Immunity

Topic 9
O level IGCSE 2022-2023
14/1/2023
Part 1
Immunity
1. Pathogen Microorganism that live in a host and cause disease

' Example : virus ( HIV) , bacteria ( cholera ) , fungi (athletes foot ).

2. Disease

A) infectious Disease :
Caused by pathogen and can be transmitted from one living organism to another.

B) non infectious :
Not caused by pathogens and cant be transmitted from one organisms to another .
Example < CHD , COPD , anaemia , scurvy ,……
3. Way of spread:

Indirect
Pathogen contractorisee
a host
1. By contaminated food / water …….cholera
2. By vector …….malaria
3. In droplets through sneezing or coughing …..influenza.

Direct dother pay

1. By touch …athlete’s foot

2. From pregnant woman to her fetus through placenta / breast feeding
3. Mixing of body fluid …as HIV unprotected sexual intercourse , or blood transfusion as HIV / hepatitis
4. Ways of control of spread of disease :

1. Personal hygiene ; brush your teeth , wash your hands after toilets , after and before eating , take regular shower .

2. Food hygiene

1. Cook food thoroughly to kill bacteria .

2. Cover food to be kept away from flies
3. Separate the un cooked raw meat from raw vegetables.
4. Food fridge ……. …slow down growth of bacteria by slowing down the rate of enzyme activity .
5. Food in freezer ……. stop the growth of bacteria by deactivating their enzymes
6. Food subjected to high temperature …………kill bacteria by denaturing their enzymes

3. Safe land fill

5. Defense mechanism:

1 first line of defense includes

A) mechanical barrier
B) chemical barrier

Mechanical barriers

1. Skin …has thick outer layer of dead cells containing keratin protein
….prevent / stops the entry of pathogen into body
2. Hairs in nostrils / nose ..trap dust carrying pathogens
3. Scabs …stops the pathogen from getting into your body after a cut

Chemical barriers

1. Ears ….wax ( bactericidal = kill bacteria )

2. Tears …have lysozyme enzyme destroy cell
wall of bacteria = kill bacteria
3. Acid in stomach ….denature enzymes of
bacteria so kill bacteria
4. Sticky mucus …mucus contain enzymes that
kill bacteria
5. Saliva contain enzymes that kill bacteria .
2. Second line of defense
1
Y
-
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↑
↑1 ↑ ⑨ 2
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①Yu
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-(v

"! Antigen ( non self)

1. Lymphocyte detect / recognise :"enodenode -
2

the antigen of the pathogen as "(=,

4
Y
4 Y
Y ↓
↓ ↓
anon self Active immune response
2. Lymphocytes will start to 3. Lymphocytes release
Primary immune response
divide by mitosis to form a antibodies to kill the pathogen
clone of lymphocytes.

Antibody

How antibodies work binding site &

#
1. Antibodies have a specific binding site L
* How antibodies work
2. Complementary to a specific antigen
&
Antigen &
3. So they will bind together to form
ANTIBODY ANTIGEN COMPLEX
4. To destroy the pathogen wither directly or
indirectly : 4. Leaving memory cells for faster
A) stick to pathogen to mark for the phagocyte secondary immune response ….where
to engulf and digest by digestive enzymes upon secondary infection with the same ⑨ ↑ ⑨
↑
2
-

pathogen …they will divide faster and

F
B) destroy cell wall and cause bacteria to lyse .
↓ i!
. .
produce more antibodies at a higher
.

C) neutralise toxins 4 I

rate ..so kill pathogen without person ↓

D) clump them together ( immobilisation)
falling ill ..
D) clump them together ( immobilisation) A) Stick to pathogen. And mark it fro
the phagocyte to engulf and digest by
digestive enzymes .

B) destroy the bacterial cell wall and cause the bacteria to lyse
& a sanitarious

WBCs

&
Lymphocytes Phagocytes

③ "
Large nucleus Irregular shaped
C) neutralise the toxins of bacteria Release antibodies nucleus / lobed nucleus
Phagocytosis
 Primary immune response Secondary immune response

Slower Faster

Involves no memory cells Involve memory cells

Few lymphocytes that are specific to the antigen /
pathogen So memory cells can divide faster ..release
Where it takes time for the body’s own lymphocytes more antibodies at a faster rate .
to detect the antigen ……divide by mitosis ..form a
clone of lymphocytes ….and release enough
antibodies ….to kill the pathogen .
 Vaccine

Inject a weak or a dead pathogen

Stimulate an active immune response
Stimulate a primary immune response .

-
Body’s own lymphocytes detect the antigen
Definition
Start to divide by mitosis and form a clone of lymphocytes
Secrete antibodies to kill pathogen
Leaving memory cells for faster SECONDARY immune response
↑

i.

Explain the importance of vaccination .

Explain the role of vaccine in controlling the spread of disease
Definition
To provide herd immunity ( where most of the population are immunised )
Ao less people in which pathogen can replicate
So reducing spread of disease
Reducing pool of infected people
18/1/2023
Part 2
Active and passive immunity
Diabetes
 Active immunity Passive immunity

Immune response No immune response

Lymphocytes release antibodies Body’s own lymphocytes don’t release antibodies

Instead they receive ready made antibodies
Leaving memory cells
No memory cells
Provides LONG TERM IMMUNITY
Provides a SHORT TERM immunity

Natural
- Artificial / Artificial
Natural
Experiencing the Vaccine
From mother to her fetus Receiving ,
disease
through placenta , the injecting ready
breast feeding made antibodies

Advantages : Advantage :
Memory cells…..long term immunity Provide immediate protection against the pathogen .

Disadvantages:
Disadvantages :
No memory cells …short term immunity
Needs time for the lymphocytes to detect
and divide and release antibodies
 Suggestion

How to boost your immune system:

1. Hygiene
2. Good balanced diet
3. Stop smoking and alcohol
4. Regular exercise
1. Explain the primary immune response

Lymphocytes detect the pathogen , and start to divide by mitosis , forming a clone of lymphocytes
The release antibodies
Antibodies kill pathogen
Leaving memory
Which is needed for faster secondary immune response
Which is an active immune response

2. Explain how antibodies work

They have a specific binding site

Complementary to antigen
So they bind together forming ANTIBODY ANTIGEN COMPLEX
They work by direct and indirect ways to destroy the pathogen
A) mark the bacteria for phagocyte to engulf and digest
B) clump them together and prevent their spreading over the body ( immobilisation )
C) damage the cell wall of bacteria causing the bacteria to lyse
D) neutralise the toxins

3. Why upon secondary infection we don’t show symptoms

Presence of memory cells
That can divide faster
So produce more antibodies at a faster rate
So kill the pathogen before the person falls ill
Explain how vaccine can reduce /prevent spread of disease

Stimulating an active immune response

Inject a weak or dead pathogen
This will stimulate an immune response
Body’s own lymphocytes detect antigen
Start to divide by mitosis forming a clone of lymphocytes
Secreting antibodies to kill pathogens
Leaving memory cells for faster secondary immune response
It provides herd immunity by decreasing pool of infected people
So less people in which virus can replicate
So reduce spread .

Explain the difference between the primary and the secondary immune response

Primary is slower vs secondary is faster

Primary has no memory cells vs secondary has memory cells
Primary is slow because it has few specific lymphocytes , which needs time for the lymphocytes to detect the
antigen and divide to form a clone and release antibodies
Secondary faster , memory cells , producing more antibodies at a faster rate .

Both are active

Explain why its advisable some times to take ready made antibodies rather than a vaccine ?

Receiving ready made antibodies is a type of passive immunity

Which provides immediate protection against pathogen
Yet vaccine is an example of active immunity
‘Which is slow as it needs some time for lymphocytes to detect and divide and release enough antibodies

Explain the difference between passive and active immunity ?

Active involves an immune response vs passive no immune response

Active leaves memory cells providing a long term immunity , passive involves no memory cells so
provides a short term immunity
Active involves production of antibodies by body’s lymphocytes , passive involves receiving ready
made antibodies

Suggest the reason of receiving a vaccine on two doses

1. Less likely to cause unwanted side effects so given in smaller doses

2. Act a like a booster dose , that stimulates a secondary immune response, thus
increasing number of memory cells
 ↓
Auto immune disease 2
-

↑
C

Lymphocytes
-
⑦ 2
↑
Beta cells …insulin
A O
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cell
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Beta cells in pancreas Uncontrolled blood glucose level
Diabetes type 1

Example : diabetes type 1

Lymphocytes ….attack beta cells in pancreas
responsible for the release of insulin ….so
blood glucose will go high .

Symptoms :

Thirst , sweat , glucose in urine , blurry vision , weight loss ,

frequent urination

Treatment
No cure
Monitor blood glucose level , receive regular shots of insulin , less
carbohydrates intake , more exercise
 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

8 Diabetes type 1 question October/ November 2016 Syllabus-0610 Paper 41




Pancreas

①Detect/ recognise specific antigen

①Fit together forming antibody- antigen complex

r
①Destroy pathogen by marking the pathogen to be engulfed by phagocyte

ab
①Or neutralise their toxins , clump pathogen together and prevent them from
spreading around body ① = Immobilisation .

lG
Lack of sunlight
iha
Linked to
nutrition(biologi
cal molecules)

Less calcium absorbed into bones

.N

Rickets and soft bones

Dr

Prone to infection
Muscle cramps

Dr. Nihal Gabr

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Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease



Control group .

r
ab
lG
Deficiency of vitamin D leads to increase in number of cases of type 1
diabetes in mice.at 250 days vit D def. was 65% vs normal 46%.
iha
At o and 50 days there was no difference in number of cases
Then at 100 days , it showed the greatest difference with more cases
.N

in mice with vitamin D deficient by 27 %.

Vitamin D deficient leveled of earlier at 150 days before normal mice.
Dr

Frequent urination
Thirst
Fatigue
Blurry vision
Weight loss
Glucose in urine

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 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease



Receiving regular shots of insulin
Decrease the carbohydrate in take
Regular blood glucose testing
Exercise.

r
ab
9 Immunity question lG
October/ November 2016 Syllabus-0610 Paper 42
iha
2501000 X 100
5077 Goo
.N

4.92
Dr

Involved in clotting
When they become activated , they become sticky and they brwak
Linked to animal
transport(circulation) down releasing thrombin which catalyse the conversion of soluble
fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin that forms mesh , that will trap blood
forming a clot
That prevents blood loss and entry of pathogens
Dr. Nihal Gabr
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 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

5 Page 10 in marking scheme October/ November 2010 Syllabus-0610 Paper 31


 4-

r
ab
lG
iha
Mitosis
.N

Antibody
Dr

I
Phagocytosis
l Where phagocyte engulf
l And digest
l By enzymes

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 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

11 March 2019 Syllabus-0610 Paper 42




Proteincoat

DNAI RNA

r
strand

ab
l
lG
Not taken yet
Protein coat
iha
DNA /RNA/genetic material
.N

Not taken yet

Dr

plasmid .

Ribosomes
cytoplasm
cell membrane
cell wall .

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Biology 0610 Immunity and disease
New syllabus

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 4

2 Pathogens cause disease.

(a) Fig. 2.1 shows some cells that are part of the human immune system. These cells are
responding to one type of pathogen.

Q
pathogen
R
T phagocyte
Antibody

S
Lymphocyte
Fig. 2.1

Explain how the immune system responds to an invasion of pathogens.

Use the letters in Fig. 2.1 in your answer.

Active immune response

...................................................................................................................................................

①...................................................................................................................................................
The lymphocytes S recoginse the antigen on the surface of the pathogen
Q as non self
...................................................................................................................................................

Lymphocytes replicate and form a clone

...................................................................................................................................................

Activated lymphocyte release antibodies T

...................................................................................................................................................
Which are specific by having specific binding site which is
...................................................................................................................................................
complementary to the antigen
...................................................................................................................................................
They bind together forming antibody antigen complex
...................................................................................................................................................
Pathogen is engulfed by phagocyte R to digest by digestive enzymes ①
...................................................................................................................................................
-
-

The lymphocytes leave memory cells for faster secondary immune

...................................................................................................................................................
response
...................................................................................................................................................
Where they provide a long term immunity
...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

............................................................................................................................................. [6]

© UCLES 2020 0610/41/O/N/20

 5

(b) A vaccine was introduced in 1942 for a particular disease.

Fig. 2.2 shows the effect of introducing the vaccine on the number of cases of the disease in
one country.

250
vaccine
introduced

200

150

F.
number of cases
of disease
per million people
:
100

50

0 ☒
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 I 1980
1966 year
197¥
.

Fig. 2.2 'In⇐

In 1946 the government of the country concluded that the vaccine was successful.

Discuss the evidence, shown in Fig. 2.2, for and against this conclusion.

Over all there is a decrease in number of cases from 1944 till 1980
...................................................................................................................................................

Decreased from 1 45 million cases to zero -at 1974.

...................................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

Once the vaccine was introduced in 1942, the number of cases increased
...................................................................................................................................................

over the coming 2 years ...increased from 145 to 147.5 million cases
...................................................................................................................................................

It...................................................................................................................................................
took 32 years for the vaccine to eradicate the disease and reach to the
zero cases .
...................................................................................................................................................

Also since the vaccine was introduced , there was still some peaks
...................................................................................................................................................

example at ...../ it kept fluctuating .

............................................................................................................................................. [4]

[Total: 10]
© UCLES 2020 0610/41/O/N/20 [Turn over
 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

7 Question on vaccination


May/June 2016 Syllabus-0610 Paper 42

Prokaryotes
-
some have Like bacteria
Flagellum .

No membrane bound organelle …no

nucleus , no mitochondria , no ER
They have special structures
1. Cell wall not made from They have like animal

r
cellulose ( murein ) cells

ab
2. Plasmid ( small genetic 1. Cytoplasm
material ) 2. Cell membrane
3. Loop of DNA lG 3. Ribosome ( but
4. Smaller ribosomes.
smaller than that of
5. Have flagellum
animal cells )
iha
^

,
.N

No Nucleus
Dr

loop of DNA
no membrane bound organelle Cnu mitochondria) .

Cell wall made From mucin .

Movement / to swim

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319
Commons
cytoplasm / cell membrane/
ribosomes .

÷÷÷tÑ
Loop / circular
DNA

1- cell
Smaller 0
-

[ cell wallmembrane .

☐ made married
[ capsule
( plasmid .
•
.

No
bound
membrane
organelles
-

flagellum .
No NucleusNo Mituch .

•
loup ctDNA / Plasmid /
( ekwall made Fommwein
 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

Stimulating an active immune response

Inject a weak or dead pathogen
This will stimulate an immune response
Body’s own lymphocytes detect antigen
Start to divide by mitosis forming a clone of lymphocytes
Secreting antibodies to kill pathogens
Leaving memory cells for faster secondary immune response

r
It provides herd immunity by decreasing pool of infected people

ab
So less people in which virus can replicate
So reduce spread .
lG
① Initial steep increase
iha
-

① Till it peaks at 50 s
O
reaching to 12 au.
① The followed by slower
.N

decrease reaching to
4.6au.
Dr

① It fluctuates from 125

to 250 s where it ↳
fluctuates between 4.4
and 5 au,
0^4

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 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

12-0.4=

r
ab
lG
iha
.N

By active transport
Dr

Through carrier proteins

Linked to
cholera in
digestion.
In cell membrane
Against concentration gradient
Using energy from respiration

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 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

15 March 2021 Syllabus-0610 Paper 42

r
ab
G
al
ih
N
r.
D

140,000-14000
x100 =
Difference 140,000
X 100 90
Starting

Dr. Nihal Gabr 437

 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

Decrease in the number of cases , with increasing the number of

Skills
vaccination .
Overall , % of population being vaccinated increased then fluctuates .
Yet number of measles kept decreasing then remained constant .

From 2000 , the number of cases stayed constant yet the number
of vaccination was fluctuating .

r
Data quote

ab
Direct
G
Inject a weak or a dead pathogen
Stimulate an active immune response
al
Stimulate a primary immune response
ih

Body’s own lymphocytes detect the antigen

Start to divide by mitosis and form a clone of lymphocytes
N

Secrete antibodies to kill pathogen

Leaving memory cells for faster secondary immune response
r.

To provide herd immunity ( where most of the population are immunised )

D

So less people in which pathogen can replicate

So reducing spread of disease
reducing pool of infected people
Direct

Stomach acid
Mucus
Lysozyme in tears

Dr. Nihal Gabr 438

 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

16 M/J/2021 Syllabus-0610 Paper 41

Like cholera
&

Passive immunity

r
Booster dose Active immunity

ab
G stud
al
art
Xo se
is
ih
N

Secondary immune response

r.

Primary immune response

D

Direct
Provide a passive immunity
An immediate protection

Dr. Nihal Gabr 439

 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

Skills
Vaccine provides an active immunity
Which involves the production of memory cells
Providing a long term immunity.
Booster doses stimulates a secondary immune response
producing / leaving more memory cells .
Which is faster and produce more antibodies at a faster rate .

r
ab
Direct 1. Antibodies have specific binding site
2. Complementary to a specific antigen
G
al
3. So they will bind together to form ANTIBODY ANTIGEN COMPLEX
ih

4. To destroy the pathogen either in a direct or an indirect way

A) stick to pathogen to mark for the phagocyte to engulf and digest by
N

digestive enzymes …through phagocytosis .

B) destroy cell wall and cause bacteria to lyse
r.

C) neutralise toxins
D

D) clump them together ( immobilisation)

Transport fats / fatty acids

Drain excess tissue fluid
Return lymph to blood
Vaccine ….stimulate active immune response …immune response memory cells …long term
immunity .

Reviving antitoxins ( antibodies) ……passive immunity…no immune response , no memory cells

….shortDr.
term immunity
Nihal Gabr 440
 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

17 Q1 M/J/2021 Syllabus-0610 Paper 42

Skin
Scab

r
ab
Phagocyte

G
al
ih

Different pathogens have different antigens

Lymphocytes detect the type of pathogen through detecting antigen
N

Lymphocytes produce specific antibodies

Antibodies have a complementary binding site to antigen
r.

To help bind to pathogen to mark for phagocytes to digest

D

Dr. Nihal Gabr 441

 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

18 Nov 2021 Syllabus-0610 Paper 41

r
ab
G
al
ih
N
r.
D

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 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

19 Nov 2021 Syllabus-0610 Paper 43

Linked to reproduction in
human
By mixing of body fluids through unprotected sexual intercourse
Direct
Through blood transfusion without screening
Sharing contaminated needles
From mother to fetus through placenta or at birth

r
And from mother to baby through breast feeding

ab
G
al
Protein coat
ih

Involved active immunity

N

Thinking Produce antibodies

That mark the pathogen for the phagocyte to engulf and digest the pathogen /
r.

neutralise toxins / allow immobilisation / destroy cell wall causing bacteria to lyse
Where antibodies have a specific binding site to bind to a specific antigen
D

And leave memory cells

For long term immunity

Destroy lymphocytes / decrease number of lymphocytes

Dr. Nihal Gabr 443

Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

Independent

r
ab
G
al
ih
N
r.
D

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 Biology 0970 Paper 4 Immunity and disease

Validity ….controlled variables

Cant come to a conclusive link
Reliability ….sample size / time

r
ab
G 0970
al
4291-897 0610
X100
ih

4291
79%
N
r.
D

There was an increase in average number of lymphocytes in the

treatment group
Yet the number of lymphocytes in the control group remained the same
We cant reach to a Conclusive link between diet and number of
lymphocytes
Because he is starting with different number of lymphocytes
Sample size is small .
For…. Validity
Against …… I cant reach to a

Dr. Nihal Gabr 445 Reliabilty conclusive link .