Toward Comprehensive Perspectives On The Learning and Teaching of Proof

1 A Comprehensive Perspective on Proof
Toward Comprehensive Perspectives on the Learning and Teaching of Proof1
Guershon Harel
Department of Mathematics
University of California, San Diego
San Diego, CA 92093-0112, USA
harel@math.ucsd.edu
(858)534-2650
(858)534-5273 (Fax)
Larry Sowder
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
San Diego State University
San Diego, CA 92182-7720, USA
lsowder@sciences.sdsu.edu
(619)594-6179
(619)594-6746 (Fax)
To Appear in F. Lester (Ed.), Second Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching

and Learning, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
One of the most remarkable gifts human civilization has inherited from ancient Greece is
the notion of mathematical proof. The basic scheme of Euclid’s Elements has proved
astoundingly durable over the millennia and, in spite of numerous revolutionary
innovations in mathematics, it still guides the patterns of mathematical communication
(Babai, 1992).
Organization
This chapter examines proof in mathematics, both informal justifications and the
types of justification usually called mathematical proofs. The introductory section below
calls for what we label a “comprehensive perspective” toward the examination of the
learning and teaching of proof, and identifies the various elements of such a
comprehensive perspective. Our viewpoint next centers on students’ outlooks on proof,
as described by the “proof schemes” evidenced in students’ work; the second section
elaborates on this proof-scheme notion and includes a description of various proof
schemes as well as a listing of the various roles proof can play in mathematics. The third
section then gives a brief overview of how the idea of proof in mathematics has evolved
historically, and why historical considerations could be a part of educational research on
the learning or teaching of proof. The fourth and fifth sections include a look at selected
studies2 dealing with proof, at both the precollege and the college levels, with an effort to
show the value of the proof-schemes idea. The final section offers some questions
prompted by the earlier sections.
Comprehensive Perspective on Proof3

No one questions the importance of proof in mathematics, and in school
mathematics (Ball & Bass, 2003; Haimo, 1995; Schoenfeld, 1994). Overall, the
performance of students at the secondary and undergraduate levels in proof is weak, as
the findings reported in this paper will show. Whether the cause lies in the curriculum,
the textbooks, the instruction, the teachers’ background, or the students themselves, it is
clear that the status quo needs, and has needed, improvement. Earlier reviews of research
on the teaching and learning of proof (e.g., Battista & Clements, 1992; Hart, 1994; Tall,
1991; Yackel & Hanna, 2003) have informed and inspired more recent studies of proof
learning. This chapter argues for “comprehensive perspectives” on proof learning and
teaching and provides an example of such a perspective. A comprehensive perspective
on the learning and teaching of proofs is one that incorporates a broad range of factors:
mathematical, historical-epistemological, cognitive, sociological, and instructional. A
unifying and organizing element of our perspective is the construct of “proof scheme.”
This construct emerged from a long sequence of studies into the concept of proof (Harel
& Sowder, 1998), and, in turn, was utilized to address a cohort of foundational questions
concerning these factors:
Mathematical and Historical-Epistemological Factors
1. What is proof and what are its functions?
2. How are proofs constructed, verified, and accepted in the mathematics
community?
3. What are some of the critical phases in the development of proof in the
history of mathematics?
Cognitive Factors
4. What are students’ current conceptions of proof?

5. What are students’ difficulties with proof?
6. What accounts for these difficulties?
Instructional-Socio-Cultural Factors
7. Why teach proof?
8. How should proof be taught?
9. How are proofs constructed, verified, and accepted in the classroom?
10. What are the critical phases in the development of proof with the
individual student and within the classroom as a community of learners?
11. What classroom environment is conducive to the development of the
concept of proof with students?
12. What form of interactions among the students and between the students
and the teacher can foster students’ conception of proof?
13. What mathematical activities—possibly with the use of technology––can
enhance students’ conceptions of proof?
This list does not purport to be exhaustive or unique; other researchers may
choose a different list of questions or formulate those that appear here differently in their
attempt to form their comprehensive perspective to proof. This list, however, represents
those questions that we have confronted in a decade of investigations into the learning
and teaching proof; hence, these questions constitute an essential part of the content of
our comprehensive perspective on proof. Nor is the classification of these questions as it
is outlined here invariable. Clearly, it is difficult—if not impossible—to classify these
questions into pairwise disjoint categories of factors. Our use of the labels indicates a
loose association rather than a firm classification. In particular, none of the questions
should be viewed as a stand-alone question; rather they are all interrelated, constituting a
cohort of questions that have guided the comprehensive perspective on proof offered here
as an example. Thus, even though the headings of the third, fourth, and fifth sections of
the chapter correspond to the three categories outlined in the above list, the content of
each section pertains to the other two.
An important character of our perspective is that of subjectivity: While the term
“proof” often connotes the relatively precise argumentation given by mathematicians, in
our perspective “proof” is interpreted subjectively; a proof is what establishes truth for a
person or a community. With this interpretation, “proof” connotes an activity that can
permeate the whole mathematics curriculum, from kindergarten on as well as throughout
the historical development of mathematics. This subjective notion of “proof” is the most
central characteristic of the construct of “proof scheme,” which will be defined shortly.
When we wish to make clear that we mean the mathematically institutionalized notion of
proof, we will write “mathematical proof,” otherwise the terms “proof” or “justification”
will be used in this subjective sense.
Subjectivity equally applies to how the above questions should be understood.
Some of these questions, particularly the first three, might be interpreted as calling for
objective, clear-cut answers. Not so. The meaning of proof, its role, and the way it is
created, verified, and accepted may vary from person to person and from community to
community. One’s answers to these questions are greatly influenced by her or his
philosophical orientation to the processes of learning and teaching and would reflect her
or his answers to questions such as: What bearing, if any, does the epistemology of proof
in the history of mathematics have on the conceptual development of proof with

students? What bearing, if any, does the way mathematicians construct proofs have on
instructional treatments of proof? What bearing, if any, does everyday justification and
argumentation have on students’ proving behaviors in mathematical contexts? Our
emphasis on subjectivity—a motive we will repeat a few times in this paper—stems from
the well-known recognition that students’ construction of new knowledge is based on
what they already know (e.g., Cobb, 1994; Piaget, 1952, 1973a, b, 1978; Vygotsky, 1962,
1978), and hence it is indispensable for teachers to identify students’ current knowledge,
regardless of its quality, so as to help them gradually refine it. To avoid unnecessary
misunderstanding we note here, and we will repeat later, that subjectivity toward the
meaning of proof does not imply ambiguous goals in the teaching of this concept.
Ultimately, the goal is to help students gradually develop an understanding of proof that
is consistent with that shared and practiced in contemporary mathematics.
Why are Comprehensive Perspectives on Proofs Needed?

Comprehensive perspectives on proof are needed in an effort to understand
students’ difficulties, the roots of the difficulties, and the type of instructional
interventions needed to advance students’ conceptions of and attitudes toward proof. A
single factor usually is not sufficient to account for students’ behaviors with proof. For
example, while some of the difficulties students have with proof can be accounted for by
the cognitive factor, such as the students’ lack of logical maturity and understanding of
the need for proof, research studies conducted in the last two decades have given
evidence that these sources are insufficient to provide a full picture of students’
difficulties with mathematics in general and proof in particular. Balacheff’s (1991)
research, for example, has shown that students “have some awareness of the necessity to
prove and some logic” (p. 176) and yet they experience difficulty with proof.
Official documents and research papers on the learning and teaching of proof
almost never present their theoretical framework as a comprehensive perspective on
proof, but stated curricular goals, instructional recommendations, research design, and so
forth, may reveal some elements in the scholars’ (potential) perspective on proof. For
example, Balacheff (1991) points out that common to mathematics curricula in different
parts of the world is the goal of training students in the construction and the formulation
of “deductive reasoning,” which is defined as “a careful sequence of steps with each step
following logically from an assumed or previously proved statement and from previous
steps” (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 1989, p. 144). Balacheff
points out that this characterization of proof, which is close to what a logician would
formulate, is almost the same in mathematics curricula all over the world. Remarks in
these documents on the conceptual development of proof with students stress that proof
“has nothing to do with empirical or experimental verification” and “call attention to the
move from concrete to abstract” (Balacheff, 1991, p. 177). This suggests a form-driven
perspective, according to which the basis for one’s answer to the question, how should
proof be taught, is the form in which mathematics is organized and accordingly presented
in scientific papers or books.
Approaching the concept of proof from an encompassing perspective such as the
one suggested here is, in our view, a critical research need. Balacheff, a world-
recognized pioneer in the area of the learning and teaching of proof, has addressed this
need by raising on several occasions (e.g., 2002) the question: “Is there a shared meaning
of ‘mathematical proof’ among researchers in mathematics education?” Balacheff was
not referring to just the standard, more or less formal definition of mathematical proof.
Rather, his question, as he puts it, is “whether beyond the keywords, we had some
common understanding” (Balacheff, 2002, p. 23). By “common understanding,” we
believe he means agreed-upon parameters in terms of which one can formulate
differences among perspectives into research questions. We agree with Balacheff that
without such an understanding it is hard to envision real progress in our field. The
comprehensive perspective on proof presented in this paper delineates a set of such
parameters.
The Concept of Proof Scheme

Consistent with our characterization of a comprehensive perspective on proof,
several critical factors must be considered in addressing the question, What is proof?
First, the construction of new knowledge does not take place in a vacuum but is shaped
by existing knowledge. What a learner knows now constitutes a basis for what he or she
will know in the future. This fundamental, well documented fact has far-reaching
instructional implications. When applied to the concept of proof—our concern in this
paper—this fact requires that an answer to the above question takes into account the
student as a learner, that is, the cognitive aspects involved in the development of the
concept of proof with the individual student. Second, one must maintain the integrity of
the concept of proof as has been understood and practiced throughout the history of
mathematics. Third, since the concept of proof is social—in that what is offered as a
convincing argument by one person must be accepted by others—one must take into
account the social nature of the proving process. We see, therefore, that one’s answer to
the above question attends to a range of factors: cognitive, mathematical,
epistemological-historical, and social. The approach we provide here takes into
consideration these factors. The conceptual framework of our answer has been formed
over a long period of extensive work on students’ conception of proof, and it incorporates
findings reported in the literature as well as from our own studies. The latter included a
range of teaching experiments and a three-year longitudinal study (see, for example,
Harel & Sowder, 1998; Harel, 2001; Sowder & Harel, 2003) as well as historical,
philosophical, and cultural analyses (e.g., Hanna, 1983, Hanna & Jahnke, 1996, Harel,
1999, Kleiner, 1991). The foundational element of this framework is the concept of
“proof scheme.”
Obviously, learners’ knowledge, in general, and that of proof, in particular, is not
homogenous; most commonly, a high-school student’s conception of proof is different
from that of a college mathematics major student, and a contemporary mathematician’s
conception of proof is different from that of an ancient mathematician, which, in turn,
was different from that of a Renaissance mathematician, etc. “Proof scheme” is a term
we use to describe one’s (or a community’s) conception of proof; it will be defined
precisely below. In Harel and Sowder (1998) we offer an elaborate taxonomy of
students’ proof schemes based on seven teaching experiments with a total of 169
mathematics and engineering majors. The experiments were conducted in classes of
linear algebra (elementary and advanced), discrete mathematics, geometry, and real
analysis. Later, in Harel (in press), this taxonomy was refined and extended to capture
more observations of students’ conceptions of proof as well as some developments of this

concept in the history of mathematics. In this paper we use our taxonomy of proof
schemes to describe or interpret
(a) historical developments and philosophical matters concerning the concept of
proof (third section),
(b) results from other studies concerning students’ conception of and performance
with proof (fourth section), and
(c) curricular and instructional issues concerning proof (fifth section).
Definition of “Proof Scheme”

The definition of “proof scheme” is based on three definitions.
1. Conjecture versus fact. An assertion can be conceived by an individual either
as a conjecture or as a fact: (A conjecture is an assertion made by an
individual who is uncertain of its truth.) The assertion ceases to be a
conjecture and becomes a fact in the person’s view once he or she becomes
certain of its truth.
A critical question, to which we will return shortly, is the following: How in the
context of mathematics do students render a conjecture into a fact? That is, how do they
become certain about the truth of an assertion in mathematics?
The definitions of “conjecture” and “fact” are the basis for the notion of proving.
2. Proving. Proving is the process employed by an individual (or a community)
to remove doubts about the truth of an assertion.
The process of proving includes two subprocesses: ascertaining and persuading.
3. Ascertaining versus persuading. Ascertaining is the process an individual (or
a community) employs to remove her or his (or its) own doubts about the truth
of an assertion. Persuading is the process an individual or a community
employs to remove others’ doubts about the truth of an assertion.
Mathematics as sense-making means that one should not only ascertain oneself
that the particular topic/procedure makes sense, but also that one should be able to
convince others through explanation and justification of her or his conclusions. In
particular, the convince-others, public side of proof is a social practice (e.g., Bell, 1976),
not only for mathematicians but for all students of mathematics. The definition of
“persuading” aims at capturing this essential feature of proving. As defined, the process
of proving includes two processes: ascertaining and persuading. Seldom do these
processes occur in separation. Among mathematically experienced people and in a
classroom environment conducive to intellectual interactions among the students and
between the students and the teacher, when one ascertains for oneself, it is most likely
that one would consider how to convince others, and vice versa. Thus, proving emerges
as a response to cognitive-social needs, rather than exclusively to cognitive needs or
social needs—a view consistent with Cobb and Yackel’s emergent perspective (1996).
As defined, ascertaining and persuading are entirely subjective, for one’s proving
can vary from context to context, from person to person, from civilization to civilization,
and from generation to generation within the same civilization (cf. Harel & Sowder,
1998, Kleiner, 1991, Raman, 2003, Weber, 2001). Thus, we offer the following
definition:
4. Proof scheme. A person’s (or a community’s) proof scheme consists of what

constitutes ascertaining and persuading for that person (or community).
We repeat here what we highlighted in Harel and Sowder (1998): Our definitions
of the process of proving and proof scheme are deliberately student-centered. Terms
such as “to prove,” “to conjecture,” “proof,” “conjecture,” and “fact” must be interpreted
in this subjective sense throughout the paper. We emphasize again that despite this
subjective definition the goal of instruction must be unambiguous—namely, to gradually
refine current students’ proof schemes toward the proof scheme shared and practiced by
contemporary mathematicians. This claim is based on the premise that such a shared
scheme exists and is part of the ground for scientific advances in mathematics.
Taxonomy of Proof Schemes

The taxonomy of proof schemes consists of three classes: the external conviction
proof schemes class, the empirical proof schemes class, and the deductive proof schemes
class. Below is a brief description of each of these schemes and some of their
subschemes. Further elaboration of the different schemes is provided, as needed,
throughout the paper. Relations of our taxonomy to other taxonomies and to the
functions of proof within mathematics are addressed at the end of this subsection. (For
the complete taxonomy, see Harel & Sowder (1998) and Harel (in press).)
External conviction proof schemes. Proving within the external conviction proof
schemes class depends (a) on an authority such as a teacher or a book, (b) on strictly the
appearance of the argument (for example, proofs in geometry must have a two-column
format), or (c) on symbol manipulations, with the symbols or the manipulations having
no potential coherent system of referents (e.g., quantitative, spatial, etc.) in the eyes of the
student (e.g., ( a + b) /( c + b) = ( a + b ) /( c + b ) = a / c ). Accordingly, we distinguish
among three proof schemes within the external conviction proof schemes class:
• External conviction proof schemes class
o Authoritarian proof scheme
o Ritual proof scheme
o Non-referential symbolic proof scheme
Empirical proof schemes. Schemes in the empirical proof scheme class are
marked by their reliance on either (a) evidence from examples (sometimes just one
example) of direct measurements of quantities, substitutions of specific numbers in
algebraic expressions, and so forth, or (b) perceptions. Hence, we distinguish between
two proof schemes within the empirical proof scheme class:
• Empirical proof schemes class
o Inductive proof schemes
o Perceptual proof schemes
Deductive proof schemes. The deductive proof schemes class consists of two
subcategories, each consisting of various proof schemes:
• Deductive proof schemes class
o Transformational proof schemes
o Axiomatic proof schemes
All the transformational proof schemes share three essential characteristics: generality,
operational thought, and logical inference.
The generality characteristic has to do with an individual understanding that the

goal is to justify a “for all” argument, not isolated cases and no exception is accepted.
Evidence that operational thought is taking place is shown when an individual forms
goals and subgoals and attempts to anticipate their outcomes during the evidencing
process. Finally, when an individual understands that justifying in mathematics must
ultimately be based on logical inference rules, the logical inference characteristic is being
employed (see also Harel, 2001).
Unlike the proof schemes in the previous two classes (the external conviction
proof schemes class and the empirical proof schemes class), the transformation proof
schemes require a more elaborate demonstration. Consider the following two responses
(taken from Harel, 2001) to the problem:
Prove that for all positive integers n ,

log( a1 ⋅ a2 ⋅ ⋅ an ) = log a1 + log a2 + + log an .
Response 1
log(4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 7) = log84 = 1.924 log(4 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 6) = log 72 = 1.857
log 4 + log 3 + log 7 = 1.924 log 4 + log 3 + log 6 = 1.857
Since these work, then log( a1 ⋅ a2 ⋅ ⋅ an ) = log a1 + log a2 + + log an .
A probe into the reasoning of the students who provide responses of this kind reveals that
their conviction stems from the fact that the proposition is shown to be true in a few
instances, each with numbers that are randomly chosen—a behavior that is a
manifestation of the empirical proof scheme.
Response 2
(1) log( a1a2 ) = log a1 + log a2 by definition
(2) log( a1a2 a3 ) = log a1 + log a2 a3 . Similar to log( ax ) as in step (1), where
this time x = a2 a3 .
Then
log( a1a2a3 ) = log a1 + log a2 + log a3
(3) We can see from step (2) any log( a1a2 a3 an ) can be repeatedly broken
down to
log a1 + log a2 + + log an
It is important to point out that in Response 2 the student recognizes that the
process employed in the first and second cases constitutes a pattern that recursively
applies to the entire sequence of propositions, log( a1a2 an ) = log a1 + log a2 + + log an ,
n = 1, 2,3,… .
In both responses the generalizations are made from two cases. This may suggest,
therefore, that both are empirical. As is explained in Harel (2001), this is not so:
response 2, unlike response 1, is an expression of the transformational proof scheme. To
see why, one needs to examine the two responses against the definitions of the two
schemes. While both responses share the first characteristic—i.e., in both the students
respond to the “for all” condition in the log-identity problem statement—they differ in
the latter two: whereas the mental operations in Response 1 are incapable of anticipating
possible subsequent outcomes in the sequence and are devoid of general principles in the
evidencing process, the mental operations in Response 2 correctly predict, on the basis of
the general rule, log( ax ) = log a + log x , that the same outcome will be obtained in each
step of the sequence. Further, in Response 1 the inference rule that governs the
evidencing process is empirical; namely, (∃r ∈ R )( P ( r )) ⇒ (∀r ∈ R )( P ( r )) . In Response
2, on the other hand, it is deductive; namely, it is based on the inference rule
(∀r ∈ R )( P( r )) ∧ ( w ∈ R ) ⇒ P( w) . (Here r is any pair of real numbers a and x , R is
the set of all pairs of real numbers, P( r ) is the statement “ log( ax ) = log a + log x ,” and
w in step n is a pair of real numbers a1a2 an −1 and an .)
The axiomatic proof scheme too has the three characteristics that define the
transformational proof scheme, but it includes others. For now, it is sufficient to define it
as a transformational proof scheme by which one understands that in principle any
proving process must start from accepted principles (axioms). The situation is more
complex, however, as we will show in the section on historical and epistemological
considerations (third section). For the purpose of this chapter we will introduce only the
Greek axiomatic proof scheme and the modern axiomatic proof scheme—as manifested,
for example, in Euclid’s Elements and Hilbert’s Grundlagen, respectively. The
distinction between these two schemes is further discussed in the third section.
Relations to Other Taxonomies

In broad terms, the empirical proof schemes and the deductive proof schemes
correspond to what Bell (1976) calls “empirical justification” and “deductive
justification,” and Balacheff (1988) calls “pragmatic” justifications and “conceptual”
justifications, respectively. Balacheff further divides the pragmatic justification into
three types of justifications: “naïve empiricism” (justification by a few random
examples), “crucial experiment” (justification by carefully selected examples), and
“generic example” (justification by an example representing salient characteristics of a
whole class of cases). “Generic example” in our taxonomy belongs to the deductive
proof scheme category, for an analysis similar to that we applied to Response 2 (above)
will show that “generic example” satisfies the three characteristics of the transformational
proof scheme. Balacheff further classifies conceptual justifications into two types:
“thought experiment,” where the justification is disassociated from specific examples,
and “symbolic calculation,” where the justification is based solely on transformation of
symbols. In our taxonomy, the latter corresponds to the referential symbolic proof
scheme. This scheme is the direct opposite of the non-referential proof scheme defined
above. Recall this is a scheme where neither the symbols nor the operations one
performs on them represent a coherent referential reality for the student. Rather, the
student thinks and treats symbols and operations on them as if they possess a life of their
own without reference to their functional or quantitative meaning. In the referential
symbolic proof scheme, to prove or refute an assertion or to solve a problem, one learns
to represent the situation algebraically and performs symbol manipulations on the
resulting expressions, with the intention to derive information relevant to the problem at
hand. We return to this scheme in the next section.
The above definitions and taxonomy are not explicit enough about many critical
functions of proof within mathematics. There is a need to point to these functions due to
their importance in mathematics in general and to their instructional implications in
particular. For this, we point to the work of other scholars in the field, particularly the
work by Hanna (1990), Balacheff (1988), Bell (1976), Hersh (1993), and de Villiers
(1999). de Villiers, who built on the work of the others mentioned here, raises two
important questions about the role of proof: (a) What different functions does proof have
within mathematics itself? and (b) How can these functions be effectively utilized in the
classroom to make proof a more meaningful activity? (p. 1). According to de Villiers,
mathematical proof has six not mutually exclusive roles: verification, explanation,
discovery, systematization, intellectual challenge, and communication. At the end of the
next section, after the relevant schemes are defined, we show that these functions are
describable in terms of the proof scheme construct.
Mathematical and Historical-Epistemological Factors: Some Phases in the Development

of Proof Schemes in the History of Mathematics4
Deductive reasoning is a mode of thought commonly characterized as a sequence
of propositions where one must accept any of the propositions to be true if he or she has
accepted the truth of those that preceded it in the sequence. This mode of thought was
conceived by the Greeks more than 20 centuries ago and is still dominant in the
mathematics of today. So remarkable is the Greeks’ achievement that their mathematics
became an historical benchmark to which other kinds of mathematics are compared. We
are here particularly interested in analyzing the proof scheme construct across three
periods of mathematics: Greek mathematics, post-Greek mathematics (approximately
from the 16th to the 19th century), and modern mathematics (from the late 19th century to
today). For the sake of completeness we say a few words about pre-Greek mathematics.
Proof schemes are applied to establish assertions in specific contexts. In this
respect, therefore, in addressing proof schemes one must attend to the nature of the
context about which the assertions are made. Also of importance is the motive—the
intellectual need—that might have brought about the conceptual change from one period
to the next. Thus, our discussion will center on three interrelated aspects of the
historical-epistemological development: (a) the context of proving, (b) the means of
proving (i.e., proof schemes), and (c) the motive for conceptual change. Understanding
these elements can shed light on some critical aspects of the learning and teaching of
proof, as we will see.
Some Fundamental Differences
Practical world versus ideal existence: the emergence of structure.

Generally speaking, pre-Greek mathematics was concerned merely with actual
physical entities, particularly with quantitative measurement of different objects. Their
“formulas” were in the form of prescriptions providing mostly approximations for
measured quantities (area, volume, etc.). Ancient geometry developed in an empirical
way through phases of trials and errors, where conjectures were proved by means of
empirical—inductive or perceptual—evidence. Even Babylonian mathematics, which,

according to Kleiner (1991, p. 291), “is the most advanced and sophisticated of pre-Greek
mathematics,” lacked the concept of proof as was understood and applied by the Greeks.
Accordingly, it is safe to conclude that proving in pre-Greek mathematics is, by and
large, governed by the empirical proof schemes.
The Greeks elevated mathematics from the status of practical science to a study of
abstract entities. In their mathematics the particular entities under investigation are
idealizations of experiential spatial realities and so also are the propositions on the
relationships among these entities. The difference between pre-Greek mathematics and
Greek mathematics, however, is not just in the nature of the entities considered—actual
spatial entities versus their idealizations—but also in the reasoning applied to establish
truth about the entities. In Greek mathematics, logical deduction came to be central in
the reasoning process, and it alone necessitated and cemented the geometric edifice they
created. To construct their geometric edifice the Greeks had to create primary terms—
terms admitted without definition—and primary propositions—propositions admitted
without proof—what the Greeks called axioms or postulates. In contrast, the
mathematics of the civilizations that preceded them established their observations on the
basis of empirical measurements, and so their mathematics lacked any apparent structure;
it consisted merely of prescriptions of how to obtain measurements of certain spatial
configurations.
Constant versus varying referential reality.

In constructing their geometry, as is depicted in Euclid’s Elements, the Greeks
had only one model in mind—that of imageries of idealized physical reality. This is
supported by the fact that the Greeks, in fact, strove to describe their primitive terms
(e.g., “a point is that which has no parts”), which indicates that their sole imagery was
that of physical space. Hartshorne (2000) points out that this way of thinking did not
start with Euclid. About one hundred years before Euclid, Plato spoke of the geometers:
Although they make use of the visible forms and reason about them, they are not
thinking of these, but of the ideals which they resemble; not the figures which
they draw, but of the absolute square and the absolute diameter, and so on … (The
Republic, Book IV).
From the vantage point of modern mathematics, neither the primitive terms nor
the primary propositions in Greek mathematics were variables, but constants referring to
a single spatial model (Klein, 1968; Wilder, 1967)—as is expressed in the ideal world of
Plato’s philosophy. This ultimate bond to a real-world context had an impact on the
Greeks’ proof scheme. Specifically, in his proofs Euclid often uses arguments that are
not logical consequences of his initial assumptions but are rooted in humans’ intuitive
physical experience (the method of superposition, which allows one to move one triangle
so that it lies on top of another triangle, is an example). In this respect, while proving in
Greek mathematics was governed by the deductive proof scheme and can be
characterized as an axiomatic proof scheme, it is different from that of contemporary
mathematics where every assertion must be, in principle, derivable from clearly stated
assumptions. Wilder (1967) points to a crucial difference between Greek mathematics
and modern mathematics: Namely, in modern mathematics the primitive terms are
treated as variables, not just undefined; they are free of any referent—real or imagined.
In Greek mathematics, on the other hand, they are undefined terms referring to humans’
idealized physical reality. Treating primitive terms as undefined is fundamentally
different from treating them as variables. Wilder quotes Boole (from 1847) to stress this
difference:
The validity of the processes of analysis does not depend upon the interpretation
of the symbols which are employed, but solely upon the laws of their
combination. Every system of interpretations which does not affect the truth of
the relations supposed, is equally admissible… (in Wilder, 1967, p. 116).
Despite the monumental conceptual difference in the referential imageries between Greek
mathematics and modern mathematics, the essential condition in applying deductive
reasoning in both is the existence of primary terms and primary propositions (axioms).
Content versus form.

The deductive reasoning—or the axiomatic method, as it often is called—of the
Greeks dominated the mathematics of the western world until the late 19th century and in
essence is still intact today. The difference in referential imageries between Greek
mathematics and modern mathematics entails another critical difference: In Greek
mathematics proof is valid by virtue of its content, not its form. Since the Greeks’
concern was about relationships among entities in their physical space, the form of the
proof cannot be completely detached from the content of that space. In this conception,
one would not consider, for example, the question of whether there exists a consistent
geometric model in which the parallel postulate does not hold. In modern mathematics,
on the other hand, proof is valid by virtue of its form alone.
In Greek Mathematical Thought and the Origin of Algebra, Klein (1968) adds
clarity to this distinction. In Greek science concepts are formed in continual dependence
on their “natural” foundations, and their scientific meaning is abstracted from “natural,”
pre-scientific experience. In modern science, on the other hand, what is intended by the
concept is not an object of immediate insight. Rather, it is an object whose scientific
meaning can be determined only by its connection to other concepts, by the total edifice
to which it belongs, and by its function within this edifice. This difference accounts, for
example, for the fact that the Greeks, while interested in idealized entities, were highly
selective in their choice of these entities. For instance, what we now call transcendental
numbers, like the number π, disturbed the Greeks. “They were unhappy that their ideas of
perfection in geometry and arithmetic seemed to be challenged by the existence of such a
number” (Ginsburg & Opper, 1969, p. 214-215). In modern mathematics, on the other
hand, entities can be quite arbitrary. Upon encountering transcendental numbers modern
mathematics incorporated them into a mathematical structure, that of the real numbers,
determined by a set of axioms.
It should be highlighted that the idea that the objects are determined by a set of
axioms was a revolutionary way of thinking in the development of mathematics. An
important manifestation of this revolution is the distinction between Euclid’s Elements
and Hilbert’s Grundlagen. While the Elements is restricted to a single interpretation—
namely that its content is a presumed description of human spatial realization—the
Grundlagen is open to different possible realizations, such as Euclidean space, the
surface of a half-sphere, ordered pairs and triples of real numbers, and so forth, including
the interpretation that the axioms are meaningless formulas. In other words, the
Grundlagen characterizes a structure that fits different models. This obviously is not
unique to geometry. In algebra, a group or a vector space is defined to be any system of
objects satisfying certain axioms that specify the structure under consideration. To
reflect this fundamental conceptual difference, we refer to the Greeks’ proving means as
the Greek axiomatic proof scheme and to the proving means of modern mathematics as
the modern axiomatic proof scheme.
Operation versus results of an operation.

Klein (1968) argues that the revival and assimilation of Greek mathematics during
th
the 16 century resulted in fundamental conceptual changes that ultimately defined
modern mathematics. This conceptual transformation culminated in Vieta’s work on
symbolic algebra, where the distinction between modern mathematics and Greek
mathematics began to crystallize.
The use of symbols in the modern sense is due mainly to Vieta, who was followed
in this effort by Descartes and Leibniz. Until then, mathematics had evolved for at least
three millennia with hardly any symbols. Symbolic notation was the key to a method of
demonstration, and Liebniz—more than anyone else in his generation—advanced the role
of symbolism in the process of mathematical proof. He was the first to conceive of proof
as a sequence of sentences beginning with identities and proceeding by a finite number of
steps of logic and rules of definitional substitution—by virtue of symbolic notation—until
the theorem was proved.
The works of Vieta that led to the creation of algebra and that of Descartes that
led the creation of analytic geometry illustrate another important difference between
Greek mathematics and modern mathematics: the focus on “operation” versus “results of
an operation.” Ginsburg and Opper (1969) discuss the distinction as described by
Boutroux, a mathematician, who analyzed the evolution of mathematical thought.
According to Boutroux, the Greeks restricted their attention to attributes of spatial
configurations but paid no attention to the operations underlying them. As an example,
Ginsburg and Opper mention the problems of bisecting and trisecting an angle by means
of straightedge-and-compass only. As is well known, the Greeks offered a simple way to
solve the bisecting problem but the solution of the trisecting problem had to wait two
millennia, until Galois, a French mathematician, solved it in the 19th century. The
Greeks attended to geometrical objects (rectilinear angles in this case) by investigating
their attributes—whether an angle can be bisected or trisected, for example. The 19th
century mathematics, on the other hand, investigated the operation themselves—their
algebraic representations and structures. Specifically, the standard Euclidean
constructions using only a compass and straightedge were translated in terms of
constructibility of the real numbers (i.e., a real number is constructible if its absolute
value is the distance between two constructible points). This translation leads to an
important observation about the structure of constructible numbers; namely, the
constructible numbers form a subfield of the field of the real numbers. A deeper
investigation into the theory of fields lead to a proof of the impossibility of certain
geometric constructions, including the impossibility of finding a single method of
construction for trisecting any given angle with the classical tools. More importantly,
with this theory one can understand why certain constructions are possible whereas others
are not. The Greeks had no means to build such an understanding. They did not attend to
the nature of the operations underlying the Euclidean construction, and hence were
unable to understand the difference between bisecting an angle and trisecting an angle
and why they were able perform the former but not the latter.
Thus, not until the 17th century with the invention of analytic geometry and
algebra did mathematicians begin to shift their attention from the result of mathematical
operations to the operations themselves. By means of analytic geometry, mathematicians
realized that all Euclidean geometry problems can be solved by a single approach, that of
reducing the problems to equations and applying algebraic techniques to solve them.
Euclidean straightedge-and-compass constructions were understood to be equivalent to
equations, and hence the solvability of a Euclidean problem became equivalent to the
solvability of its corresponding equation(s).
Cause versus reason.

Consider Proposition I.32 and its proof in Euclid’s Elements (slightly adapted
from Heath, 1956, pp. 316-317):
In any triangle, if one of the sides is produced, then the exterior angle equals the
sum of the two interior and opposite angles, and the sum of the three interior
angles of the triangle equals two right angles.
Proof:
Let ABC be a triangle, and let one side of it BC be produced to D.
E
A
B D
C
I say that the exterior angle ACD equals the sum of the two interior and opposite
angles CAB and ABC, and the sum of the three interior angles of the triangle ABC,
BCA, and CAB equals two right angles.
Draw CE through the point C parallel to the straight line AB (by Proposition I.31).
Since AB is parallel to CE, and AC falls upon them, therefore the alternate angles
BAC and ACE equal one another (by Proposition I.29).
Again, since AB is parallel to CE, and the straight line BD falls upon them,
therefore the exterior angle ECD equals the interior and opposite angle ABC (by
Proposition I.29).
But the angle ACE was also proved equal to the angle BAC. Therefore the whole
angle ACD equals the sum of the two interior and opposite angles BAC and ABC.
Add the angle ACB to each. Then the sum of the angles ACD and ACB equals the
sum of the three angles ABC, BCA, and CAB (by Common Notion 2).
But the sum of the angles ACD and ACB equals two right angles. Therefore the
sum of the angles ABC, BCA, and CAB also equals two right angles (by
Proposition I.13 and Common Notion 1).
This proof appeals to two facts, one about the auxiliary segment CE and the other
about the external angle ACD. Note that the property holds whether or not the segment
CE is produced and the angle ACD considered. One might then raise the question, what
is the true cause of the property proved? This question was a center of debate during the
16th-17th centuries about whether mathematics is a science. Philosophers of this period,
according to Mancosu (1996), used this proof to demonstrate their argument that
mathematics is not a perfect science because “implication” in mathematics is a mere
logical consequence rather than a demonstration of the cause of the conclusion. Their
argument was based on the Aristotelian definition of science, according to which one
does not understand something until he or she has grasped the why of it. “We suppose
ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge of a thing, … , when we think that
we know the cause on which the fact depends as the cause of the fact and of no other …”
(Aristotle, p. 111-112).
Mathematical statements of the form “A if and only if B” provided an additional
argument against the scientificness (i.e., causal nature) of mathematics, for—these
philosophers claimed—if mathematical proof were scientific (i.e., causal), then such a
statement would entail that A is the cause of B and B is the cause of A, which implies A
is the cause of itself—an absurdity.
This position entailed rejection of proof by contradiction, for such a proof does
not demonstrate the cause of the property that is being argued. When a statement “A
implies B” is proved by showing how not B (and A) leads logically to an absurdity, one
does not learn anything about the causality relationship between A and B. Nor does one
gain any insight into how the result was obtained. Consequently, proof by exhaustion
(e.g., Archimedes’ known method of proof for calculating volume, area, and parameter of
different objects), which is necessarily based on proof by contradiction, also was
unsatisfactory to many mathematicians of the 16th and 17th centuries. They argued that
the ancients, who broadly used proof by exhaustion to avoid explicit use of infinity, failed
to convey their methods of discovery.
Not all philosophers of the time held this position. According to Mancosu (1996),
Barozzi, for example, argued that some parts of mathematics are more scientific (causal)
than others; but that a proof by contradiction is not a causal proof, and therefore it should
be eliminated from mathematics. Others, like Barrow, argued that all mathematics proofs
are causal, including proof by contradiction:
It seems to me … that Demonstrations, though some do outdo others in Brevity,
Elegance, Proximity to their first Principles, and the like Excellencies, yet are all
alike in Evidence, Certitude, Necessity, and the essential Connection and mutual
Dependence of the Terms one with another. Lastly, that Mathematical
Ratiocinations are the most perfect Demonstrations. (Quoted in Mancosu, 1996,
p. 23)
Of particular interest is the position held by Rivaltus on the issue of causal proof
in mathematics. Mancosu (1996) illustrates this position by Rivaltus’ commentary on
Archimedes proof for the theorem that the area of the surface of the sphere is four times
the area of a great circle of the sphere. In this proof, Archimedes inscribes and
circumscribes the sphere with auxiliary solids to show that the surface of the sphere can
be neither smaller nor greater than four times the great circle—a typical Archimedean
proof by exhaustion, which necessarily involves proof by contradiction. So, there are two
issues here: the use of proof by contradiction and the use of the auxiliary solids (as in the
case of the proof of Proposition I.32). Each of these two features render, in the eyes of
some philosophers of the time, Archimedes’ proof non-causal. Rivaltus rejects this
possibility on the basis of a distinction between “cause” and “reason”:
Ostensive demonstrations in mathematics are not considered more perfect than the
ones by contradiction, since in these disciplines it is not made use of the cause of
the thing, but of the cause of the knowledge of the thing. … The figures drawn are
not truly the cause [italics added] of that equality but are reasons [italics added]
from which we know it. From whence it follows that whatever is more fit to
knowledge is more appropriate to the mathematician. But we know more easily
that absurdities are impossible, false and repugnant by reason that we know the
true things. Indeed the truths are concealed and conversely the errors are obvious
everywhere. … Again it is to be observed that the Geometers do not make use of
the cause of a thing, but of the cause from which the thing is known. Indeed it is
sufficient to them to show the thing to be so and they do not enquire by which
means it is so. (Rivaltus, 1615; quoted in Mancosu, 1996, pp. 26-27)
The Aristotelian theory of science and particularly its appeal to cause and effect
manifested itself in another aspect of mathematical practice during the 17th century—that
of the use of “genetic definitions.” These definitions appeal to the generation of
mathematical magnitude by motion; Euclid’s definition of a sphere as an object generated
by the rotation of a semicircle around a segment taken as axis is an example. An example
of a non-genetic definition is that of a circle defined as a set of all points in the plane that
are equidistant from a given point in that plane. According to Mancosu (1996), although
the insistence on the use of genetic definitions was not universal, important
mathematicians of the time emphasized their importance because they were viewed as
demonstrating cause, and, hence, conform to Aristotle’s epistemological position of what
constitutes a science. For example, Barrow stated that of all the possible ways of
generating a magnitude, the most important is the method of local movements, and he
uses motion as a fundamental concept in his work in geometry” (Mancosu, 1996, p. 96),
and Hobbes and Spinoza, “emphasize the role of genetic definitions as the only causal
definitions, thereby excluding the nongenetic definitions from the realm of science” (p.
99).
Motives
The Greeks’ motive for constructing the remarkable geometric edifice that we
now call Euclidean Geometry, was their desire to create a consistent system that is free
from paradoxes. Avoiding paradoxes constituted, in part, an intellectual need for the
transition from Greek to modern mathematics. According to Wilder (1967, based, in
part, on Freudenthal, 1962), against the customary view that attributes the change to the
introduction of non-Euclidean geometry,
there was little evidence of excitement or even interest in the mathematical
community regarding the work of Bolyai and Lobachevski, for at least 30 years
after its publication. … The … impact of the admissibility of non-Euclidean

geometry into mathematics only promoted an evolution already under way (p.
116).
Hacking (1980) argues that the change in perspective occurred much before the late 19th
century as is commonly held, but was pioneered by Leibniz. In fact, Hacking insists that
Leibniz was aware of the conceptual change and even explained why it did not develop
earlier:
Leibniz himself has a plausible explanation of why the concept of proof emerged
at this time. [The idea that proof is independent of its content] is not to be
expected when geometry is the standard of rigor. Geometrical demonstrations can
appear to rely on their content. Their validity may seem to depend on facts about
the very shapes under study, and whose actual construction is the aim of the
traditional Euclidean theorems. (p. 170)
Here, too, Descartes’ contribution was crucial: What brought about Leibniz’ new
way of understanding the concept of proof was Descartes’ algebrization of geometry. By
its nature algebra is a way of thinking where one can dispose of or reduce overt attention
to content. Together with the recognition that the non-Euclidean geometries are just as
consistent as the Euclidean, there seems to have been a general feeling that both the
Euclidean and the non-Euclidean systems were still only candidates as sciences of space.
The change in proof scheme from Greek mathematics to modern mathematics was
necessitated again by the attempt to establish a consistent foundation for mathematics—
just as the Greeks did to construct a consistent system—one that is free from paradoxes.
The mathematicians who launched major attempts to form a consistent mathematics, like
Zermelo and Russell and Russell and Whitehead, were largely motivated by the desire to
meet the crisis in the foundations of mathematics caused by contradictions, primarily
those resulting from the Cantorian theory of sets:
(The) Greek situation, as the latter appears to us through the haze of centuries, is
striking. In both situations, crises had developed which threatened the security of
mathematics; and in both cases resort was taken to explicit axiomatic statement of
the foundations upon which one hoped to build without fear of further charges of
inconsistency. (Wilder, 1967, p. 117)
Wilder (1967) also notes that like the Greek mathematicians, the modern
mathematicians who launched major attempts to form a consistent mathematics (e.g.,
Zermelo and Russell) had only one model in mind, albeit a different model. In the case
of Zermelo, he focused on “a portion of set theory sufficient for ordinary mathematical
purposes, yet carefully limited to avoid the known contradictions” (p. 117). Russell too,
like Euclid and Zermelo, “had only one model in mind, and he aimed at making the
conditions surrounding his system so stringent that there could be only one model” (p.
118).
Not everyone in the 19th-20th century gave his or her blessing to the new
development in mathematics. Both Poincare and Weyl, for example, while
acknowledging the legitimacy and accomplishment of the axiomatic method, were
disturbed by the widespread preoccupation with it. They called for a return to problems
of “mathematical substance” and argued that its role should be limited to giving precision
to already created mathematical entities (Wilder, 1967). Nor were all mathematicians of
the 17th century enthusiastic about the emergence of a new context of mathematics. The
modern notion of number is a case in point. The emergence of negative numbers raised
questions as to the utility of symbols without a concrete referent and especially without a
geometrical referent. How is it possible, for example, to subtract a greater quantity from
a smaller one, where the mental image of “quantity” is nothing else but a physical amount
or a spatial capacity? Moreover, how is it possible to understand such a statement as (-
1)/1=1/(-1), where the quantity 1 is larger than the quantity –1, and therefore, the division
of 1 by –1 must be greater than the division of –1 by 1? (See Mancosu, 1996.)
Why Are These Historical-Epistemological Factors Relevant?

What does this brief history account tell us about the learning and teaching of the
concept of proof? It is still an open question whether the development of a mathematical
concept within an individual student or a community of students parallels the
development of that concept in the history of mathematics, though cases of parallel
developments have been documented (e.g., Sfard, 1995). If this is the case, one would
expect that the path of development would vary from culture to culture. Are there
common elements or phases to different paths of development across cultures? Did the
development of the concept of proof in, for example, China and India follow a similar
path to that of the Western world or was there a leap in time from using perceptual proof
schemes to modern axiomatic proof schemes? What are some of the salient social and
cultural aspects that might impact the trajectory of these paths? Independent of these
particular questions, whose treatment goes beyond the scope and goals of this paper,
considerations of historical accounts can evoke other research questions whose answers
can potentially direct the development and implementation of instructional treatments of
mathematical concepts and ideas. In what follows, we will discuss such questions about
the concept of mathematical proof evoked by the historical account outlined above.
Pre-Greek mathematics versus Greek mathematics.

The Greeks had likely constructed their deductive mathematics on the basis of the
mathematics of their predecessors, which was mainly empirical. This mere fact evokes a
pedagogical question as to the role of the empirical proof schemes in the development of
the deductive proof schemes. The empirical proof schemes are inevitable because
natural, everyday thinking utilizes examples so much. Moreover, these schemes have
value in the doing and the creating of mathematics. They are even indispensable in
enriching one’s images by creating examples and non-examples, which, in turn, can help
generate ideas and give insights. The question is how to help students utilize their
existing proof schemes, largely empirical and external, to help develop deductive proof
schemes? As a historian might ask what events—social, cultural, and intellectual—
necessitated the transition from pre-Greek mathematics to Greek mathematics, a
mathematics educator should ask what instructional interventions can bring students to
see a need to refine and alter their existing external and empirical proof schemes into
deductive proof schemes.
As was indicated, while pre-Greek mathematics was concerned merely with
actual physical entities, and its proving was governed by the empirical proof schemes,
Greek mathematics dealt with idealizations of spatial and quantitative realities and its
proving was deductive. There seems to be a cognitive and epistemological dependency
between the nature of the entities considered and the nature of proving applied. To what
extent and in what ways is the nature of the entities intertwined with the nature of
proving? For example, students’ ability to construct an image of a point as a
dimensionless geometric entity might impact their ability to develop the Greek axiomatic
proof scheme, and vice versa. As far as we know, this interdependency has not been
explicitly addressed and its implications for instruction have not been considered.
The motive for the Greeks’ construction of their geometric edifice, according to
the historical account presented earlier, was their desire to create a consistent system that
was free from paradoxes such as those of Zeno. For example, to avoid Zeno’s paradoxes
the Greeks based their geometric proofs strictly in the context of static concepts. What
does this tell us about how to help students see a need for the construction of a geometric
structure, particularly that of Euclid? What is the cognitive or social mechanism by
which deductive proving can be necessitated for the students?
Greek mathematics versus modern mathematics.

As was noted, in constructing their mathematics the Greeks had only one model in
mind—that of imageries of idealized physical and quantitative realities. Further, it is
these imageries that determined the axioms and postulates on which their geometric and
arithmetic edifices stood. In contrast, in modern mathematics entities can be quite
arbitrary and one’s images of these entities are governed by a set of axioms. This sharp
construct is best manifested by Euclid’s Elements, on the one hand, and Hilbert’s
Grundlagen, on the other: While the former is restricted to a single interpretation, the
Grundlagen is open to different realizations. Here too the question of intellectual
necessity for the transition from Greek mathematics to modern mathematics is of
profound pedagogical importance. Historians like Klein and others characterize this
transition as revolutionary: It marks a monumental conceptual change in humans’
mathematical ways of thinking. More research is needed to systematically document
these difficulties to better understand their nature and their implications for instruction.
Another critical difference between Greek mathematics and modern mathematics
has to do with form versus content. In Greek mathematics, the form of the proof could
not be completely detached from the content of the spatial or quantitative context. In
contrast, in modern mathematics proof is valid by virtue of its form alone. Here, too, we
know of no studies that document systematically students’ mathematical behaviors in
relation to these fundamental characteristics of Greek mathematics—when students learn
Euclidean geometry, for example, as compared to when they learn finite geometry as a
case of modern mathematics.
Post-Greek mathematics.
Symbolic algebra, which began with Vieta’s work, seems to have played a critical
role in the transition from Greek mathematics to modern mathematics, particularly in
relation to the reconceptualization of mathematical proof as a sequence of arguments
valid by virtue of their form, not content. In the new concept of proof, one would begin
with identities and by virtue of rules of symbolic definitional substitutions proceed
through a finite number of steps until the theorem is proved. With symbolic algebra,
mathematicians shifted their attention from results of operations (e.g., whether and how
an angle can be bisected or trisected) to the operations themselves (e.g., the underlying
difference between bisecting and trisecting an angle). A critical outcome of this shift was
the discovery that all Euclidean geometry problems can be solved by a single approach,
that of reducing the problems to equations and applying algebraic techniques to solve
them.
The role of symbolic algebra in the reconceptualization of mathematics in general
and of proof in particular raises a critical question about the role of symbolic
manipulation skills in students’ conceptual development of mathematics, in general, and
of proof schemes, in particular. Can students develop the modern conception of proof
without computational fluency? And in view of the increasing use of electronic
technologies in schools, particularly computer algebra systems, one should also ask:
Might these tools deprive students of—or, alternatively, provide students with—the
opportunity to develop algebraic manipulation skills that might be needed for the
development of advanced conception of proof? In addressing this question, it is
necessary, we believe, to distinguish between two kinds of symbolic proof schemes: non-
referential and referential. As we discussed earlier, in the former scheme, neither the
symbols nor the operations one performs on them represent a quantitative reality for the
students. Rather, students think of symbols and algebraic operations as if they possess a
life of their own without reference to their functional or quantitative meaning. By
contrast, in the symbolic referential proof scheme, to prove or refute an assertion or to
solve a problem, students learn to represent the statement algebraically and perform
symbol manipulations on the resulting expressions. The intention in these symbolic
representations and manipulations is to derive relevant information that deepens one’s
understanding of the statement, and that can potentially lead her or him to a proof or
refutation of the assertion or to a solution of the problem. In such an activity, one does
not necessarily form referential representations for each of the intermediate expressions
and relations that occur in the symbolic manipulation process, but has the ability to
attempt to do so in any stage in the process. It is only in critical stages—viewed as such
by the person who is carrying out the process—that one forms, or attempts to form, such
representations. This ability is potential rather than actual because in many cases the
attempt to form quantitative representations may not be successful. Nevertheless, a
significant feature of the referential symbolic proof scheme, which is absent from the
non-referential symbolic proof scheme, is that one possesses the ability to pause at will to
probe into the meaning (quantitative or geometric, for example) of the symbols.
Together with the emergence of symbolic algebra, a new conception of
mathematical entity, particularly that of number, began to emerge. A mathematical
entity, in this conception, is not necessarily dependent on its “natural” pre-scientific
experience but on its connection to other entities within a structure and its function within
that structure. For example, while the Greeks were highly selective in their choice of
numbers—they rejected irrational numbers, for example—the post-Greek mathematicians
began to accept them. This conceptual change was not without difficulty. For example,
some mathematicians of the 17th century rejected the utility of negative numbers, which
they viewed as symbols without real experiential referents. The conceptual attachment to
a context—whether it is the context of intuitive Euclidean space or that of R n —was
dubbed the contextual proof scheme. In this scheme, general statements, intended for
varying realities, are interpreted and proved in terms of a restricted context. The question
of the developmental inevitability of the contextual proof scheme has not been fully
addressed in mathematics education research. Some evidence exists to indicate that even
students in an advanced stage in their mathematical education have not developed this
scheme. For example, it has been shown that many mathematics majors enrolled in
advanced geometry courses have major difficulties dealing with any geometric structure
except the one corresponding to their spatial imageries, and that mathematics majors
enrolled in linear algebra courses interpret and justify general assertions about entities in
a general vector space in terms of R 2 and R 3 entities (Harel & Sowder, 1989, Harel,
1999). Such findings have major curricular implications. For example, they raise major
doubts as to the wisdom of the practice of starting off college geometry courses with
finite geometries or of introducing general vector spaces in the first course of linear
algebra.
The debate among philosophers during the Renaissance about the scientificness of
mathematics and the mathematics practice that ensued is of particular pedagogical
significance. As we have outlined, the question was whether the mathematical practice in
which “implication” is a mere logical consequence, rather than a demonstration of the
cause of the conclusion, is scientifically acceptable. This, in turn, raises questions about
the acceptability of proof by contradiction and proof by exhaustion. Were these issues of
marginal concern to the mathematicians of the 16th and 17th centuries, or had they been
significantly affected by it? To what extent did the practice of mathematics in the 16th
and 17th centuries reflect global epistemological positions that can be traced back to
Aristotle's specifications for perfect science? These are important questions, if we are to
draw a parallel between the individual's epistemology of mathematics and that of the
community. As noted by Mancosu (1996), this debate had a deep and profound impact
on the practice of mathematics during the 15th to 18th centuries. For example, the
practices of Cavalieri, Guldin, Descartes, and Wallis reflected a deep concern with these
issues by, for example, explicitly avoiding proofs by contradiction in order to conform to
the Aristotelian position on what constitutes perfect science. This history shows that the
modern conception of proof was born out of an intellectual struggle—a struggle in which
Aristotelian causality seems to have played a significant role. Is it possible that the
development of students’ conception of proof includes some of these epistemological
obstacles (in the sense of Brousseau, 1997)—obstacles that may be unavoidable, for they
are inherent to the meaning of concepts in relation to humans’ current schemes?
We conclude this section on the relevance of history and philosophy of
mathematics to the learning and teaching of proof with questions pertaining to the idea of
“genetic definitions”—mathematical definitions that utilize motion to generate
magnitudes—from the 17th century. As we have indicated, the use of such definitions
was viewed by some important mathematicians of the time to conform to the Aristotelian
epistemological position on the centrality of causality in science. Can this account for the
positive impact that dynamic geometry environments might have on advancing students’
proof schemes? What is exactly the conceptual basis for the relationship between motion
and causal proofs? In a later section we will report on several studies that have examined
this effect.
Functions of Proof
Earlier, in the second section, we described a portion of our taxonomy of proof
schemes. The discussion that followed brought up several other schemes that emerged in
the history of mathematics. In the rest of this section, we depict all the schemes
mentioned in this paper (Table 1) and discuss their functions within mathematics. This
list is not complete; we only depict those schemes that are needed for the discussion in
this paper (for the complete taxonomy, see Harel & Sowder, 1998).
Table 1
Proof Schemes
External Conviction Empirical Deductive
Authoritative Inductive Transformational
Ritual Perceptual Causality
Non-referential Greek axiomatic
Modern axiomatic
As we indicated earlier (see the second section), de Villiers (1999) built on the
work of others scholars—particularly Hanna (1990), Balacheff (1988), Bell (1976),
Hersh (1993)—to address important questions about the role of proof. Specifically, what
different functions does proof have within mathematics itself and how can these functions
be effectively utilized in the classroom to make proof a more meaningful activity? de
Villiers suggests that mathematical proof has six not mutually exclusive roles:
• verification
• explanation
• discovery
• systematization
• intellectual challenge
• communication
In what follows, we will show that all of these functions but one (intellectual challenge)
are describable in terms of the proof scheme construct. Some of the proof schemes used
to interpret these functions appeared in the taxonomy presented above. A description of
each—with our additions and modifications—follows.
Verification refers to the role of proof as a means to demonstrate the truth of an
assertion according to a predetermined set of rules of logic and premises—the axiomatic
proof scheme.
Explanation is different from verification in that for a mathematician it is usually
insufficient to know only that a statement is true. He or she is likely to seek insight into
why the assertion is true. We referred to this as the causality proof scheme.
Discovery refers to the situations where through the process of proving, new
results may be discovered. For example, one might realize that some of the statement
conditions can be relaxed, thereby generalizing the statement to a larger class of cases.
Or, conversely, through the proving process, one might discover counterexamples to the
assertion, which, in turn, would lead to a refinement of the assertion by adding necessary
restrictions that would eliminate counterexamples. Lakatos’ (1976) thought experiment
on the proof of Euler’s theorem for polyhedra best illustrates this process. In some cases
one may ask whether a certain axiom is needed to establish a certain result, or what form
the result would have if a certain axiom is omitted. We considered this as a case of the
axiomatizing proof scheme.
Systematization refers to the presentation of verifications in organized forms,
where each result is derived sequentially from previously established results, definitions,
axioms, and primary terms. This too is a case of the axiomatic proof scheme. The
difference between systematization and verification is in the extent of formality.
Communication refers to the social interaction about the meaning, validity, and
importance of the mathematical knowledge offered by the proof produced.
Communication can be viewed in the context of the two subprocesses that define
proving: ascertaining and persuading.
Intellectual challenge refers to the mental state of self-realization and fulfillment
one can derive from constructing a proof. As we mentioned earlier, this role does not
correspond to any of our proof schemes.
With the notion of proof scheme as an organizing concept—appended with these
functions—we will now present selected findings reported in the literature that pertain to
students’ conceptions of proof. Of course, we are unable to describe without speculation
most of these findings in terms of the proof scheme construct, because these studies had
not been conceptualized or designed with our proof scheme construct in mind. However,
as we will see, much can be said about these research findings in relation to proof
schemes.
Cognitive Factors: A Literature Review of Status Studies with Interpretations in Terms

of Students’ Proof Schemes
Examining student performance in an area of mathematics is a natural first step in
judging whether curricular and teaching efforts in that area seem to be adequate and not
to require any special attention. Hence, we first look at several status studies of proof
performance. We interpret the results in terms of the (apparent) proof schemes involved
in the results, following the proof schemes focus of this chapter. The first two parts of
this section will report, respectively, on precollege and college students’ conceptions of
proof. The findings provide evidence that the pervasive proof schemes among the two
populations of students are those belonging to the external conviction proof scheme class
and the empirical proof scheme class.
With the deductive proof scheme playing a significant role in mathematics, there
is also relevant information from examining performance in logical inferences—a critical
characteristic of this scheme. Any description of mathematical proof, the ultimate in
justification, will include some mention of logical inferencing ability. Someone not
versed in, for example, the mathematical meaning of an “if…, then….” statement, or who
is not comfortable with reasoning patterns like modus tollens, or who does not understand
quantified statements and the role of a counterexample, or who cannot deal correctly at
some stage with negating “…and…” and “…or…” statements, or who cannot explain the
logic of an indirect proof, surely cannot carry out or even understand many mathematical
proofs (including disproofs). Hence logical inferencing ability is a basic tool for the
process of proving in mathematics and likely enters also into many justifications of a less
sophisticated sort. But logic is central to the deductive proof schemes. For example, the
transformational proof scheme, which constitutes the essence of the proving process in
mathematics and is expected to develop with at least college-bound students and
mathematics major students, should be present in students’ mathematical behavior. As
we have discussed earlier, “logical inference” is one of the three essential characteristics
of this scheme. A third part of this section will include findings reported in the literature
that seem germane to the characteristics of these deductive proof schemes.
Status Studies: Precollege Students
NAEP studies
A first place to look for data is the periodic National Assessment of Educational
Progress in the United States [NAEP], involving, typically, students at ages 9, 13, and 17
(and now reported by grade: 4, 8, and 12). The wide geographic sampling and the large
sample sizes, usually many thousands of students, in a NAEP indicates the U.S. picture,
which can be further checked with smaller studies and contrasted with studies outside the
U.S. For our purposes, however, one limitation of the NAEP has been that only a few
items on proof or logic can be included, because of the scope of the tests. Another
limitation is that since all the NAEP questions considered here are multiple-choice items,
it is difficult to pinpoint the actual reasoning students employed in answering them.
In the planning stage, the first NAEP mathematics assessment (1972-1973)
included mathematical proof and logic as objectives to be evaluated, although only a few
items tested these areas (Carpenter, Coburn, Reys, & Wilson, 1978, p. 10). Later NAEPs
used different designs for setting objectives to be tested. The fourth NAEP (1985-1986),
for example, included items testing “mathematical methods,” with a few intended to
include “a general understanding of the nature of proof and axiomatic systems, and logic”
(Carpenter, 1989, p. 3). Analysts of the results concluded that “most 11th-grade students
demonstrated little understanding of the nature and methods of mathematical
argumentation and proof” (Silver & Carpenter, 1989, p. 11), citing results on items
requiring the recognition of counterexamples (with success rates of 31%-39%—see
Figure 1 for two items), on items testing understanding of the terms “axiom” and
“theorem” (fewer that one-fourth and about half correct, respectively), and on items
dealing with an undisclosed but “straightforward” item on indirect proof (about one-third
correct) and mathematical induction (similar results) ( pp. 17-18). Even when only those
students who had taken geometry were considered, results were just slightly better than
those for students who had taken mathematics only through first-year algebra. The
overall performance led the analysts to conclude that “the generally poor performance on
these items dealing with proof and proof-related methods suggests the extent to which
students’ experiences in school mathematics, even for students in college-preparatory
courses, may often fail to acquaint them with the fundamental nature and methods of the
discipline” (p. 18).
A. Larry says that n2 > n for all real numbers. Of the following, which value of n shows
the statement to be FALSE?
-1/2 (23%) 0 (29%) 1/10 (39%) 1 (9%) (9% not responding)
B. Jim says, “If a 4-sided figure has all equal sides, it is a square.” Which figure might
be used to prove that Jim is wrong?
(15%) (31%) (24%) (31%)
(46% not responding)

Fig. 1. Sample NAEP items involving recognition of a counterexample (percents

of those responding are in parentheses (after Silver & Carpenter, 1989, p. 17). Note:
Percents may total more than 100 because of rounding.
The test framework for the sixth NAEP (in 1992) did not focus specific attention
on proof and logic items. But in commenting on performances on geometry items, the
analysts (Strutchens & Blume, 1997, ch. 7) noted that many results could be explained by
assuming that the students were basing their responses on the appearances in drawings—
the perceptual proof scheme—rather than through reasoning. For example, when asked
to choose from a set of triangles one that did not have a particular property, only 21% of
the students made the correct choice (p. 180), but when asked whether four given
statements applied to an illustrated construction of an angle bisector, 51% were correct on
all four, leading the analysts to write, “Often a figure can foster correct reasoning….”
(pp. 181-182).
Seventy-seven percent of the Grade 8 students, however, were successful at
recognizing a counterexample to a false statement about quadrilaterals. It is interesting to
note that the first NAEP (1972-1973) included a multiple-choice item on logic that
involved recognizing the logical equivalent of “All good drivers are alert.” Only about
one-half of the 17-year-olds, 11th graders, chose the correct alternative (“A person who is
not alert is not a good driver”). The analysts for those NAEP results noted, however,
“The logic exercises were probably answered as much by the semantic context of the
problems as by any knowledge of logic” (Carpenter et al., 1978, pp. 126-127). This is in
line with the earlier observation that proof schemes can vary from context to context.
Overall, then, the limited picture about proof understanding from the NAEPs is
that at best only a small percent of high school students are equipped to deal effectively
with the deductive proof schemes, with most apparently relying on the empirical proof
schemes.
Other status studies in the U. S.

Studies in which justification and proof have been foci are perhaps more telling
than the limited messages from the NAEPs. Some have been large-scale studies and
hence are particularly significant. For example, Senk’s (1985) study involved 1520 U.S.
geometry students in 74 classes in 11 high schools in 5 states within a month of the end
of the course. After items in which the student was asked to supply missing reasons or
statements, each student was asked to give four proofs, with the first two requiring only
one deduction beyond those from the given information, as in the example in Figure 2
(72% correct). But only 32% could prove the textbook theorem, The diagonals of a
rectangle are congruent.
A F
G
1 2
B C D E
Given: BD ≅ EC
∠1≅∠2
∠B≅∠E
Prove: AB ≅ EF
Fig. 2. A sample geometry proof item from Senk’s study (1985, p. 451).
The overall results were dismaying for the course in the U. S. in which deductive
proof schemes should be expected to develop: “[The] data suggest that approximately 30
percent of the students in full-year geometry courses that teach proof reach a 75-percent
mastery level in proof writing….29 percent of the sample could not write a single valid
proof” (Senk, 1985, p. 453). At the time, about half of high school graduates took a
course in geometry, so it is interesting to speculate about what more recent performances
might be, when roughly 80% of U. S. high schoolers take geometry (U. S. Department of
Education, 2000, p. 122).
Other, smaller studies in the U.S. have also involved students in geometry or later
courses, since virtually all formal work with proof has traditionally been introduced in the
geometry course (9th or 10th year is most common). But, for example, the interviewees in
Tinto’s (1988) study felt that proof was used only to verify facts that they already
knew—an antithesis to the discovery or explanation functions of proof discussed earlier.
Thompson’s study (1991) is of special interest since her subjects were all
advanced students taking the last course of a curriculum targeting university-bound
students and emphasizing reasoning and proof as a major strand. Yet Thompson
expressed concern about the number of students who “proved” a statement by providing a
specific example—a manifestation of the inductive proof scheme, and only about one-
third of her subjects could find a counterexample to a number theory statement (For all
integers a and b, if a2 is divisible by b then a is divisible by b), in a “prove or disprove”
context. Thompson also referred to the “enormous difficulty that students had with
indirect proof” (1991, p. 23), with only 3% able to complete one indirect proof (that the
sum of a rational number and an irrational number is an irrational number). Difficulties
with indirect proof could well be related to the earlier discussion of the causal proof
scheme.
Knuth, Slaughter, Choppin, and Sutherland (2002) found that 70% of roughly 350
students in grades 6-8 used examples (the empirical proof scheme) in justifying the truth
of two statements (show that the sum of two consecutive numbers is always an odd
number; show that when you add any two even numbers, your answer is always even, p.
1696). Only a few students attempted general arguments. On a more positive note,
across grade levels, the students did show an increasing sensitivity to adhering to a given
definition.
Since the focus of these studies was proof performance, they provide even more
striking evidence than the NAEP studies did, that most U. S. students, even those in
college-preparatory programs, do not seem to utilize deductive proof schemes.
Status studies outside the U. S.

Another large-scale study of student performance in justification and proof shows
that weak performance and reliance on less mature proof schemes is not solely a U.S.
phenomenon. Healy and Hoyles (1998, 2000) conducted a study involving 2459 English
and Welsh 14-15 year-olds (finishing ninth graders in 94 classes in 90 schools). That the
students were in the top 20%-25% on a national test is noteworthy, as is the fact that the
English-Welsh national curriculum gives attention to conjecturing and
explaining/justifying conclusions and is also, in U.S. terms, integrated with attention to
both algebra and geometry, so presumably the items were reasonable for those grade 9
students. The students were asked to describe what proof means and what it is for, and to
judge given proofs, as well as to decide on the truth or falsity and to construct their own
proofs for two algebra and two geometry items. Over a quarter of these able students had
little or no sense of the purpose of proof or its meaning (2000, pp. 417-418). The average
score on the constructed-proof items was less than half the maximum, with 14%-62% of
the students, depending on the item, not even able to start a proof (1998, p. 2). Of those
able to start a proof, 28%-56% could proceed only minimally (1998, p. 2). It is
comforting that the students were better at selecting correct proofs, favoring general
arguments and clear and explanatory arguments that they found convincing (1998, p. 3).
When the stated purpose was to get the best mark, however, the students often felt that
more formal—e.g., algebraic—arguments might be preferable to their first choices (1998,
p. 3). We interpret this last finding as an indication of the authoritarian proof scheme and
the ritual proof scheme, in that in the eyes of these students proof must have a certain
appearance (ritual) as determined by the teacher (authority).
It is interesting that, in the large, the findings of this study are consistent with
those of Coe and Ruthven (1994), who looked at the proof performances of a much
smaller group of “advanced level” British students in university preparation schools, on a
project for an end-of-course assessment. These students, like those in the Healy and
Hoyles study, relied predominantly on examples and techniques for analyzing numerical
data, but showed little feel for the purposes of proof. Sample items from Healy and
Hoyles’ and Coe and Ruthven’s studies are presented in Figure 3.
Prove whether the following statements are true or

false. Write down your answer in the way that
Proof or disproof would get you the best mark you can.
construction (Healy &
Hoyles, 1998) 1. When you add any 2 odd numbers, your answer
is always even.
2. If p and q are any two odd numbers, (p + q)x(p –

q) is always a multiple of 4.
Any four-digit number is rewritten with its digits

arranged in ascending and descending order of size.
The smaller is then subtracted from the larger and
“Starting point” item the process is repeated.
(Coe & Ruthven, 1994. Example: 7345 gives 7543 – 3457 = 4086
p. 46) 4086 gives 8640 – 0468 = 8172
Then write 7543–>8640–>8721–>…
Complete this chain and then try again with other
four-digit numbers.
Now try with 3 or 5 or 6 or n digits.
Fig. 3: Sample proof items (adapted from Healy & Hoyles (1998, 2000) and Coe &
Ruthven (1994)).
An older study by Reynolds (reported in Lovell, 1971) also examined proof ideas
held by British students. Most revealing were the responses of 153 6th formers (final
year of secondary school) in mathematics, with about 20% endorsing 16 examples as
establishing a given statement—a manifestation of the empirical proof scheme. On the
other hand, about 70% of these 6th-formers could complete an indirect argument
involving a geometric situation (to show the inequality of a pair of alternate interior
angles in a drawing with non-parallel lines) that had been started (p. 75), in contrast to the
very weak (3%) performance of Thompson’s (1991) U. S. students mentioned above.
Still other studies outside the U.S. also indicate difficulties with certain proof
ideas. Galbraith (1981) studied the conceptions of proof held by 12-17-year-old
Australian students, most of whom were 13-15 years old. He found that 28% of 130
responses indicated a lack of understanding of what a given counterexample told one
about a given statement. On another problem, only 18% of his 73 students felt that one
counterexample was sufficient to disprove a conjecture. In commenting on how many
counterexamples are sufficient, one student even suggested “’Sometimes one is enough
and sometimes it isn’t’” (p. 19). The confusion about the role of examples in direct
proofs versus in indirect proofs versus in disproofs is consistent with our own findings
(Harel & Sowder, 1998), a phenomenon we accounted for in terms of students’ empirical
proof scheme. Many students in Galbraith’s study were guided by their mental pictures
of what a geometric term suggested rather than a given definition, and relied on just one
diagram without considering other possibilities (p. 23)—a clear manifestation of the
perceptual proof scheme
Porteous (1986, 1990) gave questionnaires to about 400 British students, ages 11-
16, and interviewed 50 of them. From the questionnaires, he found that more than 40%
of the responses endorsed completely a generalization on the basis of examples only, and
only about 10% then offered proofs on their own when asked to explain their decisions
(1990, p. 591). Furthermore, 83% of those not offering a proof initially claimed to
understand a given proof of an assertion, but only 61% of all the students, including the
ones offering a proof on their own, were sure that the author was correct about the
assertion after seeing a proof (1996, p. 8). From the students’ reactions to given proofs,
Porteous concluded that “It is only when a pupil devises a proof for himself that he is
convinced of the truth of a statement. A proof provided by a teacher may have some
effect, but it is small in comparison with a d(i)scovered proof…we need to encourage
pupils to investigate relationships for themselves, in order to produce their own reasons,
or proof, for general statements. This is not to say, of course, that empirical work has no
real part to play in the learning process” (1996, pp. 21-22).
Williams (1980) interviewed 11th grade Canadian students in a college
preparatory program and concluded that fewer than 30% showed a grasp of the meaning
of mathematical proof, that about half of the students saw no need to prove a statement
that they regarded as obvious, roughly 70% did not distinguish between inductive and
deductive arguments, and fewer than 20% understood how indirect proof works.
Spanish researchers Recio and Godino (2001) conducted a study involving two
groups (n = 429 and n = 193) of beginning university students. They found that about a
third of the 429 students and less than a quarter of the 193 students could prove both of
two elementary statements (the difference between the squares of consecutive natural
numbers is odd and equal to the sum of the numbers, and the bisectors of adjacent
supplementary angles are perpendicular). Also, fewer than half of the group of 429 were
successful on each individual proof. Roughly 40% used empirical reasoning: “Empirical
inductive [proof] schemes were the spontaneous type of argumentation in a high
percentage of students when they were confronted with new problems, in which it was
necessary to develop new proof strategies, different from the learned procedures” (p. 91).
In Israel, Fischbein and Kedem (1982) found that their high school students did
not appear to understand that no further examples need be checked, once a proof was
given, a finding confirmed by Vinner (1983), who also noted that many high school
students (35%), even high attaining ones (39%), seem to regard a given proof as the
method to examine and verify a later particular case.
Similar results were found in a recent Japanese study (cited in Fujita & Jones,
2003). The official curriculum of Japan calls for students to “understand the significance
and methodology of proof.” However, even though most 14 to 15 year old students are
successful at proof writing, “around 70% cannot understand why proofs are needed” (p.
9).
Internationally, overall the most positive conclusion seems to be that the proof
glass is not completely empty but that it is by no means even close to full. Even “good”
performances may be tainted by little understanding or appreciation of the functions of
proof. The prevalence of empirical proof schemes for most students seems to be
international.
Status Studies: University Students

One might expect that university students would perform better than secondary
students on proof activities. As the Recio and Godino (2001) study indicated, however,
performance is disappointingly low in many entering university students. There are only
a few formal studies that have examined university students’ later conceptions of proof.
In one example, up to 80% of prospective elementary school teachers derived the truth of
a general statement from examples (Goetting, 1995), confirming a result by Martin and
Harel (1989) about the pervasiveness of the empirical proof scheme among students.
Martin and Harel had emphasized proof in their course for prospective elementary school
teachers (who had had geometry in high school) and then asked them to judge whether
particular arguments were mathematical proofs for a statement covered and proved in the
course (If the sum of the digits of a whole number is divisible by 3, then the number is
divisible by 3) or an unfamiliar one (If a divides b, and b divides c, then a divides c).
The arguments were either inductive (based on specific instances) or deductive
(assertions via general statements). More than half of the 101 students considered
inductive arguments to be mathematical proofs. As many as half of these college
students also accepted a false deductive argument as being a mathematical proof,
apparently reacting to the appearance of the argument—indicating the dominance of the
ritual proof scheme—and over a third found both inductive and deductive arguments to
be acceptable mathematical proofs. Morris (2002) echoed this last result, with 40% of
her pre-service teachers affirming that both inductive and deductive arguments assured
certainty and failing to distinguish between the two types of arguments.
But prospective elementary teachers are often not very sophisticated in
mathematics, so one might expect majors in technical fields, especially mathematics
majors, to perform much better in proof settings. Such is the case, but only for some
students, judging from anecdotes from university mathematics faculty. Furthermore,
there are studies that point out areas of weakness, usually with small numbers of students.
For example, case studies show that although some students may possess the
transformational proof scheme, others seem to enter—and leave—university with little or
limited abilities with, and views of, proof, mostly demonstrating external and empirical
proof schemes (Sowder & Harel, 2003).
For some university students, even recognizing whether a given argument
constitutes a proof cannot be taken as a given. In interviews, Selden and Selden (2003)
asked their eight mathematics majors to judge whether four given mathematical
arguments were valid, with only one of the arguments valid. The students performed
only at a 46% correct level with their first judgments but did improve to 81% correct by
the end of the interview with their fourth judgments, with the Seldens crediting the
improvement to the added experience and reflection during the interview. Although the
study did not examine long-term effects, it suggests that repeated validating activities
may be a valuable growth opportunity.
Knowledge about what factors are important in devising proofs is limited. In an
expert-novice study, with four graduate students in mathematics as the experts and four
undergraduates as the novices, Weber (2001) noticed that “an understanding of
mathematical proof and a syntactic knowledge of the facts of a domain are not sufficient
for one to be a competent theorem prover” (p. 107); experts have what Weber calls
“strategic knowledge,” knowledge that undergraduates do not exhibit—knowledge of the
domain’s proof techniques (p. 111), knowledge of which theorems are important and
when they are useful (p. 112), and knowledge of when, and when not, to use strategies
based on symbol manipulation rather than deeper knowledge (p. 113). In a similar vein,
Raman’s (2003) interviews of mathematics students and faculty suggested the importance
of a “key idea”—“an heuristic idea which one can map to a formal proof with appropriate
sense of rigor” (p. 323). She concluded, “For mathematicians, proof is essentially about
key ideas; for many students, it is not” (p. 324). In expert-novice studies, one often does
not know how the experts acquired their expertise (or whether there is a selection factor
involved), but knowing what differences exist may give ideas for instructional emphases.
But in questioning university mathematics faculty about university mathematics majors’
proof understanding, a “twice is nice” theme emerged: Exposure to the same material
twice allows the student, on the second exposure, to focus on proof methods (Sowder,
2004). Perhaps these second exposures are helpful in attaining other aspects of Weber’s
strategic knowledge and Raman’s key ideas, and in growing in deductive proof schemes.
Marty (1991) felt that his explicit attention to proof methods, rather than the common
focus on new mathematical content, helped his college students succeed in later
mathematics courses.
University students’ distinctions among axioms, definitions, and theorems are not
sharp. Vinner (1977), for example, found that only about half of a group of Berkeley
sophomores and juniors in mathematics could correctly identify all of three statements
about exponents as definitions, as opposed to theorems or laws or axioms. Since much of
algebra focuses on algorithms and these students had first studied the material in high
school, perhaps the lack of such distinctions is expected. Yet, when Brumfiel (1973)
questioned a class of University of Michigan juniors and seniors, nearly all of whom had
complete a university course in formal geometry, he found that their mastery of similar
distinctions were shockingly deficient. For example, collectively the students could
recall only one axiom (two points determine a line), about half called a definition of
isosceles triangle a theorem, and all were certain that, for two (given) independent
postulates about points and lines, one could be deduced from the other. In Israel,
Linchevsky, Vinner, and Karsenty (1992) found that only about one-fourth of their
university mathematics majors understood that it is possible to have alternate definitions
for concepts. These studies speak to about-proof topics. But about-proof topics cannot
be mastered without understanding the proof topics themselves. In this case the topics in
question involve the meaning and role of axioms and definitions. These studies, then,
suggest a weak, or even absent, axiomatic proof scheme among mathematics majors—an
observation that is consistent with findings of our study with mathematics majors (Harel
& Sowder, 1998).
Findings Germane to the Transformational Proof Scheme

Recall that the deductive proof scheme class consists of two schemes: the
transformational proof scheme and the axiomatic proof scheme. The former is a special
case of, and a conceptual prerequisite for, the former. The research findings we have just
reported paint a gloomy picture as to the quality of students’ proof schemes. The failure
of mathematics instruction to help many students—even college-bound students and
mathematics majors—construct the transformational proof scheme is evidenced in these
reports. In this section we provide a closer look at the characteristics of the

transformational proof scheme, particularly the deduction process characteristic.
As was defined earlier, the transformational proof scheme has three
characteristics: generality, operational thought, and logical inference. As the language
may suggest, our definition of the transformational proof scheme naturally draws one to
Piaget’s theory of intellectual developmental (for example, Inhelder & Piaget, 1958).
Battista and Clements (1992) focused on Piagetian thought in their discussion of proof in
an earlier handbook (pp. 439-440), identifying three levels of justification/proof, with the
third level being marked by the student being “capable of formal, deductive reasoning
based on any assumptions” (p. 439)—the generality characteristic—whereas at the
second level, the student’s reasoning has an empirical reality, with the student not
realizing that an argument may cover all cases. The third level of thinking is often
identified with Piaget’s “formal operational” level—the operational thought
characteristic. Although the nominal approximate age for the development of formal
operational thought is early adolescence and there are different aspects of formal
operational thought (e.g., proportional thinking, ability to control variables, propositional
logic), studies suggest that many high school and college students have not reached the
formal operational level in some areas important in mathematics. For example, Lawson,
Karplus, and Adi (1978) gave tasks in several areas, including propositional logic (one
such item is Task 1 in Figure 4), to students at grades 6, 8, 10, 12, and 13-14. They found
“the lack of clear and substantial improvement with age for the propositional logic
items,” with percents correct by grade on the Task 1 item being 1.0%, 2.1%, 10.1%,
12.0%, and 16.2% (p. 469). A study of 16-year-old English students found that only 30%
tested at a level consistent with formal operational thought (cited in Adey, 1999). It
appears that it is risky to assume that logical reasoning at a high level develops
automatically in the course of schooling, whether within or outside mathematical
contexts.
Psychologists other than Piaget have examined logical thinking for many years,
with especially fascinating work done during the last thirty years (for example, Evans,
1982; Rips, 1994; Wason & Johnson-Laird, 1972). More recently, Johnson-Laird (2001)
has observed that “deductive reasoning is under intense investigation. The field is fast
moving and controversial” (p. 441), with at least some of the controversy coming from
different hypothesized mechanisms of reasoning for selected tasks. There does not,
however, seem to be controversy about the following findings. Performance on logical
inferences involving modus ponens is usually reasonably good, but performance on those
tasks involving modus tollens is weak, as is a full understanding of inferences involving
if-then statements. Students are too willing to use invalid inference patterns like
affirming the consequent (i.e., “if p then q” and “q” yielding “p”). In general, humans do
not seem to process negative statements as facilely as affirmative ones, and context is an
extremely important variable in performance on deductive reasoning tasks (Wason &
Johnson-Laird, 1972). Figure 4, for example, gives logically isomorphic tasks on which
the success rates of adults are strikingly different. Only 2 out of 24 (about 8%) of the
respondents correctly identified the two cases that must be considered for Task 1, but
88% did so on Task 2 (reported in Wason & Johnson-Laird, 1972). Thus, our discussion
here focuses primarily on findings and studies dealing with logic in mathematical
settings, calling on known work from psychology when it seems particularly pertinent.
Task 1. Given four envelopes with a Task 2. Given four envelopes with a
letter on the front side and a number on space for a stamp on one side and
the back, select just the envelopes sealed or not, select just the envelopes
definitely needed to be turned over to definitely need to be turned over to find
find out whether they violate the out whether they violate the rule.
rule.Separate envelopes show on front:
D and C, and on back: 5 and 4. Envelopes show
(a) back of sealed envelope;
(b) unsealed envelope with flap up;
(c) front of an envelope with stamp;
(d) front of an unstamped envelope.
Rule to test: If a letter has a D on one
side, then it has a 5 on the other side. Rule to test: If a letter is sealed, then it
Percent correct (D, 4): 8% has a 5 pence stamp on it.Percent
correct (a, d): 88%
Figure 4. Two logically isomorphic tasks with “abstract” [Task 1] and “concrete”
[Task 2] contexts (after Wason & Johnson-Laird, 1972, pp. 191-192).
Although our focus is mainly on studies dealing directly with mathematics, one
sobering study involving everyday contexts deserves special note, because some of the
data come from prospective secondary school mathematics teachers. Using items from
Eisenberg and McGinty (1974), Easterday and Galloway (1995) compared the
performance of last-year university students planning to teach middle school or high
school mathematics with those of 7-8th graders and 12th graders on a variety of reasoning
tasks. The tasks were based on everyday contexts that should be non-suggestive (e.g., “If
John is big, then Jane is big. John is big. Is Jane big? Yes/no/maybe”). In particular, on
modus tollens tasks, the college students scored 47%, about the same as the 12th grade
calculus students but 20% less than the 7-8th graders' 67%. These particular 7-8th graders
were studying geometry and may therefore have been exposed to logic, but an earlier
comparison in 1986 with 7-8th graders in advanced sections had given a similar result,
with the 7-8th graders scoring 62% and the college students only 40% on the modus
tollens tasks (Easterday & Galloway, 1995, p. 433). The authors concluded, “College
students are barely performing better than children whom they may one day teach” (p.
435), and neither group was by any means topping out in performance.
There seem to be only a few data on students’ abilities with specific ideas from
logic and within mathematics. Mentioned earlier were the limited results from NAEP,
and there the picture was clouded by the use of a non-mathematical context. The large-
scale Longitudinal Proof Project in England has, however, looked at students’
performance on if-then statements involving number theory ideas (Hoyles & Kuchemann,
2002). Among their findings was that 62% of 14-year-olds thought that a given if-then
statement (for example, if the product of two numbers is odd, then the sum of the
numbers is even) “said the same thing” as its converse. However, the longitudinal nature
of the study also allowed Hoyles and Kuchemann to find a 7% improvement on this item
over that of the same students at age 13. (In passing, it may be worth noting that so many
theorems, especially in geometry, do have true converses, so it is easy to see how
students may be insensitive to the logical difference between an if-then statement and its
converse.)
Even advanced students have difficulty with quantifiers. Dubinsky and Yiparaki
(2000) found that university students at various levels, including some in an abstract
algebra course, had much greater trouble giving the mathematical meaning of a doubly
quantified statement when the existential quantifier appeared before the universal
quantifier (“There is a positive number b such that for every positive number a b ≤ a”—
19% correct) than when the quantifiers were reversed, universal before existential (“For
every positive number a there is a positive number b such that b < a”—59%). Selden and
Selden (1995) noted that university mathematics students may have difficulties in even
restating mathematical statements precisely, with their largely third- and fourth-year
students often giving incorrect responses when quantifiers were involved. Thus, although
there may be areas of apparent strength in the use of logic (for example, the use of modus
ponens), there appear to be many areas of weakness as well, and at a wide gamut of
levels of schooling.
An important point is that everyday usage of logical expressions may differ
considerably from the precise usage in mathematics. Epp (2003) has summarized the
differences in a compelling way, and O’Brien, Shapiro, and Reali (1971) have referred to
“child’s logic” in describing some of the differences. For example, “or” in everyday
usage is most often in the exclusive sense (“I’ll wear my sandals or my tennis shoes”), in
contrast with the inclusive convention common in mathematics. An everyday if-then
statement (for example, “If you finish your work, then you can watch the game”) often
connotes what would be an if-and-only-if statement in mathematics and to many children
seems to be an “and” statement. The disparities between everyday usages and
mathematical usages are so marked that explicit instruction in logic as used in
mathematics would seem to be necessary, with contrasts to the less precise everyday
usages pointed out, yet, as Epp contends (2003), perhaps exploiting non-mathematical
usages that do reflect the mathematically precise ones, as exemplars for the latter.
Another interesting disparity between everyday usage and mathematical usage is
that of indirect proof. According to Freudenthal (1973) indirect proof is a very common
activity. Seven to eight year old children used contradiction in game playing and
checking conjectures (Reid & Dobbin, 1998). Antonini (2003) even found that indirect
argumentations occurred spontaneously by students in his interviews with them about
mathematical assertions. Yet research has shown that students experience difficulties
with proof by contradiction in mathematics. Leron (1985), for example, observed that
despite the simple and elegant form of certain proofs by contradiction, students
experience what seem insurmountable difficulties. Lin, Lee, and Wu Yu (2003) see the
ability to negate a statement as a prerequisite ability for succeeding at a proof by
contradiction. They found that the difficulty levels of students’ negating a statement can
be ordered decreasingly as negating statements without quantifiers, negating “some,”
negating “all,” and negating “only one.”
In general, then, there are many weak spots in students’ likely grasp of the logical
reasoning used in advanced proof schemes. Is it a chicken-egg question, or can logical
thinking and proof performance grow together? Later in this section we summarize
several studies in which explicit instruction in logical principles was incorporated into
high school geometry courses.
Instructional-Social-Cultural Factors: Evidence Pointing to Curriculum and Instruction

Students’ instructional history is without question an important variable in
studying their performance in justification/proof settings. Hoyles (1997), in particular,
makes a compelling case that studies of advanced learners’ performance are relatively
meaningless without knowing what curricula (and what teaching emphases) they have
received. Two important dimensions of instructional history are the curriculum and the
teaching. We begin with studies of teaching and teachers, giving some evidence of the
delivered curricula. Following this, we review a few studies that highlight the vast
differences in curricula, primarily the intended curricula as evidenced by national or
regional guides. The earlier report of several status studies of students’ performance have
given a glimpse of the learned curricula. We then attend to some studies that give
evidence of what might be achieved through revised curricula and teaching, as delivered
by teachers with a different perspective on teaching, with the section including a review
of a few studies that show the possibilities offered by technology. We conclude with
several studies that have focused explicitly on logic as a vital component for what we call
the deductive proof schemes.
Current Status
Teachers and teaching.

The emphasis that teachers place on justification and proof no doubt plays an
important role in shaping students’ proof schemes. “You get what you teach” is a
common aphorism, and the intended curriculum may differ markedly from the delivered
curriculum, especially across classrooms. The essentiality of opportunity to learn must
be recognized not only at the intended curriculum level but also in the teachers’ enacted
curriculum. Yet, a study involving 62 mathematics and science teachers in 18 high
schools in six states allowed Porter (1993) to note that for the mathematics teachers, “On
average, no instructional time is allocated to students learning to develop proofs, not even
in geometry” (p. 4).
Results on items allied to the areas of justification and proof in the 1996 NAEP
mathematics assessment indicate not only that students perform much worse on items
requiring explanation and justification, but also that at grade 8, the students of teachers
who devote more time to “developing reasoning and analytical ability to solve unique
problems” have noticeably higher overall scores than other students (Silver & Kenney,
2000). The importance of the role of the teacher (and the curriculum) in fostering
justification and proof is further highlighted by the videotape study in the Third
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), in which 30 eighth-grade
sessions in each of Germany, Japan, and the U.S. were analyzed. The report reaches the
following conclusion.
The most striking finding in this review of 90 classes was the rarity of explicit
mathematical reasoning in the classes. The almost total absence of explicit
mathematical reasoning in Algebra and Before Algebra courses raises serious
questions about the ways in which those subjects are taught. In order for these
courses to help introduce students to mathematical ways of knowing, some of the
logical foundations of mathematical knowledge should be explicit. Of course, the
total absence of any instances of inductive or deductive reasoning in the analyzed
United States classes cries out for curriculum developers to address this aspect of
learning mathematics. (Manaster, 1998, p. 803)
It should be clear that only an authoritarian proof scheme is likely to be fostered in these
classrooms.
Despite Porter’s (1993) finding of little attention to proof in high school, one
would certainly expect more explicit attention to proof in the mathematics at those grade
levels where proof most often is a conscious part of the curriculum. Senk (1985) noted,
however, that there were consistent differences across schools in the geometry students’
performances on her proof tasks. Tinto (1988) too noted that one of her four teachers
seemed markedly different from the others in his approach to geometry. In their large-
scale study of proof in British classrooms, Healy and Hoyles (1998) found that students
who had been expected to write proofs and who had classes in which proof was taught as
a separate topic performed somewhat better on proof items than other students.
Thompson (1991), on the other hand, did not notice differences across her nine teachers
and schools; her sample, however, included three private schools and two magnet schools
and so was perhaps not representative. Overall, it appears that at least some of the
deficiencies in students’ acquisition of more sophisticated proof schemes may stem from
the lack of opportunity to engage in proof-fostering activities, even in courses where one
would expect much attention to proof.
The evidence from the status studies of university students’ proof knowledge
suggests that some, if not many, precollege teachers are unlikely to teach proof well,
perhaps because their own grasp of proof was probably limited in college and may not
have grown since then. Knuth (2002a) examined the conceptions of proof of 16
practicing secondary school mathematics teachers, most with backgrounds that would
pass a face-validity test for knowledge of mathematics. In interview settings, Knuth
asked the teachers to respond to general questions about proof (e.g., What purpose does
proof serve in mathematics?), to evaluate given arguments (both proofs and non-proofs),
and to identify the arguments that were most convincing. Although all of the teachers
endorsed the verification role of proof, none mentioned the explanatory role of proof (see
the section on the concept of proof scheme). Six of the 16 thought it might be possible to
find contradictory evidence of a (non-specified) statement that had been proved. Four of
the 16 tested a statement with a given, endorsed proof with further examples (cf.
Fischbein & Kedem, 1982), even though all of the teachers eventually acknowledged that
it would not be possible to find a counterexample. Even though the teachers collectively
correctly identified 93% of the correct arguments as being proofs, over a third of the non-
proof arguments were rated as being proofs! Ten of the 16 accepted the proof of the
converse of one statement as a proof of the statement. Thirteen of the 16 teachers found
arguments based on examples or visual presentations to be most convincing. Although
Knuth felt that their responses may have been directed toward personally-convincing
rather than mathematically-convincing, that mathematics teachers would be convinced by
such arguments more than by a mathematical proof is significant, because it reveals an
apparent dominance of the empirical proof schemes among the teachers. Knuth (2002b)
further examined these teachers’ ideas about proof in the context of school mathematics
(versus the earlier just-in-mathematics). In view of the NCTM (2000) recommendation
that reasoning and proof be considered fundamental aspects of the study of mathematics
at all levels of study, it is disappointing that the teachers in Knuth's study “…tended to
view proof as an appropriate goal for the mathematics education of a minority of

students” (2002b, p. 83), with 14 not considering proof to be a central concern in school
mathematics. And, to repeat, none even explicitly mentioned the explanatory role of a
proof, although seven did mention its verification role—that a proof shows why a
statement is true. Thirteen regarded the development of logical thinking or reasoning as
the primary role of proof in school mathematics. Yet, the teachers did not completely
reject justifications, but were willing to rely on informal “proofs” (e.g., examples and
drawings) to support results, a practice that may mislead students into thinking that such
are acceptable mathematical “proofs,” and reinforcing the acceptability of their empirical
proof schemes.
Curricula.
That mathematics curricula differ in their treatments of proof is by no means a
recent phenomenon. For example, in his study of students’ proof explanations, Bell
(1976) found that proof is the topic that shows the greatest variation in approaches
internationally. He noted that this variation can be attributed to the tension between the
recognition among teachers that deduction is essential to mathematics but that only the
most capable students develop a good understanding of it. There is evidence that this
condition remains true today as well. For example, Fujita and Jones (2003) compared the
textbook treatments of geometry in lower secondary schools in Japan and Scotland and
concluded the following.
Our analysis indicates that…Japanese textbooks set out to develop students’
deductive reasoning skills though the explicit teaching of proof in geometry,
whereas comparative UK [United Kingdom] textbooks tend, at this level, to
concentrate on finding angles, measurement, drawing, and so on, coupled with a
modicum of opportunities for conjecturing and inductive reasoning. (p. 1)
It is, perhaps, natural to expect great variation in the treatment of curricular topics
within countries that do not have national curricular and educational guidelines. In the U.
S., for example, how geometry, the primary locus of proof efforts until recently, should
be handled has led to vastly different opinions and occasionally to different approaches or
emphases in school geometry (cf., e.g., Hoffer, 1981; NCTM, 1973, 1987; Usiskin,
1987).
Examples of Curricula Aimed toward Enhancing Students’ Proof Schemes

We do not claim that the studies touched on below use our language of proof
schemes, but it will be clear that students who have had such treatments should possess
different proof schemes from those that apparently result from traditional teaching. Of
particular interest and importance, we think, are the feasibility studies that have involved
children in elementary schools.
Earlier feasibility studies.

Perhaps because of the spirit of the “New Math” times, and the call of the
Cambridge Conference Report to move toward more sophisticated mathematics earlier in
the curriculum, some studies in the 1970s focused on proof with younger children. To
gauge whether and when children seem able to cope with proof or proof-like tasks, Lester
(1975) devised a computer-delivered deductive system in a game-like form, with well-
defined rules (i.e., postulates) and target configurations (i.e., theorems) to be attained by
applying the rules (i.e., with proofs). Hence, the students were dealing implicitly with an
axiomatic system.
Lester (1975) sampled 19 students from each of four groups, one group from
grades 1-3, a second from grades 4-6, a third from grades 7-9, and the fourth from grades
10-12, gave them practice with the rules, and studied their performances on the target
tasks. His grades 7-9 students performed as well as the students from grades 10-12, and
the students from grades 4-6 solved about as many tasks as the older students, but took
somewhat longer. Lester suggested that “even students in the upper elementary grades
can be successful at mathematical activities that are closely related to proof” (p. 23).
Indeed, King (1970, 1973) thoroughly developed a 17-day unit dealing with some
elementary number theory results (e.g., a number which is a factor of two numbers is also
a factor of their sum). He found that a group of 10 above-average sixth graders could
reproduce the proofs initially developed with considerable teacher support (in contrast to
a non-equivalent control group), but the evidence also suggested that the proofs were
given from rote memory.
Fawcett’s study of the late 1930s deserves special mention. The title and sub-title
give a good summary: The Nature of Proof, A Description and Evaluation of Certain
Procedures Used in a Senior High School to Develop an Understanding of the Nature of
Proof. Whatever the reason—World War II, the usual inertia in curriculum—this study
seemed to have had little impact, even though it was reported in a yearbook of the NCTM
(Fawcett, 1938/1995). His approach was surprisingly modern in tone. Fawcett’s
summary includes the following.
The theorems [of geometry] are not important in themselves. It is the method
by which they are established that is important, and in this study geometric
theorems are used only for the purpose of illustrating this method. The
procedures used are derived from four basic assumptions:
1. That a senior high school student has reasoned and reasoned accurately before
he begins the study of demonstrative geometry.
2. That he should have the opportunity to reason about the subject matter of
geometry in his own way.
3. That the logical processes which should guide the development of the work
should be those of the student and not those of the teacher.
4. That opportunity be provided for the application of the postulational method
to non-mathematical material.
Non-mathematical situations of interest to the pupils were used to introduce
them to the importance of definition and to the fact that conclusions depend on
assumptions, many of which are often unrecognized. To make definitions and
assumptions and to investigate their implications is to have firsthand experience
with the method of mathematics… (p. 117)
Fawcett’s teaching experiment, with a non-equivalent control group, continued
through two school years, with the report covering just the first year. As the excerpt
above suggests, the students eventually composed, collectively, their lists of undefined
terms, definitions, and assumptions. The need for such elements arose in discussing
everyday situations, such as the importance of definition in discussing how the governor
of Ohio handled a particular bill (pp. 51-52). Of course the teacher played a major role in
initiating such discussions and in providing fruitful leads for particular results, but in the
large the students were responsible for conjecturing results and then proving them. The
evaluation of the experiment was based on a state geometry test and a test of the ability to
analyze non-mathematical material. Even though the experimental students, after one
year of a two-year treatment, had not covered the usual material in the standard course,
their performance (although not reported thoroughly) seemed satisfactory on the 80-point
state geometry test: Median 52.0, state median 36.5 (p. 102). More telling was the
experimental students’ performance on the analysis of non-mathematical material, where
they out-performed by far the control group (change score of 7.5 vs a change score of 1.0;
maximum possible not given) (p. 103). Fawcett also quoted the laudatory reactions of
visitors and of the students themselves, contrasting the students’ final remarks with the
largely indifferent attitudes expressed at the beginning of the experiment.
One can only conclude from these studies that upper elementary school children
can deal with proof ideas or actions, and that high school students can develop
meaningful understandings of proof if they are taught appropriately.
More recent feasibility studies.

Several researchers have emphasized a sociocultural perspective in investigating
and enhancing the development of students’ proof schemes. According to this
perspective, the development of any higher voluntary form of human knowledge cannot
be understood apart from the social context in which it occurs. As such, learning is
necessarily a product of social interaction. Key to this perspective is Vygotsky’s (1978)
notion of “zone of proximal development” (ZPD): the difference between what the
students can do under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers and
what they can do without guidance. A direct and critical implication of this perspective is
instructional scaffolding (Mercer, 1995), which refers to the provision of guidance and
support that is increased or withdrawn in response to the developing competence of the
learner. Blanton and Stylianou (2003) further suggest:
Since learning is viewed as a product of interaction, it follows that one’s
development within the ZPD is affected by the intellectual quality and
developmental appropriateness of these interactions (Diaz, Neal, & Amaya-
Williams, 1999). In other words, the extent of one’s development within the ZPD
is predicated in part upon how the more knowing other organizes, or scaffolds, the
task at hand. Thus, if we intend to understand development within the ZPD, we
must be thinking about if and how tasks can be scaffolded to extend one’s
learning. (p. 114)
Blanton and Stylianou (2003) have investigated the nature and role of this
scaffolding in the learning and teaching of proof. Specifically, they addressed two
questions: (a) What is the nature and meaning of instructional scaffolding in the
classroom in the development of students’ proof ability? and (b) How do different types
of scaffolding prompts from the teacher affect students’ self-regulatory thinking about
proof? Their results suggest
… students who engage in whole-class discussions that include metacognitive
acts as well as transactive discussions about metacognitive acts make gains in
their ability to construct mathematical proofs. Moreover, students’ capacity to
engage in these types of discussion is a habit of mind that can be scaffolded
through the teacher’s transactive prompts and facilitative utterances. … [This]

suggests that students can internalize public argumentation in ways that facilitate
private proof construction if instructional scaffolding is appropriately designed to
support this. (p. 119)
Some of the most promising work directly or indirectly related to students’
growth in elements of proof has been with elementary school children, as early as the
primary grades and most often in problem-based settings where questions of proof have
come up as intended by-products of the investigations. Evidence exists to indicate that a
classroom environment that is conducive to social interactions among students and
between the teacher and the students can be productive. Hence, these studies have often
incorporated small-group work and whole-class discussions sharing how different
children were thinking (that is, justifying their work) rather than just focusing on the
numerical result. For example, Zack (2002) had two groups of fifth graders work on the
following problem: Find all the squares on an n by n chessboard, first with n = 4, then n =
5, then n = 10. What if it was a 60 by 60 square? Can you prove that you have them all?
After working on this problem, her students offered eight different counter-arguments to
an answer of 2310 (based on 6 times the established answer of 385 for a 10 by 10).
Surely students who experience such instruction will develop different proof schemes
than will children whose teachers always judge the correctness of an answer. In some
cases (Cobb et al., 1991) researchers worked closely with classroom teachers in designing
the tasks and studying the effects of the children’s work and their discussions. In other
cases (e.g., Carpenter, Franke, Jacobs, Fennema, & Empson, 1998), the teachers were
provided with a great deal of background on children’s thinking strategies but left to their
own in designing and carrying out lessons; however, an earmark of the classroom work
was to call for students to give justifications.
Other examples of early appearances of proof ideas come from work aiming
toward algebra in the elementary grades (Schifter, Monk, Russell, Bastable, & Earnest,
2003). Some of their instruction deliberately but indirectly deals with such
generalizations as commutativity of addition, although that language may not be used in
the early exposures. Key are the tasks and teacher questions. Questions such as “Will it
always work that way?” or “Why does it work out that way?” are a natural part of the
instruction and indeed become an expected part of the lesson. Their work shows that
children’s conviction about at least some generalizations may follow an interesting path.
For example, first graders, when asked “Will it always work that way?” after noting a
specific example for commutativity of addition, may be uncertain that the idea will
always work. Later, they may be confident that the answer is “Yes” because they have
tried lots of examples (an empirical proof scheme), but still later, they may return to
uncertainty because they are aware that there are many untested cases and that they have
not tried them all. And, not unexpectedly, some students will over-generalize, accepting
commutativity of subtraction as well.
Several Italian studies have also examined the nature of students’ justifications as
encountered in problem-based lessons (e.g., Boero, Chiappini, Garuti, & Sibilla, 1995;
Boero, Garuti, & Mariotti, 1996). One example is their grade 8 students’ study of
shadows. Using data that the students collected over a period of time about the shadows
of two vertical sticks, they examined the question of whether the shadows of a vertical
stick and an oblique stick can be parallel, and if so, when. Small-group work, with
teacher help, led to clearly stated conjectures (e.g., If the sun’s rays belong to the vertical
plane of the oblique stick, then the shadows are parallel) that were then examined further,
with an eye toward establishing them “in general.” In the analysis of these subsequent
attempts at general arguments (i.e., proofs), the researchers noticed that in the successful
proofs, there were connections with key observations made during the conjecture-
forming stage. The researchers’ collective work has led to their hypothesis of “cognitive
unity,” emphasizing the close connection between the reasoning during the formation of a
conjecture and the reasoning in an eventual proof:
(D)uring the production of a conjecture, the student progressively works out
his/her statement through an intensive argumentative activity functionally
intermingling with the justification of the plausibility of his/her choices; during
the subsequent statement proving stage, the student links up with this process in a
coherent way, organizing some of the justifications (‘arguments’) produced
during the construction of the statements according to a logical chain (Boero,
Garuti, Lemut, & Mariotti, 1996, p. 119-120).
They also argue that such a process is followed by many mathematicians--during the
conjecturing stage, the mathematician uses arguments that can later be adapted to support
his or her mathematical proof—and make the case that much more instruction in
mathematics should involve conjecturing.
One series of studies (Maher, 2002; Maher & Martino, 1996; Martino & Maher,
1999) carried out with instruction in a similar problem-based vein, is notable because of
its long-term nature (occasional sessions over 14 years, usually separate from the regular
mathematics classes) and because of proof behaviors—proof by contradiction, proof by
cases, proof by mathematical induction—that arose naturally, if informally, even in
elementary school, at least on the part of some students. The nature and flavor of the
sessions is communicated by these retrospections of a participant:
Well, we break up into groups…like five groups of three, say, and
everyone in their own groups would have their own ideas, and you’d argue
within your own group, about what you knew, what I thought the answer
was, what you thought the answer was and then from there, we’d all get
together and present our ideas, and then this group would argue with this
group about who was right with this…(Maher, 2002, p. 37)….You didn’t
come in and say, “this is what we were learning today and this is how
you’re going to figure out the problem.” We were figuring out how we
were going to figure out the problem. We weren’t attaching names to that
but we could see the commonness between what we were working on
there and maybe what we had done in school at some point in time and
been able to put those things together and come up with stuff and to do
these problems to come up with, what would be our own formulas because
we didn’t know that other people had done them before. We were just
kind of doing our own thing trying to come up with an answer that was
legitimate and that no matter how you tried to attack it, we could still
answer it… (Maher, 2002, p. 32).
As the excerpts illustrate, all of these student-centered, problem-based studies
have involved a way of teaching that is in stark contrast to the stereotype of a
mathematics class: Students check homework, teacher illustrates something new,
students then do seat-work or homework to practice the new material. The didactical
contract (Brousseau, 1997) in the experimental classes was obviously quite different from
that in the stereotypical one. In particular, the “social norms” were quite different:
Students were expected to work together rather than singly, students were to explain their
solution methods, and students were to listen carefully and evaluate the explanations of
other students--and hence perhaps learn different proof schemes.
Yackel and Cobb (1996) have sharpened the analysis of social norms to identify
“sociomathematical norms,” those social norms that refer specifically to mathematical
activity. For example, coming to accept that an explanation is expected might be a
general social norm, whereas what constitutes an acceptable mathematical explanation
would be a sociomathematical norm (Yackel & Cobb, 1996). Other sociomathematical
norms might include norms dealing with when different explanations are mathematically
different, or when a justification is acceptable, or when justifications or explanations
convey efficiency or elegance. Indeed, Yackel, Rasmussen, and King (2000) focused on
the norms that developed during a problem-based undergraduate differential equations
course. They found that students “frequently explained their reasoning without
prompting, offered alternative explanations and attempted to make sense of other
students’ reasoning and explanations, despite the fact that their prior experiences were
with traditional approaches to mathematics instruction” (p. 276) and, in particular, there
was evidence of the development of such sociomathematical norms as, what is an
acceptable mathematical justification and what makes up a mathematically different
explanation. That the students, who had likely experienced mathematics classrooms with
quite different social norms, developed such norms is particularly encouraging. Yackel
and Cobb point out that sociomathematical norms should be examined in teaching modes
that are different from the inquiry mode in which they have been studied, because the
classroom conduct, whether stereotypic or not, will automatically convey what is an
acceptable norm. For example, one can wonder whether some students, young or
experienced, might be more comfortable with a more directed approach. Dweck (1999)
has identified different goal orientations on the part of students. Some students may be
guided primarily by performance goals like grades, parent/teacher approval, high marks,
or status with others, whereas others have what Dweck calls “learning goals”—their
primary interest is in understanding or mastery. A student’s extreme preference for
performance goals may be an unfortunate aspect of schooling or society as it exists, of
course, but it might also result in resistance to sociomathematical norms that do not
obviously support perceived performance. It is an interesting question as to whether
different sorts of teaching might shape a student’s learning goals.
In most of the studies above, outside support for the teacher was particularly
important. The question of what is feasible in classrooms without further teacher
preparation or researcher involvement is crucial, as, for example, Yackel and Hanna point
out (2003). It is nonetheless exciting to envision learners, starting in the primary grades
and continuing through high school and college, developing the social and
sociomathematical norms about proof, and the proof schemes, that one might wish, but it
is daunting to think of the changes needed in curricula and teachers (and testing
programs) to support the development of such norms. As an indication of areas of
teacher preparation that are important, Martino and Maher (1999) suggest, based on their
videotape analysis of their multi-year study, that there is a “strong relationship between
(1) [the teacher’s] careful monitoring of students’ constructions leading to a problem

solution, and (2) the posing of a timely question which can challenge learners to advance
their understanding” (p. 53). And there may be useful norm-supporting ideas even for
classes in which problem-based or inquiry-based instruction is not the mode. For
example, Blanton, Stylianou, and David (2003), based on their work with a college
discrete mathematics course and extending the work mentioned earlier (Blanton &
Stylianou, 2002), believe that an instructor’s attention to likely student understanding
(and hence a zone of proximal development) can enable an instructional scaffolding that,
along with a careful discussion of (preferably) students’ proofs, can support students’
understanding of proof.
Again, all of these studies illustrate how appropriate mathematical curricula,
together with appropriate teacher intervention, can help students to develop critical
elements of deductive reasoning and an openness to the ideas of mathematical proof. As
feasibility studies, these efforts have shown that even elementary school children can be
remarkably able to make sense of mathematics, if given opportunities. Their
explanations not only help them in their communication skills, but the explanations are
likely also to help their classmates, to give to their teachers insights into the children’s
level of understanding, and to engender or foster students’ growth in their proof schemes
and their grasp of sociomathematical norms.
Use of technology.
The increasing use of dynamic geometry software during the last couple of
decades has provoked researchers to look closely into the learning benefits as well as the
potential risks of this tool. In this section we focus on studies conducted to investigate
the impact of dynamic geometry environments (DGEs) on the learning proof, primarily
because those environments have been involved in several studies.
Generating and measuring many examples, as is now possible and easy with
DGEs, would seem only to support the idea that examples prove a result (the empirical
proof scheme) and hence interfere with any need for deductive proof. Chazan (1993a,b)
noted and corroborated that the ideas that evidence is proof and that proof is merely
evidence were widespread. He interviewed 17 students who were taught geometry in a
DGE environment (1993b) to see how students fared when they experienced a geometry
curriculum that involved both measurement of cases and deductive proof, with the
curriculum including attention to the different types of argumentation involved with the
two methods. He found both evidence-is-proof (the empirical proof scheme) and proof-
is-merely-evidence postures on the part of the students, and hence he noted that the
“comparison and contrast of verification and deductive proof certainly deserves explicit
attention in mathematics classrooms” (1993b, p. 382), with the teachers involved in the
study feeling that more time should have been spent in dealing with students’ doubts
about deductive proofs (1993a, p. 109). However, he also noticed that “fewer students
considered evidence to be proof…whereas more students were skeptical about the limits
of applicability of deductive proofs…Some students seemed to become more skeptical
about deductive proofs as a result of becoming more skeptical about measurement of
examples” (1993a, p. 109). He also suggested, based on interviewee comments, “that the
explanatory aspect of proofs is a useful starting point for a discussion of the value of
deductive proofs” (1993b, p. 383), that some students have no idea of what deductive
proofs are intended to do, and that some students resist the idea that a deductive argument
can assure that there cannot be counterexamples.
A special issue of the journal, Educational Studies in Mathematics (2000, 44),
included four reports on teaching experiments involving DGE. The first four are by
Mariotti, by Jones, by Marrades and Gutierrez, and by Hadas, Hershkowitz, and
Schwartz. The last paper is by Laborde, and synthesizes the previous four, providing a
connecting theme among them by using Brousseau’s construct of “milieu.” We continue
with these studies.
One of the significant results of the four studies is that their findings address a
major concern regarding the use of DGEs in the teaching of geometry in school: “the
opportunity offered by [DGE] to ‘see’ mathematical properties so easily might reduce or
even kill any need for proof and thus any learning of how to develop a proof” (Laborde,
2000, p. 151).
Jones’ study was a teaching experiment with 12-year-old students. The
intervention involved students working in pairs or small groups on the classification of
quadrilaterals. The instructional activities involved tasks where the students were to
reproduce a figure that could not be “messed up” by dragging any of its components (a
vertex or segment). More advanced activities included tasks of producing a figure that
can be transformed into another specified figure by dragging (e.g, from a rectangle to a
square). In each case the students had to explain why their constructed figure was the
expected one. Laborde (2000) points out that this type of explanation consists of giving
the conditions that imply that the constructed figure is the expected type of quadrilateral,
a necessary activity to understand how proof works. From our perspective, these
explanations in the context of a DGE involve movement, and, therefore—as we have
discussed in earlier in the section—they are causal, and hence deductive. Accordingly,
Jones’ (2000) study suggests that the DGE does not necessarily eliminate the need for
proof in the students’ eyes but can enhance students’ deductive proof scheme. The
developmental path of students’ conception in this study started where students were.
Initially, according to Jones, students lacked the capability to describe or explain in
precise mathematical language. The instructional emphasis in this stage was on
description rather than explanation, where students utilized perception rather than
mathematical language to describe their observations. As the emphasis extended to
explanations, students’ language became more precise but was mediated by the DGE
terminology (e.g., the term “dragging”). By end of the teaching experiment, students’
explanations related entirely to the mathematical context.
Mariotti’s study was a long-term teaching experiment with 15-16-year-old
students. Students were engaged in DGE activities through which the students
themselves constructed a geometric system of axioms and theorems as a system of Cabri
Geometry commands. Similar to Jones, Mariotti emphasized activities where the task is
for pairs of students to construct geometric figures, describe the construction procedure,
and justify why the procedure produces the expected figure. The basic conceptual change
that Mariotti’s (2000) study achieved was in students’ status of justification, which
transitioned from an “intuitive” geometry—a collection of self-evident properties—to a
theoretical geometry—a system of statements validated by proof. The theoretical
geometry that Mariotti’s students had constructed seems to be more than a deductive
system, in that students were not only constructing and proving theorems but also
establishing the axioms on which these theorems rest, and thereby laying the foundations
for their axiomatic proof scheme.
Hadas, Hershkowitz and Schwarz’ (2000) study was done in the context of a
geometry course that emphasized the concept of proof. They developed instructional
activities involving students making assertions about certain geometric relations and later
checking them with a DGE. The choice and sequence of activities were such that upon
checking their assertions with the DGE the students would find them to be false—a
realization that would make the students curious as to the reason for the falsity of the
conjecture. For example, in one of the activities the students began with two tasks. The
first task was to measure (with the software) the sum of the interior angles in polygons as
the number of sides increases, generalizing their observation, and then explaining their
conclusion. The second task was to measure (with the software) the sum of the exterior
angles of a quadrilateral. Following this, the students were asked to hypothesize the sum
of the exterior angles for polygons as the number of sides increases, and to check their
hypothesis by measuring (with the software) and explain what they found. Hadas,
Hershkowitz and Schwartz succeeded in creating in the students a need to find out the
cause for their assertion to be untrue. Laborde (2000) points out that such an
achievement would have been impossible without the use of a dynamic geometry system,
for “the false conjectures came after students were convinced of other properties thanks
to the DG system. … [The] interplay of conjectures and checks, of certainty and
uncertainty, was made possible by the exploration power and checking facilities offered
by the DG environment” (p. 154).
Marrades and Gutierrez investigated how DGEs can help secondary-school
students (aged 15-16 years) enhance their proof schemes. As in Hadas, Hershkowitz and
Schwarz’ study, Marrades and Gutierrez showed that a DGE can help students realize the
need for formal proofs in mathematics. By interpreting their results in terms of our
taxonomy of proof schemes, an important observation reported in their study is that
students’ transition to deductive proof schemes is very slow; the total teaching
experiment lasted 30 weeks, with two 55 minute class per week. Of particular
importance is their finding that for this transition to take place instruction must not ignore
students’ current empirical proof schemes and must institute a didactical contract that
attempts to suppress the authoritative proof scheme. Their method was to repeatedly
emphasize “the need to organize justifications by using definitions and results (theorems)
previously known and accepted by the class” (p. 120). Finally, another significant
finding of this study is that the ability to produce deductive proof evolves hand in hand
with students’ understanding of subject matter: the concepts and properties related to the
topic being studied. This is consistent with other findings. Simon and Blume (1996), for
example, illustrated that a learner may not fully understand another’s proof because of a
limited grasp of the concepts addressed in the proof (p. 29). One can argue that such
exposure might lead to a disequilibrium and eventually a greater understanding of both
the concepts and the proof.
Hence, DGEs are a promising tool, but they do not automatically or easily lead to
improved proof schemes. Accomplishing that sort of growth apparently requires a
carefully laid-out curriculum (cf. de Villiers, 1999) and considerable adjustment by a
teacher accustomed only to telling as the mode of instruction. Lampert (1993), for
example, described some of the difficulties encountered by teachers who allowed
conjecturing with a DGE. (Making conjectures, itself, may be difficult for students new
to the expectation. Koedinger [1998], with an eye toward possible software activities,
noted that with his task of writing a conjecture about kites, given the definition of kite,
about a quarter of the roughly 60 geometry students could not come up with a non-trivial
conjecture within 20 minutes.) Lampert noted that the change from “sage on the stage”
to “guide on the side” required adjustments both for the teacher and the students, since a
different sort of didactical contract was involved. Teachers were also concerned about
the coverage of a standard body of content (for external testing purposes, or for later
courses), as well as the departure from the usual, familiar axiomatic development that
often eventuated.
Does Explicit Teaching of Logic Work?

The use of deductive proof schemes, at least implicitly, involves logic. Calls for
the explicit teaching of logic are easy to find. More than 40 years ago, consensus at the
future-oriented Cambridge Conference on School Mathematics (1963) was that “it is
hardly possible to do anything in the direction of mathematical proofs without the
vocabulary of logic and explicit recognition of the inference schemes” (p. 39). There
have been occasional caveats, as in Suppes' remarks:
I would not advocate an excessive emphasis on logic as a self-contained
discipline…What I do feel is important is that students be taught in an explicit
fashion classical rules of logical inference, learn how to use these rules in
deriving theorems from given axioms, and come to feel as much at home with
simple principles of inference like modus ponendo ponens as they do with
elementary algorithms of arithmetic” (1966, p. 72).
Studies of the effects of an explicit attention to logic have not, however, indicated
that there is then a pay-off in proof-writing. School geometry has long had a goal of
improving students’ logical thinking (cf. NCTM, 1970), and several studies have looked
at the influence of including an explicit, concentrated treatment of logic in that course
(e.g., Deer, 1969; Mueller, 1975; Platt, 1967). Yet, the usual outcome, even when the
logic treatment has involved up to four weeks (Platt) and/or a reasonable number of
students (Mueller, 146 students; Platt, 12 classes), is a finding of no-significant-
differences in proof performance.
It is reasonable to expect that the teacher’s emphasis on logical reasoning, even in
the absence of explicit treatment in a curriculum, might influence the students’ use of
logic themselves. In a study of the influence of teachers’ language on performance,
Gregory and Osborne (1975) explored whether the teachers’ use of logic influenced their
students’ performance on a logic test, by examining audiotapes of five lessons of 20
junior high school mathematics teachers. Although acknowledging some design
problems, they found a significant positive correlation between logic test performance for
some types of inferences (e.g., when negatives were involved) and the usages of if-then
statements by the five teachers with the greatest average use vs. usages of the five
teachers with the lowest. Eye-catching, however, was the range in the averages of the
number of usages per lesson of if-then sorts of statements: 8.3 to 40.6, with individual
lessons giving from 3 to 48 usages (p. 28). Unfortunately, there was no control for
content covered (some teachers were teaching number theory, some word problems, and
some properties of geometric figures), so the range is only suggestive of what might be
an important element in students’ growth in deductive reasoning: the frequency of use of

logical statements and logical reasoning in the classroom.
Thus there is much evidence that some important elements of deductive reasoning
are not natural parts of students’ repertoires, at a variety of school levels. How to
develop these elements so that they are recognized and utilized in mathematical proofs is
an open question, and may not be realized through a single, short unit. As the 2000
NCTM Principles and Standards assert, “Reasoning and proof cannot simply be taught in
a single unit on logic, for example, or by ‘doing proofs’ in geometry” (NCTM, 2000, p.
56).
Reflection
In this chapter we have presented a comprehensive perspective on proof
learning—a perspective that addresses mathematical, historical-epistemological,
cognitive, sociological, and instructional factors. Comprehensive perspectives on proof
are needed, we argued, in order to better understand the nature and roots of students’
difficulties with proof so that effective instructional treatments can be designed and
implemented to advance students’ conceptions of and attitudes toward proof. Our
perspective grew out of a decade of investigations—empirical as well as theoretical—into
students’ conceptions of proof. In various periods and stages of these investigations we
have repeatedly confronted questions that collectively address a combination of the five
factors mentioned above.
The notion of “proof scheme” serves as the main lens of our comprehensive
prospective on proof. Through it, for example, we analyze and interpret students’
proving behavior—in their individual work as well as in their interaction with others—
and understand the development of proof in the history of mathematics. A proof scheme
consists of what constitutes ascertaining and persuading for a person (or community).
This definition was born out of cognitive, epistemological, and instructional
considerations. Specifically, a critical observation in our and other scholars’ work is that
proof schemes vary from person to person and from community to community—in the
classroom, with individual students as well as the class as a whole, and throughout
history. “Proof,” when viewed in this subjective sense, highlights the student as learner.
As a result, teachers must take into account what constitutes ascertainment and
persuasion for their students and offer, accordingly, instructional activities that can help
them gradually refine and modify their proof schemes into desirable ones. This
subjective view of proof emerged from our studies and impacted many of the conclusions
we drew from them. For example, it influenced our conclusions as to the implications of
the epistemology of proof in the history of mathematics to the conceptual development of
proof with students, the implications of the way mathematicians construct proofs to
instructional treatments of proof, and the implications of the everyday justification and
argumentation on students’ proving behaviors in mathematical contexts. The subjective
notion of proof scheme is not in conflict with our insistence on unambiguous goals in the
teaching of proof—namely, to gradually help students develop an understanding of proof
that is consistent with that shared and practiced by the mathematicians of today. The
question of critical importance is: What instructional interventions can bring students to
see an intellectual need to refine and alter their current proof schemes into deductive
proof schemes (Harel, 2001)?
The status studies we have reviewed and presented in this paper show the absence
of the deductive proof scheme and the pervasiveness of the empirical proof scheme
among students at all levels. Students base their responses on the appearances in
drawings, and mental pictures alone constitute the meaning of geometric terms. They
prove mathematical statements by providing specific examples, not able to distinguish
between inductive and deductive arguments. Even more able students may not
understand that no further examples are needed, once a proof has been given. Students’
preference for proof is ritualistically and authoritatively based. For example, when the
stated purpose was to get the best mark, they often felt that more formal—e.g.,
algebraic—arguments might be preferable to their first choices. These studies also show
a lack of understanding of the functions of proof in mathematics, often even among
students who had taken geometry and among students for whom the curriculum pays
special attention to conjecturing and explaining or justifying conclusions in both algebra
and geometry. Students believe proofs are used only to verify facts that they already
know, and have no sense of a purpose of proof or of its meaning. Students have
difficulty understanding the role of counterexamples; many do not understand that one
counterexample is sufficient to disprove a conjecture. Students do not see any need to
prove a mathematical proposition, especially those they consider to be intuitively
obvious. This is the case even in a country like Japan where the official curriculum
emphasizes proof. They view proof as the method to examine and verify a later
particular case. Finally, the studies show that students have difficulty writing valid
simple proofs and constructing, or even starting, simple proofs. They have difficulty with
indirect proofs, and only a few can complete an indirect proof that has been started.
We believe there is a need for more longitudinal studies regarding students’ proof
schemes. The most difficult studies to carry out, for both financial and design reasons are
longitudinal studies. Yet we cannot gain a solid understanding of the effect on students
of continued attention to justification and proof throughout their studies in mathematics,
except through longitudinal studies. A one- or two-year exposure (let alone a one-
semester treatment) to instruction and curricula attentive to reason-giving can be dwarfed
by a multiple-year focus on instruction and curricula that, to use an extreme example,
emphasize rote skills likely to be useful in some external testing program. In the latter
cases, being asked to give reasons and arguments might well be viewed as aberrations
and irrelevant to the perceived “really important” side of mathematics.
The findings from studies of teachers’ conceptions of proof do not look much
better than those with students. Overall, teachers seem to acknowledge the verification
role of proof, yet for many the empirical proof schemes seem to be the most dominant,
even in dealing with mathematical statements, and they do not seem to understand other
important roles of proof, most noticeably its explanatory role. Some teachers tend to
view proof as an appropriate goal only for the mathematics education of a minority of
students, not considering proof and justification to be a central concern in school
mathematics, as has been repeatedly called for by the mathematics education leadership
(e.g., NCTM, 1989, 2000). Studies show that little or no instructional time is allocated to
the development of the deductive proof schemes, not even in geometry. In the U.S.
explicit mathematical reasoning in mathematics classes is rare, and in algebra and pre-
algebra courses it is virtually absent. Many teachers are unlikely to teach proof well,
since their own grasp of proof is limited. It is important to determine better the extent to
which teachers are equipped to deliver a curriculum in which proof is central. Results
from studies like those of Knuth (2002a) and Manaster (1998), if indeed typical of a
widespread performance of mathematics teachers, demand attention both on the part of
university mathematics departments, which have a primary responsibility for the
preparation of mathematics teachers, and on school districts, which support the continued
development of their existing faculty.
The bright side of the findings is that students who receive more instructional
time on developing analytical reasoning by solving unique problems fare noticeably
better on overall test scores. Likewise, students who have been expected to write proofs
and who have had classes that emphasized proof were somewhat better than other
students. It also seems possible to establish desirable sociomathematical norms relevant
to proof, through careful instruction, often featuring the student role in proof-giving.
There has been a concern that the ease with which technology can generate a large
number of examples naturally could undercut any student-felt need for deductive proof
schemes. Fortunately, several studies have shown that with careful, non-trivial planning
and instruction over a period of time, progress toward deductive proof schemes is
possible in technology environments, where such desiderata as making conjectures and
definitions occur.
An important element in deductive proof schemes is of course the use of logical
reasoning. Yet there is evidence that many students, and possibly even many teachers, do
not have a good grasp or appreciation of some important principles of logic. Nor is it
clear as to how best to devise instruction to improve performance with logic in
mathematical (and non-mathematical) contexts. It is unclear to us how best to prepare
students to deal with the logical reasoning essential in mathematical proofs and valuable
in even informal justifications—osmosis, or explicit attention? And, in particular, the
knowledge of teachers of mathematics about logical reasoning may be a matter of
concern (e.g., Easterday & Galloway, 1995). We see a need for the incorporation of
items on proof or logic (even multiple-choice ones) into the periodic National
Assessments of Education Progress. From the practical viewpoint, the NAEPs exist, and
they offer a view of performance across the U.S. Even more pleasing would be to see
large-scale efforts devoted explicitly to the study of performance in proof and logic, like
those in Great Britain (Healy & Hoyles, 1998, 2000; Hoyles & Kuchemann, 2002). A
deep look at the students and teachers’ knowledge of proof, on the one hand, and at the
development of the deductive proof scheme in the history of mathematics, on the other,
has provided us with important insights as to what might account for students’ difficulties
in constructing this scheme and what instructional approaches can facilitate its
construction. In particular, considerations of historical-epistemological developments
have led us to new research questions with direct bearing on the learning and teaching of
proofs. For example:
1. To what extent and in what ways is the nature of the content intertwined with
the nature of proving? In geometry, for example, does students’ ability to
construct an image of a point as a dimensionless geometric entity impact their
ability to develop the Greek axiomatic proof scheme?
2. What are the cognitive and social mechanisms by which deductive proving
can be necessitated for the students? The Greek’s construction of their
geometric edifice seems to have been a result of their desire to create a
consistent system that was free from paradoxes. Would paradoxes of the
same nature create a similar intellectual need with students?
3. Students encounter difficulties in moving between proof schemes, particularly
from the Greek’s axiomatic proof scheme (the one they construct in honors
high-school geometry, for example) to the modern axiomatic proof scheme
(the one they need to succeed in a real analysis course, for example). Exactly
what are these difficulties? What role does the emphasis on form rather than
content in modern mathematics (as opposed to Greek mathematics where
content is more prominent) play in this transition? Can students develop the
modern axiomatic proof without computational fluency? What role does the
causality proof scheme play in this transition?
These questions are examples of what we have delineated as important
contributions from the history of mathematics to our thinking about students’ proof
schemes. But there are likely to be other valuable ideas from further study of the growth
or development of proof ideas in the history of mathematics. How mathematical proof
arose in other cultures—e.g., the basis for the Japanese temple drawings (Rothman &
Fukagawa, 1998)—would in itself be fascinating and potentially instructive about how
proof ideas might be introduced or developed today. In this respect, our effort to form a
comprehensive perspective on proof is an attempt to understand what might be called the
“proving conceptual field,” a term analogous to Vergnaud’s (1983, 1988) “multiplicative
conceptual field.” Like the multiplicative conceptual field, the proving conceptual field
may be thought of as a set of problems and situations for which closely connected
concepts, procedures, and representations are necessary.
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1
We wish to acknowledge the helpful comments from Gila Hanna, Carolyn Maher, and
Erna Yackel. Preparation of this chapter was supported in part by National Science
Foundation Grant No. REC-0310128. Any opinions or conclusions expressed are those
of the authors and do not represent an official position of NSF.
2
To assure a degree of quality control and for practical reasons, we have restricted our
survey to writings that have undergone an external review process, except in the case of a
few doctoral dissertations that we examined. Examination of at least one case—the
teaching and learning of mathematical induction—was omitted here since it has been
treated thoroughly elsewhere (Harel, 2001). We regret that no doubt we have
unintentionally overlooked other pieces of research or commentary that could have
improved this chapter.
3
All aspects of proof addressed in this paper must always be understood in the context of
the learning and teaching of proof. Even when we address mathematical, historical, or
philosophical aspects of proof, the goal is to utilize knowledge of these aspects for the
purpose of better understanding the processes of learning and teaching of proof. Thus,
phrases such as “research on proof,” “perspective on proof,” and the like should always
be understood in the context of mathematics education, not of mathematics, history, or
philosophy per se.
4
We are restricting our discussion to classical Greek mathematics and the mathematical
developments that grew out of it. The development of deductive reasoning in China,
India, and other non-Western cultures is not considered in this paper.

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1 A Comprehensive Perspective on Proof

Toward Comprehensive Perspectives on the Learning and Teaching of Proof1

To Appear in F. Lester (Ed.), Second Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching

Comprehensive Perspective on Proof3

4. What are students’ current conceptions of proof?

in the history of mathematics have on the conceptual development of proof with

Why are Comprehensive Perspectives on Proofs Needed?

The Concept of Proof Scheme

more observations of students’ conceptions of proof as well as some developments of this

Definition of “Proof Scheme”

4. Proof scheme. A person’s (or a community’s) proof scheme consists of what

Taxonomy of Proof Schemes

The generality characteristic has to do with an individual understanding that the

Prove that for all positive integers n ,

Relations to Other Taxonomies

Mathematical and Historical-Epistemological Factors: Some Phases in the Development

Some Fundamental Differences

Practical world versus ideal existence: the emergence of structure.

empirical—inductive or perceptual—evidence. Even Babylonian mathematics, which,

Constant versus varying referential reality.

Content versus form.

Operation versus results of an operation.

Cause versus reason.

after its publication. … The … impact of the admissibility of non-Euclidean

Why Are These Historical-Epistemological Factors Relevant?

Pre-Greek mathematics versus Greek mathematics.

Greek mathematics versus modern mathematics.

Cognitive Factors: A Literature Review of Status Studies with Interpretations in Terms

Status Studies: Precollege Students

(15%) (31%) (24%) (31%)

(46% not responding)

Fig. 1. Sample NAEP items involving recognition of a counterexample (percents

Other status studies in the U. S.

Status studies outside the U. S.

Prove whether the following statements are true or

2. If p and q are any two odd numbers, (p + q)x(p –

Any four-digit number is rewritten with its digits

Status Studies: University Students

Findings Germane to the Transformational Proof Scheme

reports. In this section we provide a closer look at the characteristics of the

Instructional-Social-Cultural Factors: Evidence Pointing to Curriculum and Instruction

Teachers and teaching.

view proof as an appropriate goal for the mathematics education of a minority of

Examples of Curricula Aimed toward Enhancing Students’ Proof Schemes

Earlier feasibility studies.

More recent feasibility studies.

through the teacher’s transactive prompts and facilitative utterances. … [This]

(1) [the teacher’s] careful monitoring of students’ constructions leading to a problem

Does Explicit Teaching of Logic Work?

an important element in students’ growth in deductive reasoning: the frequency of use of

Goetting, M. M. (1995). The college students’ understanding of mathematical proof

Hersh, R. (1993). Proving is convincing and explaining. Educational Studies in

NCES 2000-469. Office of Educational Research and Improvement:

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