CHAPTER TWO: SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

2.1 Basic Concepts of Shearing Resistance/Shear Strength

Shear strength of the soil is a maximum resistance of a soil to shear
stress just before it’s failure.
The shear failure of soil mass occurs when the shear stress induced
due to the applied compressive loads exceed the shear strength of
the soil.
The shear strength is measured in terms of two soil parameters:
interparticle attraction or cohesion c, and resistance to interparticle
slip called the angle of internal friction ϕ.

Instructor: Demboba M. 1
Shear strength is a principal engineering property which controls
the stability of soil mass under loads.
It governs:
Bearing capacity of foundations
Stability of slopes and Cuts
Stability of earth dam
Earth pressure against structures and many others.
Analysis of the stress–strain characteristics of soils

Instructor: Demboba M. 2
The following factors affects shear strength of soils:
Increasing the Normal Effective Stress
Over consolidation Ratio
Drainage of Excess Pore water Pressure
Soil Tension
Soil Cementation

Instructor: Demboba M. 3
To understand the concept of shear resistance
consider a prismatic block B resting on a plane
surface MN shown in the Figure.
If a tangential force Fa gradually increases
keeping the normal load Pn constant,
The box remain at rest if Fa = 0.
As Fa increases from zero to some value an
equal and opposite force Fr tends to balance it
from the roughness characteristics of the
bottom of block B and plane surface MN.

Instructor: Demboba M. 4
Block B will start sliding along the plane .
when the force Fa reaches a value which The maximum shearing resistance, which the
will increase the angle of obliquity (δ) of materials are capable of developing, is
resultant force R to a certain maximum called the shearing strength.
value, δm. Shearing force Fa is proportional to the normal
The applied horizontal force Fa on block B is load Pn, that is,
a shearing force and the developed force is If A is the overall contact, area of block B on
friction or shearing resistance. plane surface MN, the relationship may be
If block B and plane surface MN are made written as:
of the same material, the angle δm is equal
to ϕ, which is termed as angle of friction,
and the value tanϕ is termed the coefficient
of friction.
If block B and plane surface MN are made of
dissimilar materials, the angle δ is termed as In actual case of soil strength the above
the angle of wall friction relation ship accounts for resistance by
cohesion. Hence
Instructor: Demboba M. 5
2.2. Normal (σ) and Shear stress (τ) at a point in a soil mass and Mohr Stress
Circle
Through every point in a stressed body, there are three planes at right angles to
each other (Principal planes).
These are unique and are subjected only to normal stresses (Principal stresses)
with no accompanying shearing stresses acting on the planes.
Ordinarily the three principal stresses at a point differ in magnitude.
They may be designated as:
 The major principal stress σ1,
The intermediate principal stress σ2, and
The minor principal stress σ3.
In geotechnical engineering practice the influence of an intermediate principal
stress σ2 on failure is not significant. Because of this many problems are
approximated to a two dimensional stress condition.
Instructor: Demboba M. 6
The normal and shear stress states at any point
in a soil mass can be illustrated by considering
a two dimensional prismatic soil element.
Case1: when the vertical and horizontal planes
of the element are not principal planes.
Expressions for σ and τ may be obtained by
applying the principles of statics for the equilibrium
condition of the body in x and y directions.
From the sum of all the forces in the x-direction:

From the sum of all the forces in the y-direction:

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Instructor: Demboba M.
By solving the above two equations for σ and τ, we have

By definition, a principal plane is one on which the shearing stress is equal to zero.
Therefore, when the above equation for (τ) is made equal to zero , the orientation
of the principal planes is defined by the relationship:

The maximum principal stress (σ1), minimum principal stress (σ3) and maximum
shear stress (τmax) can be determined from the following equations:

where τmax is the maximum shear stress equal to the radius of the Mohr circle.

Instructor: Demboba M. 8
Case2: When the vertical and horizontal In this case σy = σ1 (Major principal stress)
planes of the element are principal and σ = σ (Minor principal stress).
x 3
planes (case of traixial test).
Based on this the expression for σ and τ
are as shown below:

The stresses on a plane oriented at an angle α

from the major principal stress plane are:

Instructor: Demboba M. 9
 2.2.1.Mohr Circle of Stress
Mohr's circle provides a convenient graphical
method for determining stress state.
1) Mohr circle (When vertical and horizontal planes
are not principal planes).
From the circle we can determine:
The normal and shearing stress on any
plane through a point in a stressed body.
The orientation of the principal planes if the
normal and shear stresses on the surface of
the prismatic element are known.
The Mohr circle can be constructed as dis cussed
below:

Instructor: Demboba M. 10
Equation of circle : In constructing the circle, the normal stresses
are taken as abscissa and the shear stresses as
ordinates.
It is assumed that the normal stresses σx, σy and
the shear stress τxy ( τxy = τyx ) acting on the
surface of the element are known.
Coordinates of centre of the circle:
To determine Normal and Shear Stresses on
Plane AB [Fig. 1.4(a)]
Point P1 on the circle of stress represents the
state of stress on the vertical plane of the
Radius of the circle: prismatic element; similarly, point P2
represents the state of stress on the horizontal
plane of the element.

Instructor: Demboba M. 11
• If from point P1 a line is drawn parallel to the The major and minor Principal Planes can
vertical plane, it intersects the circle at point be determined from the above circle as
Po and if from the point P2 on the circle, a line follows
is drawn parallel to the horizontal plane, this The orientations of the principal planes may
line also intersects the circle at point Po . be obtained by joining point Po to the points
E and F.
• The point Po so obtained is called the origin of
planes or the pole. PoF is the direction of the major principal
plane on which the major principal stress σ1
• If from the pole Po a line is drawn parallel to acts;
the plane AB in the figure to intersect the
circle at point P3 then the coordinates of the
similarly, PoE is the direction of the minor
principal plane on which the minor
point give the normal stress σ and the shear
principal stress σ3 acts.
stress τ on plane AB.
It is clear from the Mohr diagram that the
This indicates that a line drawn from the pole Po at any
two planes PoE and PoF intersect at a right
angle α to the σ-axis intersects the circle at coordinates
angle, i.e., angle EPoF = 90°.
that represent the normal and shear stresses on the
plane inclined at the same angle to the abscissa.
Instructor: Demboba M. 12
 Eqn. of the circle:
2) Mohr circle (When vertical and horizontal
planes are principal planes).
Coordinate of circle center:
(Which could represent the case of cylindrical
soil specimen under traixial compression test)
the above Mohr Circle may be drawn as follow. Radius of the circle:

The major and minor principal stresses

are shown in the figure where in σ1=OF
and σ3=OE.
The origin of planes or the pole Po may
be obtained as before by drawing lines
from points E and F parallel to planes
on which the minor and major principal
stresses act.

Instructor: Demboba M. 13
The normal stress σ and shear stress τ The stresses σ and τ in formula:
on any arbitrary plane AA making an
angle α with the major principal plane
may be determined by drawing a line
PoP1 from the pole, which is parallel to
plane AA.
The maximum shear stress occurs on
The coordinates of the point P1 give planes at 45° to the principal planes.
the stresses σ and τ.
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Instructor: Demboba M.
 2.3 MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE THEORY
Mohr (1900) proposed a shear failure criterion for
materials such as soils.
He suggested that shear failure takes place when shear
stresses exceed shear strength along the failure surface.
He proposed that shear strength τf is a function of the
normal stress σf on the failure plane, they are related by:

A plot of the above equation on τ – σ plane gives the

failure envelope.
The τ and σ’ on plane ab represented by point A, will not
cause failure. But stress represented by point B,causes
failure along plane ab. State of stress represented by
point C cannot exist.
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As it can be understood from the above figure ,
Circle A touches the failure envelope where
τ = τf: hence shear failure takes place at point A.
Circle B is well within the envelope (τ < τf);
therefore, point B is stable.
Coulomb (1776) suggested that τf is proportional
to σf and related them by:

Instructor: Demboba M. 16
 The Coulomb envelope in special cases may take
the shapes given in the following figure: The effective stress or long-term
analysis is carried out in terms of
effective stresses using the drained
shear strength parameters c' and ϕ’.

The Mohr Coulomb failure criteria in

terms of effective stress is given by:
c‘ is drained cohesion it is zero for
sand and in organic silt. It is
approximately zero for normally
In soils the total stress or short-term analysis is consolidated clays and greater than
zero for over consolidated clays.
generally carried out in terms of total stresses
using undrained shear strength parameters cu and ϕ’ is drained angle of internal friction
ϕu. Instructor: Demboba M. 17
Inclination of the plain of failure caused by Shear: By subistituting the two eqns. For ‘Sinϕ’,

Also,

Instructor: Demboba M. 18
 2.4 SHEARING STRENGTH TESTS
In shear strength test there are two stages: Depending upon whether drainage is permitted
 Consolidation stage in which the before and during the test, shear tests on such
normal stress (or confining pressure) is saturated soils are classified as follows:
applied to the specimen and it is Unconsolidated Undrained Test (UU):
allowed to consolidate. • Drainage is not permitted at any stage of the
 Shear stage in which shear stress (or test. Hence no time is allowed for
deviator stress) is applied to the dissipation of pore water pressure and
specimen to shear it. consequent consolidation of the soil; also,
no significant volume changes are expected.
• A cohesion less or a coarse-grained soil
may be tested for shearing strength • These tests are often performed only on
either in the dry condition or in the soils of low permeability.
saturated condition. • This is the most unfavourable condition, in
• A cohesive or fine-grained soil is usually geotechnical engineering practice.
tested in the saturated condition. • Since a relatively small time is allowed for
the testing until failure, it is also called the
‘Quick test.’
Instructor: Demboba M. 19
Consolidated Undrained Test (CU): • This test is seldom conducted on cohesive
• Drainage is permitted during the soils except for purposes of research.
application of the normal stress and • It is also called the ‘Slow Test’ or
no drainage is permitted during the ‘consolidated slow test’ and is designated
application of the shear stress. CD.
• Thus volume changes do not take place
during shear and excess pore pressure
The choice as to which of these tests is to be used
develops. depends upon the types of soil and the problem on
• This test is also called ‘consolidated hand.
quick test’ and is designated CU. • For problems of short-term stability of
foundations, excavations and earth dams UU-tests
are appropriate.
Consolidated Drained Test (CD): • For problems of long-term stability, either CU-
• Drainage is permitted fully before and test or CD tests are appropriate, depending upon
during the test, at every stage. the drainage conditions in the field.

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2.4.1.Types of Shearing Strength Tests
Wherever the strength characteristics of
The laboratory or the field method that has to be chosen in a the soil in-situ are required, laboratory
particular case depends upon the type of soil and the accuracy tests may be used provided undisturbed
required.
samples can be extracted from the
The following are common shear strength tests: stratum.
Laboratory tests: But because of sampling or extraction
 Direct Shear Test process it is practically impossible to
 Triaxial Compression Test
obtain undisturbed samples of cohesion
less soils and highly pre-consolidated
 Unconfined Compression Test clay soils.
 Laboratory Vane Shear Test Otherwise either field test or laboratory
 Torsion Test tests on remoulded samples are
 Ring Shear Tests recommended. In such cases field tests
are more reliable.
The first three tests among the laboratory tests are very
commonly used. The fifth and sixth are mostly used for In either cases determination of shearing
strength of a soil involves the plotting of
research purposes failure envelopes and evaluation of the
Field tests: shear strength parameters for the
necessary conditions.
 Field Vane shear test
 Penetration test 21
 2.4.1.1.LaboratoryTests
a. Direct Shear Test A gradually increasing horizontal load is
The direct shear device, also called the ‘shear applied to the lower part of the box until the
box apparatus’, essentially consists of a brass sample fails in shear.
box, split horizontally at mid-height of the soil The shear load at failure is divided by the
specimen, as shown schematically in the figure. cross-sectional area of the sample to give the
ultimate shearing strength.
The vertical load divided by the area of the
sample gives the applied vertical stress σ. The
test may be repeated with a few more samples
having the same initial conditions as the first
sample.
Each sample is tested with a different vertical
load.
In this test: Dial gauges are used to measure volume changes,
 Vertical load is applied to the sample and is held horizontal and vertical movements, shearing forces.
constant during a test.
Instructor: Demboba M. 22
 Dividing the normal load and the maximum
applied shearing force by the cross-sectional
area of the specimen at the shear plane gives
respectively the unit normal pressure σ and
the shearing strength τ at failure.
 The failure envelop can be drawn by
testing a number of identical specimen
under different normal loads.
 In this test stresses on plane other than
horizontal plane are not known. So,
Mohr circle can be drawn by assuming
that the failure plane is horizontal.

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 Disadvantages of the test:
Advantages of the test:
There is virtually no control of the
 The direct shear test is a relatively
drainage of the soil specimen as the
simple test.
water content of a saturated soil
 Quick drainage, i.e., quick changes rapidly with stress.
dissipation of pore pressures is
possible since the thickness of the The failure plane is predetermined and
specimen is small. this may not be the weakest plane.
The effect of lateral restraint by the
side walls of the shear box is likely to
affect the results.

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b.Triaxial Compression Test
The triaxial compression test, introduced
by Casagrande and Terzaghi in 1936, is
by far the most popular and extensively
used shearing strength test, both for field
application and for purposes of research.
In the triaxial compression test:
Three or more identical samples of soil
are subjected to uniformly distributed
fluid pressure around the cylindrical
surface.
The sample is sealed in a watertight
rubber membrane.
Then axial load is applied to the soil
sample until it fails.
Instructor: Demboba M. 25
As the name indicates, soil specimen is subjected to
three compressive stresses in mutually perpendicular
directions, one of the three stresses being increased
until the specimen fails in shear.
Usually a cylindrical specimen with a height equal to
twice its diameter is used.

Instructor: Demboba M. 26
 Mohr’s Circle for Triaxial Test
• The Mohr’s circle at failure for one particular
value of cell pressure will be as shown.

Instructor: Demboba M. 27
With reference to Fig. (a) above, the relationship between the major and
minor principal stresses at failure may be established from the geometry of
the Mohr’s circle, as follows:

Instructor: Demboba M. 28
• The usual procedure is to plot the Mohr’s
circles for a number of tests and take the
best common tangent to the circles as the
strength envelope. A small curvature
occurs in the strength envelope of most
soils, but since this effect is slight, the
(a) Mohr’s circles during triaxial test
envelope for all practical purposes, may
be taken as a straight line.
• The intercept of the strength envelope on
the τ-axis gives the cohesion and the
angle of slope of this line with σ-axis
gives the angle of internal friction, as
shown in the Fig.
(b) Mohr’s circles for triaxial tests with different cell pressures and
strength envelope
Instructor: Demboba M. 29
Consolidated-Drained Triaxial Test
In this type of test because of dissipation
of pore water pressure the applied
stresses are effective, and when the
stresses at failure are plotted in the usual
manner, the failure envelope is directly
expressed in terms of effective stresses.
 For normally consolidated clays and
for sands the envelope is linear for
normal working stresses and passes
through the origin.
For over consolidated clays, the
envelope intersects the axis of zero
pressure at a value c.
This type of test is time consuming and
not common.
Instructor: Demboba M. 30
Consolidated undrained Triaxial Test
Unlike the consolidated drained test the
effective and total principal stresses are
not the same because pore water pressure
can be measured at failure. This test is the
most common type of triaxial test.

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Unconsolidated undrained triaxial test
For an identical specimen tested under
triaxial strength test, the deviator stress
which is required to cause failure is the
same as long as the soil is fully saturated
and fully unconsolidated. Under this
condition the angle of internal friction
(ϕ=0) and the failure envelop become
horizontal.

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Advantages:  The state of stress on any plane is
 Failure occurs along the weakest plane capable of being determined not only
unlike along the predetermined plane in at failure but
the case of direct shear test. also at any earlier stage.

 The stress distribution on the failure plane  It provides an ingenious and a

is much more uniform than it is in the symmetrical three-dimensional stress
direct shear test: system better
suited to simulate field conditions.
 Complete control of the drainage
Disadvantages:
conditions is possible.
The equipment is expensive, not simple
 The possibility to vary the cell pressure or and time taking compared to direct shear
confining pressure also affords another test.
means to simulate the field conditions.

Instructor: Demboba M. 33
c. Unconfined Compression Test
This is a special case of a triaxial
compression test;
The confining pressure being zero.
A cylindrical soil specimen, usually
of the same standard size as that for
the triaxial compression, is loaded
axially by a compressive force until
failure takes place.
• Since the specimen is laterally
unconfined, the test is known as
‘unconfined compression test’.

Instructor: Demboba M. 34
  Owing to its simplicity, it is often used as a
field test, besides being used in the laboratory.
 The failure plane is not predetermined and
failure takes place along the weakest plane.
 Therefore, the unconfined compression test
is mostly found useful in the determination
of the shearing strength of saturated clays
for which ϕ is negligible or zero, under
 This test can be conducted on undisturbed or undrained conditions.
remoulded cohesive soils. It cannot be
conducted on coarse-grained soils such as
sands and gravels as these cannot stand
• Thus, the shearing strength or cohesion value
without lateral support.
for a saturated clay from unconfined
 In addition, the test is essentially a quick or compression test is taken to be half the
undrained one because it is assumed that unconfined compression strength.
there is no loss of moisture during the test,
Instructor: Demboba M. 35
which is performed fast.
 2.4.1.2 Field Tests
Field Shear Strength Tests includes:
1. Vane Shear Test
If suitable undisturbed for remoulded samples cannot
be got for conducting triaxial or unconfined
compression tests, the shear strength is determined by
a device called the Shear Vane.
 The shear vane usually consists of four steel plates
welded orthogonally to a steel rod.
 The applied torque is measured by a calibrated
torsion spring, the angle of twist being
read on a special gauge.
 A uniform rotation of about 1° per minute is used.
 The vane is forced into the soil specimen or into the
undisturbed soil at the bottom of a bore-hole in a
gentle manner and torque is applied.
 The vane shear test may also conducted in the
laboratory.
Instructor: Demboba M. 36
2. Penetration Test The common penetration tests which
Penetration test involves the are used to correlate the strength
measurement of resistance of a soil parameters are:
to penetration of a cone or a Standard penetration test (SPT)
cylinder, as an indication of the Cone penetrometer test (CPT)
shearing strength.
The result of penetration tests are
correlated to the strength parameters
( ϕ and c)

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 Stress path
Stress paths is a line which connects a series of The main advantage of stress path is
points each of which represents a successive stress that the stress conditions at failure are
state experienced by a soil specimen during the represented by one point instead of
progress of a test. Mohr circles.
In another words it is a locus of points of As the averaging of scattered points is
maximum shear stresses experienced by the
easier than drawing a common
specimen as load change takes place.
tangent to a number of circles, it is
There are severeral ways in which stress path can more convenient than Mohr-coulomb
be drawn. The method suggested by Lambe envelop.
(1964) represents the stress path by a plot of q’
against p’. Where q’ and p’ are coordinates of the Despite this Mohr envelop is more
top of mohr circle. popular because it also gives principal
stresses and direction of failure plane
in addition to shear strength
parameters.

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Stress path can be drawn for total stress and effective stress under
different testing conditions (Drained or undrained.)

Instructor: Demboba M. 39
For normally consolidated clay the failure
envelop is given by:

A modified failure envelop can now be

defined by line OF’. It is called Kf line.
The equation of Kf line is given by:

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Example 2:

Instructor: Demboba M. 41
Example 3 Referring to example 2 above, determine the following.

Instructor: Demboba M. 42
Example 4:

Instructor: Demboba M. 43
Example 5:

Instructor: Demboba M. 44
Dilatancy & Liquefaction
This equation indicates that shear strength of
Dilatancy: sand decreases as pore water pressure
In saturated sand a decrease of the void ratio increases and reaches the ultimate situation
is associated with an expulsion of pore water, when the soil looses its shear strength. In
and an increase with an absorption of water. which case:
The expansion of a soil due to shear at a
constant value of vertical pressure is called
dilatancy.
Liquefaction:
As discussed earlier the shear strength (τ) of
sand is given by:
If the sand deposit is at a depth z blow the
ground and the water is at ground level, the
This phenomena is called liquefaction. It
effective stress is given by:
happens most of the time related to some
shaking forces like earth quake.
Instructor: Demboba M. 45
Residual Strength and Critical Void We may term this parameter the residual
Rati angle of internal friction ϕr and define
the residual shear strength in general
Soil failures in situ result in volume changes terms as
along the shear plane and a considerable
remoulding of the soil so that a significant
strength reduction takes place.
Since soil in any remolded state has some
strength that we may term the residual strength,
its value may be of interest in select foundation Critical state is a stress state reached in
problems. a soil when continuous shearing occurs
A case of considerable interest is the strength of a at constant shear stress to normal
mass of soil (or other particulate material) that effective stress ratio and constant
must be held in place by a retaining wall. volume.
At the residual strength the soil is sufficiently The void ratio corresponding to the
remoulded that there is negligible cohesion critical state is called the critical void
[but there may be excess (+) or ( - ) pore-pressure ratio.
contributions to the stress reduction], and the
principal resistance is from friction produced by
inter particle friction and rolling resistance.
Instructor: Demboba M. 46
Sensitivity & Thixotrophy Thixotropy is the regain of strength from
Sensitivity is the loss of shear strength of soils the remolded state with time. All clays and
due to remolding action. It is primarily caused other soils containing cementing agents
exhibit thixotropic properties.
by the destruction of clay particle structure.
Piles driven into a soft clay deposit often
It can be expressed by the following relationship.
have very little load-carrying capacity until
a combination of aging/cementation
(thixotropy) and dissipation of excess pore
pressure (consolidation) occurs.
Remolded quick clays (St > 16) have been
found to recover very little of the original
strength in reasonable time lapses (on the
order of under four months [Skempton and
Northey (1952)].)

Instructor: Demboba M. 47