ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE TECHNOLOGY

School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

FLUID MECHANICS II-AERODYNAMICS

CHAPTER TWO: COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Compiled By: Demise M.

November 28,20221
 CONTENTS
2.1. Introduction: Review of Thermodynamics
2.2. The speed of sound and Mach number
2.3. Isentropic flow : stagnation properties
2.4. Normal shock wave
2.5. Fanno and Rayleigh line, flow through convergent-divergent nozzle
2.6. Adiabatic Flow with Friction in Conduits

2.7. Frictionless Flow Through Ducts With Heat Transfer

2.8. Isothermal flow through pipes

Reading assignment : oblique shock wave
2
2.1. Introduction: Review of Thermodynamics
The Mach number (V/C) is the dominant parameter in
compressible flow analysis, with different effects depending on its
magnitude. Aerodynamicists especially make a distinction between
the various ranges of Mach number, and the following rough
classifications are commonly used:

3
2.1. INTRODUCTION: REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMICS
❑Perfect gas is defined as a fluid that has constant specific heats
and follows the law .

(2.1.1)

Where p and T are the absolute pressure and absolute temperature,

respectively, ρ is the density, and R the gas constant.

❑In general, the specific heat cv is defined by

(2.1.2)

❑The specific heat cp at constant pressure is defined by

(2.1.3)

4
2.1. INTRODUCTION: REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMICS
❑For perfect gases Eq. (2.1.2) becomes
(2.1.4)
and Eq. (2.1.3) becomes
(2.1.5)
❑Using the definition of enthalpy and the equation of state of an
ideal gas,

❑Differentiating gives WRT T

and substitution of Eqs. (2.1.4) and (2.1.5) leads to

(2.1.6)
5
2.1. INTRODUCTION: REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMICS

❑The specific heat ratio k is defined as the ratio

(2.1.7)
❑Solving with Eq. (2.1.6) gives

(2.1.8)
Entropy Relations
❑The first law of thermodynamics for a system states that the
heat added to a system is equal to the work done by the system
plus its increase in internal energy . In terms of the entropy s
the equation takes the form
Or Tds = du + Pdv
6
2.1. INTRODUCTION: REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Entropy Relations

❑The internal-energy change for a perfect gas is

(2.1.9)

and the enthalpy change is

(2.1.10)

❑The change in entropy

(2.1.11)

7
2.1. INTRODUCTION: REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMICS

❑May be obtained from Eqs. (2.1.4) and (2.1.1). Alter integrating (1/ρ =v)

(2.1.12)

By use of Eqs. (2.1.8) and (2.1.1), Eq. (2.1.12) becomes

(2.1.13)

or (2.1.14)

and (2.1.15)

❑These equations are forms of the second law of thermodynamics.

8
2.1. INTRODUCTION: REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMICS
❑From Eq. (2.1.14) for isentropic Process s2=s1,
(2.1.16)

❑Equation (2.1.16) combined with the general gas law yields

(2.1.17)

❑The enthalpy change for an isentropic process is

(2.1.18)

❑The polytropic process is defined by

(2.1.19)
9
2.1. INTRODUCTION: REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Example 2.1: Helium has R=2.077 kJ/kg K, Cp= 5.23 kJ/kg K.
Find cv and k and check against from table.
Solution

Example 2.2: Compute the value of R from the values of k=1.4

and cp=1.004 kJ/kg.K for air and check in Table .
Solution

10
2.1. INTRODUCTION: REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Example 2.3: Determine the entropy change in 4.0 kg of water vapor

when the initial conditions are P1=42 kPa, T1=430C and the final
conditions are P2=280 kPa, T2=30C.
Solution
From Eq.(2.1.15) and Table Cv = 1.403kJ/kg.K k=1.33

11
2.2 SPEED OF A SOUND WAVE; MACH NUMBER
❑The speed of a small disturbance in a conduit can be determined by
application of the momentum equation and the continuity equation.
❑The question is first raised whether a stationary small change in velocity,
pressure, and density can occur in a channel. By referring to Fig. 2.1 the
continuity equation can be written
ρAV= (ρ+dV) A(V+ dV)
A is the cross-sectional area of channel.

Figure 2.1 Steady flow in prismatic

channel with sudden small change in
velocity, pressure, and density.

12
2.2 SPEED OF A SOUND WAVE; MACH NUMBER
❑ By canceling the cross-sectional (or flow) area A and neglecting
the higher order terms, this equation reduces to

❑When the momentum equation is applied to the control volume

within the dotted lines.

Figure 2.1 Steady flow in prismatic

channel with sudden small change
in velocity, pressure, and density.

13
2.2 SPEED OF A SOUND WAVE; MACH NUMBER
❑If ρdV is eliminated between the two equations

(2.2.1)
❑The equation for speed of sound (V= C)

(2.2.2)
❑The bulk modulus of elasticity (N/m2)can be introduced:

V is the volume of fluid subjected to the pressure change dp.

Since

14
2.2 SPEED OF A SOUND WAVE; MACH NUMBER

❑K may be expressed as

❑Then, from Eq.(2.2.2),

(2.2.3)

This equation applies to liquids as well as gases.

❑Since the pressure and temperature changes due to passage of a
sound wave and extremely small, the process is almost reversible.
❑In the limit,(dp/dρ=p/ρ) the process may be considered to be
isentropic.

(2.2.4)
15
2.2 SPEED OF A SOUND WAVE; MACH NUMBER

or, from the perfect-gas law p=ρRT,

(2.2.5)

Which shows that the speed of sound in a perfect gas is a function of absolute
temperature only.

❑A second important parameter in the analysis of compressible fluid flow is

the Mach number Ma, named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach
(1838–1916). It is the ratio of the actual velocity of the fluid (or an object
in still air) to the speed of sound in the same fluid at the same state:

(2.2.6)

16
2.2 SPEED OF A SOUND WAVE; MACH NUMBER

❑The Mach number is a measure of the importance of compressibility. In

an incompressible fluid K is infinite and Ma=0. For perfect gasses.

K = kp (2.2.7)

When the compression is isentropic.

Example 2.6 : Carbon tetrachloride has a bulk modulus of 1.124 GPa and a
density of 1593 kg/m3. What is the speed of sound in the medium?

Solution

17
2.2 SPEED OF A SOUND WAVE; MACH NUMBER
Example 2.7 : What is the speed of sound in dry air sea level when T =
200C and in the stratosphere when T = -200C ?
Solution

At sea level, from Eq.(2.2.5)

and in the stratosphere

18
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
❑By combining the isentropic and/or adiabatic flow relations with the
equation of continuity we can study practical compressible flow problems.
This section treats the one-dimensional flow approximation.
❑For steady one-dimensional flow the equation of continuity is
(2.3.1)
the differential form of

(2.3.2)

Compressible flow through

a duct: (a) real-fluid
velocity profile; (b) one-
dimensional approximation.
19
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
❑Momentum

(2.3.3)

❑From Eq.(2.2.2) dρ is obtained and substituted into Eq.(2.3.3)

yielding

2.3.4
❑Now eliminate dρ between Eqs. 2.3.2 and 2.3.4 to obtain the
following relation between velocity change and area change in
isentropic duct flow.

(2.3.5)

20
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
❑The assumptions underlying this equation (equ.2.3.5) are that the flow is steady
and frictionless. No restrictions as to heat transfer have been imposed.

❑Equation (2.3.5) show that, for subsonic flow (M<1), dA/dV is always negative;
i.e., the channel area must decrease for increasing velocity.

❑Subsonic behavior (Ma<1): When area increases, velocity decreases and

pressure increases, which is denoted a subsonic diffuser.

❑But in supersonic flow (Ma > 1), the velocity actually increases when the area
increases, a supersonic nozzle.

❑The same opposing behavior occurs for an area decrease, which speeds up a
subsonic flow and slows down a supersonic flow.

21
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
❑The throat or converging–diverging section can smoothly accelerate a
subsonic flow through sonic to supersonic flow, as in Fig. This is the only
way a supersonic flow can be created by expanding the gas from a stagnant
reservoir.

(a) the fluid can accelerate smoothly through sonic and supersonic flow. In flow
through the bulge (b) the flow at the bulge cannot be sonic on physical ground

22
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
❑When the analysis is restricted to isentropic flow, Eq. (2.1.16) may be
written
(2.3.6)

❑Differentiating and substituting for dp in Eq.(2.3.3) give

❑Integration yields

• or (2.3.7)

23
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
❑From p=ρRT

(2.3.8)

❑For adiabatic flow from a reservoir where conditions are given by

p0, ρ0, T0 at any other section

(2.3.9)

❑In terms of the local number V/c, with c2=kRT

(2.3.10)

24
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
❑From Eqs. (2.3.10) and (2.1.17), which now restrict the following
equations to isentropic flow.
(2.3.11)

(2.3.12)
❑Flow conditions are termed critical at the throat section when the
velocity there is sonic. Sonic conditions are marked with an asterisk.

25
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
❑By applying Eqs. (2.3.10) to (2.3.12) to the throat section for
critical conditions (for k=1.4 at throat M=1 sonic)).

(2.3.13)

(2.3.14)

(2.3.15)

❑The variation of area with the Mach number for the critical case
is obtained by use of the continuity equation Eqs. (2.3.10) to
(2.3.15). First
(2.3.16)
26
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
❑A* is the minimum, or throat, area. Then

(2.3.17)

Now, and , so that

(2.3.18)

by use of Eqs.(2.3.13) and (2.3.10). In a similar manner

(2.3.19)

27
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
❑By substituting the last two equations into Eq. (2.3.17) gives

(2.3.20)
❑For gasses with k=1.40, Eq.(2.3.20) reduces to
(2.3.21)

❑The maximum mass flow rate mmax can be expressed in terms of the throat
area and reservoir conditions:

❑Replacing ρ0 by p0√(R0T0) gives

(2.3.22)
28
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
❑For k=1.40 this reduces to

(2.3.23)
❑The mass rate of flow m is obtained from

(2.3.24)

❑This equation holds for any section and is applicable as long as the
velocity at the throat is subsonic. It may be applied to the throat section,
and for this section, from Eq. (2.3.14),

29
 2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
❑For maximum mass flow rate, the flow downstream from the throat
may be either supersonic or subsonic, depending upon the downstream
pressure. Substituting Eq. (2.3.22) for m in Eq. (2.3.24) and simplifying
gives

(2.3.25)

❑A may be taken as the outlet area and P as outlet pressure. For a given
A*/A (less than unity) there will be two values of p/p0 between zero and
unity, the upper value for subsonic flow through the diverging duct and
the lower value for supersonic flow through the diverging duct.

30
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
Example 2.9 : A preliminary design of a wind tunnel to produce Mach
number 3.0 at the exit is desired. The mass flow rate is 1 kg/s for
p0=90 kPa abs, T0=250C. Determine (a) the throat area, (b) the outlet
area, and (c) the velocity, pressure, temperature, and density at the
outlet.
Solution
(a) The throat area con be determine form Eq. (2.3.23)

(b) The area of outlet is determined from Table :

31
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
(c) From 2.3.11 ,2.3.12,2.3.10

From the gas law

Hence, at the exit

From the continuity equation

32
2.3. ISENTROPIC FLOW
Example 2.11 : A converging-diverging duct in an air line downstream from
a reservoir has a 50-mm-diameter throat. Determine the mass rate of flow
when p0=0.8 MPa abs, T0=330C, and p=0.5 MPa abs at the throat.
Solution

From Eq.(2.3.24)

33
2.4 . SHOCK WAVES
❑Shock waves are nearly discontinuous changes in a supersonic flow.
They can occur due to a higher downstream pressure, a sudden change
in flow direction, blockage by a downstream body, or the result of an
explosion.

❑In one-dimensional flow the only type of shock wave that can occur is
a normal compression shock wave, as illustrated in Fig. 2.3.

❑In this section the normal shock wave in a diffuser is studied, with
isentropic flow throughout the tube, except for the shock wave surface.
The shock wave occurs in supersonic flow and reduces the flow to
subsonic flow, as proved in the following section.
34
2.4 . SHOCK WAVES
❑It has very little thickness, of the order of the molecular mean free path
of the gas. The controlling equations for adiabatic flow are (Fig.2.3)

❑Continuity: (2.4.1)

❑Energy: (2.4.2)

❑The momentum equation for a control volume between sections 1 and 2

becomes

(2.4.3)
35
2.4 . SHOCK WAVES

Figure 2.3 Normal compression shock wave.

36
2.4 . SHOCK WAVES
❑The value of p2 is

(2.4.4)

❑By combination of the continuity and momentum equations

(2.4.5)

❑The Rankine-Hugoniot equations are obtained:

(2.4.6)

(2.4.7)
37
2.4 . SHOCK WAVES
❑From Eq. (2.4.2), the energy equation,

(2.4.8)

❑Dividing Eq.(2.4.3) by Eq. (2.4.3) gives

by use of Eq.(2.4.8), leads to

(2.4.9)

Which is satisfied by V1=V2 (no shock wave) or by

(2.4.10)
It may be written
(2.4.11)
38
 2.4 . SHOCK WAVES
❑An expression for change of entropy across a normal shock wave may
be obtained in terms of M1 and k. From Eq.(2.4.4)

(2.4.14)

From Eq. (2.4.12),

(2.4.13)

❑Placing this value of p2/p1 in Eq. (2.4.7) yields

❑Substituting these pressure and density rations into Eq. (2.1.14) gives

(2.4.14)
39
2.4 . SHOCK WAVES
Example 2.12 : If a normal shock wave occurs in the flow of helium,
p1=7 kPa, T1=5°C, V1= 1372 m/s, find p2, ρ2, V2 and T2.
Solution
From Table , R = 2.077kJ/kg K, k = 1.66. and

From Eq. (2.4.4)

From Eq. (2.4.5)

40
2.4 . SHOCK WAVES
From Eq. (2.4.1)

and

41
2.5 FANNO AND RAYLEIGH LINES
❑To examine more closely the nature of the flow change in the short distance
across a shock wave, where the area may be considered constant, the continuity
and energy equations are combined for steady, frictional, adiabatic flow.
❑The lines on such a plot for constant mass flow G are called Fanno lines (Fig.
2.3). The most revealing plot is that of enthalpy against entropy, i.e., an hs
diagram.
❑The entropy equation for a perfect gas, Eq. (2.1.14), is

(2.5.1)

❑The energy equation for adiabatic flow with no change in elevation,

from Eq. (2.4.2), is

(2.5.2)

42
 2.5 FANNO AND RAYLEIGH LINES
❑And the continuity equation for no change in area, from Eq. (2.4.1), is
(2.5.3)

❑The equation of state, linking h, p, and ρ, is

(2.5.4)

❑By elimination p, ρ, and V from the four equations (see Fig. 2.4),

(2.5.5)
❑By indicating by subscript a values at the maximum entropy point,

43
 2.5 FANNO AND RAYLEIGH LINES

Figure 2.4 Fanno

and Rayleigh lines.
44
2.5 FANNO AND RAYLEIGH LINES
❑After substituting this into Eq. (2.5.2) to find Va,

and

(2.5.6)

❑Hence, the maximum entropy at point a is for M = 1, or sonic condition.

For h> ha the flow is subsonic, and for h< ha the flow is supersonic.

❑The two conditions, before and after the shock, must lie on the proper
Fanno line for the area at which the shock wave occurs. The momentum
equation was not used to determine the Fanno line, and so the complete
solution is not determined yet.
45
2.5 FANNO AND RAYLEIGH LINES
Rayleigh Line
❑Conditions before and after the shock must also satisfy the momentum and
continuity equations.
❑Assuming constant upstream conditions and constant area, Eqs. (2.5.1), (2.5.3),
(2.5.4), and (2.4.3) are used to determine the Rayleigh line. Eliminating V in the
continuity and momentum equations gives

(2.5.7)

❑ Next, eliminating p from thus equation and the entropy equation gives

(2.5.8)

❑ Enthalpy may be expressed as a function of and upstream condition, from Eq. (2.5.7):

(2.5.9)

46
 2.5 FANNO AND RAYLEIGH LINES
❑The value of maximum entropy is found by taking ds/dρ and dh/dρ from the
equations; then by division and equating to zero, using subscript b for maximum
point,

❑To satisfy this equation, the numerator must be zero and the denominator not zero.
The numerator set equal to zero yields

❑For this value the denominator is not zero. Again, as with the Fanno line, sonic
conditions occur at the point of maximum entropy.

❑Since the flow conditions must be on both curves, just before and just after the shock
wave, it must suddenly change from one point of intersection to the other.
47
2.5 FANNO AND RAYLEIGH LINES
Converging-Diverging Nozzle Flow

❑Following the presentation of Liepmann and Roshko the various flow

situations for converging-diverging nozzles are investigated. By use of
Eq. (2.3.11) the area ratio is obtained as a function of pressure ratio

(2.5.10)

❑Figure 2.5 is a plot of area ratio vs. pressure ratio and M, good only for
isentropic flow (k = 1.4).

❑By use of the area ratios the distribution of pressure and Mach number
along a given converging-diverging nozzle can now be plotted. Figure
2.6 illustrates the various flow conditions that may occur.
48
 2.5 FANNO AND RAYLEIGH LINES

Figure 2.5: Isentropic relations for a converging-diverging nozzle (k=1.4).

49
2.5 FANNO AND RAYLEIGH LINES

Figure 2.6 Various pressure and Mach-number configurations for flow

through a nozzle. 50
 2.8 STEADY ISOTHERMAL FLOW IN LONG PIPELINES
❑In the analysis of isothermal flow with friction of a perfect gas through
long ducts, neither the Fanno nor the Rayleigh line is applicable, since the
Fanno line applies to adiabatic flow and the Rayleigh to frictionless flow.
❑The appropriate equations are

❑Momentum : (2.8.1)

❑Equation of state: (2.8.2)

❑Continuity: (2.8.3)

❑Energy : (2.8.4)
68
2.8 STEADY ISOTHERMAL FLOW IN LONG PIPELINES
❑Stagnation pressure [Eq. (2.3.11)]:
(2.8.5)

❑From definitions and the above equations

❑Substituting into the momentum equation (2.8.1) yields

(2.8.6)
69
2.8 STEADY ISOTHERMAL FLOW IN LONG PIPELINES
❑To determine the direction of heat transfer, differentiate Eq.(2.8.4)
and then divide by it, remembering that T is constant:

(2.8.7)

❑Eliminating dM2 in this equation and Eq. (2.8.6) gives

(2.8.8)

❑From Eqs. (2.8.5) and (2.8.6)

(2.8.9)
70
2.8 STEADY ISOTHERMAL FLOW IN LONG PIPELINES

Table 2.3 shows the trends of fluid properties.

Table 2.3 Trends in fluid properties for isothermal flow

❑ By integration of the various Eqs. (2.8.6) in terms of M, the

change with Mach number is found. the last two terms yield.
71
2.8 STEADY ISOTHERMAL FLOW IN LONG PIPELINES

❑By integration of the various Eqs. (2.8.6) in terms of M, the change

with Mach number is found. the last two terms yield

(2.8.10)
❑To find the pressure change,

(2.8.11)

❑The superscript *t indicates conditions at M = 1/√k, and M and p

represent values at any upstream section.

72
 2.8 STEADY ISOTHERMAL FLOW IN LONG PIPELINES
Example 2.16 : Helium enters a 100-mm-ID pipe from converging-
diverging nozzle at M=1.30, p =14 kPa, T=225 K. Determine for
isothermal flow (a) the maximum length of pipe for no choking, (b)
the downstream conditions, and (c) the length from the exit to the
section where M=1.0, f=0.016.
Solution
(a) From Eq. (2.8.10) for k = 1.66

From which Lmax=2.425 m.

(b) From Eq. (2.8.11)

73
 2.8 STEADY ISOTHERMAL FLOW IN LONG PIPELINES
From Eqs.(2.8.6)

At the upstream section

(c) From Eq.(2.8.10) for M = 1,

or L’max = 0.683 m. M = 1 occurs 0.683 m from the exit.

74
 END OF
CHAPTER
TWO 75