UNIVERSITI TECHNOLOGY MARA CAWANGAN PERAK, KAMPUS SERI

ISKANDAR

DEPARTMENT OF QUANTITY SURVEYING

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING AND SURVEYING, UNIVERSITI
TEKNOLOGI MARA, CAWANGAN PERAK, KAMPUS SERI ISKANDAR.

DQS202 - CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY III

CASE STUDY REPORT
LECTURER: MOHD FIRDAUS BIN ZAINUDDIN

GROUP: AAP114 3B
PREPARED BY:

NO. NAME MATRIC NO.

1 MUHAMMAD DANIAL BIN ROSLE 2020473248

2 NUR HANIDA BINTI SAHIDAN 2020457572
3 VENESSA SHANNEN WAH PEI YUE 2020277834
4 SYAFIQAH AZYANNIEZA BINTI ARISAZHAR 2020464722
5 ANIS NASYWA BINTI RAMLI 2020457258
 TABLE OF CONTENT

NO. CONTENT PAGES

1 Explain the following Industrialized Building System (IBS)
i. Introduction of IBS 1
ii. Types of IBS (including sketches) 2 - 10
iii. Overview of the implementation of IBS Projects in 11 - 12
Malaysia
iv. Advantages and Disadvantages of adopting IBS 13 - 14

2 Case Study Report on 1 IBS Project

i. Background details of the selected project. 15 - 19
ii. Types of IBS used in the project. 20 - 21
iii. Problems that faced by the contractor/developer of 21 - 24
that Eiffel Tower and The Solutions to solve the
problems
iv. Conclusion 25

3 Peer assessment form 26

4 References (using APA format) 27 - 28

1. Industrialized Building System (IBS):
i. Introduction of IBS

A method of construction in which components are made in a controlled

environment (on or off site), then transported, positioned, and assembled into a
structure with minimal additional site work. Prefabricated or Prefab Construction,
Modern Method of Construction (MMC), and Off-site Construction are all terms
used to describe IBS. Through different promotion programmed, training, and
incentives, the Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) Malaysia,
through CIDB IBS SDN BHD, is pushing the use of IBS to boost productivity and
quality at construction sites.

Industrialized Buildings System (IBS) has their own characteristics. There are
many characteristics of the Industrialized Buildings System (IBS) which are the
prefabrication is used in the industrial manufacture of components. Next, the in-
situ techniques that are highly mechanized, such as permanent steel formwork,
tunnel forms, and so on. On the other hand, Computer Aided Design (CAD) and
Computer Aided Production (CAM) are modern design and manufacturing
processes that use information technology. In addition, it reduced labor during
component prefabrication and site work. Not only that, the open building idea
allows for hybrid applications while also being amenable to standardization and
modular coordination.

The main purpose of Industrialized Building System (IBS) is IBS widely

accepted in developed countries. Secondly, IBS was initially introduced in
Malaysia in 1966, with the Pekeliling Flat project in Kuala Lumpur. Next, IBS aids
in the reduction of foreign labor while also increasing the quality and speed of
building operations. Last but not least, the government plans to create an IBS
component manufacturing industry that will contribute to the GDP.

1
ii. Types of Industrialized Building System (IBS)
▪ Precast Concrete Box System

IBS precast concrete is a construction technology that aims to improve on

the traditional building process. However, IBS precast concrete projects are
plagued by major issues such as cost overruns, delays, and worse end-
product quality.

This problem is thought to be caused by a lack of coordination. The goal of

this research is to examine the importance of coordination in the
construction sector for IBS precast concrete. It has been discovered that
the fragmentation that happens in the construction business need continued
coordination because building operations are inherently intertwined. The
goal of coordination is to assist stakeholders in completing and
complementing one another with the primary goal of attaining the goal.

In order to provide the desired building result at the optimal time, cost, and
quality, proper coordination is essential. The importance of coordination for
IBS precast concrete may be seen in the precast concrete construction
phases of planning, design, production, transportation, and
installation/construction, according to the findings. These phases are
designed to work in tandem with the construction process to eliminate
fragmentation and improve the delivery of IBS precast concrete projects.

2
▪ Box Culvert

▪ Precast Slab

3
▪ Steel Formwork System

This is the system formwork devised by the manufacturer to replace

traditional timber formwork. The steel formwork is produced in the mill and
then erected on the job site. Before the steel formworks are constructed,
the steel reinforcement and service conduit will be installed on-site. The
installation is fairly simple due to the use of a simple support system. These
steel formwork systems are subjected to quality control and can be
regarded as a mould into which wet concrete can be poured to form the
appropriate shape.

In the building sector, this form of IBS approach is considered "low level."
Steel formwork utilized in beams, permanent steel formworks, tunnel forms,
and column moulding forms. IBS formwork system includes steel,
aluminium, timber formwork system and so on.

▪ Tunnel Formwork System

▪ Formwork Beam

4
▪ Steel Frame System

Steel is a strong rigid material that is well-suited for a high degree of

flexibility across the structure of long-term construction and rehabilitation of
architectural details of the framework construction. Steel framing system
components are rolled into standardized sizes. After that, the components
are manufactured, which includes cutting, drilling, shot blasting, welding,
and painting.

After the steel frames have been fabricated, they are erected by welding
and bolt tightening. Steel framing systems are a popular choice and are
widely used in fast-track construction projects. The system is commonly
used with precast concrete slabs, steel columns, and beams.

Steel framing systems are a type of construction that uses a "skeleton

frame" of vertical steel columns and horizontal I-beams that are arranged in
an extremely rectangular grid to support the building's floors, roof, and
walls. The occurrence of this system enabled the building's development.

5
▪ Steel Beam

▪ Portal Frame

6
• Prefabricate Timber Frame System

Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a

factory. Complete frame will be transport to the construction site. These
complete frames will be lifted into place by a crane and bolted together.

These prefabricated timber framing systems are used in the construction

industry to build with timber. Timber framing systems are typically made up of
timber building frames and timber roof trusses. Steel plate is used to join truss
members during prefabrication of timber. All members must be treated with an
anti-pesticide.

Timber frame the structures that carry the loads through their beam and girders
to column and to the ground. Form a skeletal structure to support the weigh
and the number of loads carrying members. Timber frame also use to transfer
heavy loads over large spans.

7
▪ Timber Frame

▪ Timber Roof Trusses

8
• Blockwork
The use of block work systems generally simplifies the time-consuming
traditional brick laying tasks. In the block work system, interlocking concrete
masonry units (CMU) and lightweight concrete blocks are used. The
components are manufactured and cured in the plant. Typically, the elements
are used as bricks in structures and as interlocking concrete block pavement.

Blockwork is a building technique that employs big concrete or cement

blocks. They're often much larger than regular clay bricks, but they
contain a hollow centre that makes them lighter and easier to deal with
while also increasing their insulation capacity. Because of its low cost and
ease of use, blockwork is frequently utilised in construction projects.

While there are many various types of blocks to fit different needs, most
blocks are rendered, so their look isn't significant. While bricks are
frequently utilised for aesthetic purposes on the exterior of a structure,
blocks are more commonly employed for interior and retaining walls.

9
• Interlocking concrete block

• Hollow concrete block

10
iii. Overview of the implementation of IBS Projects in Malaysia.

This paper is the overview about application of IBS in Malaysia. It explores the
constraints and prospects for IBS deployment in Malaysia. The Construction
Industry Development Board (CIDB) of Malaysia defines Industrialized Building
System (IBS) as a construction technique in which components are manufactured
in a controlled environment (either onsite or offsite), then transported, positioned,
and installed into a structure with minimal additional onsite work.

The method used in this study is content analysis. Books, journal articles,
annual reports, and newspaper pieces are used to acquire data. According to
studies, IBS has numerous benefits such as labor reduction, cleaner and neater
sites, easier installation, quick completion, improved quality completed products,
and flexibility.

Malaysia's construction sectors have switched from traditional to prefabricated

construction methods. In Malaysia, the Construction Industry Development Board
(CIDB) continues to promote IBS in the private sector, whilst the government
sector has effectively implemented IBS.

IBS has several advantages, but these advantages are accompanied by some
restrictions and drawbacks because IBS is not commonly used. This study focuses
on the advantages and problems that must be overcome to improve the
implementation of IBS.

In Malaysia, IBS has been in place since the 1960s to address housing
shortages. However, IBS was still in its infancy and was not widely used. Some
multinational IBS systems were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
These systems were introduced, but they were discovered to be incompatible with
the climate.

11
 Aside from increasing the use of IBS in Malaysia, the government's goal is to
reduce the country's reliance on foreign labor and save the country money in the
Malaysian construction industry. However, because to a shortage of skilled local
labor and an influx of unskilled foreign workers, the country determined in 1999
that the use of IBS was the only way to address these difficulties. The first IBS
strategic plan was presented, and it was followed by two IBS "roadmaps," namely
2003-2010 and 2011-2015. (CIDB, 2016).

Since then, it has been obligatory for government projects to use at least 70%
IBS components. However, IBS is still not commonly used in the private sector. As
a result, despite the government's initiatives utilizing the IBS system, the main
concerns remain unresolved.

12
iv. Advantages and Disadvantages of adopting IBS

There are many advantages and disadvantages of Industrialized Building

System (IBS). The advantages of Industrialized Building System (IBS) are cost
saving (long run). The formwork of IBS components is mostly composed of
materials that can be reused, such as steel or aluminum, which lowers construction
costs.

Next, shorter construction time. IBS expedites the construction process by

requiring less construction time because the casting of precast elements is done
at the factory and only the erecting of components is done on-site. On the other
hand, reduction of unskilled workers. The use of IBS reduces the construction
process at site and consequently reduce the number of labors required on site.

In addition, it is better site environment and construction site cleanliness. The

IBS technique lowers waste on the job site by reducing the need of formwork and
tools. Moreover, high quality and aesthetic value. The quality of the IBS
components is high since they are prefabricated in a controlled environment. They
also have a strong aesthetic value because they are cast using steel formwork,
which results in a smooth surface.

Also, construction operation not affected by the weather. Because the majority
of IBS building is done in a factory, the weather will have no effect on the
construction process.

Regardless of how amazing the Industrialized Building System is, it has some
drawbacks, such as a high starting cost. Because it requires a specific machine to
cast the components, the initial cost of investing in the Industrialized Building
System construction is higher.

13
 Next, it necessitates the hiring of highly skilled people. Even though the quantity
of workers is decreasing, the quality of those workers should remain high. Although
the Industrialized Building System is simple to put together, it is extremely
dangerous if the employees are not properly trained.

The prefabricated parts are hence inflexible. The elements are put together,
and the shape can't be modified because it's made of high-strength materials.
Then there's the issue of transportation inflexibility. Its huge Industrialized Building
System components may be difficult to transport from one location to another,
causing building costs and time to rise.

As a result, there was the scarcity of supplies. Because there are few
manufacturers, the Industrialized Building System is not well-known in Malaysia's
construction business. Finally, job opportunities are dwindling. This is because the
demand for labor has fallen, resulting in fewer job options on the market. In
Malaysia, IBS has been in place since the 1960s to address housing shortages.
However, IBS was still in its infancy and was not widely used. Some multinational
IBS systems were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s. These systems
were introduced, but they were discovered to be incompatible with the climate.

14
2. Case Study – Eiffel Tower
i. Background details of the Eiffel Tower

On the Champ de Mars in Paris, France, the Eiffel Tower is a wrought-iron

lattice tower. It is named after Gustave Eiffel, an engineer whose firm planned and
built the tower. It was built from 1887 to 1889 as the centerpiece of the 1889
World's Fair and was initially condemned for its design by some of France's top
artists and philosophers, but it has since become a global cultural icon of France
and one of the world's most recognizable monuments. In 2015, 6.91 million visitors
scaled the Eiffel Tower, making it the most visited landmark in the world with an
entrance price. In 1964, the Tower was designated as a historic monument, and in
1991, it was designated as part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site ("Paris, Banks
of the Seins").

The tower is 324 meters (1,063 feet) tall, about the same as an 81-story
skyscraper, and it is Paris' highest structure. It has a square foundation that
measures 125 meters (410 feet) on each side. The Eiffel Tower eclipsed the
Washington Monument during construction to become the world's highest man-
made structure, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York
City was completed in 1930. It was the first structure in the world to reach heights
of more than 200 meters and 300 meters. It is currently 5.2 meters taller than the
Chrysler Building, thanks to the placement of a broadcasting aerial to the summit
of the tower in 1957. (17 ft). After the Millau Viaduct, the Eiffel Tower is the second
tallest free-standing building in France, excluding transmitters.

15
The excavating of the Tower's foundations began on January 26th, 1887 and took
four months to complete.

The project began on July 1st, 1887 and ended twenty-one months later. Eiffel's
factory in Levallois-Perret, on the outskirts of Paris, prepared all the elements.
Each of the 18,000 components needed to build the Tower was meticulously
designed and calculated, then traced out to a tenth of a millimeter’s accuracy
before being assembled into new pieces measuring roughly five meters in length.

16
A team of builders on site, who had previously worked on the massive metal
viaduct projects, oversaw the 150 to 300 employees that put this massive Meccano
set together.

All the metal elements on the Tower were riveted together, which was a common
building technique at the time. The parts were first put together on location using
bolts, then replaced one by one with thermally assembled rivets that constricted
as they cooled, ensuring an extremely tight fit. Each rivet required a team of four
men to assemble: one to heat it, another to hold it in place, a third to form the head,
and a fourth to sledgehammer it. Only a third of the 2,500,000 rivets used in the
Tower's construction were installed on the spot.

17
The Tower is constructed with wooden scaffolding and miniature hoists that are
directly attached to the structure. This photograph was shot in January of 1888.

The first storey was built using 12 temporary wooden scaffolds (30 m in height)
and four larger scaffolds (45 m in height).

18
June 1888 marked the start of the second storey. September 1888, above the
second floor and December 1888, above the middle floor.

The Eiffel Tower was constructed in only two years, two months, and five days.
Work on the building began in January 1887 and ended on March 31, 1889. Given
the primitive techniques available at the time, this was a record fast.

19
ii. Types of IBS used in Eiffel Tower.

There are two types of Industrialized Building System (IBS) used in Eiffel
Tower which is steel frame system and steel formwork system.

▪ Steel Frame System

As we could clearly see, the Eiffel Tower is made from steel and obviously
uses Steel Frame to construct since it is made from iron. Gustave Eiffel
uses latticed wrought iron to construct the tower to demonstrate that the
metal could be as strong as stone while being lighter.

Steel frame system is building technique with a “Skeleton frame” of the

vertical steel columns and horizontal I-beams just like how the appearance
of an Eiffel Tower is, constructed in a rectangular grid to support the floors,
roof and walls of a building which are all attached to the frame. The
development of this technique made the construction of the skyscraper
possible.

Steel frame structure has a huge advantage compared to traditional

concrete because of its higher strength and lighter weight. Under the same
stress, the section of the steel structure member is smaller, and the weight
of the steel structure member is lighter. It is also easy to install and
transport. Furthermore, the toughness and plasticity of steel is good, and
the material is more uniform and reliable. Finally, steel structure is also easy
to be manufacture in the factory in which results in high precision, high
productivity, fast assembly, and short construction period.

20
▪ Steel Formwork System

Formwork construction & casting is of prime importance in concrete

industry. Steel formwork system is one of the low-level prefabricated IBS
because it consists of site casting and face the problem of structural quality
control. Formwork is commonly made of steel and wood. The product is
usually high quality and achieve the fast construction by decreasing the use
of site labor and material requirement.

The advantages of steel formwork system are steel forms are durable and
stronger. Provides uniform and smooth surface finish to the structure. It is
great reusability. It also easy to fix the formwork and easy to dismantle. The
disadvantages of steel formwork system are the cost is very much higher.
Next, it is heavy and requires lifting equipment for large structure formworks.
A corrosion will occur when there is a frequent contact with water. In
addition, the size, and shapes of forms available are limited.

21
iii. Problems that faced by the contractor/developer of that Eiffel Tower and
The Solutions to solve the problems

There are several problems that need to be face by the contractor or

developer of the Eiffel Tower. Firstly, preliminary work at the workshops. To
make sure the position of the assembly holes with great precision, since
everything was theoretical, and these holes had to be drilled to the nearest
tenth of a millimeter. The sections of the tower could not be depicted at scale
1, as was the case with most of Eiffel's other works of art. Because the objects
were too enormous to be drawn in life size, the sketches were scaled down.
Because everything was theoretical, it was required to determine the position
of the assembly holes with remarkable precision, and these holes had to be
drilled to the nearest tenth of a millimeter. Pincers, a type of weakly conical rod
that was driven into the holes, were used to test the correct position of the
holes. We could tell right away if everything had been fixed. It's worth noting
that this "French" method differs from the English method, which necessitates
drilling a significant number of approximate assemblies and performing most of
the adjustment work on the job site. It's a different way, one that's easier in the
workshops but more difficult to put into practice during final assembly, and a
metal tower the size of the Eiffel Tower would have to be complex to execute
as well. The astronomical number of drawings made in the radius of the figures:
1,700 general drawings and 3,629 execution drawings. These 5,300 patterns
cover a total space of around 4,000 m2! It took no time at all to draw all of that.

Next, the worker’s safety. Such as keep the tools in their place to ease the
worker find it and avoid from any accident. The right tools and equipment create
a better product and a safer work environment. It’s also important that all
equipment is cleaned, serviced, and inspected regularly. Labels all the tools to
make sure the environment is systematic. They’re usually simple and rely on
pictures to detail hazards and proper procedures. These tools are good
reminders and warnings for even the most experienced worker.

22
A messy workplace can lead to unnecessary accidents. Make sure boxes are
stacked safely and spills are cleaned up quickly. Conduct regular inspections
to check for potential dangers such as tangled cords, messy floors, and
disorganized tools. Programs like 5S often provide beneficial improvements in
organization that can lead to reduced clutter. Workplace safety strategies. A
competent boss will make changes to the workplace by repairing or changing
equipment, tools, and processes to remove hazards and make work safer. A
good supervisor would include workers in all aspects of making work safer,
knowing that they are the true experts on their tasks. To make work safer,
health and safety committees that include both management and workers are
required, and they operate best when everyone can seek OSH specialists for
assistance in identifying solutions.

The next issue with the Eiffel Tower is a lack of expertise. A person who
lacks experience, skill, or knowledge in a specific sphere or activity, such as
computing or Internet use. Waving your hand indicates rejection, disapproval,
or a lack of interest. Cedric's absence or denial was regarded as a necessity.
Excessive sleepiness is one of the most noticeable symptoms of ced
deprivation. Also, irritability, frequent yawning, daytime exhaustion, and
unforeseen illnesses. The solution is the developer or contractor can manage
their workers to become more efficient and trained to solve the problem of a
lack of expertise. It is critical to establish and consider relevant knowledge,
skills, and abilities within cooperating organizations. It can help to avoid the
temptation to encourage employees to take on roles for which they are not
qualified simply to fill the position. Alternatives include splitting roles so that two
or more employees are responsible for the parts they are most comfortable
working on or looking for someone from outside with the necessary skills to fill
the role. We should also not underestimate the importance of uncertainty,
incomplete knowledge, and different technical approaches in different sectors.
These should be taken seriously rather than dismissed as insignificant.

23
 As with the issue of unclear responsibilities, open communication at an early
stage can help to avoid problems. Recognizing the possibility of difficulties
encourages all participants to assist in identifying knowledge gaps or
differences in approaches so that they can be addressed.

Last but not least, the contractor for the Eiffel Tower's construction faced a
problem which is the expense of constructing manufacturing facilities was first
prohibitively high. Because the Eiffel Tower is a large structure, it's safe to
assume that it will be expensive to build. Change orders, which are frequently
associated with the design of the Eiffel Tower, are another common cause of
cost overruns in the Eiffel Tower's construction. When the developer or
contractor recognizes that a design isn't working or tries to include new specs,
fixes, or requirements after the original Eiffel Tower models and budgets have
been produced, a change order is issued. Additional requirements almost
always result in higher costs, cancelling out the project's original budget. If the
improvements affect other aspects of the Eiffel Tower project, the extra time,
labor, and materials required to complete a new effort may have to be classified
as a cost overrun. The solution to the cost issue is to reduce costs through
economies of scale, thereby supporting affordable building. Large-scale,
precision production of housing units and components contributes to a
reduction in the overall environmental impact of construction. Accelerates the
development process, contributing to cost savings while also shortening the
wait time for new construction. Reduced labor demand frees up workers,
allowing developers to work on multiple projects at the same time. The quality
of homes is consistent and reliable, which contributes to homes with a long
lifespan. Adoption growth will accelerate economies of scale, implying that
greater savings can be realized in the future. The bill of quantities document
attempts to detail the cost of the Eiffel Tower.

24
iv. Conclusion

In conclusion, through this case study, we acquired more information and

can understand more about IBS. We can identify the advantages and
disadvantages of using IBS, the various types of IBS, and the overview of IBS
in Malaysia. We can obtain this information through the notes from our lecturers
and through Google. We decided to do our case study based on Eiffel Tower
which uses IBS to be built. There are a lot of details and information that we
have acquired through internet by googling information about the building
process of Eiffel Tower such as the background story of Eiffel Tower, difficulty
faced during the building process, the incidents that happens during the
building process and the solutions to the difficulty faced during the building
process.

To end this paper, an in-depth analysis of buildings was conducted to

determine their relevance and impact on our lives. There are also specifics
about each IBS's role, the purpose for picking the IBS, as well as advantages
and downsides. As a result, building that will be installed in the building must
be carefully chosen to satisfy everyone and ensure their safety.

25
3. Peer Assessment Form
GROUP: GROUP 3
CLASS: AAP1143B

BIL STUDENT ID GROUP MEMBERS NAME TOTAL

1 2020473248 MUHAMMAD DANIAL BIN ROSLE 15

2 2020457572 NUR HANIDA BINTI SAHIDAN 15

3 2020464722 SYAFIQAH AZYANNIEZA BINTI ARISAZHAR 15

4 2020457258 ANIS NASYWA BINTI RAMLI 15

5 2020277834 VENESSA SHANNEN WAH PEI YUE 15

26
4. References

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know-about-eiffel-tower.
• Landmarks. Construction of the Eiffel tower. (n.d.). Retrieved December 13,
2021, from https://www.wonders-of-the-world.net/Eiffel-Tower/Construction-of-
the-Eiffel-tower.php.
• How modular precast construction with thermomass can improve your bottom
line. Architecture & Design. (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2021, from
https://www.architectureanddesign.com.au/suppliers/composite-global-
solutions/modular-precast-concrete-construction-benefits.
• Wikimedia Foundation. (2020, December 12). Industrialised Building System
(IBS). Wikipedia. Retrieved December 13, 2021, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrialised_building_system_(IBS).
• Yard, C. (2021, May 13). Construction methodology of box culvert. CivilYard.
Retrieved December 13, 2021, from https://civilyard.com/construction-
methodology-of-box-culvert/.
• Drake, B. (2018, April 26). CB structures: Tunnel form construction accelerates
building, reduces costs. Civil + Structural Engineer magazine. Retrieved
December 13, 2021, from https://csengineermag.com/cb-structures-tunnel-form-
construction-accelerates-building-reduces-costs/.
• Types of steel beams. Scarboro Steel Works Inc. (n.d.). Retrieved December 16,
2021, from https://scarborosteelworks.com/what-are-steel-beams/blog.html
• Name. (2021, September 17). What is a portal frame?: All about sheds Australia.
All About Sheds. Retrieved December 16, 2021, from
https://www.allaboutsheds.com.au/blog/what-is-a-portal-frame/
• Wikimedia Foundation. (2021, November 4). Timber framing. Wikipedia.
Retrieved December 16, 2021, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timber_framing

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• Tunnel form construction technique at Rohan Abhilasha, Pune. Tunnel Form
Construction Technique at Pune | Rohan Abhilasha. (n.d.). Retrieved December
16, 2021, from
https://www.rohanbuilders.com/blog/tunnel-form-construction-technique-at-
rohan-abhilasha-pune.html
• Wikimedia Foundation. (2021, December 10). Steel frame. Wikipedia. Retrieved
December 16, 2021, from
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0building,construction%20of%20the%20skyscraper%20possible
• Top 10 issues facing the construction industry in 2019. Quarles. (2019, March
12). Retrieved December 16, 2021, from
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industry-2019/
• Ashleyyeap Follow. (n.d.). CT III IBS formwork system. SlideShare. Retrieved
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• Ltd, A. A. (2021, August 12). Industrialized Building System (IBS): Literature

review. UK Essays. Retrieved December 19, 2021, from
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structural-system-construction-essay.php

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