Biology Preliminary Syllabus Notes 

 
MODULE TWO - Organisation of Living Things 
 
TOPIC ONE - Organisation of Cells   
 
● Compare the differences between unicellular, colonial and multicellular organisms 
- Investigating structures at the level of the cell and organelle  
 
Features  Unicellular  Colonial  Multicellular 

Number of cells (single/many)  Single  Many  Many  

Types of cells (prokaryotes/eukaryotes)  Prokaryotic and  Both  Eukaryotes  

eukaryotic 
(protista), but 
mostly 
prokaryotic 

Function of cells (specialised or  Unspecialised  Both  Specialised  

unspecialised) 

Size (microscopic or macroscopic)  Microscopic  Macroscopic   Microscopic  

Life span (short/long)  Short  Long  Long  

Reproduction method  Whole organism,  Specialised  Specialised cells, 

(asexual/clonal/sexual)  asexual and  cells, all but  sexual 
(whole organism/ specialised cells)  clonal.  mostly asexual. 
 
Unicellular organisms  
- Act individually and independently  
- Complete living of a single cell  
- Possibly could divide in two parts ( copy )  
- Must carry all functions ( feeding, moving, reproduction )  
- Directly exposed to external environment  
Examples: bacteria and some cyanobacteria ( prokaryotic )  
 
Multicellular organisms  
- Different jobs within the organisms body  
- Requires multiple types  
- Cannot exist as an individual  
- Require cells, tissues and organs that are specialised for transportation 
Examples: Plants, animals and most fungi  
 
Colonial organisms  
- Collection of single organisms living together  

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 - if separated, they can still survive  
- All individuals in the colony are capable of carrying out each function necessary for life  
- Some contain cells with specialised functions that are coordinated with other cells in colony more 
efficient functioning  
Examples: corals, sponges  
 
- Relating structure of cells and cell specialisation to function 
Cell specialisation: particular functions that a cell has  
Differentiation: process that a stem cell goes through to become specialised  
 
- Cell differentiation allows unspecialised ( stem ) cells to develop features allowing for a 
specialised function 
- Cell specialism allows a cell to control a specific function in an organism, determined by 
physiology and structure 
- Gametes ( spem ) form a single ( embryo ) which contains all information to build an organism  
- Unspecialised cells can become specialised in exchange, transport, strength/support, 
protection/defense, photosynthesis, respiration, movement and communication  
 
● Investigate the structure and function of tissues, organs and systems and relate those functions 
to cell differentiation and specialisation  
 
- Tissues​ are an organised group of similar cells carrying out specific functions in combination.  
- Differentiation of cells to form a specialised tissue is triggered by genes and the environmental 
conditions of the cell  
Examples: 
1. epithelial tissue forms a protective barrier around orgams, glands and cavities  
2. Dermis tissue controls protection and excretion  
 
- Organs​ are made up of two or more types of tissues organized to perform a specific function  
Examples: 
1. Small intestine is lined by epithelial tissue, connective tissue and smooth muscle, the latter 
contracts to move food through the gut.  
 
- Systems​ are collections of organs performing specialised functions working together to make a 
living organism perform a cyclical process to survive.  
Examples: 
1. Humans have these systems: respiratory, digestive, nervous, muscular, skeletal, reproductive etc 
 
● Justify the hierarchical structural organisation of organelles, cells, tissues, systems and organism  
Complex multicellular organisms need specialised cells to form tissues which carry out various roles 
within organs, which make up parts of a system to perform a specific function for the organism to 
survive.  
 
- A hierarchy has a chain of responsibilities and interdependence  
- The interdependence is designed to meet the requirements of all cells ( regardless how simple or 
complex it is )  

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 - It shows how cells depend on organelles, tissues, systems and organism  
 
The hierarchy of dependency of the multicellular organism  
 
1. Multicellular organisms: depend on various organ systems functioning and coordinating to 
survive  
2. Organ systems: depend on component organs and tissues functioning and coordinating to fulfil 
their roles  
3. Organs: depend on component tissues functioning and coordinating to fulfil their roles  
4. Tissues: depend on cells maintaining specialised roles to fulfil their roles  
5. Cells: depend on organelles and other specialised structures and properties to fulfil their roles  
6. Organelles: and other cellular structures provide the specialisation to enable cells to perform 
specific tasks  
Organisational  Example   Structure   Function 
Structure  

Organ System   Circulatory  The system is divided into  Transport of gases, nutrients, 
System   two separate loops - the  electrolytes, wastes and hormones 
pulmonary circuit ( exchanges 
blood between heart and 
lungs for oxygenation ) and 
the systemic circuit ( supplies 
blood throughout all other 
parts of the body).  

Organ   Heart  Divided into four chambers (  RA: received oxygenated blood from 
left and right atrium, and left  lungs  
and right ventricles) and into  LA: receives deoxygenated blood from 
four valves   the body  
RV: pumps deoxygenated blood to the 
lungs  
LV: pumps oxygenated blood to the 
body  
Valves: controls oxygen ( poor and rich 
) between chambers  

Tissue   Cardiac  Made up of interlocking  Evolved to pump blood through body, 

muscle  cardiac muscle cells  spreads electrochemical signals so all 
tissue  containing a single nucleus  cells contract in cells  
and many protein filaments  

Cells   Cardiac  Single nucleus with many  Contracts in time to tissue pulse  
muscle  protein filaments 
cells  
*refer to notebook 3.4.20 
TOPIC TWO - Nutrients and Gas requirements  
 

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 ● Investigate the structure of autotrophs through the examination of a variety of materials, for 
example: 
- Dissected plant materials  
- Microscopic investigation )​  
- Using a range of imaging technologies to determine plant structure 
*refer to seqta lesson 2.4.20  
 
● Investigate the function of structures in plants but not limited to:  
- Tracing the development and movement of the products of photosynthesis  
 
- Non-vascular plants do not possess specialised structures for support and transport  
- Most plants are vascular plants and possess a transport system to move substances around the 
plant and provide support  
- Vascular plants contain a number of body systems: the root, shoot and vascular system  
- Each system has specialised organs to carry out specific functions  
- These organs allow the plan to obtain the required nutrients and gases and to carry out all 
functions efficiently  
- The 2 types of vascular tissue are xylem and phloem  
- Xylem tissue transport water and mineral ions  
- Phloem tissue transport dissolved sucrose and other plant products around the plant  
 

The majority of autotrophic organisms are plants. 

Some plants are non-vascular (e.g. moss ) and 
these use diffusion and osmosis to move 
materials in and out of a plant. These tend to be 
smaller and simpler plants.  

Definitions  

- Vascular bundle: transport system ( xylem 

and phloem )  
- TS: transverse section(cross section)  
- LS: longitudinal section  
- Epidermis: single layer of cells that cover 
the leaves, stems etc  

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Tracing the development of products of photosynthesis  

- It a series of many reactions that occurs in different parts of chloroplast  

- The following points outline some of the complex steps: 
- Absorption of water occurs through the root hair epidermal cells near the root tips  
- Transport of water and mineral nutrients from the roots occurs via xylem  
- Carbon dioxide enters through the stomata and is controlled by the guard cells. It then 
travels through the large intercellular air spaces to the palisade tissue beneath the 
epidermis  
- Water ( by osmosis ) and carbon dioxide( by diffusion ) enter palisade cells and then the 
chloroplasts  
- Light passes into chloroplasts where the chlorophyll pigments in the thylakoid grana 
stacks absorb light in various wavelengths and convert it into chemical energy by using 
water and releasing oxygen  
- Carbon dioxide is converted into glucose in the stroma of the chloroplast  

Tracing the movement of products of photosynthesis 

- Oxygen released after photosynthesis moves through intercellular air spaces to the stomata.  
- Transport of the sugar products of photosynthesis and some mineral nutrients occurs by 
translocation in the phloem  

● Investigate gas exchange structures in animals and plants  

- Microscopic structures: alveoli in mammals and leaf structure in plants 

Microscopic structures: observe slides  

Leaf structure in plants  

Carbon dioxide diffuses into plants due to the lower concentration gradient within the stomata and 
passes through guard cells. It is used in the chloroplast in the photosynthesis reaction where oxygen is 
produced. The oxygen diffused out due to the high concentration gradient within the leaf.  

Stomata have guard cells at entry points called pores which control gas exchange and water loss ( 
transpiration ). Gas exchange is controlled through diffusion based on concentration gradients and 
transpiration is based on space available in the vacuoles of cells.  

Alveoli in mammals  

Alveoli allows oxygen to diffuse into the bloodstream due to the nearby low-oxygen blood capillaries 
and the extremely high SA:V. The oxygenated blood travels around the body, disposing oxygen at the 
mitochondria for cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide diffuses back into the bloodstream, into the alveoli 
and from there is able to leave the body.  

The exchange surface has a large SA provided by a large number of alveoli, the surface is only one cell 
thick, and it is supplied with blood through a very dense capillary network.  

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 - Macroscopic structures: respiratory systems in a range of animals  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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● Interpret a range of secondary-source information to evaluate processes, claims and conclusions 
that have led scientists to develop hypotheses, theories and models about the structure and 
function of plants, including but not limited to: 
 
- Photosynthesis  

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- Photosynthesis is not just a single reaction  
- Development in understanding the structure of plants  
 
- Transpiration-cohesion-tension​ t​ heory  
 
Did not understand this  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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 ● Trace the digestion of foods in a mammalian digestive system  
 
- Heterotrophs are organism that rely on consuming other organisms  
- Heterotrophs require systems that help them break down and absorb nutrients that they obtain 
by ingesting other organisms or their products or remains 
- Digestion is both a chemical and physical process  
- Not all mammals need all components of food  
- Digestive system is the organ system responsible for breaking down food  
 
- Physical digestion  
Physical digestion occurs when food is made into smaller pieces by the action of teeth and the muscular 
churning action of the stomach. Physical digestion greatly increases the SA of foods so they are 
exposed for chemical digestion  
 
- Chemical digestion  
Chemical digestion is brought about by enzymes. Each enzyme has a specific substrate and conditions 
under which it operates. For example, the stomach wall secretes mucus, pepsinogen and hydrochloric 
acid that maintain the gastric juices in a pH ranging between 3.0 and 5.0 
 
- Absorption of nutrients, minerals and water 
Food Components   Food containing components   Digestion product / absorption  

Carbohydrates ( starches,  Sugar, fruit, vegetables, cereal  Simple sugars ( glucose, 

cellulose, sugars )   grains and their products   fructose etc ) are absorbed in 
the small intestine. Cellulose is 
not digested in humans and 
become dietary fibre; bacteria 
ferment cellulose in the 
intestines of herbivores, helping 
digestion  

Proteins   Meant, poultry, diary, eggs, fish   Amino acids absorbed in small 
intestine  

Fats or lipids   Oils, butter, meat, eggs, cheese,  Emulsified by bile salts and then 
fish   broken down by enzymes into 
fatty acids and monoglycerides 
and eventually turns into fat 
storage; absorbed in small 
intestine  

water  Fruit, vegetables, water-based  Absorbed directly by stomach, 

drinks and juices   small intense and large 
intestine, may carry some 
minerals in solution  
 
 
 

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 - Elimination of solid waste  
 
- Fermentation occurs in the large intestine in some mammas. The beneficial bacteria synthesise 
vitamin L and biotin which are absorbed into the blood.  
- Absorption of water, minerals and some vitamins occurs in the large intestine. This converts the 
rather liquid chyme into the solid stool or faeces  
- The last section of the large intestine ( the rectume ) stores the faeces. The anal sphincter helps 
control this storage until it is eliminated from the body.  
 
● Compare the nutrient and gas requirements of autotrophs and heterotrophs  
 
Requirements   Nutrients   Gases 

Autotrophs   Water, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates,  Carbon dioxide ( photosynthesis ) 

calcium, magnesium etc   Oxygen ( for aerobic respiration )   

Heterotrophs   Proteins, carbohydrates, fats or lipids,  Oxygen ( for aerobic respiration )   

calcium, sodium iron etc    
 
 
TOPIC THREE - Transport  
 
● Investigate transport systems in animals and plants by comparing structures and components 
using physical and digital models, including but not limited to:  
*refer to Excel Biology page 77 
- Macroscopic structures in plants and animals  
 
Transport systems in animals  
- Circulatory system ( open and closed )  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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Transport systems in plants  
 
- The vascular system ( also known as veins in plants ) is made up of bundles of separate tissues. 
These are known as xylem and phloem.  
- Xylem and Phloem are both transport vessels that combine to form a vascular bundle in higher 
order plants. The vascular bundle functions to connect tissues in the roots, stems and leaves as 
well as providing structural support.  
 
Xylem   Phloem  

- Stomates   - Multiple metabolic needs  

- Xylem tube   - Transport sugars  
- Water and nutrients   - Pressure flows  
- Osmosis   - Energy expenditure  
- Pulling tensions   - Sugar ( source to sink )  
- Cohesion ( water and water )   - Translocation  
- Adhesion ( water sticking and going up )  
 
 

- Microscopic samples of blood, the cardiovascular system and plant vascular systems  
Blood​ - *refer to excel biology page 78 
- Blood has three roles: transport ( oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes, digest food and 
its products, electrolytes and hormones ); protection from infection ( pathogens ); and regulation 
of heat and water.  
- Blood has fluid component ( plasma ) and formed elements consisting of a variety of cell types  

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Plant vascular tissue  
- Xylem and phloem  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
● Investigate the exchange of gases between the internal and external environments of plants and 
animals  
 
Efficient gas exchange in animals is assisted by a number of structures and conditions:  
- Thin membranes: so that gases can quickly diffuse through them  
- Moist membranes: mucus so that gases can dissolve before diffusing  
- Large SA: to allow maximum gas exchange  
- Diffusion gradient: to ensure movement of gases  
- Good blood supply: a large capillary network so that large volumes of gases can be exchanged 
and transported elsewhere in the body  
 
● Compare the structures and functions of transport system in animals and plants 
 
Summary  
 
Plants   Animals  

- Vascular system: vascular tissue in  - Circulatory system made of heart and 
bundles. Two separate tissues: xylem and  blood vessels  
phloem   - Transport media: blood or hemolymph  
- Transport media: sap and transpiration  - Heart pumps transport media around 
steam  body  
- Ideas about forces moving transport  - Special pigments may be used that 
medium include  improve the transport of gases  
transpiration-cohesion-tension theory and 
‘source to sink’ model  
- Materials carried in solution 

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Open and closed circulation  
 
● Compare the changes in composition of the transport medium as it moves around an organism 
 
Animal  
Organ/Tissue   Function   Effect on blood comp  

Lungs   To give oxygen to the blood   Blood comp is filled with oxygen  

Muscles / brain   To take oxygen from blood to use in  Blood comp is deoxygenated as oxygen is 
cellular respiration   taken away from the different cells after 
cellular respiration  
 
Plant  
Tissue  Function  Effect on fluid comp 

Roots  Takes in mineral ions and water  Proved through transpiration - cohesion - theory, the 
from the soil   roots intake of water pushed up towards the leaves, 
allowing it to be used in photosynthesis  

Leaves  Site of photosynthesis  Allow carbon dioxide to be used as a reactant in 

photosynthesis and for oxygen to leave the leaves 
 

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