn about the subject matter. Students’
learning process becomes more successful by using different motivation techniques. In the
teaching-learning process, to encourage and boost up the students’ ambition so that they can
put more effects in their learning process. Motivation in the education is the degree of self-
esteem to processes and the sense of value to determine how well the student can improve
and develop their learning can exploit his potentials. Teachers can utilize successful strategies
and tactics to make the learning effective because motivation plays a significant role to
arouse the student interest towards the learning process.