Triangles and Vectors The

Chapter 3
Triangles and Vectors
As was stated at the start of Chapter 1, trigonometry had its origins in the study of
triangles. In fact, the word trigonometry comes from the Greek words for triangle
measurement. We will see that we can use the trigonometric functions to help
determine lengths of sides of triangles or the measure of angles in triangles. As we
will see in the last two sections of this chapter, triangle trigonometry is also useful
in the study of vectors.
3.1 Trigonometric Functions of Angles
Focus Questions
The following questions are meant to guide our study of the material in this
section. After studying this section, we should understand the concepts mo-
tivated by these questions and be able to write precise, coherent answers to
these questions.
How do we define the cosine and sine as functions of angles?
How are the trigonometric functions defined on angles using circles of

any radius?
166
3.1. Trigonometric Functions of Angles 167
Beginning Activity
1. How do we define an angle whose measure is one radian? See the definition
on page 27.

2. Draw an angle in standard position with a measure of radians. Draw an
4
5
angle in standard position with a measure of radians.
3
3. What is the formula for the arc length s on a circle of radius r that is in-
tercepted by an angle with radian measure ? See page 36. Why does this
formula imply that radians are a dimensionless quantity and that a measure-
ment in radians can be thought of as a real number?
Some Previous Results

In Section 1.2, we defined the cosine function and the sine function using the unit
circle. In particular, we learned that we could define cos.t / and sin.t / for any real
number where the real number t could be thought of as the length of an arc on the
unit circle.
In Section 1.3, we learned that the radian measure of an angle is the length of
the arc on the unit circle that is intercepted by the angle. That is,
An angle (in standard position) of t radians will correspond to an arc

of length t on the unit circle, and this allows us to think of cos.t / and
sin.t / when t is the radian measure of an angle.
So when we think of cos.t / and sin.t / (and the other trigonometric functions), we
can consider t to be:
a real number;
the length of an arc with initial point .1; 0/ on the unit circle;
the radian measure of an angle in standard position.
Figure 3.1 shows an arc on the unit circle with the corresponding angle.
168 Chapter 3. Triangles and Vectors
(x, y)
t
t
1
Figure 3.1: An Angle in Standard Position with the Unit Circle
Trigonometric Functions of an Angle

With the notation in Figure 3.1, we see that cos.t / D x and sin.t / D y. In this
context, we often call the cosine and sine circular functions because they are de-
fined by points on the unit circle. Now we want to focus on the perspective of the
cosine and sine as functions of angles. When using this perspective we will refer to
the cosine and sine as trigonometric functions. Technically, we have two different
types of cosines and sines: one defined as functions of arcs and the other as func-
tions of angles. However, the connection is so close and the distinction so minor
that we will often interchange the terms circular and trigonometric. One notational
item is that when we think of the trigonometric functions as functions of angles,
we often use Greek letters for the angles. The most common ones are (theta), ˛
(alpha), ˇ (beta), and (phi).
Although the definition of the trigonometric functions uses the unit circle, it
will be quite useful to expand this idea to allow us to determine the cosine and sine
of angles related to circles of any radius. The main concept we will use to do this
will be similar triangles. We will use the triangles shown in Figure 3.2.
In this figure, the angle is in standard position, the point P .u; v/ is on the
unit circle, and the point Q.x; y/ is on a circle of radius r. So we see that
cos. / D u and sin. / D v:
We will now use the triangles 4PAO and 4QBO to write cos. / and sin. / in
terms of x, y, and r. Figure 3.3 shows these triangles by themselves without the
circles.
The two triangles in Figure 3.2 are similar triangles since the corresponding
angles of the two triangles are equal. (See page 426 in Appendix C.) Because of
Q(x, y)
r
P(u, v)
1
θ
O A B
Figure 3.2: An Angle in Standard Position
P r
y
1 v
θ θ
O u A O x B
Figure 3.3: Similar Triangles from Figure 3.2
this, we can write
u x v y
D D
1 r 1 r
x y
uD vD
r r
x y
cos. / D sin. / D
r r
In addition, note that u2 C v 2 D 1 and x 2 C y 2 D r 2 . So we have obtained

the following results, which show that once we know the coordinates of one point
on the terminal side of an angle in standard position, we can determine all six
trigonometric functions of that angle.
For any point .x; y/ other than the origin on the terminal side of an angle in
standard position, the trigonometric functions of are defined as:
x y y
cos. / D sin. / D tan. / D ;x ¤ 0
r r x
r r x
sec. / D ;x ¤ 0 csc . / D ;y ¤ 0 cot. / D ; y ¤ 0
x y y
p
where r 2 D x 2 C y 2 and r > 0 and so r D x 2 C y 2 .
Notice that the other trigonometric functions can also be determined in terms
of x, y, and r. For example, if x ¤ 0, then
sin. / 1
tan. / D sec. / D
cos. / cos. /
y
1
D xr D x
r r
y r r
D D1
r x x
y r
D D
x x
For example, if the point .3; p
1/ is on the terminal
p side of the angle , then we can
use x D 3, y D 1, and r D . 3/2 C 12 D 10, and so
p
3 1 10
cos. / D p tan. / D sec. / D
10 3 3
p
1 3 10
sin. / D p cot. / D csc. / D
10 1 1
The next two progress checks will provide some practice with using these re-
sults.
Progress Check 3.1 (The Trigonometric Functions for an Angle)

Suppose we know that the point P . 3; 7/ is on the terminal side of the angle in
standard position.
1. Draw a coordinate system, plot the point P , and draw the terminal side of
the angle .
2. Determine the radius r of the circle centered at the origin that passes through
the point P . 3; 7/. Hint: x 2 C y 2 D r 2 .
3. Now determine the values of the six trigonometric functions of .
Progress Check 3.2 (The Trigonometric Functions for an Angle)

2
Suppose that ˛ is an angle, that tan.˛/ D , and when ˛ is in standard position,
3
its terminal side is in the first quadrant.
1. Draw a coordinate system and draw the terminal side of the angle ˛ in stan-
dard position.
2. Determine a point that lies on the terminal side of ˛.
3. Determine the six trigonometric functions of ˛.
The Pythagorean Identity

Perhaps the most important identity for the circular functions is the so-called Pythagorean
Identity, which states that for any real number t ,
cos2 .t / C sin2 .t / D 1:
It should not be surprising that this identity also holds for the trigonometric func-
tions when we consider these to be functions of angles. This will be verified in the
next progress check.
Progress Check 3.3 (The Pythagorean Identity)

Let be an angle and assume that .x; y/ is a point on the terminal side of in
standard position. We then let r 2 D x 2 C y 2 . So we see that
x 2 y 2
cos2 . / C sin2 . / D C :
r r
x 2 y 2
1. Use algebra to rewrite C as a single fraction with denominator
r r
2
r .
x 2 y 2
2. Now use the fact that x 2 C y 2 D r 2 to prove that C D 1.
r r
3. Finally, conclude that
cos2 . / C sin2 . / D 1:
The next progress check shows how to use the Pythagorean Identity to help
determine the trigonometric functions of an angle.
Progress Check 3.4 (Using the Pythagorean Identity)

1
Assume that is an angle in standard position and that sin. / D and < <
3 2
.
1. Use the Pythagorean Identity to determine cos2 . / and then use the fact that

< < to determine cos. /.
2
sin. /
2. Use the identity tan. / D to determine the value of tan. /.
cos. /
3. Determine the values of the other three trigonometric functions of .
The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

In Section 2.5, we studied the inverse trigonometric functions when we considered
the trigonometric (circular) functions to be functions of a real number t . At the start
of this section, however, we saw that t could also be considered to be the length
of an arc on the unit circle, or the radian measure of an angle in standard position.
At that time, we were using the unit circle to determine the radian measure of an
angle but now we can use any point on the terminal side of the angle to determine
the angle. The important thing is that these are now functions of angles and so
we can use the inverse trigonometric functions to determine angles. We can use
either radian measure or degree measure for the angles. The results we need are
summarized below.
1. D arcsin.x/ D sin 1 .x/ means sin. / D x

and or 90ı 90ı.
2 2
2. D arccos.x/ D cos 1 .x/ means cos. / D x and
0 or 0ı 180ı.
3. D arctan.x/ D tan 1 .x/ means tan. / D x and

< < or 90ı < < 90ı.
2 2
The important things to remember are that an equation involving the inverse trigono-
metric function can be translated to an equation involving the corresponding trigono-
metric function and that the angle must be in a certain range. For example, if we
know that the point .5; 3/ is on the terminal side of an angle and that 0 < ,
then we know that
y 3
tan. / D D :
x 5
We can use the inverse tangent function to determine (and approximate) the angle
since the inverse tangent function gives an angle (in radian measure) between

and . Since tan. / > 0, we will get an angle between 0 and . So
2 2 2

3
D arctan 0:54042:
5
If we used degree measure, we would get

3
D arctan 30:96376ı:
5
It is important to note that in using the inverse trigonometric functions, we must
be careful with the restrictions on the angles. For example, if we had stated that
5 3
tan.˛/ D and < ˛ < , then the inverse tangent function would not give
3 2
the correct result. We could still use

3
D arctan 0:54042;
5
but now we would have to use this result and the fact that the terminal side of ˛ is
in the third quadrant. So
˛ D C

3
˛ D arctan C
5
˛ 3:68201
3
We should now use a calculator to verify that tan.˛/ D .
5
The relationship between the angles ˛ and is shown in Figure 3.4.
Progress Check 3.5 (Finding an Angle)

Suppose that the point . 2; 5/ is on the terminal side of the angle in standard
5
position and that 0 < 360ı. We then know that tan. / D D 2:5.
2
α
(5, 3)
θ
(−5, −3)
Figure 3.4: Two Angles with the Same Tangent Value
1. Draw a picture of the angle .

1
2. Use a calculator to approximate the value of tan . 2:5/ to three decimal
places.
3. Notice that tan 1 . 2:5/ is a negative angle and cannot equal since is
a positive angle. Use the approximation for tan 1 . 2:5/ to determine an
approximation for to three decimal places.
In the following example, we will determine the exact value of an angle that is
given in terms of an inverse trigonometric function.
Example 3.6 Determining an Exact Value

2
We will determine the exact value of cos arcsin . Notice that we can use
7
a calculator to determine that

2
cos arcsin 0:958315:
7
Even though this is correct to six decimal places, it is not the exact value. We can
use this approximation, however, to check our work below.

2
We let D arcsin . We then know that
7
2
sin. / D and :
7 2 2

We note that since sin. / < 0, we actually know that 0.
2
So we can use the Pythagorean Identity to determine cos2 . / as follows:
cos2 . / C sin2 . / D 1
2
2 2
cos . / D 1
7
45
cos2 . / D
49
p
45
Since 0, we see that cos. / D . That is
2 7
p
2 45
cos arcsin D :
7 7
p
45
We can now use a calculator to verify that 0:958315.
7
Summary of Section 3.1
In this section, we studied the following important concepts and ideas:
The trigonometric functions can be defined using any point on the terminal side
of an angle in standard position. For any point .x; y/ other than the origin on the
terminal side of an angle in standard position, the trigonometric functions of
are defined as:
x y y
cos. / D sin. / D tan. / D ; x ¤ 0
r r x
r r x
sec. / D ;x ¤ 0 csc . / D ;y ¤ 0 cot. / D ; y ¤ 0
x y y
p
where r 2 D x 2 C y 2 and r > 0 and so r D x 2 C y 2 . The Pythagorean Identity
is still true when we use the trigonometric functions of an angle. That is, for any
angle ,
cos2 . / C sin2 . / D 1:
In addition, we still have the inverse trigonometric functions. In particular,
D arcsin.x/ D sin 1 .x/ means sin. / D x

and or 90ı 90ı .
2 2
D arccos.x/ D cos 1 .x/ means cos. / D x and
0 or 0ı 180ı .
D arctan.x/ D tan 1 .x/ means tan. / D x and

< < or 90ı < < 90ı.
2 2
Exercises for Section 3.1
1. In each of the following, the coordinates of a point P on the terminal side of

an angle are given. For each of the following:
Plot the point P in a coordinate system and draw the terminal side of
the angle.
Determine the radius r of the circle centered at the origin that passes
through the point P .
Determine the values of the six trigonometric functions of the angle .
?
(a) P .3; 3/ (d) P .5; 2/ (g) P . 3; 4/
? ?
p
(b) P .5; 8/ (e) P . 1; 4/ (h) P .3; 3 3/
p
(c) P . 2; 2/ (f) P .2 3; 2/ (i) P .2; 1/
2. For each of the following, draw the terminal side of the indicated angle on
a coordinate system and determine the values of the six trigonometric func-
tions of that angle
(a) The terminal side of the angle ˛ is in the first quadrant and
1
sin.˛/ D p .
3
? (b) The terminal side of the angle ˇ is in the second quadrant and
2
cos.ˇ/ D .
3
(c) The terminal side of the angle is in the second quadrant and
1
tan. / D .
2
(d) The terminal side of the angle is in the second quadrant and
1
sin. / D .
3
3. For each of the following, determine an approximation for the angle in
degrees (to three decimal places) when 0ı < 360ı.
(a) The point .3; 5/ is on the terminal side .

(b) The point .2; 4/ is on the terminal side of .

? (c) sin. / D 2 and the terminal side of is in the second quadrant.
3
2
(d) sin. / D and the terminal side of is in the fourth quadrant.
3
? 1
(e) cos. / D and the terminal side of is in the second quadrant.
4
3
(f) cos. / D and the terminal side of is in the third quadrant.
4
4. For each of the angles in Exercise (3), determine the radian measure of if
0 < 2.
5. Determine the exact value of each of the following. Check all results with a
calculator.

1 1
(a) cos arcsin . (d) cos arcsin .
5 5

? 1 2
(b) tan cos .
3
3
(c) sin tan 1 .2/ .
(e) sin arccos .
5
3.2 Right Triangles
Focus Questions
these questions.
How does the cosine relate sides and acute angles in a right triangle?
Why?
How does the sine relate sides and acute angles in a right triangle? Why?
How does the tangent relate sides and acute angles in a right triangle?
Why?
How can we use the cosine, sine, and tangent of an angle in a right
triangle to help determine unknown parts of that triangle?
Beginning Activity
Figure 3.5 shows a typical right triangle. The lengths of the three sides of the right
triangle are labeled as a, b, and c. The angles opposite the sides of lengths a, b,
and c are labeled ˛ (alpha), ˇ (beta), and (gamma), respectively. (Alpha, beta,
and gamma are the first three letters in the Greek alphabet.) The small square with
the angle indicates that this is the right angle in the right triangle. The triangle, of
course, has three sides. We call the side opposite the right angle (the side of length
c in the diagram) the hypotenuse of the right triangle.
When we work with triangles, the angles are usually measured in degrees and
so we would say that is an angle of 90ı .
1. What can we conclude about a, b, and c from the Pythagorean Theorem?
When working with triangles, we usually measure angles in degrees. For the frac-
tional part of the degree measure of an angle, we often used decimals but we also
frequently use minutes and seconds.
2. What is the sum of the angles in a triangle? In this case, what is ˛ C ˇ C ?

3.2. Right Triangles 179
β
c a
α γ
b
Figure 3.5: A typical right triangle
3. What is the sum of the two acute angles in a right triangle. In this case, what
is ˛ C ˇ?
4. How many minutes are in a degree? How many seconds are in a minute?
118:8
5. Determine the solution of the equation 7:3 D correct to the nearest
x
thousandth. (You should be able to show that x 16:274.)
5
6. Determine the solution of the equation sin.32ı/ D correct to the nearest
x
ten-thousandth. (You should be able to show that x 9:4354.)
Introduction
Suppose you want to find the height of a tall object such as a flagpole (or a tree or
a building). It might be inconvenient (or even dangerous) to climb the flagpole and
measure it, so what can you do? It might be easy to measure the length the shadow
the flagpole casts and also the angle determined by the ground level to the sun
(called the angle of elevation of the object) as in Figure 3.6. In this section, we
will learn how to use the trigonometric functions to relate lengths of sides to angles
in right triangles and solve this problem as well as many others.
Figure 3.6: Finding the height of a flagpole (drawing not to scale)
Trigonometric Functions and Right Triangles

We have seen how we determine the values of the trigonometric functions of an an-
gle by placing in standard position and letting .x; y/ be the point of intersection
of the terminal side of angle with a circle of radius r. Then
x r
cos. / D ; sec. / D if x ¤ 0;
r x
y r
sin. / D ; csc. / D if y ¤ 0;
r y
y x
tan. / D if x ¤ 0; cot. / D if y ¤ 0:
x y
In our work with right triangles, we will use only the sine, cosine, and tangent
functions.
Now we will see how to relate the trigonometric functions to angles in right
triangles. Suppose we have a right triangle with sides of length x and y and hy-
potenuse of length r. Let be the angle opposite the side of length y as shown
in Figure 3.7. We can now place our triangle such that the angle is in standard
position in the plane and the triangle will fit into the circle of radius r as shown at
right in Figure 3.8. By the definition of our trigonometric functions we then have
x y y
cos. / D sin. / D tan. / D
r r x
If instead of using x, y, and r, we label y as the length of the side opposite the
acute angle , x as the length of the side adjacent to the acute angle , and r as the
length of the hypotenuse, we get Figure 3.9.
r y
θ
r x
y
θ
x
Figure 3.8: Right triangle in standard
Figure 3.7: A right triangle
position
se
u
ten
side opposite
po
r y angle θ
hy
θ x
side adjacent
to angle θ
Figure 3.9: A right triangle
So we see that
length of side opposite opposite
sin. / D sin. / D
length of hypotenuse hypotenuse
length of side adjacent to adjacent

cos. / D cos. / D
length of hypotenuse hypotenuse
length of side opposite opposite

tan. / D tan. / D
length of side adjacent to adjacent
The equations on the right are convenient abbreviations of the correct equations on
the left.
Progress Check 3.7 (Labeling a Right Triangle)

We must be careful when we use the terms opposite and adjacent because the
meaning of these terms depends on the angle we are using. Use the diagrams
in Figure 3.10 to determine formulas for each of the following in terms of a, b, and
c.
nus e β side nuse β side

te te
po a opposite po
hy c hy c a adjacent
γ α γ to β
α b α b
side adjacent to α side opposite β
Figure 3.10: Labels for a right triangle
cos.˛/ D cos.ˇ/ D
sin.˛/ D sin.ˇ/ D
tan.˛/ D tan.ˇ/ D
We should also note that with the labeling of the right triangle shown in Fig-
ure 3.10, we can use the Pythagorean Theorem and the fact that the sum of the
angles of a triangle is 180 degrees to conclude that
a2 C b 2 D c 2 and ˛ C ˇ C D 180ı
D 90ı
˛ C ˇ D 90ı
Example 3.8 Suppose that one of the acute angles of a right triangle has a measure
of 35ı and that the side adjacent to this angle is 8 inches long. Determine the other
acute angle of the right triangle and the lengths of the other two sides.
Solution. The first thing we do is draw a picture of the triangle. (The picture does
not have to be perfect but it should reasonably reflect the given information.) In
making the diagram, we should also label the unknown parts of the triangle. One
way to do this is shown in the diagram.
θ
c a
ο
35
8 in
One thing we notice is that 35ı C D 90ı and so D 55ı . We can also use the
cosine and tangent of 35ı to determine the values of a and c.
8 a
cos 35ı D tan 35ı D
ı
c ı
8
c cos 35 D 8 8 tan 35 D a
8
cD a 5:60166
cos .35ı/
c 9:76620
Before saying that this example is complete, we should check our results. One way
to do this is to verify that the lengths of the three sides of the right triangle satisfy
the formula for the Pythagorean Theorem. Using the given value for one side and
the calculated values of a and c, we see that
82 C a2 95:379
c 2 95:379
So we see that our work checks with the Pythagorean Theorem.
Solving Right Triangles
What we did in Example 3.8 is what is called solving a right triangle. Please note
that this phrase is misleading because you cannot really “solve” a triangle. How-
ever, since this phrase is a traditional part of the vernacular of trigonometry and
so we will continue to use it. The idea is that if we are given enough information
about the lengths of sides and measures of angles in a right triangle, then we can
determine all of the other values. The next progress check is also an example of
“solving a right triangle.”
Progress Check 3.9 (Solving a Right Triangle)

The length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is 17 feet and the length of one side
of this right triangle is 5 feet. Determine the length of the other side and the two
acute angles for this right triangle.
Hint: Draw a picture and label the third side of the right triangle with a variable
and label the two acute angles as ˛ and ˇ.
Applications of Right Triangles
As the examples have illustrated up to this point, when working on problems in-
volving right triangles (including application problems), we should:
Draw a diagram for the problem.
Identify the things you know about the situation. If appropriate, include this
information in your diagram.
Identify the quantity that needs to be determined and give this quantity a
variable name. If appropriate, include this information in your diagram.
Find an equation that relates what is known to what must be determined. This
will often involve a trigonometric function or the Pythagorean Theorem.
Solve the equation for the unknown. Then think about this solution to make
sure it makes sense in the context of the problem.
If possible, find a way to check the result.
We return to the example given in the introduction to this section on page 179. In
this example, we used the term angle of elevation. This is a common term (as well
as angle of depression) in problems involving triangles. We can define an angle
of elevation of an object to be an angle whose initial side is horizontal and has a
rotation so that the terminal side is above the horizontal. An angle of depression is
then an angle whose initial side is horizontal and has a rotation so that the terminal
side is below the horizontal. See Figure 3.11.
object
ht horizontal
f sig angle of depression
eo
lin line
angle of elevation of s
igh
t
horizontal
object
Figure 3.11: Angle of Elevation and Angle of Depression
Example 3.10 Determining the Height of a Flagpole

Suppose that we want to determine the height of a flagpole and cannot measure the
height directly. Suppose that we measure the length of the shadow of the flagpole
to be 44 feet, 5 inches. In addition, we measure the angle of elevation of the sun to
be 33ı150 .
Solution. The first thing we do is to draw the diagram. In the diagram, we let h
Sun
h
Flag Pole
θ
shadow
x
Figure 3.12: Finding the height of a flagpole (drawing not to scale)
be the height of the flagpole, x be the length of the shadow, and be the angle of
elevation. We are given values for x and , and we see that
h
tan. / D
x
x tan. / D h (1)
So we can now determine the value of h, but we must be careful to use a decimal (or
fractional) value for x (equivalent to 44 feet, 5 inches) and a decimal (or fractional)
value for (equivalent to 33ı 150). So we will use
15 ı

5
x D 44 C and D 33 C :
12 60
Using this and equation (1), we see that
15 ı

5
h D 44 C tan 33 C
12 60
h 29:1208 feet:
The height of the flagpole is about 29.12 feet or 29 feet, 1.4 inches.
Progress Check 3.11 (Length of a Ramp)

A company needs to build a wheelchair accessible ramp to its entrance. The Amer-
icans with Disabilities Act Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities for ramps state
the “The maximum slope of a ramp in new construction shall be 1:12.”
1. The 1:12 guideline means that for every 1 foot of rise in the ramp there must
be 12 feet of run. What is the angle of elevation (in degrees) of such a ramp?
2. If the company’s entrance is 7.5 feet above the level ground, use trigonome-
try to approximate the length of the ramp that the company will need to build
using the maximum slope. Explain your process.
Progress Check 3.12 (Guided Activity – Using Two Right Triangles)

This is a variation of Example 3.19. Suppose that the flagpole sits on top a hill and
that we cannot directly measure the length of the shadow of the flagpole as shown
in Figure 3.19.
Some quantities have been labeled in the diagram. Angles ˛ and ˇ are angles
of elevation to the top of the flagpole from two different points on level ground.
These points are d feet apart and directly in line with the flagpole. The problem
flagpole
h
β α
d x
Figure 3.13: Flagpole on a hill
is to determine h, the height from level ground to the top of the flagpole. The
following measurements have been recorded.
˛ D 43:2ı d D 22:75feet
ı
ˇ D 34:7
Notice that a value for x was not given because it is the distance from the first point
to an imaginary point directly below the flagpole and even with level ground.
Please keep in mind that it is probably easier to write formulas in terms of ˛,
ˇ, and and wait until the end to use the numerical values. For example, we see
that
h
tan.˛/ D and (1)
x
h
tan.ˇ/ D : (2)
d Cx
In equation (1), notice that we know the value of ˛. This means if we can determine
a value for either x or h, we can use equation (1) to determine the value of the other.
We will first determine the value of x.
1. Solve equation (1) for h and then substitute this into equation (2). Call this
equation (3).
2. One of the terms in equation (3) has a denominator. Multiply both sides of
equation (3) by this denominator.
3. Now solve the resulting equation for x (in terms of ˛, ˇ, and d ).

4. Substitute the given values for ˛, ˇ, and d to determine the value of x and
then use this value and equation (1) to determine the value of h.
5. Is there a way to check to make sure the result is correct?

Given enough information about the lengths of sides and measures of angles in a
right triangle, we can determine all of the other values using the following relation-
ships:
opposite
sin. / D
hypotenuse
e
us
adjacent
ten
side opposite cos. / D

po
hypotenuse
r y angle θ
hy
opposite
θ x tan. / D
adjacent
side adjacent
to angle θ
x2 C y2 D r 2

? 1. For each of the following right triangles, determine the value of x correct to
the nearest thousandth.
(a) (c)
x 7
x
47 4.9
6
(b) (d)
x 67 3.1
9.5
7
x
2. One angle in a right triangle is 55ı and the side opposite that angle is 10 feet
long. Determine the length of the other side, the length of the hypotenuse,
and the measure of the other acute angle.
3. One angle in a right triangle is 37:8ı and the length of the hypotenuse is 25
inches. Determine the length of the other two sides of the right triangle.
?
4. One angle in a right triangle is 27ı 120 and the length of the side adjacent to
this angle is 4 feet. Determine the other acute angle in the triangle, the length
of the side opposite this angle, and the length of the hypotenuse.
Note: The notation means that the angle is 27 degrees, 12 seconds. Recall
1
that 1 second is of a degree.
60
5. If we only know the measures of the three angles of a right triangle, ex-
plain why it is not possible to determine the lengths of the sides of this right
triangle.
6. Suppose that we know the measure of one of the acute angles in a right
triangle and we know the length x of the side opposite the angle . Explain
how to determine the length of the side adjacent to the angle and the length
of the hypotenuse.
? 7. In the diagram to the right, deter-
mine the values of a, b, and h to the
nearest thousandth. γ
The given values are: b
a h
ı
˛ D 23
α β θ
ˇ D 140ı c x
cD8
8. A tall evergreen tree has been damaged in a strong wind. The top of the tree
is cracked and bent over, touching the ground as if the trunk were hinged.
The tip of the tree touches the ground 20 feet 6 inches from the base of the
tree (where the tree and the ground meet). The tip of the tree forms an angle
of 17 degrees where it touches the ground. Determine the original height of
the tree (before it broke) to the nearest tenth of a foot. Assume the base of
the tree is perpendicular to the ground.
9. Suppose a person is standing on the top of a building and that she has an
instrument that allows her to measure angles of depression. There are two
points that are 100 feet apart and lie on a straight line that is perpendicular
to the base of the building. Now suppose that she measures the angle of
depression to the closest point to be 35:5ı and that she measures the angle
of depression to the other point to be 29:8ı . Determine the height of the
building.
10. A company has a 35 foot lad-

der that it uses for cleaning the
windows in their building. For
safety reasons, the ladder must
never make an angle of more than
50ı with the ground.
(a) What is the greatest height

that the ladder can reach ladder
on the building if the angle
it makes with the ground is
no more than 50ı.
(b) Suppose the building is 40

ground
feet high. Again, follow-
ing the safety guidelines,
what length of ladder is
needed in order to have the
ladder reach the top of the
building?
3.3. Triangles that Are Not Right Triangles 191
3.3 Triangles that Are Not Right Triangles
Focus Questions
these questions.
What is the Law of Sines?
What information do we need about a triangle to apply the Law of

Sines?
What do we mean by the ambiguous case for the Law of Sines? Why is
it ambiguous?
What is the Law of Cosines?
What information do we need about a triangle to apply the Law of

Cosines?
Introduction
In Section 3.2, we learned how to use the trigonometric functions and given in-
formation about a right triangle to determine other parts of that right triangle. Of
course, there are many triangles without right angles (these triangles are called
oblique triangles). Our next task is to develop methods to relate sides and angles
of oblique triangles. In this section, we will develop two such methods, the Law of
Sines and the Law of Cosines. In the next section, we will learn how to use these
methods in applications.
As with right triangles, we will want some standard notation when working
with general triangles. Our notation will be similar to the what we used for right
triangles. In particular, we will often let the lengths of the three sides of a triangle
be a, b, and c. The angles opposite the sides of length a, b, and c will be labeled
˛, ˇ, and , respectively. See Figure 3.14.
We will sometimes label the vertices of the triangle as A, B, and C as shown
in Figure 3.14.
B
β
c a
α γ
A C
b
Figure 3.14: Standard Labeling for a Triangle
Beginning Activity
Before we state the Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines, we are going to use two
Geogebra apps to explore the relationships about the parts of a triangle. In each
of these apps, a triangle is drawn. The lengths of the sides of the triangle and the
measure for each of the angles in shown. The size and shape of the triangle can be
changed by dragging one (or all) of the points that form the vertices of the triangle.
1. Open the Geogebra app called The Law of Sines at
http://gvsu.edu/s/01B
(a) Experiment by moving the vertices of the triangle and observing what
happens with the lengths and the angles and the computations shown
in the lower left part of the screen.
(b) Use a particular triangle and verify the computations shown in the
lower left part of the screen. Round your results to the nearest thou-
sandth as is done in the app.
(c) Write an equation (or equations) that this app is illustrating. This will
be part of the Law of Sines.
2. Open the Geogebra app called The Law of Cosines at
http://gvsu.edu/s/01C
(a) Experiment by moving the vertices of the triangle and observing what
happens with the lengths and the angles and the computations shown
in the lower left part of the screen.
(b) Use a particular triangle and verify the computations shown in the
lower left part of the screen. Round your results to the nearest thou-
sandth as is done in the app.
(c) Write an equation that this app is illustrating. This will be part of the
Law of Cosines.
The Law of Sines

The first part of the beginning activity was meant to illustrate the Law of Sines.
Following is a formal statement of the Law of Sines.
Law of Sines
In a triangle, if a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides opposite angles
˛, ˇ, and , respectively, then
sin.˛/ sin.ˇ/ sin. /
D D :
a b c
This is equivalent to
a b c
D D :
A proof of the Law of Sines is included at the end of this section.

Please note that the Law of Sines actually has three equations condensed into a
single line. The three equations are:
sin.˛/ sin.ˇ/ sin.˛/ sin. / sin.ˇ/ sin. /

D D D :
a b a c b c
The key to using the Law of Sines is that each equation involves 4 quantities, and
if we know 3 of these quantities, we can use the Law of Sines to determine the
fourth. These 4 quantities are actually two different pairs, where one element of a
pair is an angle and the other element of that pair is the length of the side opposite
that angle. In Figure 3.15, and x form one such pair, and and y are another
such pair. We can write the Law of Sines as follows:
y
x
θ φ
Figure 3.15: Diagram for the Law of Sines
Law of Sines
In a triangle, if x is the length of the side opposite angle and y is the length
of the side opposite angle , then
x y sin. / sin./
D or D :
sin. / sin./ x y
Example 3.13 (Using the Law of Sines)

Suppose that the measures of two angles of a triangle are 25ı and 51:3ı and that
the side opposite the 25ı angle is 12 feet long. We will use the Law of Sines to
determine the other three parts of the triangle. (Remember that we often say that we
are “solving the triangle.”) The first step is to draw a reasonably accurate diagram
of the triangle and label the parts. This is shown in the following diagram.
γ
b a = 12 ft
α = 25 β = 51.3
c
We notice that we know the values of the length of a side and its opposite angles
(a and ˛). Since we also know the value of ˇ, we can use the Law of Sines to
determine b. This is done as follows:

a b
D
sin.˛/ sin.ˇ/
a sin.ˇ/
bD
sin.˛/
12 sin .51:3ı /
bD
sin .25ı /
b 22:160
So we see that the side opposite the 51:3ı angle is about 22.160 feet in length. We
still need to determine and c. We will use the fact that the sum of the angles of a
triangle is equal to 180ı to determine .
˛ C ˇ C D 180ı
25ı C 51:3ı C D 180ı
D 103:7ı
Now that we know , we can use the Law of Sines again to determine c. To do
this, we solve the following equation for c.
a c
D :
sin.˛/ sin. /
We should verify that the result is c 27:587 feet. To check our results, we should
verify that for this triangle,
D D 0:035:
a b c
Progress Check 3.14 (Using the Law of Sines)

Suppose that the measures of two angles of a triangle are 15ı and 135ı and that
the side that is common to these two angles is 71 inches long. Following is a
reasonably accurate diagram for this triangle.
71 in 135
15
Determine the lengths of the other two sides of the triangle and the measure of
the third angle. Hint: First introduce some appropriate notation, determine the
measure of the third angle, and then use the Law of Sines.
Using the Law of Sines to Determine an Angle

As we have stated, an equation for the Law of Sines involves four quantities, two
angles and the lengths of the two sides opposite these angles. In the examples we
have looked at, two angles and one side has been given. We then used the Law of
Sines to determine the length of the other side.
We can run into a slight complication when we want to determine an angle
using the Law of Sines. This can occur when we are given the lengths of two sides
and the measure of an angle opposite one of these sides. The problem is that there
are two different angles between 0ı and 180ı that are solutions of an equation of
the form
sin. / D “a number between 0 and 1”:
For example, consider the equation sin. / D 0:7. We can use the inverse sine
function to determine one solution of this equation, which is
1
1 D sin .0:7/ 44:427ı:
The inverse sine function gives us the solution that is between 0ı and 90ı, that
is, the solution in the first quadrant. There is a second solution to this equation
in the second quadrant, that is, between 90ı and 180ı. This second solution is
2 D 180ı 1 . So in this case,
1
2 D 180ı sin .0:7/ 135:573ı:
The next two progress checks will be guided activities through examples where we
will need to use the Law of Sines to determine an angle.
Progress Check 3.15 (Using the Law of Sines for an Angle)

Suppose a triangle has a side of length 2 feet that is an adjacent side for an angle of
40ı . Is it possible for the side opposite the 40ı angle to have a length of 1.7 feet?
To try to answer this, we first draw a reasonably accurate diagram of the situa-
tion as shown below.
t
2f
40
The horizontal line is not a side of the triangle (yet). For now, we are just using it as
one of the sides of the 40ı angle. In addition, we have not drawn the side opposite
the 40ı angle since just by observation, it appears there could be two possible ways
to draw a side of length 1.7 feet. Now we get to the details.
1. Let be the angle opposite the side of length 2 feet. Use the Law of Sines
to determine sin. /.
2. Use the inverse sine function to determine one solution (rounded to the near-
est tenth of a degree) for . Call this solution 1 .
3. Let 2 D 180ı 1 . Explain why (or verify that) 2 is also a solution of the
equation in part (1).
This means that there could be two triangles that satisfy the conditions of the prob-
lem.
4. Determine the third angle and the third side when the angle opposite the side
of length 2 is 1 .
of length 2 is 2 .
There are times when the Law of Sines will show that there are no triangles
that meet certain conditions. We often see this when an equation from the Law of
Sines produces an equation of the form
sin. / D p;
where p is real number but is not between 0 and 1. For example, changing the
conditions in Progress Check 3.15 so that we want a triangle that has a side of
length 2 feet that is an adjacent side for an angle of 40ı and the side opposite the
40ı angle is to have a length of 1 foot. As in Progress Check 3.15, we let be the
angle opposite the side of length 2 feet and use the Law of Sines to obtain
sin. / sin .40ı/

D
2 1
2 sin .40ı /
sin. / D 1:2856
1
There is no such angle and this
shows that there is no triangle that t
meets the specified conditions. The 2f 1 ft
diagram on the right illustrates the sit- 40
uation.
Progress Check 3.16 (Using the Law of Sines for an Angle)

Suppose a triangle has a side of length
2 feet that is an adjacent side for an
angle of 40ı. Is it possible for the side t
2f
ı
opposite the 40 angle to have a length 40
of 3 feet?
The only difference between this and Progress Check 3.15 is in the length of
the side opposite the 40ı angle. We can use the same diagram. By observation, it
appears there is likely only way to draw a side of length 3 feet. Now we get to the
details.
1. Let be the angle opposite the side of length 2 feet. Use the Law of Sines
to determine sin. /.
2. Use the inverse sine function to determine one solution (rounded to the near-
est tenth of a degree) for . Call this solution 1 .
3. Let 2 D 180ı 1 . Explain why (or verify that) 2 is also a solution of the
equation in part (1).
This means that there could be two triangles that satisfy the conditions of the prob-
lem.
of length 2 is 1 .
5. Now determine the sum 40ı C 2 and explain why this is not possible in a
triangle.
Law of Cosines
We have seen how the Law of Sines can be used to determine information about
sides and angles in oblique triangles. However, to use the Law of Since we need
to know three pieces of information. We need to know an angle and the length of
its opposite side, and in addition, we need to know another angle or the length of
another side. If we have three different pieces of information such as the lengths
of two sides and the included angle between them or the lengths of the three sides,
then we need a different method to determine the other pieces of information about
the triangle. This is where the Law of Cosines is useful.
We first explored the Law of Cosines in the beginning activity for this section.
Following is the usual formal statement of the Law of Cosines. A proof of the Law
of Cosines is included at the end of this section.
Law of Cosines
In a triangle, if a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides opposite angles
˛, ˇ, and , respectively, then
c 2 D a2 C b 2 2ab cos. /
b 2 D a2 C c 2 2ac cos.ˇ/
2 2 2
a Db Cc 2bc cos.˛/
As with the Law of Sines, there are three equations in the Law of Cosines.
However, we can remember this with only one equation since the key to using the
Law of Cosines is that this law involves 4 quantities. These 4 quantities are the
lengths of the three sides and the measure of one of the angles of the triangle as
shown in Figure 3.16.
x z
θ
y
Figure 3.16: Diagram for the Law of Cosines
In this diagram, x, y, and z are the lengths of the three sides and is the angle
between the sides x and y. Theta can also be thought of as the angle opposite side
z. So we can write the Law of Cosines as follows:
Law of Cosines
In a triangle, if x, y, and z are the lengths of the sides of a triangle and
is the angle between the sides x and y as in Figure 3.16, then
z2 D x2 C y 2 2xy cos. /:
The idea is that if you know 3 of these 4 quantities, you can use the Law of
Cosines to determine the fourth quantity. The Law of Cosines involves the lengths
of all three sides of a triangle and one angle. It states that:
The square of the side opposite an angle is the sum of the squares of the two
sides of the angle minus two times the product of the two sides of the angle
and the cosine of the angle.
We will explore the use of the Law of Cosines in the next progress check.
Progress Check 3.17 (Using the Law of Cosines

Two sides of a triangle have length 2.5 meters and 3.5 meters, and the angle formed
by these two sides has a measure of 60ı . Determine the other parts of the triangle.
α
The first step is to draw a reasonably
m
accurate diagram of the triangle and c

3.5
label the parts. This is shown in the

diagram on the right.
60 β
2.5 m
1. Use the Law of Cosines to determine the length of the side opposite the 60ı
angle. (c).
We now know an angle (60ı ) and the length of its opposite side. We can use the
Law of Sines to determine the other two angles. However, remember that we must
be careful when using the Law of Sines to determine an angle since the equation
may produce two angles.
2. Use the Law of Sines to determine sin.˛/. Determine the two possible values
for ˛ and explain why one of them is not possible.
3. Use the fact that the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180ı to determine the
angle ˇ.
4. Use the Law of Sines to check the results.
We used the Law of Sines to determine two angles in Progress Check 3.17
and saw that we had to be careful since the equation for the Law of Sines often
produces two possible angles. We can avoid this situation by using the Law of
Cosines to determine the angles instead. This is because an equation of the form
cos. / D p, where p is a real number between 0 and 1 has only one solution for
between 0ı and 180ı. The idea is to solve an equation from the Law of Cosines
for the cosine of the angle. In Progress Check 3.17, we first determined c 2 D 9:75
or c 3:12250.. We then could have proceeded as follows:
2:52 D 3:52 C 3:122502 2.3:5/.3:12250/ cos.˛/

2 2
2.3:5/.3:12250/ cos.˛/ D 3:5 C 3:12250 2:52
15:75
cos.˛/ D 0:720577
21:8575
We can then use the inverse cosine function and obtain ˛ 43:898ı , which is
what we obtained in Progress Check 3.17.
We can now use the fact that the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180ı to deter-
mine ˇ but for completeness, we could also use the Law of Cosines to determine
ˇ and then use the angle sum for the triangle as a check on our work.
Progress Check 3.18 (Using the Law of Cosines)

The three sides of a triangle have lengths of 3 feet, 5 feet, and 6 feet. Use the Law
of Cosines to determine each of the three angles.
Appendix – Proof of the Law of Sines

We will use what we know about right triangles to prove the Law of Sines. The key
idea is to create right triangles from the diagram for a general triangle by drawing
an altitude of length h from one of the vertices. We first note that if ˛, ˇ, and are
the three angles of a triangle, then
˛ C ˇ C D 180ı :
This means that at most one of the three angles can be an obtuse angle (between
90ı and 180ı), and hence, at least two of the angles must be acute (less than 90ı).
Figure 3.17 shows the two possible cases for a general triangle. The triangle on the
left has three acute angles and the triangle on the right has two acute angles (˛ and
ˇ) and one obtuse angle ( ).
β β
c a c
a
α γ α γ
b b
Figure 3.17: General Triangles
We will now prove the Law of Sines for the case where all three angles of the
triangle are acute angles. The proof for the case where one angle of the triangle is
obtuse is included in the exercises. The key idea is to create right triangles from
the diagram for a general triangle by drawing altitudes in the triangle as shown in
Figure 3.18 where an altitude of length h is drawn from the vertex of angle ˇ and
an altitude of length k is drawn from the vertex of angle .
β β
c a c a
h
k
α γ α γ
b b
Figure 3.18: Diagram for the Proof of the Law of Sines
Using the right triangles in the diagram on the left, we see that
h h
sin.˛/ D sin. / D
c a
From this, we can conclude that
h D c sin.˛/ h D a sin. / (1)

Using the two equations in (1), we can use the fact that both of the right sides are
equal to h to conclude that
c sin.˛/ D a sin. /:
Now, dividing both sides of the last equation by ac, we see that
sin.˛/ sin. /
D : (2)
a c
We now use a similar argument using the triangle on the right in Figure 3.18. We
see that
k k
sin.˛/ D sin.ˇ/ D
b a
From this, we obtain
k D b sin.˛/ k D a sin.ˇ/
and so
b sin.˛/ D a sin.ˇ/
sin.˛/ sin.ˇ/
D (3)
a b
We can now use equations (2) and (3) to complete the proof of the Law of Sines,
which is
D D :
a b c
Appendix – Proof of the Law of Cosines

As with the Law of Sines, we will use results about right triangles to prove the Law
of Cosines. We will also use the distance formula. We will start with a general
triangle with a, b, and c representing the lengths of the sides opposite the angles
˛, ˇ, and , respectively. We will place the angle in standard position in the
coordinate system as shown in Figure 3.19.
In this diagram, the angle is shown as an obtuse angle but the proof would be
the same if was an acute angle. We have labeled the vertex of angle ˛ as A with
coordinates .x; y/ and we have drawn a line from A perpendicular to the x-axis.
So from the definitions of the trigonometric functions in Section 3.1, we see that
x y
cos. / D sin. / D
b b
x D b cos. / y D b sin. / (4)
A(x, y)
α
c
b
γ
β
a (a, 0)
Figure 3.19: Diagram for the Law of Cosines
We now use the distance formula with the points A and the vertex of angle ˇ, which
has coordinates .a; 0/. This gives
q
cD .x a/2 C .y 0/2
c 2 D .x a/2 C y 2
c2 D x 2 2ax C a2 C y 2
We now substitute the values for x and y in equation (4) and obtain
c 2 D b 2 cos2 . / 2ab cos. / C a2 C b 2 sin2 . /

c 2 D a2 C b 2 cos2 . / C b 2 sin2 . / 2ab cos. /
c 2 D a2 C b 2 cos2 . / C sin2 . /

2ab cos. /
We can now use the last equation and the fact that cos2 . / C sin2 . / D 1 to
conclude that
c 2 D a2 C b 2 2ab cos. /:
This proves one of the equations in the Law of Cosines. The other two equations
can be proved in the same manner by placing each of the other two angles in stan-
dard position.

The Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines can be used to determine the lengths of
sides of a triangle and the measure of the angles of a triangle.
r φ
q
θ
p
The Law of Sines states that if q is the length of the side opposite the angle and
p is the length of the side opposite the angle , then
sin. / sin./
D :
q p
The Law of Cosines states that if p, q, and r are the lengths of the sides of a
triangle and is the angles opposite the side q, then
q2 D p2 C r 2 2pr cos. /:
Each of the equations in the Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines involves four
variables. So if we know the values of three of the variables, then we can use the
appropriate equation to solve for the fourth variable.
For Exercises (1) through (4), use the Law of Sines.
? 1. Two angles of a triangle are 42ı and 73ı. The side opposite the 73ı angle is
6.5 feet long. Determine the third angle of the triangle and the lengths of the
other two sides.
2. A triangle has a side that is 4.5 meters long and this side is adjacent to an
angle of 110ı. In addition, the side opposite the 110ı angle is 8 meters long.
Determine the other two angles of the triangle and the length of the third
side.
? 3. A triangle has a side that is 5 inches long that is adjacent to an angle of 61ı.
The side opposite the 61ı angle is 4.5 inches long. Determine the other two
angles of the triangle and the length of the third side.
4. In a given triangle, the side opposite an angle of 107ı is 18 inches long. One
of the sides adjacent to the 107ı angle is 15.5 inches long. Determine the
other two angles of the triangle and the length of the third side.
For Exercises (5) through (6), use the Law of Cosines.
? 5. The three sides of a triangle are 9 feet long, 5 feet long, and 7 feet long.
Determine the three angles of the triangle.
6. A triangle has two sides of lengths 8.5 meters and 6.8 meters. The angle
formed by these two sides is 102ı . Determine the length of the third side
and the other two angles of the triangle.
For the remaining exercises, use an appropriate method to solve the problem.
7. Two angles of a triangle are 81:5ı and 34ı . The length of the side opposite
the third angle is 8.8 feet. Determine the third angle and the lengths of the
other two sides of the triangle.
8. In the diagram to the right, deter-

mine the value of (to the near-
est hundredth of a degree) and
determine the values of h and d
(to the nearest thousandth) if it is
given that
aD4 bD8
c D 10 D 26ı
9. In the diagram to the right, it is given

that:
C
The length of AC is 2.
D
The length of BC is 2. A
†ACB D 40ı .
†CAD D 20ı . B
†CBD D 45ı .
Determine the lengths of AB and AD to the nearest thousandth.
3.4. Applications of Triangle Trigonometry 207
3.4 Applications of Triangle Trigonometry

Focus Questions
these questions.
How do we use the Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines to help solve
applied problems that involve triangles?
How do we determine the area of a triangle?
What is Heron’s Law for the area of a triangle?
In Section 3.2, we used right triangles to solve some applied problems. It

should then be no surprise that we can use the Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines
to solve applied problems involving triangles that are not right triangles.
In most problems, we will first draw a rough diagram or picture showing the
triangle or triangles involved in the problem. We then need to label the known
quantities. Once that is done, we can see if there is enough information to use the
Law of Sines or the Law of Cosines. Remember that each of these laws involves
four quantities. If we know the value of three of those four quantities, we can use
that law to determine the fourth quantity.
We begin with the example in Progress Check 3.12. The solution of this prob-
lem involved some complicated work with right triangles and some algebra. We
will now solve this problem using the results from Section 3.3.
Example 3.19 (Height to the Top of a Flagpole)

Suppose that the flagpole sits on top a hill and that we cannot directly measure the
length of the shadow of the flagpole as shown in Figure 3.19.
Some quantities have been labeled in the diagram. Angles ˛ and ˇ are angles
of elevation to the top of the flagpole from two different points on level ground.
These points are d feet apart and directly in line with the flagpole. The problem
is to determine h, the height from level ground to the top of the flagpole. The
following measurements have been recorded.
˛ D 43:2ı d D 22:75feet
ı
ˇ D 34:7
Figure 3.20: Flagpole on a hill
We notice that if we knew either length BC or BD in 4BDC , then we could use

right triangle trigonometry to determine the length CD, which is equal to h. Now
look at 4ABC . We are given the measure of angle ˇ. However, we also know the
measure of angle ˛. Because they form a straight angle, we have
†ABC C ˛ D 180ı:
Hence, †ABC D 180ı 43:2ı D 136:8ı. We now know two angles in 4ABC
and hence, we can determine the third angle as follows:
ˇ C †ABC C †ACB D 180ı

34:7ı C 136:8ı C †ACB D 180ı
†ACB D 8:5ı
We now know all angles in 4ABC and the length of one side. We can use the Law
of Sines. We have
BC 22:75
D
sin .34:7ı / sin .8:5ı /
22:75 sin .34:7ı /
BC D 87:620
sin .8:5ı /
We can now use the right triangle 4BDC to determine h as follows:
h
D sin 43:2ı

BC
h D BC sin 43:2ı 59:980

So the top of the flagpole is 59.980 feet above the ground. This is the same answer
we obtained in Progress Check 3.12.
Progress Check 3.20 (An Application)

A bridge is to be built across a river.
The bridge will go from point A to
A
point B in the diagram on the right.
Using a transit (an instrument to mea-
sure angles), a surveyor measures an-
river
gle ABC to be 94:2ı and measures
angle BCA to be 48:5ı . In addition,
the distance from B to C is measured B C
98.5 ft
to be 98.5 feet. How long will the
bridge from point B to point A be?
Area of a Triangle
We will now develop a few different ways to calculate the area of a triangle. Per-
haps the most familiar formula for the area is the following:
The area A of a triangle is

1
AD bh;
2
where b is the length of the base of a triangle and h is the length of the altitude
that is perpendicular to that base.
The triangles in Figure 3.21 illustrate the use of the variables in this formula.
h h
b b
Figure 3.21: Diagrams for the Formula for the Area of a Triangle
A proof of this formula for the area of a triangle depends on the formula for
the area of a parallelogram and is included in Appendix C.
Progress Check 3.21 (The Area of a Triangle)

Suppose that the length of two sides
of a triangle are 5 meters and 7 meters 5m
and that the angle formed by these two h
ı
sides is 26:5 . See the diagram on the 26.5
7m
right.
For this problem, we are using the side of length 7 meters as the base. The altitude
of length h that is perpendicular to this side is shown.
1. Use right triangle trigonometry to determine the value of h.
2. Determine the area of this triangle.
One purpose of Progress Check 3.21 was to illustrate that if we know the length
of two sides of a triangle and the angle formed by these two sides, then we can
determine the area of that triangle.
The Area of a Triangle

The area of a triangle equals one-half the product of two of its sides times the
sine of the angle formed by these two sides.
Progress Check 3.22 (Proof of the Formula for the Area of a Triangle)
In the diagram on the right, b is the
length of the base of a triangle, a is a
the length of another side, and is the h
angle formed by these two sides. We θ
b
let A be the area of the triangle.
Follow the procedure illustrated in Progress Check 3.21 to prove that
1
A D ab sin. /:
2
Explain why this proves the formula for the area of a triangle.
There is another common formula for the area of a triangle known as Heron’s
Formula named after Heron of Alexandria (circa 75 CE). This formula shows that
the area of a triangle can be computed if the lengths of the three sides of the triangle
are known.
Heron’s Formula
The area A of a triangle with sides of length a, b, and c is given by the formula
p
A D s.s a/.s b/.s c/;
1
where s D .a C b C c/.
2
For example, suppose that the lengths of the three sides of a triangle are a D
3 ft, b D 5 ft, and c D 6 ft. Using Heron’s Formula, we get
1 p
s D .a C b C c/ AD s.s a/.s b/.s c/
2 p
sD7 A D 7.7 3/.7 5/.7 6/
p
A D 42
This fairly complex formula is actually derived from the previous formula for
the area of a triangle and the Law of Cosines. We begin our exploration of the
proof of this formula in Progress Check 3.23.
Progress Check 3.23 (Heron’s Formula)

Suppose we have a triangle as shown in
B
the diagram on the right. β
1. Use the Law of Cosines that in- c a
volves the angle and solve this
formula for cos. /. This gives a
formula for cos. / in terms of a, γ
α
b, and c. A C
b
2. Use the Pythagorean Identity cos2 . / C sin2 . / D 1 to write sin. / in terms

of cos2 . /. Substitute for cos2 . / using the formula in part (1). This gives
a formula for sin. / in terms of a, b, and c. (Do not do any algebraic impli-
cation.)
1
3. We also know that a formula for the area of this triangle is A D ab sin. /.
2
Substitute for sin. / using the formula in (2). (Do not do any algebraic
simplification.) This gives a formula for the area A in terms of a, b, and c.
The formula obtained in Progress Check 3.23 was

s
2
a2 C b 2 c 2

1
A D ab 1
2 2ab
This is a formula for the area of a triangle in terms of the lengths of the three sides
of the triangle. It does not look like Heron’s Formula, but we can use some sub-
stantial algebra to rewrite this formula to obtain Heron’s Formula. This algebraic
work is completed in the appendix for this section.
Appendix – Proof of Heron’s Formula

The formula for the area of a triangle obtained in Progress Check 3.23 was
s
2
a2 C b 2 c 2

1
A D ab 1
2 2ab
We now complete the algebra to show that this is equivalent to Heron’s formula.
The first step is to rewrite the part under the square root sign as a single fraction.
s
2
a2 C b 2 c 2

1
A D ab 1
2 2ab
s 2
1 .2ab/2 a2 C b 2 c2
D ab
2 .2ab/2
q 2
1 .2ab/2 a2 C b 2 c2
D ab
2q 2ab
2
.2ab/2 a2 C b 2 c2
D
4
Squaring both sides of the last equation, we obtain

2
2 .2ab/2 a2 C b 2 c2
A D :
16
The numerator on the right side of the last equation is a difference of squares. We
will now use the difference of squares formula, x 2 y 2 D .x y/.x C y/ to factor
the numerator.
2
2 .2ab/2
a2 C b 2 c 2
A D
16
a2 C b 2 c 2 2ab C a2 C b 2 c 2

2ab
D
16
a2 C 2ab b 2 C c 2 a2 C 2ab C b 2 c 2

D
16
We now notice that a2 C 2ab b 2 D .a b/2 and a2 C 2ab C b 2 D .a C b/2 .

So using these in the last equation, we have
b/2 C c 2 .a C b/2 c 2

.a
A2 D
16
.a b/2 c 2 .a C b/2 c 2

D
16
We can once again use the difference of squares formula as follows:
.a b/2 c 2 D .a b c/.a b C c/
2 2
.a C b/ c D .a C b c/.a C b C c/
Substituting this information into the last equation for A2 , we obtain
.a b c/.a b C c/.a C b c/.a C b C c/

A2 D :
16
1
Since s D .a C b C c/, 2s D a C b C c. Now notice that
2
.a b c/ D a C b C c a bCc D aCbCc 2b
D a C b C c 2a D 2s 2b
D 2s 2a
aCb c D aCbCc 2c a C b C c D 2s
D 2s 2c
So
.a b c/.a b C c/.a C b c/.a C b C c/

A2 D
16
.2s 2a/.2s 2b/.2s 2c/.2s/
D
16
16s.s a/.s b/.s c/
D
16
D s.s a/.s b/.s c/
p
A D s.s a/.s b/.s c/
This completes the proof of Heron’s formula.

How to use right triangle trigonometry, the Law of Sines, and the Law of
Cosines to solve applied problems involving triangles.
Three ways to determine the area A of a triangle.
1
* A D bh, where b is the length of the base and h is the length of the
2
altitude.
1
* A D ab sin. /, where a and b are the lengths of two sides of the triangle
2
and is the angle formed by the sides of length a and b.
* Heron’s Formula. If a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides of a triangle
1
and s D .a C b C c/, then
2
p
A D s.s a/.s b/.s c/:

?
1. A ski lift is to be built along the side of a mountain from point A to point B
in the following diagram. We wish to determine the length of this ski lift.
side of a
mountain
A 800 ft
C
A surveyor determines the measurement of angle BAC to be 155:6ı and

then measures a distance of 800 feet from Point A to Point C . Finally, she
determines the measurement of angle BCA to be 17:2ı . What is the length
of the ski lift (from point A to point B)?
? 2. A boat sails from Muskegon bound for Chicago, a sailing distance of 121
miles. The boat maintains a constant speed of 15 miles per hour. After
encountering high cross winds the crew finds itself off course by 20ı after 4
hours. A crude picture is shown in the following diagram, where ˛ D 20ı .
Muskegon
α
Lake Michigan
Chicago
(a) How far is the sailboat from Chicago at this time?

(b) What is the degree measure of the angle (to the nearest tenth) in the
diagram? Through what angle should the boat turn to correct its course
and be heading straight to Chicago?
(c) Assuming the boat maintains a speed of 15 miles per hour, how much
time have they added to their trip by being off course?
3. Two trees are on oppo-

site sides of a river. It
is known that the height taller
of the shorter of the two tree β
trees is 13 meters. A per- shorter
son makes the following α tree
angle measurements:
The angle of elevation from the base of the shorter tree to the top of the
taller tree is ˛ D 20ı.
The angle of elevation from the top of the shorter tree to the top of the
taller tree is ˇ D 12ı .
Determine the distance between the bases of the two trees and the height of
the taller tree.
4. One of the original Seven Wonders of the World, the Great Pyramid of Giza
(also known as the Pyramid of Khufu or the Pyramid of Cheops), was be-
lieved to have been built in a 10 to 20 year period concluding around 2560
B.C.E. It is also believed that the original height of the pyramid was 146.5
meters but that it is now shorter due to erosion and the loss of some topmost
stones. 1
To determine its current height, the angle of elevation from a distance of 30
meters from the base of the pyramid was measured to be 46:12ı , and then the
angle of elevation was measured to be 40:33ı from a distance of 60 meters
from the base of the pyramid as shown in the following diagram. Use this
information to determine the height h of the pyramid. (138.8 meters)
46.12
h
40.33
30 m
60 m
1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza
5. Two sides of a triangle have length 2.5 α

meters and 3.5 meters, and the angle
m
formed by these two sides has a mea- c
3.5
sure of 60ı . Determine the area of the
triangle. Note: This is the triangle in
Progress Check 3.17 on page 200. 60 β
2.5 m
6. A field has the shape of a quadrilateral that is not a parallelogram. As shown

in the following diagram, three sides measure 50 yards, 60 yards, and 70
yards. Due to some wetland along the fourth side, the length of the fourth
side could not be measured directly. Two angles shown in the diagram mea-
sure 127ı and 132ı.
60 yards o
132
o
127
70
s
ya
rd
rd
ya
s
50
wetland
Determine the length of the fourth side of the quadrilateral, the measures of
the other two angles in the quadrilateral, and the area of the quadrilateral.
Lengths must be accurate to the nearest hundredth of a yard, angle measures
must be correct to the nearest hundredth of a degree, and the area must be
correct to the nearest hundredth of a square yard.
3.5 Vectors from a Geometric Point of View
Focus Questions
these questions.
What is a vector?
How do we use the geometric form of vectors to find the sum of two
vectors?
How do we use the geometric form of vectors to find a scalar multiple

of a vector?
How do we use the geometric form of vectors to find the difference of

two vectors?
What is the angle between two vectors?
Why is force a vector and how do we use vectors and triangles to deter-
mine forces acting on an object?
We have all had the experience of dropping something and watching it fall to
the ground. What is happening, of course, is that the force of gravity is causing the
object to fall to the ground. In fact, we experience the force of gravity everyday
simply by being on Earth. Each person’s weight is a measure of the force of gravity
since pounds are a unit of force. So when a person weighs 150 pounds, it means
that gravity is exerting a force of 150 pounds straight down on that person. Notice
that we described this with a quantity and a direction (straight down). Such a
quantity (with magnitude and direction) is called a vector.
Now suppose that person who weighs 150 pounds is standing on a hill. In
mathematics, we simplify the situation and say that the person is standing on an
inclined plane as shown in Figure 3.22. (By making the hill a straight line, we
simplify the mathematics involved.) In the diagram in Figure 3.22, an object is on
the inclined plane at the point P . The inclined plane makes an angle of with the
horizontal. The vector w shows the weight of the object (force of gravity, straight
down). The diagram also shows two other vectors. The vector b is perpendicular
3.5. Vectors from a Geometric Point of View 219
a P
θ b
θ
w
Figure 3.22: Inclined Plane
to the plane and represents the force that the object exerts on the plane. The vector
a is perpendicular to b and parallel to the inclined plane. This vector represents the
force of gravity along the plane. In this and the next section, we will learn more
about these vectors and how to determine the magnitudes of these vectors. We will
also see that with our definition of the addition of two vectors that w D a C b.
Definitions
There are some quantities that require only a number to describe them. We call this
number the magnitude of the quantity. One such example is temperature since we
describe this with only a number such as 68 degrees Fahrenheit. Other such quan-
tities are length, area, and mass. These types of quantities are often called scalar
quantities. However, there are other quantities that require both a magnitude and
a direction. One such example is force, and another is velocity. We would describe
a velocity with something like 45 miles per hour northwest. Velocity and force are
examples of a vector quantity. Other examples of vectors are acceleration and
displacement.
Some vectors are closely associated with scalars. In mathematics and science,
we make a distinction between speed and velocity. Speed is a scalar and we would
say something like our speed is 65 miles per hour. However, if we used a velocity,
we would say something like 65 miles per hour east. This is different than a veloc-
ity of 65 miles per hour north even though in both cases, the speed is 65 miles per
hour.
Definition. A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. A

scalar is a quantity that has magnitude only.
Geometric Representation of Vectors

Vectors can be represented geomet-
rically by arrows (directed line seg-
ments). The arrowhead indicates the
direction of the vector, and the length terminal point
of the arrow describes the magnitude Q
of the vector. A vector with initial v
point P (the tail of the arrow) and ter- P
minal point Q (the tip of the arrow- initial point
head) can be represented by
!
PQ; v; or ! v:
!
We often write v D PQ. In this text, we will use boldface font to designate a
vector. When writing with pencil and paper, we always use an arrow above the
letter (such as !v ) to designate a vector. The magnitude (or norm or length) of
the vector v is designated by jvj. It is important to remember that jvj is a number
that represents the magnitude or length of the vector v.
According to our definition, a vector possesses the attributes of length (magni-
tude) and direction, but position is not mentioned. So we will consider two vectors
to be equal if they have the same magnitude and direction. For example, if two
different cars are both traveling at 45 miles per hour northwest (but in different
locations), they have equal velocity vectors. We make a more formal definition.
Definition. Two vectors are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude
and the same direction. When the vectors v and w are equal, we write v D w.
Progress Check 3.24 (Equal and Unequal Vectors)

In each of the following diagrams, a vector v is shown next to four other vectors.
Which (if any) of these four vectors are equal to the vector v?
(a) (b)
v v w
u
(c) (d)
v v b
a
Operations on Vectors
Scalar Multiple of a Vector
Doubling a scalar quantity is simply a matter of multiplying its magnitude by 2.
For example, if a container has 20 ounces of water and the amount of water is
doubled, it will then have 40 ounces of water. What do we mean by doubling a
vector? The basic idea is to keep the same direction and multiply the magnitude by
2. So if an object has a velocity of 5 feet per second southeast and a second object
has a velocity of twice that, the second object will have a velocity of 10 feet per
second in the southeast direction. In this case, we say that we multiplied the vector
by the scalar 2. We now make a definition that also takes into account that a scalar
can be negative.
Definition. For any vector v and any scalar c, the vector cv (called a scalar
multiple of the vector v) is a vector whose magnitude is jcj times the magni-
tude of the vector v. That is,
jcvj D jcjjvj:
Note: In this equation, jcj is the absolute value of the scalar c. Care must
be taken not to confuse this with the notation jvj, which is the magnitude of
the vector v. This is one reason it is important to have a notation that clearly
indicates when we are working with a vector or a scalar. Also, using this
definition, we see that
If c > 0, then the direction of cv is the same as the direction of v.
If c < 0, then the direction of cv is the opposite of the direction of v.
If c D 0, then cv D 0v D 0.
The vector 0 is called the zero vector and the zero vector has no magnitude
!
and no direction. We sometimes write 0 for the zero vector.
Addition of Vectors
We illustrate how to add vectors with two displacement vectors. As with velocity
and speed, there is a distinction between displacement and distance. Distance is a
scalar. So we might say that we have traveled 2 miles. Displacement, on the other
hand, is a vector consisting of a distance and a direction. So the vectors 2 miles
north and 2 miles east are different displacement vectors.
Now if we travel 3 miles north and then v

travel 2 miles east, we end at a point that
defines a new displacement vector. See
the diagram to the right. In this diagram,
u u+v
u is “3 miles north” and v is “2 miles
east.” The vector sum u C v goes from
the initial point of u to the terminal point
of v.
Definition. The sum of two vectors is defined as follows: We position the

vectors so that the initial point of w coincides with the terminal point of v.
The vector v C w is the vector whose initial point coincides with the initial
point of v and whose terminal point coincides with the terminal point of w.
w
v+w
v
The vector v C w is called the sum or resultant of the vectors v and w.
In the definition, notice that the vectors v, w, and v C w are placed so that the result
is a triangle. The lengths of the sides of that triangle are the magnitudes of these
sides jvj, jwj, and jv C wj. If we place the two vectors v and w so that their initial
points coincide, we can use a parallelogram to add the two vectors. This is shown
in Figure 3.23.
v
v+w
v
Figure 3.23: Sum of Two Vectors Using a Parallelogram
Notice that the vector v forms a pair of opposite sides of the parallelogram as does
the vector w.
Progress Check 3.25 (Operations on Vectors)

The following diagram shows two vectors, v and w. Draw the following vectors:
(a) v C w (b) 2v (c) 2v C w (d) 2w (e) 2w C v
v w
Subtraction of Vectors
Before explaining how to subtract vectors, we will first explain what is meant by the
“negative of a vector.” This works similarly to the negative of a real number. For
example, we know that when we add 3 to 3, the result is 0. That is, 3 C . 3/ D 0.
We want something similar for vec-

tors. For a vector w, the idea is to use
the scalar multiple . 1/w. The vec-
w
=0
=−
tor . 1/w has the same magnitude as

w
)
1)w
−w
w but has the opposite direction of w.

+(
(−
We define w to be . 1/w. Figure

w
shows that when we add w to w, the

terminal point of the sum is the same Figure 3.24: The Sum of a Vector
as the initial point of the sum and so and Its Negative
the result is the zero vector. That is,
w C . w/ D 0.
We are now in a position to define subtraction of vectors. The idea is much

the same as subtraction of real numbers in that for any two real numbers a and b,
a b D a C . b/.
Definition. For any two vectors v and w, the difference between v and w is
denoted by v w and is defined as follows:
v w D v C . w/:
−w
v
v−w
We also say that we are subtracting the vector w from the vector v.
Progress Check 3.26 (Operations on Vectors)

The following diagram shows two vectors, v and w. Draw the following vectors:
(a) w (b) v w (c) v (d) w v
v w
The Angle Between Two Vectors

We have seen that we can use triangles to help us add or subtract two vectors. The
lengths of the sides of the triangle are the magnitudes of certain vectors. Since we
are dealing with triangles, we will also use angles determined by the vectors.
Definition. The angle between vectors is the angle formed by these two
vectors (with 0ı 180ı ) when they have the same initial point.
So in the diagram on the left in Figure 3.25, the angle is the angle between
the vectors v and w. However, when we want to determine the sum of two angles,
we often form the parallelogram determined by the two vectors as shown in the
diagram on the right in Figure 3.25. (See page 427 in Appendix C for a summary
of properties of a parallelogram.) We then will use the angle 180ı and the Law
of Cosines since we the two sides of the triangle are the lengths of v and w and the
included angle is 180ı . We will explore this in the next progress check.
w w w
v+ w
ο−θ
θ θ 0
18
v v
Figure 3.25: Angle Between Two Vectors
Progress Check 3.27 (The Sum of Two Vectors)

Suppose that the vectors a and b have magnitudes of 80 and 60, respectively, and
that the angle between the two vectors is 53 degrees. In Figure 3.26, we have
drawn the parallelogram determined by these two vectors and have labeled the
vertices for reference.
D a C
b
b
θ
A a B
Figure 3.26: Diagram for Progress Check 3.27

Remember that a vector is determined by its magnitude and direction. We will

determine ja C bj and the measure of the angle between a and a C b.
1. Determine the measure of †ABC .
2. In 4ABC , the length of side AB is jaj D 80 and the length of side BC is

jbj D 60. Use this triangle and the Law of Cosines to determine the length
of the third side, which is ja C bj.
3. Determine the measure of the angle between a and a C b. This is †CAB in

4ABC .
Force
An important vector quantity is that of force. In physics, a force on an object is
defined as any interaction that, when left un-opposed, will change the motion of
the object. So a force will cause an object to change its velocity, that is the object
will accelerate. More informally, a force is a push or a pull on an object.
One force that affects our lives is the force of gravity. The magnitude of the
force of gravity on a person is that person’s weight. The direction of the force of
gravity is straight down. So if a person who weighs 150 pounds is standing still on
the ground, then the ground is also exerting a force of 150 pounds on the person
in the upward direction. The net force on the stationary person is zero. This is
an example of what is known as static equilibrium. When an object is in static
equilibrium, the sum of the forces acting on the object is equal to the zero vector.
Example 3.28 (Object Suspended from a Ceiling)

Suppose a 100 pound object is sus-
pended from the ceiling by two
wires that form a 40ı angle as shown ceiling
in the diagram to the right. Because
the object is stationary, the two wires
must exert a force on the object so 40o
that the sum of these two forces
is equal to 100 pounds straight up.
(The force of gravity is 100 pounds 100 pound object
straight down.)
We will assume that the two wires ex-

ert forces of equal magnitudes and that
the angle between these forces and the
vertical in 20ı. So our first step is to
draw a picture of these forces, which is
shown on the right. The vector v is a
vector of magnitude 100 pounds. The
vectors a and b are the vectors for the
forces exerted by the two wires. (We
have jaj D jbj.) We also know that
˛ D 20ı and so 2˛ D 40ı . So the angle
between the vectors a and b is 40ı and
so by the properties of parallelograms,
ˇ D 140ı . (See page 427.)
Progress Check 3.29 (Completion of Example 3.28)
Use triangle trigonometry to determine the magnitude of the vector a in Exam-
ple 3.28. Note that we already know the direction of this vector.
Inclined Planes
At the beginning of this section, we discussed the forces involved when an object
is place on an inclined plane. Figure 3.27 is the diagram we used, but we now have
added labels for some of the angles. Recall that the vector w shows the weight
of the object (force of gravity, straight down), the vector b is perpendicular to the
plane and represents the force that the object exerts on the plane, and the vector a
is perpendicular to b and parallel to the inclined plane. This vector represents the
force of gravity along the plane. Notice that we have also added a second copy of
the vector a that begins at the tip of the vector b.
a P
α
βb
θ
w

Using the angles shown, we see that ˛ C ˇ D 90ı since they combine to form a
right angle, and ˛ C D 90ı since they are the two acute angles in a right triangle.
From this, we conclude that ˇ D . This gives us the final version of the diagram
of the forces on an inclined plane shown in Figure 3.28. Notice that the vectors a,
a P
θ b
θ
w
b, and w form a right triangle, and so we can use right triangle trigonometry for
problems dealing with the forces on an inclined plane.
Progress Check 3.30 (A Problem Involving an Inclined Plane)

An object that weighs 250 pounds is placed on an inclined plane that makes an an-
gle of 12ı degrees with the horizontal. Using a diagram like the one in Figure 3.28,
determine the magnitude of the force against the plane caused by the object and the
magnitude of the force down the plane on the object due to gravity. Note: The mag-
nitude of the force down the plane will be the force in the direction up the plane
that is required to keep the object stationary.

Vectors and Scalars

A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. A scalar is a quantity
that has magnitude only. Two vectors are equal if and only if they have the same
magnitude and the same direction.
Scalar Multiple of a Vector

For any vector v and any scalar c, the vector cv (called a scalar multiple of the
vector v) is a vector whose magnitude is jcj times the magnitude of the vector v.
If c > 0, then the direction of cv is the same as the direction of v.
If c < 0, then the direction of cv is the opposite of the direction of v.
If c D 0, then cv D 0v D 0.
Using vector notation, we have jcvj D jcjjvj.
The vector 0 is called the zero vector and the zero vector has no magnitude and no
!
direction. We sometimes write 0 for the zero vector.
The Sum of Two Vectors

The sum of two vectors is defined as follows: We position the vectors so that the
initial point of w coincides with the terminal point of v. The vector v C w is the
vector whose initial point coincides with the initial point of v and whose terminal
point coincides with the terminal point of w.
v+w
v
The vector v C w is called the sum or resultant of the vectors v and w.
The Angle Between Two Vectors

The angle between vectors is the angle formed by these two vectors (with 0ı
180ı ) when they have the same initial point.

? 1. In each of the following diagrams, one of the vectors u, v, and u C v is la-
beled. Label the other two vectors to make the diagram a valid representation
of u C v.
(a) (b)
v
(c) (d)
u+
v
u
? 2. On the following diagram, draw the vectors u C v, u v, 2u C v, and 2u v.
?
3. In the following diagram, jaj D 10 and ja C bj D 14. In addition, the angle
between the vectors a and b is 30ı. Determine the magnitude of the vector
b and the angle between the vectors a and a C b.
b a+b
θ
a
4. Suppose that vectors a and b have magnitudes of 125 and 180, respectively.
Also assume that the angle between these two vectors is 35ı . Determine the
magnitude of the vector a C b and the measure of the angle between the
vectors a and a C b.
5. A car that weighs 3250 pounds is on an inclined plane that makes an angle
of 4:5ı with the horizontal. Determine the magnitude of the force of the car
on the inclined plane, and determine the magnitude of the force on the car
down the plane due to gravity. What is the magnitude of the smallest force
necessary to keep the car from rolling down the plane?
6. An experiment determined that a force of 45 pounds is necessary to keep a

250 pound object from sliding down an inclined plane. Determine the angle
the inclined plane makes with the horizontal.
7. A cable that can withstand a force of 4500 pounds is used to pull an object
up an inclined plane that makes an angle of 15 degrees with the horizontal.
What is the heaviest object that can be pulled up this plane with the cable?
(Assume that friction can be ignored.)
3.6 Vectors from an Algebraic Point of View
Focus Questions
these questions.
How do we find the component form of a vector?
How do we find the magnitude and the direction of a vector written in

component form?
How do we add and subtract vectors written in component form and how
do we find the scalar product of a vector written in component form?
What is the dot product of two vectors?
What does the dot product tell us about the angle between two vectors?
How do we find the projection of one vector onto another?
Introduction and Terminology
We have seen that a vector is com- y

( v1 , v2 )
pletely determined by magnitude and
direction. So two vectors that have v
the same magnitude and direction are v2
equal. That means that we can posi-
θ
tion our vector in the plane and iden-
tify it in different ways. For one, we v1 x
can place the initial point of a vector
v at the origin and the terminal point
will wind up at some point .v1 ; v2 / as
illustrated in Figure 3.29. Figure 3.29: A Vector in Stan-
dard Position
A vector with its initial point at the origin is said to be in standard position
3.6. Vectors from an Algebraic Point of View 233
and is represent by v D hv1 ; v2 i. Please note the important distinction in notation

between the vector v D hv1 ; v2 i and the point .v1 ; v2 /. The coordinates of the
terminal point .v1 ; v2 / are called the components of the vector v. We call v D
hv1 ; v2 i the component form of the vector v. The first coordinate v1 is called
the x-component or the horizontal component of the vector v, and the second
coordinate v2 is called the y-component or the vertical component of the vector
v. The nonnegative angle between the vector and the positive x-axis (with 0
< 360ı ) is called the direction angle of the vector. See Figure 3.29.
Using Basis Vectors

y
There is another way to algebraically
write a vector if the components of the
vector are known. This uses the so-called 1
j
standard basis vectors for vectors in the
plane. These two vectors are denoted by
i and j and are defined as follows and are
shown in the diagram to the right. i x
i D h1; 0i and j D h0; 1i: 1
The diagram in Figure 3.30 shows how to use the vectors i and j to represent a
vector v D ha; bi.
y
v = <a, b>
bj
x
ai
Figure 3.30: Using the Vectors i and j
The diagram shows that if we place the tail of the vector bj at the tip of the
vector ai, we see that
v D ha; bi D ai C bj:
This is often called the i; j form of a vector, and the real number a is called the
i-component of v and the real number b is called the j-component of v
Algebraic Formulas for Geometric Properties of a Vector

y
v = v1i + v2j
Vectors have certain geometric properties
such as length and a direction angle. With v
the use of the component form of a vector, v2
we can write algebraic formulas for these
θ
properties. We will use the diagram to the
v1 x
right to help explain these formulas.
The magnitude (or length) of the vector v is the distance from the origin to
the point .v1 ; v2 / and so
q
jvj D v12 C v22 :
The direction angle of v is , where 0 < 360ı , and

v1 v2
cos. / D and sin. / D :
jvj jvj
The horizontal component and vertical component of the vector v with di-
rection angle are
v1 D jvj cos. / and v2 D jvj sin. /:
Progress Check 3.31 (Using the Formulas for a Vector)
1. Suppose the horizontal component of a vector v is 7 and the vertical compo-

nent is 3. So we have v D 7i C . 3/j D 7i 3j. Determine the magnitude
and the direction angle of v.
2. Suppose a vector w has a magnitude of 20 and a direction angle of 200ı.

Determine the horizontal and vertical components of w and write w in i; j
form.
Operations on Vectors
In Section 3.5, we learned how to add two vectors and how to multiply a vector by
a scalar. At that time, the descriptions of these operations was geometric in nature.
We now know about the component form of a vector. So a good question is, “Can
we use the component form of vectors to add vectors and multiply a vector by a
scalar?”
To illustrate the idea, we will look at
Progress Check 3.25 on page 223, where
we added two vectors v and w. Although
we did not use the component forms of
these vectors, we can now see that w
v
v D h2; 3i D 2i C 3j; and w
v+
w D h4; 1i D 4i C . 1/j:
The diagram to the right was part of the v = 2i + 3j

solutions for this progress check but now w = 4i + (-1)j
shows the vectors in a coordinate plane.
Notice that
v C w D 6i C 2j
v C w D .2 C 4/i C .3 C . 1//j
Figure 3.31 shows a more general diagram with
v D ha; bi D ai C bj and w D hc; d i D ci C d j
in standard position. This diagram shows that the terminal point of v C w in stan-
dard position is .a C c; b C d / and so
v C w D ha C c; b C d i D .a C c/i C .b C d /j:
This means that we can add two vectors by adding their horizontal components
and by adding their vertical components. The next progress check will illustrate
something similar for scalar multiplication.
y
(a + c, b + d)
dj
w
v+ d
i+
=c
c
v = ai + bj
w
x
Figure 3.31: The Sum of Two Vectors
Progress Check 3.32 (Scalar Multiple of a Vector)
1. Let v D h3; 2i. Draw the vector v in standard position and then draw the
vectors 2v and 2v in standard position. What are the component forms of
the vectors 2v and 2v?
2. In general, how do you think a scalar multiple of a vector a D ha1 ; a2 i by a
scalar c should be defined? Write a formal definition of a scalar multiple of
a vector based on your intuition.
Based on the work we have done, we make the following formal definitions.
Definition. For vectors v D hv1 ; v2 i D v1 i C v2 j and w D hw1 ; w2 i D

w1 i C w2 j and scalar c, we make the following definitions:
v C w D hv1 C w1 ; v2 C w2 i v C w D .v1 C w1 / i C .v2 C w2 / j

v w D hv1 w1 ; v2 w2 i v w D .v1 w1 / i C .v2 w2 / j
cv D hcv1 ; cv2 i cv D .cv1 / i C .cv2 / j
Progress Check 3.33 (Vector Operations

Let u D h1; 2i, v D h0; 4i, and w D h 5; 7i.
1. Determine the component form of the vector 2u 3v.

2. Determine the magnitude and the direction angle for 2u 3v.
3. Determine the component form of the vector u C 2v 7w.
The Dot Product of Two Vectors

Finding optimal solutions to systems is an important problem in applied mathemat-
ics. It is often the case that we cannot find an exact solution that satisfies certain
constraints, so we look instead for the “best” solution that satisfies the constraints.
An example of this is fitting a least squares curve to a set of data like our calcula-
tors do when computing a sine regression curve. The dot product is useful in these
situations to find “best” solutions to certain types of problems. Although we won’t
see it in this course, having collections of perpendicular vectors is very important
in that it allows for fast and efficient computations. The dot product of vectors
allows us to measure the angle between them and thus determine if the vectors are
perpendicular. The dot product has many applications, e.g., finding components of
forces acting in different directions in physics and engineering. We introduce and
investigate dot products in this section.
We have seen how to add vectors and multiply vectors by scalars, but we have
not yet introduced a product of vectors. In general, a product of vectors should give
us another vector, but there turns out to be no really useful way to define such a
product of vectors. However, there is a dot “product” of vectors whose output is a
scalar instead of a vector, and the dot product is a very useful product (even though
it isn’t a product of vectors in a technical sense).
Recall that the magnitude (or length) of the vector u D hu1 ; u2i is
q p
juj D u21 C u22 D u1 u1 C u2 u2 : (1)
The expression under the second square root is a special case of important number
we call the dot product of two vectors.
Definition. Let u D hu1 ; u2i and v D hv1 ; v2 i be vectors in the plane. The
dot product of u and v is the scalar
uv D u1 v1 C u2 v2 :
So we see that for u D hu1 ; u2i
uu D u1 u1 C u2 u2 D u21 C u22

uu D juj2 (2)
So the dot product is related to the length of a vector, and it turns out that the dot
product of two vectors is also useful in determining the angle between two vectors.
Recall that in Progress Check 3.27 on page 225, we used the Law of Cosines to
determine the sum of two vectors and then used the Law of Sines to determine the
angle between the sum and one of those vectors. We have now seen how much
easier it is to compute the sum of two vectors when the vectors are in component
form. The dot product will allow us to determine the cosine of the angle between
two vectors in component form. This is due to the following result:
The Dot Product and the Angle between Two Vectors

If is the angle between two nonzero vectors u and v (0ı 180ı ) as
shown in Figure 3.35, then
uv
uv D jujjvj cos. / or cos. / D :
jujjvj
Notice that if we have written the vectors u and v in component form, then we
have formulas to compute juj, jvj, and uv. This result may seem surprising but
it is a fairly direct consequence of the Law of Cosines. This will be shown in the
appendix at the end of this section.
u−v
v
θ
u
Figure 3.32: The angle between u and v
Progress Check 3.34 (Using the Dot Product)
1. Determine the angle between the vectors u D 3i C j and v D 5i C 2j.
2. Determine all vectors perpendicular to u D h1; 3i. How many such vectors
are there? Hint: Let v D ha; bi. Under what conditions will the angle
between u and v be 90ı?
One purpose of Progress Check 3.34 was to use the formula

uv
cos. / D :
jujjvj
to determine when two vectors are perpendicular. Two vectors u and v will be
perpendicular if and only if the angle between them is 90ı. Since cos .90ı/ D 0,
we see that this formula implies that u and v will be perpendicular if and only if
uv D 0. (This is because a fraction will be equal to 0 only when the numerator is
equal to 0 and the denominator is not zero.) So we have
Two vectors are perpendicular if and only if their dot product is equal to 0.
Note: When two vectors are perpendicular, we also say that they are orthogonal.
Projections
Another useful application of the dot product is in finding the projection of one vec-
tor onto another. An example of where such a calculation is useful is the following.
Usain Bolt from Jamaica excited the world of track and field in 2008
with his world record performances on the track. Bolt won the 100
meter race in a world record time of 9.69 seconds. He has since bet-
tered that time with a race of 9.58 seconds with a wind assistance of
0.9 meters per second in Berlin on August 16, 2009 The wind assis-
tance is a measure of the wind speed that is helping push the runners
down the track. It is much easier to run a very fast race if the wind
is blowing hard in the direction of the race. So that world records
aren’t dependent on the weather conditions, times are only recorded
as record times if the wind aiding the runners is less than or equal to 2
meters per second. Wind speed for a race is recorded by a wind gauge
that is set up close to the track. It is important to note, however, that
weather is not always as cooperative as we might like. The wind does
not always blow exactly in the direction of the track, so the gauge must
account for the angle the wind makes with the track.
If the wind is blowing in the direction of the vector u and the track is in the direction
of the vector v in Figure 3.33, then only part of the total wind vector is actually
working to help the runners. This part is called the projection of the vector u
onto the vector v and is denoted projv u.
θ
proj u v
v
Figure 3.33: The Projection of u onto v
We can find this projection with a little trigonometry. To do so, we let be the
angle between u and v as shown in Figure 3.33. Using right triangle trigonometry,
we see that
jprojv uj D juj cos. /

uv
D juj
juj jvj
uv
D :
jvj
The quantity we just derived is called the scalar projection (or component) of u
onto v and is denoted by compv u. Thus
uv
compv u D :
jvj
This gives us the length of the vector projection. So to determine the vector, we
use a scalar multiple of this length times a unit vector in the same direction, which
1
is v. So we obtain
jvj

1
projv u D jprojv uj v
jvj

uv 1
D v
jvj jvj
uv
D v
jvj2
We can also write the projection of u onto v as
uv uv
projv u D vD v:
jvj2 vv
The wind component that acts perpendicular to the direction of v in Figure 3.33 is
called the projection of u orthogonal to v and is denoted proj?v u as shown in
Figure 3.34. Since u D proj?v u C projv u, we have that
u
proj u
v
θ
proj u v
v
Figure 3.34: The Projection of u onto v
proj?v u D u projv u:
Following is a summary of the results we have obtained.
For nonzero vectors u and v, the projection of the vector u onto the vector
v, projv u, is given by
uv uv
projv u D 2
vD v:
jvj vv
See Figure 3.34. The projection of u orthogonal to v, denoted proj?v u, is
proj?v u D u projv u:
We note that u D projv u C proj?v u.
Progress Check 3.35 (Projection of One Vector onto Another Vector

Let u D h7; 5i and v D h10; 2i. Determine projv u, proj?v u, and verify that
u D projv u C proj?v u. Draw a picture showing all of the vectors involved in this.
Appendix – Properties of the Dot Product

The main purpose of this appendix is to provide a proof of the formula on page 238
that relates the dot product of two vectors to the angle between the two vectors. To
do this, we first need to establish some properties of the dot product. The following
shows the properties we will be using.
Let a, b, and c be vectors. Then
1. aa D jaj2 .
2. ab D ba (Commutative Property).
3. a.bCc/ D abCac and a.b c/ D ab ac (Distributive Properties).
We have already established the first property on page 237. To prove the other
results, we use a D ha1 ; a2 i, b D hb1 ; b2 i, and c D hc1 ; c2 i. We will also use the
commutative property and distributive property for real numbers.
ab D a1 b1 C a2 b2
D b1 a1 C b2 a2
D ba
This establishes the commutative property for the dot product. For the distributive
property, we have
a.b C c/ D ha1 ; a2 i .hb1 ; b2 i C hc1 ; c2 i/

D ha1 ; a2 ihb1 C c1 ; b2 C c2 i
D a1 .b1 C c1 / C a2 .b2 C c2 /
D a1 b1 C a1 c1 C a2 b2 C a2 c2
We now rearrange the terms on the right side of the last equation to obtain
a.b C c/ D .a1 b1 C a2 b2 / C .a1 c1 C a2 c2 /

D ab C ac
This establishes one of the distributive properties. The other is proven in a similar
manner.
We are now able to provide a proof of the formula on page 238 that relates the
dot product of two vectors to the angle between the two vectors. Let be the angle
between the nonzero vectors u and v as illustrated in Figure 3.35.
We can apply the Law of Cosines to using the angle as follows:
ju vj2 D juj2 C jvj2 2juj jvj cos. /

2 2
.u v/.u v/ D juj C jvj 2juj jvj cos. / (3)
u−v
v
θ
u
Figure 3.35: The angle between u and v
We now apply some of the properties of the dot product to the left side of equa-
tion (3).
.u v/.u v/ D .u v/u .u v/v

D uu vu uv C vv
D uu uv uv C vv
D juj2 2.uv/ C jvj2 (4)
We can now use equations (3) and (4) to obtain
juj2 2.u v/ C jvj2 D juj2 C jvj2 2juj jvj cos. /

2.u v/ D 2 juj jvj cos. /
u v D juj jvj cos. /:
This is the formula on page 238 that relates the dot product of two vectors to the
angle between the two vectors.

The component form of a vector v is written as v D hv1 ; v2 i and the i; j form of
the same vector is v D v1 i C v2 j where i D h1; 0i and j D h0; 1i. Using this
notation, we have
q
The magnitude (or length) of the vector v is jvj D v12 C v22 .
The direction angle of v is , where 0 < 360ı , and

v1 v2
cos. / D and sin. / D :
jvj jvj
The horizontal and component and vertical component of the vector v and
direction angle are
v1 D jvj cos. / and v2 D jvj sin. /:
For two vectors v and w with v D hv1 ; v2i D v1 i C v2 j and w D hw1 ; w2 i D

w1 i C w2 j and a scalar c:
v C w D hv1 C w1 ; v2 C w2 i D .v1 C w1 / i C .v2 C w2 / j.
v w D hv1 w1 ; v2 w2 i D .v1 w1 / i C .v2 w2 / j.
cv D hcv1 ; cv2 i D .cv1 / i C .cv2 / j.
The dot product of v and w is vw D v1 w1 C v2 w2 .
If is the angle between v and w, then

vw
vw D jvjjwj cos. / or cos. / D :
jvjjwj
The projection of the vector v onto the vector w, projw v, is given by

vw vw
projw v D 2
wD w:
jwj ww
The projection of v orthogonal to w, denoted proj?w v, is
proj?w v D v projw v:
We note that v D projw v C proj?w v. See Figure 3.36.
v
proj v
w
θ
proj v w
w
Figure 3.36: The Projection of v onto w

1. Determine the magnitude and the direction angle of each of the following
vectors.
? (a) v D 3i C 5j (c) a D 4i 7j
?
(b) w D h 3; 6i (d) u D h 3; 5i
2. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of each of the following

vectors. Write each vector in i, j form.
?
(a) The vector v with magnitude 12 and direction angle 50ı .
?
p
(b) The vector u with juj D 20 and direction angle 125ı.
(c) The vector w with magnitude 5:25 and direction angle 200ı.
3. Let u D 2i C 3j, v D i C 5j, and w D 4i 2j. Determine the i, j form of

each of the following:
? (a) 5u v ? (c) u C v C w
(b) 2v C 7w (d) 3u C 5w
4. Determine the value of the dot product for each of the following pairs of
vectors.
?
(a) v D 2i C 5j and w D 3i 2j.
? (b) a and b where jaj D 6, jwj D 3, and the angle between v and w is 30ı.
(c) a and b where jaj D 6, jwj D 3, and the angle between v and w is
150ı.
(d) a and b where jaj D 6, jwj D 3, and the angle between v and w is 50ı.
(e) a D 5i 2j and b D 2i C 5j.
5. Determine the angle between each of the following pairs of vectors.

? (a) v D 2i C 5j and w D 3i 2j.
(b) a D 5i 2j and b D 2i C 5j.
(c) v D 3i 2j and w D i C 4j.
6. For each pair of vectors, determine projv w, proj?v w, and verify that w D
projv w C proj?v w. Draw a picture showing all of the vectors involved in
this.
? (a) v D 2i C 5j and w D 3i 2j.

(b) v D h 2; 3i and w D h1; 1i

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Chapter 3

Triangles and Vectors

3.1 Trigonometric Functions of Angles

 How do we define the cosine and sine as functions of angles?

 How are the trigonometric functions defined on angles using circles of

Some Previous Results

An angle (in standard position) of t radians will correspond to an arc

 the radian measure of an angle in standard position.

Figure 3.1: An Angle in Standard Position with the Unit Circle

Trigonometric Functions of an Angle

cos. / D u and sin. / D v:

Figure 3.2: An Angle in Standard Position

Figure 3.3: Similar Triangles from Figure 3.2

this, we can write

In addition, note that u2 C v 2 D 1 and x 2 C y 2 D r 2 . So we have obtained

Progress Check 3.1 (The Trigonometric Functions for an Angle)

3. Now determine the values of the six trigonometric functions of  .

Progress Check 3.2 (The Trigonometric Functions for an Angle)

2. Determine a point that lies on the terminal side of ˛.

3. Determine the six trigonometric functions of ˛.

The Pythagorean Identity

Progress Check 3.3 (The Pythagorean Identity)

3. Finally, conclude that

Progress Check 3.4 (Using the Pythagorean Identity)

The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1.  D arcsin.x/ D sin 1 .x/ means sin. / D x

Progress Check 3.5 (Finding an Angle)

Figure 3.4: Two Angles with the Same Tangent Value

1. Draw a picture of the angle  .

Example 3.6 Determining an Exact Value

So we can use the Pythagorean Identity to determine cos2 . / as follows:

  D arcsin.x/ D sin 1 .x/ means sin. / D x

  D arctan.x/ D tan 1 .x/ means tan. / D x and

Exercises for Section 3.1

1. In each of the following, the coordinates of a point P on the terminal side of

(a) The point .3; 5/ is on the terminal side  .

(b) The point .2; 4/ is on the terminal side of  .

3.2 Right Triangles

1. What can we conclude about a, b, and c from the Pythagorean Theorem?

2. What is the sum of the angles in a triangle? In this case, what is ˛ C ˇ C ?

Figure 3.5: A typical right triangle

Figure 3.6: Finding the height of a flagpole (drawing not to scale)

Trigonometric Functions and Right Triangles

Figure 3.9: A right triangle

length of side adjacent to  adjacent

length of side opposite  opposite

Progress Check 3.7 (Labeling a Right Triangle)

nus e β side nuse β side

Figure 3.10: Labels for a right triangle

So we see that our work checks with the Pythagorean Theorem.

Solving Right Triangles

Progress Check 3.9 (Solving a Right Triangle)

Applications of Right Triangles

 Draw a diagram for the problem.

 If possible, find a way to check the result.

Figure 3.11: Angle of Elevation and Angle of Depression

Example 3.10 Determining the Height of a Flagpole

Figure 3.12: Finding the height of a flagpole (drawing not to scale)

How do we define the cosine and sine as functions of angles?

How are the trigonometric functions defined on angles using circles of

the radian measure of an angle in standard position.

cos. / D u and sin. / D v:

3. Now determine the values of the six trigonometric functions of .

1. D arcsin.x/ D sin 1 .x/ means sin. / D x

1. Draw a picture of the angle .

So we can use the Pythagorean Identity to determine cos2 . / as follows:

D arcsin.x/ D sin 1 .x/ means sin. / D x

D arctan.x/ D tan 1 .x/ means tan. / D x and

(a) The point .3; 5/ is on the terminal side .

(b) The point .2; 4/ is on the terminal side of .

length of side adjacent to adjacent

length of side opposite opposite

Draw a diagram for the problem.

If possible, find a way to check the result.

elevation. We are given values for x and , and we see that

side opposite cos. / D

What is the Law of Sines?

What information do we need about a triangle to apply the Law of

What is the Law of Cosines?

What information do we need about a triangle to apply the Law of

sin. / sin .40ı/

How do we determine the area of a triangle?

What is Heron’s Law for the area of a triangle?