Topic 68 –Ways of communication in the English language II: radio and television.

Advertising in English-speaking countries: linguistics and semiologic aspects.

OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

2. THE MASS MEDIA IN ENGLISH: RADIO AND TELEVISION.

2.1. The mass media in English.

2.1.1. Means: press, radio, television.

2.1.2. Aims: the audience.

2.1.3. Broadcasting policy.

2.2. Radio.

2.2.1. A definition: the radio.

2.2.2. A brief history of the radio.

2.2.3. The radio in the United Kingdom.

2.2.4. The radio out of the United Kingdom.

2.3. Television.

2.3.1. A definition: the television.

2.3.2. A brief history of the television.

2.3.3. The television in the United Kingdom.

2.3.4. The television out of the United Kingdom.

3. ADVERTISING IN ENGLISH-SPEAKING CULTURES: LINGUISTIC AND

SEMIOLOGICAL ASPECTS.

3.1. The sources of advertising.

3.1.1. Semiological aspects: the science of signs.

3.1.2. Linguistic aspects: the language of advertising.

3.2. Advertising in English-speaking cultures nowadays.

4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

5. CONCLUSION.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. INTRODUCTION.

1.1. Aims of the unit.

The present unit, Unit 68, aims to provide a useful introduction to the mass media in
English which comprises the main means of communication: press, radio and
television. Yet, we shall namely concentrate on the two latter, radio and television. It is
within the field of broadcasting that we shall examine the main types of radio and TV
channels in Great Britain in terms of aims, style, and language. In doing so, we shall
also approach the question of advertising in English-speaking cultures as far as
linguistic and semiological aspects are concerned so as to better understand the scope of
radio and TV within the international arena.

So, the unit is to be divided into two main chapters which correspond to the main tenets
of this unit. Thus, Chapter 2 provides a general introduction to (1) the mass media in
English focusing, in particular, on radio and television. So, we shall start by offering a
profile of mass media in English in terms of (a) means (press, radio, television), main
(b) aims regarding the audience, and (c) broadcasting policy, regarding the main
broadcasting corporations. Next, we shall focus on (2) radio and (3) television in terms
of (a) definition, (b) a brief history of the invention up to the present day, (b) its
organization in the United Kingdom and also, (c) out of it so as to better understand the
scope of the English language within the mass media.

Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 shall address the phenomenon of
advertising in English-speaking countries within the scope of the English language and
shall review its main features in linguistic and semiological aspects. We shall start by
examining (1) the sources of advertising in terms of, first, (a) semiological aspects and
(b) linguistic aspects. Within the former issue, we shall adress the science of semiology,
which studies signs in society whereas within the latter we shall discuss on journalistic
language so as to get the main features of the language of advertising. Finally, we shall
analyse the phenomenon of (2) advertising in English- speaking cultures nowadays.

Chapter 4 will be devoted to the main educational implications in language teaching

regarding the introduction of this issue in the classroom setting. Chapter 5 will offer a
conclusion to broadly overview our present study, and Chapter 6 will include all the
bibliographical references for further information.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

An general introduction to mass media in English si

namely based on the Encyclopaedia

Britannica (2004); The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (2003); McLean, Profile UK
(1993); and Vaughan-Rees, In Britain (1995). Specific information about radio and
television, and their typology is drawn from Bromhead, Life in Modern Britain (1962);
and the reliable sources of www.wikipedia.org (2004); www.bbc.co.uk (2004); and
www.britannica.com (2004). Further information about advertising is taken from
Andren, Rethoric and Ideology in Advertising (1978).

The background for educational implications is based on the theory of communicative

competence and communicative approaches to language teaching are provided by the
most comple te record of current publications within the educational framework is
provided by the guidelines in B.O.E. (2002) for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato; and the
Council of Europe, Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common
European Framework of reference (1998).

2. THE MASS MEDIA IN ENGLISH: RADIO AND TELEVISION.

Chapter 2 provides a general introduction to (1) the mass media in English focusing, in
particular, on radio and television. So, we shall start by offering a profile of mass media
in English in terms of (a) means (press, radio, television), main (b) aims regarding the
audience, and (c) broadcasting policy, regarding the main broadcasting corporations.
Next, we shall focus on (2) radio and (3) television in terms of (a) definition, (b) a brief
history of the invention up to the present day, (b) its organization in the United
Kingdom and also, (c) out of it so as to better understand the scope of the English
language within the mass media.

2.1. The mass media in English.

2.1.1. Means: press, radio, television.

The mass media comprises three types of modern communication, that is, the press, the
radio, and the television (also see: cinema, advertising). In terms of percentage, the
press is curiously much more demanded in Great Britain than radio or television;
actually, figures show that over

80% of households receive at least one daily newspaper despite that fact that people
usually get

the first news from radio or television. The reason is drawn from constant complaints to
these two broadcasting varieties for being trivial, boring or simply for being involved in
political arguments and discussions (Bromhead, 1962:192).

However, two main factors have made radio and television become two modern forms
of communication in the twentieth and twenty-first century: technological advances and
universal literacy. Actually, this century has seen the supremacy of the spoken word
over the written one in terms of mass communication thanks to inventors such as
Marconi or Baird, who cannot be held responsible for the relative decline of written
language. For the first time since the invention of the printing press (c.1450), the
relevance of written language was no longer restricted to matters of church and state,
but to literature and social issue within the audience, who are undifferenciated by class,
income, and background, among other factors.
Moreover, the far greater immediacy of radio and television (songs, documentaries,
daily news) is drawn from their role as instruments of cultural influence. Actually, many
of the most popular television programmes and documentaries are imports from the
United States or Great Britain (BBC News, BBC documentaries, Discovery Channel,
MTV). Hence radio and television are regarded as the best means to get closer to the
anglophone world.

2.1.2. Aims: the audience.

The main aims of the mass media in general deal with what and how to report news. It
must be borne in mind that what refers to the content whereas how refers to the question
of transmitting objective and subjective information. This bias can exist because Britain
is a free country with an elected representative government, and the mass media is free
putting forward various points of view to be transmitted through different mediums with
their own structural features.

Hence, the mass media (marked with numbers) are interrelated to the main features of
journalistic style (marked with letters) so as to cover the question of how to transmit
information, for instance, (1) to inform with (a) correctness, since journalistic language
is non- literary and must be close to cultivated colloquial language; (b) conciseness,
since short sentences are often the most appropriate in journalistic language; (c) clarity,
since one can achieve communicative efficiency by using suitable verbs in the active
form and the indicative mood; (2) to cultivate the audience’s opinion by (d) holding the
attention of the receiver, since articles of an informative nature have a peculiar structure
which is used in order to attract the

reader’s attention from the first line to the last; and (3) to spread the news in a (e)
language produced in groups.

Note that all the messages in collective communication are produced by different
authors, some of them have greater responsibility than others in the final result which is
offered to the receivers (particularly, radio and TV commercials); and finally, with (f)
the use of a mixed language, since the plurality of concurrent codes drives the different
languages to depend on each other. The leading code (the articulated language in written
or oral representation also suffers at the same time the influence of smaller codes).

Regarding what to transmit, mass media means report the latest events around the
world, from international to local level. That report traditionally answers the set of wh-
questions: what?, who?, when?, where?, why?, what for? and how?, among others (i.e.
how much?, how many? and so on). The information report must be a complete piece of
news or enlarged bits of information according to a decreasing interest order.

In short, the aim is to provide as much information as possible to the recipients of the
news, that is, the audience, which is regarded as the market of news in a commercial
sense. So, it is important not only what to write but also how to write it taking into
account that each means of communication has a particular framework and a
characteristic mode of address. The determination of the particular mode of address will
depend on the particular type of audience since there must be a reciprocity between
producer and receiver.
As a result, we find the three main types of communication means: the press, the radio
and the television with a common way of expression: the journalistic style. Yet, we
must take into account that the most attractive feature that shapes the psychology and
behaviour of a radio or television audience is the fact that it is composed of people in
the privacy of their homes, as opposed to the audience in a theatre or cinema.

2.1.3. Broadcasting policy.

Regarding British broadcasting, that is, radio and television, it “has traditionally been
based on the principle that it’s a public service accountable to the people through
Parliament. Following

1990 legislation, it is also embracing the principles of competition and choice”

(britannia.com). Yet, it is closely connected to four main factors: (1) the audience
(already discussed above); (2) techniques and materials (since they differ from the press
in having a wider capacity for

coverage of human activities: news bulletins, reports, commentary, discussion); (3)

types of programmes, among which we highlight entertainment (comedy, quizzes,
music, dancing contests), drama (serials, adaptations from famous works of literature,
operas, detective stories), spoken word (news, sports, ‘talk’ shows, interviews, comedy
interviews, ‘phone-ins’ where a panel of experts answer questions from a listening
audience, and documentaries, among others.

Finally, we emphasize its (4) interdependence since they are not always free of
stockholder or advertiser pressure, though broadcasters in democratic countries take
pride of their freedom from their government. Actually, within the English-speaking
scope, there are two main ways of organizations regarding the relationship between
broadcasting systems and their government: first, a private management, which refers to
commercial firms that receive their revenue from advertising in the form of brief spots
broadcast at regular intervals throughout the day or the sponsoring of one particular
programme; and secondly, the establishment of a public corporation or authority. This
means that a given corporation began broadcasting as a monopoly authorised by the
government, but soon they became independent of it, and were supported by licence
fees, paid by radio and TV sets.

Within this type, it is worth mentioning that three public bodies are responsible for
television and radio throughout Britain. They are: (1) the British Broadcasting
Corporation (BBC), which broadcasts television and radio; (2) the Independent
Television Commission (ITC), which licenses and regulates non-BBC television
services, including cable and satellite; and (3) the Radio Authority, which licenses and
regulates all non-BBC radio,” according to website britannia.com. Among the three
corporations, the BBC is the best known in the world.

In particular, since its foundation on 14 November 1922 under the name of British
Broadcasting Company, and later on as the British Broadcasting Corporation on 1
January 1927, the BBC has been regarded as the main source of information services
because of its reputation and impartiality in news reporting. Moreover, it got its
independence partly by a historical accident as the result of habit and common
agreement of its legal status since it began to broadcast first to the empire and then to
other parts of the world.

At first, it was declared a public service and given Royal Charter (1927), but when later
on a national broadcasting monopoly came into operation, the BBC was funded by the
state. The BBC gets its financial independence from the licence fee that everybody pays
when using a television, rather than getting it from advertisement or the government.
Yet, the latter (represented by a Board of Governors) not only determines how much
this fee is going to be, but also has the right to veto any BBC programme before it is
transmitted, take away the BBC’s

licence to broadcast, and to maintain political impartiality (specially in domestic

affairs). Identified with the principles of democracy and free speech during the WWII,
its fame became international and today, it is still regarded as a reliable source.

2.2. Radio.

2.2.1. A definition: the radio.

Defined as “the transmission or reception of electromagnetic radiation in the radio

frequency range,” that is, navigation signals, AM and FM broadcasting, television
transmissions, cell- phone communications, and various forms of radar, “the term is
commonly applied also to the equipment used, especially to the radio receiver”
(columbia encyclopaedia, 2003). Information in radio transmission is imparted to a
carrier wave by modulating its amplitude, frequency, or duration. So, we may refer to
AM (in full amplitude modulation) and FM (in full amplitude modulation), commonly
known as radio waves.

Following the website británica.com (2004), “AM is the oldest method of broadcasting
radio programs. Commercial AM stations operate in the frequency range of 535 to 1605
kHz. Because radio waves of these frequencies are reflected back to the Earth’s surface
by the ionosphere, they can be detected by receivers hundreds of miles away. In
addition to commercial radio broadcasting, AM is also employed in short-wave radio
broadcasts, and in transmitting the video portion of television programs.”

With respect to FM radio waves, “developed by American electrical engineer Edwin H.

Armstrong in the early 1930s, FM is less susceptible to outside interference and noise
(e.g., thunderstorms, nearby machinery) than is AM. Such noise generally affects the
amplitude of a radio wave but not its frequency, so an FM signal remains virtually
unchanged. FM is also better able to transmit sounds in stereo than AM. Commercial
FM broadcasting stations transmit their signals in the frequency range of 88 megahertz
(MHz) to 108 MHz.”

Moreover, according to Columbia Encyclopaedia (2003), “the prime purpose of radio is

to convey information from one place to another through the intervening media (i.e., air,
space, nonconducting materials) without wires” and where a transmitter and a receiver
are needed for the propagation and interception of radio waves. Actually, “in its most
common form, radio is used for the transmission of sounds (voice and music) and
pictures (television). The sounds and images are converted into electrical signals by a
microphone (sounds) or video camera (images),
amplified, and used to modulate a carrier wave that has been generated by an oscillator
circuit in a transmitter.”

2.2.2. A brief history of the radio.

Radio is based on the studies of Michael Faraday, James Clerk Maxwell, Heinrich
Hertz, Guglielmo Marconi, and others. For instance, Faraday “was the first to report
induction of an electric current from a magnetic field. He invented the first electric
motor and dynamo, demonstrated the relation between electricity and chemical bonding,
discovered the effect of magnetism on light, and discovered and named diamagnetism”
(britannica.com, 2004); Maxwell developed the mathematical theory of electromagnetic
waves, and Hertz devised an apparatus for generating and detecting them; and finally,
“Guglielmo Marconi, recognizing the possibility of using these waves for a wireless
communication system, gave a demonstration (1895) of the wireless telegraph, using
Hertz’s spark coil as a transmitter and Edouard Branly’s coherer (a radio detector in
which the conductance between two conductors is improved by the passage of a high-
frequency current) as the first radio receiver” (Columbia Encyclopaedia, 2003).

“The effective operating distance of this system increased as the equipment was
improved, and in 1901, Marconi succeeded in sending the letter S across the Atlantic
Ocean using Morse code. In 1904, Sir John A. Fleming developed the first vacuum
electron tube, which was able to detect radio waves electronically. Two years later, Lee
de Forest invented the audion, a type of triode, or three-element tube, which not only
detected radio waves but also amplified them. The beginning of radio telephony—the
transmission of music and speech—also began in 1906 with the work of Reginald
Fessiden and Ernst F. W. Alexanderson” (Columbia, 2003).

“However, it was not until Edwin H. Armstrong patented (1913) the circuit for the
regenerative receiver that long-range radio reception became practicable. The major
developments in radio initially were for ship-to-shore communications. Following the
establishment (1920) of station KDKA at Pittsburgh, Pa., the first commercial
broadcasting station in the United States, technical improvements in the industry
increased, as did radio’s popularity. Particularly in the United States, the radio receiver
became a standard household fixture. Subsequent research gave rise to countless
technical improvements and to such applications as radio facsimile , radar, and
television” (Columbia, 2003).

“Radios that combine transmitters and receivers are now widely used for
communications. Police and military forces and various businesses commonly use such
radios to maintain contact

with dispersed individuals or groups. Citizens band (CB) radios, two-way radios
operating at frequencies near 27 megahertz, most typically used in vehicles for
communication while traveling, became popular in the 1970s. Cellular telephones,
despite the name, are another popular form of radio used for communication”
(Columbia, 2003).

2.2.3. Radio in the United Kingdom.

With respect to the radio in the United Kingdom, it is worth mentioning that the AM
radio, the grandfather of the broadcast industry, reshaped the view of the world. In
economic terms, following Bromhead (1962:188), “when the spread of radio began, the
British were quick to agree on certain principles. Unlike the press, it should not be
financed, even partially, through commercial advertising; but its programmes should be
free from state control, and should therefore have no state subsidy. The British
Broadcasting Corporation (B.B.C.) was set up, given the monopoly of radio
broadcasting, and financed by compulsory annual payments. The Minister in charge of
Posts and Telecommunications appoints the B.B.C.’s Board of Governors and its
chairman.”

When broadcasters became aware of the artistic potential of the radio in the 1930s, they
developed the nature of the medium and found out about how to establish a special
relationship to their audience. At first, they tended to adopt an artificial style, thinking
in terms of a mass audience, when it was actually composed of small groups or
individuals usually at home. Style had to be adapted then to different audiences, using
the voice in such ways so as to hold the attention of the listeners.

From the start, the programmes were a mixture of news, comment, music, entertainment
and sport, but during the years of WWII it was argued that the BBC established itself as
an unshakeable national institution which had four main aims: to satisfy the hunger of
the public for war news; secondly, to boost morale propaganda and spread it easily;
third, to trasmit coded messages to intelligence agents at home and abroad; and fourth,
to give to both troops and civilians much-needed light relief. It is safe to say that during
the war, the radio set (or

‘wireless’) became an indispensable part of any household, and the BBC became a part
of national life. Hence the popularity of certain radio programmes, such as the ‘Light
Programme’ or the ‘Home Service.’ These eventually evolved into the BBC national
stations we know today.

Let us examine then the main present-day radio stations that most people listen in the
morning while having breakfast or driving to work. Following the website
www.bbb.co.uk/info/channels

(2004), BBC radio channels include: five BBC national channels, over one hundred and
fifty commercial radios (teenagers, music), and thirty- nine local radio stations which
address a great wide variety of themes. Thus,

BBC Radio 1, which is the most popular station in the UK with an average of 11,2
million listeners (usually adults). It began broadcasting in 1967 and since then it has
been devoted to the best new music almost entirely. Its birth was a signal that popular
youth culture could no longer be ignored by the country’s established institutions. It
shows a great emphasis on the latest fashions, although at night and at the weekend
airtime is given to minority interest music and to the music of the last forty years.

BBC 1Xtra, which is devoted to new black music.

BBC Radio 2, which namely broadcasts music and entertainment includes light music
(pop, jazz, folk, country), chat shows and also, some comedy.

BBC Radio 3, whic h is devoted to classical music, jazz, world, arts and drama. There is
little variation on this station since it is generally free from news and comments.

BBC Radio 4 broadcasts a wide variety of programmes dealing with news, current
affairs, plays, comedy, long-running seria ls, quizzes, and chat-shows, among others.
Yet, it is the backbone of the BBC’s domestic radio service due to its consumer advice
programmes. It is worth noting that despite a small following, its audience is fully
dedicated.

BBC Radio Five Live, which is devoted to life news and sport. Sometimes we can find
some light music.

Other BBC radio stations include: the BBC World Service, devoted to worlwide news
coverage and regarded as the most objective worldwide news reporting service available
; BBC 6 Music, where we can listen to the great, the new and no fill music; BBC 7,
devoted to comedy, kids and drama; the BBC Asian Network, which includes, music,
news and views of Asia; and the BBC Five Live Sports Extra, which namely deals with
live sport.

Among the 150 new commercial radio stations, we highlight: the recent Virgin Radio
for teenagers, which namely deals with rock music 24 hours a day and attempts to be a
national station (by entrepreneur Richard Branson); The Archers, a long-running soap
which describes an everyday story of country folk aimed at elderly people (middle –
class).

Local radio stations include: English local radio, Radio Scotland, Radio Wales, Radio
Ulster, Radio Cymru, Radio Foyle, and Radio Nan Gaidheal. It is worth mentioning that
most independent stations are local, among the largest being Capital Radio in London.

Also, it is worth remembering the ‘pirate stations’, such as Radio Caroline and Radio
London, which began broadcasting from ships moored a few miles offshore, thus
avoiding the ban on land- based stations. Yet, after years of conflict, the monopoly was
finally ended by new legislation in 1972, when the I.B.A. (Independent Broadcasting
Authority) was allowed to set up independent stations financed by advertising.

Finally, just mention the four ways to listen to BBC Radio nowadays: via AM/FM, via

DAB (digital radio), via digital television, and finally, via the Internet.

2.2.4. Radio out of the United Kingdom.

Regarding the radio out of the United Kingdom, as stated above, the “BBC World
Service Radio transmits in English and 37 other languages worldwide. Regular listeners
are estimated to number 120 million. BBC World Service Television, set up in 1992,
provides three services: a subscription channel in Europe; a 24-hour news and
information channel available throughout Asia; and a news and information channel in
Africa. Both BBC overseas services have complete editorial independence. BBC
domestic services are financed almost exclusively by the sale of annual television
licenses; World Service radio is financed from a government grant, while World Service
Television is self-funding. Popular television drama programs produced for the BBC are
shown in America and many other countries around the world.”

Actually, in the United States, radio began as a means of promoting another company,
so most of the broadcasting organisations in the United States are commercial firms
which are not linked to advertising. Among the most important elements in the growth
of national broadcasting we find: AT&T (American Telephone and Telegraph);
Westinghouse and GE (General Electric), which promoted radio and it would mean the
expansion of their products. Also, they formed RCA (Radio Corporation of America),
the forefather of the ‘big three’ commercial radio and television networks: NBC
(National Broadcasting Company), ABC (American Broadcasting Company), and CBS
(Columbia Broadcasting System).

Nowadays, the networks are no longer dominant, and the majority of the radio stations
are as independent of them as of the government. Many of the commercial stations
specialize in a single type of output (news, classical music, sports, black music).
Moreover, another US innovation was the figure of the disc- jockey, who was an
integral part of the top 40 radio, in which a limited play list of records is repeated
around the clock, generating a boomign phonography industry. Finally, just mention the
great amount of local stations which broadcast some neighbourhood gossip with music
and spot advertising in between.

2.3. Television.

2.3.1. A definition: the television.

Television is defined as the “electronic system for transmitting still or moving images
and sound to receivers that project a view of the images on a picture tube or screen and
recreate the sound” (britannica.com, 2004). Moreover, it is relevant to bear in mind that
those moving images are transmitted by electrical signals and fiberoptic and coaxial
cables using the techniques of radio. Hence, following the Columbia Electronic
Encyclopaedia (2003), “television has become a major industry, especially in the
industrialized nations, and a major medium of communication and source of home
entertainment. Television is put to varied use in industry, e.g., for surveillance in places
inaccessible to or dangerous for human beings; in science, e.g., in tissue microscopy;
and in education.”

2.3.2. A brief history of the television.

The invention of the television by Philo T. Farnsworth in 1927 was not an isolated
event. It was developed as a result of several years of research which correspond to the
stages of: (1) evolution of the scanning process (1900-20s), (2) development of the
television camera and receiver (1930s), (3) development of color television (1950s), (4)
broadcast, cable and satellite television transmission (1960s to 1980s), and finally, (5)
television technology innovations (from 1990s onward). On examining each stage, we
shall follow the Columbia Electronic Encyclopaedia (2003).

1. Evolution of the scanning process (1900-20s).

“The idea of “seeing by telegraph” engrossed many inventors after the discovery in
1873 of variation in the electrical conductivity of selenium when exposed to light.
Selenium cells were used in early television devices; the results were unsatisfactory,
however, chiefly because the response of selenium to light- intensity variations was not
rapid enough. Moreover, until the development of the electron tube there was no way of
sufficiently amplifying the weak output signals. These limitations precluded the success
of a television method for which Paul Nipkow in Germany received (1884) a patent.”

“His system employed a selenium photocell and a scanning disk; it embodied the
essential features of later successful devices” (a scanning disk, light-sensitive plates).
“Although selenium cells proved inadequate, the development of the phototube made
the mechanical disk- scanning method practicable. In 1926, J. L. Baird in England and
C. F. Jenkins in the United States successfully demonstrated television systems using
mechanical scanning disks. While research remained at producing pictures made up of
60 to 100 scanned lines, mechanical systems were competitive. These were soon
superseded, however, by electronic scanning methods; a television system employing
electronic scanning was patented by V. K. Zworykin in

1928. The 1930s saw the laboratory perfection of television equipment that began to
reach the market in 1945 after World War II.”

“The modern scanning process, which is the essence of television accomplishment,

operates as do the eyes in reading a page of printed matter, i.e., line by line. A complex
circuit of horizontal and vertical deflection coils controls this movement and causes the
electronic beam to scan the back of a mosaic of photoelectric cells in a 525- line zigzag
30 times each second. Because of persistence of vision only about 30 pictures need be
transmitted each second to give the effect of motion.”

2. Development of the television camera and receiver (1930s).

“V. K. Zworykin’s iconoscope (1923) was the first successful camera tube in wide use.
Its functioning involved many fundamental principles common to all television image
pickup devices” (i.e. differing light intensities of various points of a scene, a beam
across the cells, an electrical signal, an amplifier). As a result, “the strength of the signal
was proportional to the amount of charge released. The iconoscope provided good
resolution, but required very high light levels and needed constant manual correction.”
Actually, the first all-electronic TV appeared in 1932, but “solid state imaging devices
were first demonstrated in the 1960s.”

3. Development of color television (1950s).

Already by the 1950s, “several systems of color television have been developed. In the
first color system approved by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), a
motor-driven disk with segments in three primary colors—red, blue, and green—rotated
behind the camera lens, filtering the light from the subject so that the colors could pass
through in succession. The receiving unit of this system formed monochrome (black-
and-white) images through the usual

cathode-ray tube, but a color wheel, identical with that affixed to the camera and
synchronized with it, transformed the images back to their original appearance.”
“This method is said to be “fie ld-sequential” because the monochrome image is
“painted” first in one color, then another, and finally in the third, in rapid enough
succession so that the individual colors are blended by the retentive capacities of the
eye, giving the viewer the impression of a full colored image. This system, developed
by the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), was established in 1950 as standard for
the United States by the FCC. However, it was not “compatible,” i.e., from the same
signal a good picture could not be obtained on standard black-and-white sets, so it found
scant public acceptance.”

“Another system, a simultaneous compatible system, was developed by the Radio

Corporation of America (RCA). In 1953 the FCC reversed its 1950 ruling and revised
the standards for acceptable color television systems. The RCA system met the new
standards (the CBS system did not) and was well received by the public. This system is
based on an “element-sequential” system. Light from the subject is broken up into its
three color components, which are simultaneously scanned by three pickups. However,
the signals corresponding to the red, green, and blue portions of the scanned elements
are combined electronically so that the required 4.1- MHz bandwidth can be used.”

“In the receiver the three color signals are separated for display. The elements, or dots,
on the picture tube screen are each subdivided into areas of red, green, and blue
phosphor. Beams from three electron guns, modulated by the three color signals, scan
the elements together in such a way that the beam from the gun using a given color
signal strikes the phosphor of the same color. Provision is made electronically for
forming proper gray tones in black-and-white receivers. The FCC allowed stereo audio
for television in 1984.”

4. Broadcast, cable and satellite television transmission (1960s to 1980s).

By the 1960s, cable TV systems had been already introduced, followed by recording or
playback machines in the 1980s. It must be borne in mind that “television programs
may be transmitted either “live” or from a recording. The principle means of recording
television programs for future use is videotape recording. Videotape recording is similar
to conventional tape recording except that, because of the wide frequency range—4.2
megahertz (MHz)—

occupied by a video signal, the effective speed at which the tape passes the head is kept
very high. The sound is recorded along with the video signal on the same tape.”

Moreover, “when a television program is broadcast, the varying electrical signals are
then amplified and used to modulate a carrier wave; the modulated carrier is usually fed
to an antenna, where it is converted to electromagnetic waves and broadcast over a large
region. The waves are sensed by antennas connected to television receivers. The range
of waves suitable for radio and television transmission is divided into channels, which
are assigned to broadcast companies or services. In the United States the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) has assigned 12 television channels between 54
and 216 MHz in the very-high-frequency (VHF) range and 56 channels between 470
and 806 MHz in the ultra-high-frequency (UHF) range.”

“Most television viewers in the United States no longer receive signals by using
antennas; instead, they receive programming via cable television. Cable delivery of
television started as a way to improve reception. A single, well-placed community
antenna received the broadcast signals and distributed them over coaxial or fiber-optic
cables to areas that otherwise would not be able to receive them. Today, cable television
is popular because of the wide variety of programming it can deliver.”

“Many systems now provide more than 100 channels of programming. Typically, a
cable television company receives signals relayed from a communications satellite and
sends those signals to its subscribers. The first transatlantic television broadcast was
accomplished by such a satellite, called Telstar, on July 10, 1962. Some television
viewers use small satellite dishes to receive signals directly from satellites. Most
satellite-delivered signals are scrambled and require a special decoder to receive them
clearly.”

5. Television technology innovations (from 1990s onward).

Among the most outstanding technology innovations, we hig hlight the next great
advance in television: the adoption of digital high-definition television (HDTV)
systems, which from the

1990s onward provide sharper, clearer pictures and sound with little interference or
other imperfections and have the potential to merge TV functions with those of
computers. “Non- experimental analog HDTV broadcasting began in Japan in 1991. In
1994 the FCC approved a U.S. standard for an all-digital system, to be used by all
commercial broadcast stations by mid-

2002. Although it was hoped that the transition to digital broadcasting would be largely

completed by 2006, less than a third of all stations had begun transmitting digital signals
by the mid-2002 deadline.”

Yet, “the wide availability of television has raised concerns about the amount of time
children spend watching TV, as well as the increasingly violent and graphic sexual
content of TV programming. Starting in 1999 the FCC required TV set manufacturers to
install “V-Chip” technology that allows parents to block the viewing of specific
programs; that same year the television industry adopted a voluntary ratings system to
indicate the content of each program.” Therefore, “various interactive television systems
have been tested or proposed. An interactive system could be used for instant public -
opinion polls or for home shopping. Many cable television systems use an interactive
system for instant ordering of “pay-per-view” programming. Others systems poll their
subscribers’ equipment to compile information on program preferences. Several
competing commercial systems have connected televisions to the Internet.”

2.3.3. Television in the United Kingdom.

In contrast to radio broadcasting, “television viewing is Britain’s most popular leisure

pastime:

95 per cent of households have a color television set and 68 per cent have a video
recorder. The Government is not responsible for programming content or the day-to-day
conduct of the business of broadcasting. Broadcasters are free to air programs with the
only limitation on their independence being the requirement that they not offend good
taste” (britannia.com, 2004). Moreover, figures show that over 70% of UK households
now have a video recorder.

Television broadcasting in Britain has expanded to fill every part of every day of the
week. For instance, we may find channels that broadcast for twenty-four hours non-
stopping (ITV), others which broadcast from around six in the morning until after
midnight, and the well- known television news, which is watched every day by more
than half of the population. Yet, let us examine the main channels within the television
media in the United Kingdom1, on following the current website
www.mediauk.com/directory/tv (2004), which includes: six national networks (BBC),
three commercial television national stations (ITV, Channel 4, Channel 5);

cable, digital, teletext and interactive services.

1 It is worth noting that “all non-BBC television stations follow guidelines laid down by
the Independent

Television Commission (ITC), who oversee programme content and quality, and make
sure that

There are six national stations in the UK (excluding satellite, cable and digital channels)
which are broadcast by the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation). Actually, the first
two are carried on regular terrestrial broadcasts: “BBC One, BBC Two, BBC Choice,
BBC Four, BBC News24, and BBC Parliament.” Note that BBC One and Two
“occasionally broadcast regional programming, like news and the occasional local
specia l- interest programme (although BBC1 in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland
has more local programming).”

“All others are carried on cable networks, digital satellite and digital terrestrial. These
television channels, and the BBC’s many radio services, are funded by the television
licence, which, in May 1999, costs around £100 (€142) per year. The channels carry no
advertising. The BBC also broadcasts two worldwide television services, BBC World
and BBC Prime, which are not for UK viewers (although BBC World is available on
some satellite systems) and which are funded by advertising. The BBC also has an
interest in UKTV, which broacasts a range of channels on satellite and cable.
Programme content is heavily influenced by the BBC’s programme library.”

“There are three commercial television national stations – ITV (officially ‘Channel 3’),
Channel 4, and Channel 5. ITV stands for independent television, a throw-back to the
days when there was only one ‘independent’ television channel. It’s split into different
regional companies, who take national programmes at peak times and broadcast their
own programmes at other times. Each ITV company can also produce national
programming. And if it wasn’t confusing enough, ITV is completely national between

0600 and 0930 – GMTV produces ITV’s breakfast programmes.”

“Technically speaking ITV “networks” and does not broadcast nationally – each
regional company takes the same programmes, but not all are from the same source.
Until recently, each ITV channel was idented as the regional company: so, in Yorkshire,
it would be called “Yorkshire TV”. In 2002, the decision was made to brand ITV
services in England and Wales as “ITV1?: Scottish TV, Grampian TV, and UTV
continue being a part of the ITV network but retain their own brand.”

“In Wales, Channel 4 is replaced by a Welsh-speaking channel, S4C, which carries

occasional Channel 4 programmes at usually off-peak times. Channel 5 is the latest

terrestrial service. Due to lack of available

frequencies, not all the country can receive

advertisers follow a specific and stringent code of conduct. The BBC is currently self -
regulating: this is

expected to change to a degree with the formation of a successor to the ITC called
OFCOM.”

the station, and some viewers need a different television aerial. Channel 5 is also carried
on satellite. There are no more terrestrial frequencies available for analogue
broadcasting.”

“Cable television has yet to expand into many homes in the UK – franchises are
awarded on a local basis to cable companies, who usually provide both television and
telephone services. There are consequently few cable -specific stations – around five or
six outside London, and a further ten or so London-specific channels. Digital Cable
promises widescreen and interactivity; although the major cable companies are
committed to it, it’s currently available in precious few places.”

“Digital satellite television was launched in October 1998, on a platform provided by

Sky Digital, part of B Sky B. It is estimated that 1,500,000 people had access to Sky
Digital a year later, in October 1999; in May 2000 the figure is estimated at around
three million. Pricing for digital satellite television rises to a maximum of £34.99 a
month (€48). Digital satellite receivers are now available free, subject to a small
installation charge and to keeping the box connected to your telephone line for the
interactive Sky Active service.”

“Digital terrestrial television launched in mid-November 1998 as a part free, part

subscription model, under the name of “On Digital”. Unfortunately, the lack of
channels, combined with losses due to piracy and a slightly unwise investment into
league football, meant that the service went into liquidation in early 2002. It was
replaced by Freeview, a consortium including the BBC and broadcast tranmission
specialists Castle Communications, and offers around 30 entirely free channels.
Terrestrial receivers cost a one-off fee of around £99. The frequencies used are the same
band as for analogue television; this means that digital television is currently not
available in certain areas, and that aerials sometimes need to be changed.”

Finally, “most televisions sold in the UK have teletext, an information service broadcast
with an analogue television picture signal, consisting of around 3,000 pages and close-
caption subtitling. All analogue stations carry some information on teletext; the larger
stations also carry live news, weather, travel and a variety of other infor mation and
programming sources. Teletext adds about £30 (€42) to the cost of buying a television.”
Note that “digital television brings more interactive services: digital teletext (the
successor to the analogue service above), and interactive shopping services.

SkyDigital’s platform offers “Sky Active”, a feature-rich service offering shopping, e-

mail, games and information, using the bandwidth available to it – limited interactivity
is also available on digital terrestrial. Cable has the capability of the best interactive
programming and services.”

As we can see, although the advent of ITV did not affect television coverage of news
and current affairs, it did cause a change in the style and content of other programmes
regarding the amount of money a television company had to pay for advertising. This
meant a high pressure on ITV from the start to make its output popular. Soon, the BBC
responded by making its own programmes equally accessible to a mass audience. Since
then, there has been little significant difference between BBC and commercial
programmes. Their constant competition to attract the largest audience favours the
introduction of quality in terms of content.

This competition brought about the birth of the so-called ‘soap-operas’, which are
shown at least twice a week, and unlike American productions, do not show glamorous
rich and beautiful people (i.e. Dallas, Dynasty). Instead, they are set in a working-class
area of London showing ordinary people dramas or police dramas (ITV’s Coronation
Street, This is Your Life, Barrymore vs. BBC’s EastEnders, Casualty, Neighbours),
which do not show an idealized, sensational or dramatic picture of life. They just depict
ordinary lives in relatively ordinary circumstances. Yet, they are so popular because
their viewers can see themselves and other people they know in these TV stereotypes
(i.e. the bad father, the good friend, the wild teenager) within different situations.

In the early 1960s the increasing popularity of soap operas and light entertainment
shows meant that there was less room for programmes which lived up to the original
education aims of television. The reason was that British preferred this emerging kind of
pseudo-realism. In the early 1990s the BBC spent a great amount of money filming a
new soap called Eldorado, which was set in a small Spanish village with a large number
of expatriate British people (though eventually was a failure). Yet, other channels
present learning and culture programmes, whose success relies on presenting serious
and weighty issues which are nevertheless attractive to quite large audiences (quizz
shows).

2.3.4. Television out of the United Kingdom.

Television is a powerful influential vehicle through which the English language

establishes links out of the United Kingdom and viceversa. Actually, the massive
amount of programmes

exported to foreign television networks, together with the imports of Hollywood films
have played an important role in the presentation of the American way of life over
Western Europe and beyond. Thanks to English channels, we may have access to Great
Britain news or North American News (BBC News and CNN news, respectively).

We may find powerful elements within American TV. For instance, it is mostly
commercial, that is, programmes are often interrupted by advertisements since
advertisers sponsors pay for it; the power of news, by means of which television news is
incredibly powerful although it lasts only one hour. Another powerful element is
censorship, which occurs in a curious form. For example, if a programme shows
something that certain conservative groups consider offensive, the advertised products
will be boycotted, and as a result, the sponsors won’t put any money on those
programmes which may upset conservative groups.

Also, cable TV have gradually become a serious competence for the traditional stations
like ABC or CBS. Viewers can choose to subscribe to dozens of different channels,
each of which specializes on a single area, for instance, CCN Broadcasts only 24 hours
a day; the Disney Channel has children as potential customers; MTV concentrates on
pop music; and the Movie Channel shows nothing but films. Moreover, there are
channels which only transmit in the language of minorites (i.e. Spanish, Chinese,
Italian). On the other hand, satellite TV has become an interesting alternative way to
receive television programmes because it is easily seen everywhere, except for those
rural areas where reception is poor and cable TV is not available.

3. ADVERTISING IN ENGLISH-SPEAKING CULTURES: LINGUISTIC AND

SEMIOLOGICAL ASPECTS.

Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 shall analyse the phenomenon of
advertising in English-speaking countries within the scope of the English language and
shall review its main features in linguistic and semiological aspects. As we know, on
giving information about the products, advertisers use many different techniques to get
people to buy thing, from appealing to feelings (vanity, snobbery, beauty, manhood) to
the use of clever sayings and puns.

For instance, adverts appeal to emotions in lots of different ways, among which we
highlight the feel-good factor, which appeals our desire to feel good about ourselves
(i.e. buying effective washing-up liquid); the creative consumer, which emphasizes the
fact that if a product is too convenient, people won’t buy it (i.e. adding extras to food);
sexual attraction, which is one of the most common and is used to promote anything
from deodorant to fast cars; and power and

influence, which exploit people’s need to feel powerful by showing powerful or

influential people or by telling stories in which problems are solved (i.e. Julio Iglesias-
Viceroy; David Beckam-National Gallery).

Yet, there are potential factors beyond the fact of providing information for the
consumer. For instance, there is a wide range of companies that pay for providing
information on the market about their products, though they are not the most convenient
and, therefore, there exist institutions which receive financial support through
advertising. Moreover, the best advertisement even provide entertainment (photography,
slogans, successful commercials) since they prove genuilely witty and funny. Indeed,
advertisements are an integral part of our urban environment and are a prominent
feature of some of the most famous landmarks in the world (i.e. international country’s
flags; Marlboro and the American cowboys; Nessie and Loch Ness; CocaCola and
happy feeling).
Without the advertising agencies support, companies would not probably sell their
products as they do. Advertising companies employ psychologists to analyse potential
consumers of a product. So, they try to sell things by promoting an image that will make
people want to buy a product. The fact is that advertising is big business and no one is
immune to its influence. Yet, why is an image so important when selling products?

We shall try to provide an answer to this question by examining (1) the sources of
advertising (so as to relate them later on to the English-speaking cultures) in terms of,
first, (a) semiological aspects and (b) linguistic aspects. Within the former issue, we
shall adress the science of semiology, which studies signs in society whereas within the
latter we shall discuss on journalistic language so as to get the main features of the
language of advertising. Finally, we shall analyse the phenomenon of (2) advertising in
English-speaking cultures nowadays.

3.1. The sources of advertising.

3.1.1. Semiological aspects: semiotics.

The term semiotics2 (also called semiology) is drawn from Greek’s mantikós
(significant) and

sêma (sign), which means ‘a feature of language

or behaviour which conveys meaning’. Meaning, then, has a prominent role on ‘the
study of signs’, that is, what signs refer to, and of

2 Note that French linguists (i.e. Saussure) prefer the term ‘semiology’ whereas the
term ‘semiotics’ is more widespread in English –

speaking countries (i.e. C.S. Peirce; especially in the USA ).

responses to those signs. Signs are used conventionally within the language system
since semiotics investigates the study of signs in communication processes in general
(i.e. oral, written, paralinguistic ).

Therefore, semiotics concerns itself with the analysis of both linguistic and non-
linguistic signs as communicative devices and with their systems. Therefore, it deals
with patterned human communication in all its modes and in all contexts. When the act
of communication is verbal, the code is the language. Regarding the structured use of
the auditory-vocal channel, it may result in speech, but also non-verbal communicative
uses of the vocal tract are possible by means of paralanguage, such as whistling or
musical effects.

However, when we refer to non-verbal communication, visual and tactile modes are
concerned. They may be used for a variety of linguistic purposes such as the use of sign
languages. For instance, the receiver may get the message by sound (as in speech and
birdsong), by sight (as in written language, reading, morse or traffic signs) or by touch
(as in the Braille alphabet of the blind or secret codes).

Within the study of signs, we may distinguish three types: icons, symbols, and indexes.
For instance, from the presence of a red flag or smoke, anyone with the requisite know
ledge can infer the existence of what it signifies, danger or fire. There is an important
difference between both signs, since smoke is a natural sign of fire, causally connected
with what it signifies, whereas the red flag is a conventional sign of danger, which is a
culturally established symbol. These distinctions between the intentional or non-
intentional, on the one hand, and between what is natural and what is conventional, or
symbolic, on the other, have long played a central part in the theoretical investigation of
meaning and continue to do so.

Hence, in the twentieth century, and more recently, in this century, the field of
linguistics as the scientific study of language, has seen a quite extraordinary expansion.
The study of language has held a notorious fascination for some the greatest thinkers of
the century and their relevant contributions, namely Ferdinand de Saussure (1916),
Edward Sapir (1921), Ludwig Wittgenstein (1953), Benjamin Lee Whorf (1956), and
Noam Chomsky (1972), whose influence has been felt far beyond linguistics.

As advertising is closely related to semiotics, we need to look at the concept of ‘sign’ in

relation to ‘adverts’ within the main theoretical basis of these relevant linguists, and in
particular, to Saussure’s ideas as it was he who laid the foundation principles of
semiotics. However, before

discussing some relevant concepts, it is necessary for us to draw a distinction between

the concepts of icons, symbols, and indexes in order to accurately deal with the concept
of sign.

(1) First, icons are defined as those signs whose signifier bears a close resemblance to
the thing they refer to (i.e. a photo, non-smoking signs, animal-crossing). Thus, a traffic
sign which shows the silhouette of a car and a motorbike would be highly iconic
because there is an image as a reference. Onomatopoeic words are iconic as well,
although they are just a few (i.e. whisper, cuckoo, splash, crash, and so on).

(2) Second, symbols are defined as conventional and culturally established signs, that is,
there is no natural relationship between them and their meanings, that is, between the
signifier and the signified3. Most words, though, are symbolic signs, thus again traffic
signs with no image references, but colours (i.e. a white background with a red circle
around it, which signifies

‘something is forbidden’).

(3) Third, indexes are said to lie between the concepts of icons and symbols. An index is
defined as a sign whose signifier (sound or image) is associated with a particular
signified (concept) because we have learnt it previously, conventionally or culturally.
For instance, a thermometer is an index of ‘temperature’ as well as a weathercock, a
barometer and a sundial; other examples emerge from films where, for instance, the
passing of time is shown by the quick forward movement of the clock-hands.

It is worth remembering that these three categories are not mutually exclusive. Thus, a
sign can belong to the three types at the same time. For instance, in a TV commercial,
we can see a shot of a woman speaking about make-up products (iconic), the words she
uses (symbolic), and the effect of what is filmed (indexical). Also, with any kind of
sign, we may learn cultural conventions that are necessary to the understanding of any
sign, no matter how iconic or indexical it is. Convention is the social dimension of signs
whereby there is an agreement among the users about the appropriate uses of and
responses to a sign.

There are several concepts of the semiology which are worth defining when facing the
outcome, for instance, (1) the product as a sign, which refers to the meaning of the
advertisement. This depends on how signs and its ‘ideological’ effect are organized. The
structures of meaning created by ads transform our concept of the product. They are
presented not as useful objects in themselves, but as signs to which we attribute
qualities of non- material value. For instance, the slogan ‘Give me a light’ in a recent
Coca-Cola advertisement links ‘drinking Coca-Cola’ with

‘partying and enjoying’; (2) the sign as the signifier and the signified together. As
stated, the sign is divided into a signifier (a material entity) and the signified (a mental
concept or reference). In advertising they mean that often ads for cigarettes or cars (very
often draw on images=signifiers) of such concepts (signified) refer to freedom or
masculinity.

Also, (3) the distinction between denotation and connotation. The former refers to the
literal, objective meaning of our perception of reality whereas the latter refers to any of
the meanings attributed to an entity by means of conventions and dependent on a
particular context (i.e. perfume, cars, luxury goods in relation to the concepts of
freshness, sophistication and glamour). Note that in advertising there is almost no
denotative communication whereas connotative meanings are used in order to attribute
the products those extravalues that make it into a meaningful sign. Finally, (4) the
codes. The formation (encoding) and understanding (decoding) of messages is made by
means of codes which applied to advertising help the customer to interpret the message
(images, speech, gesture) that an advertisement consists of.

3.1.2. Linguistic aspects: the language of advertising4.

With this theoretical background in mind, then, we shall try to approach the practical
field of the linguistic aspects within the language of advertising since the main aim of
communication means is not only to transmit information, that is, what, but also how to
do it. It must be borne in mind that news is a representation of the world in language
and, therefore, it imposes a structure of social, political, economic and moral values on
whatever is represented, as well as a different treatment in presentation according to
several factors (political, economic). This means that news is a construct which is to be
understood in social and semiotic terms, and the relevance of the English language in
this process of communication is understood as an international common code to
transmit information.

Bearing in mind that the main aims of journalistic

communication are, first, to satisfy the need of informing about matters of common
interest which any well- organised society has; second, to spread the news; and third, to
cultivate the audience’s opinion, by interpreting the information

3 The distinction between signifier and signified will be addressed in next section:
‘Saussure: on the nature of the linguistic sign’.
4 The concept ‘journalistic style’ must not be confused with ‘journalistic language’
since both of them refer to mass media means, but in different ways. First of all, the
journalistic language refers to the particular way language is used

by the press, radio and television whereas the journalistic style refers to the ways of
expression, that is, informative, literary, and that of public opinion. Therefore, the latter
comprises the three types of media in terms of style whereas the former does it in terms
of language, form and structure.

spread and by using different semiotic devices (via informative objectivity/subjectivity),

once an advertisement is conceived, it undergoes a process of elaboration before it is
edited so as to transform the text into its own style without interfering directly. This
means that, for our purposes, a commercial will be transformed into audio texts (radio)
or audio-visual texts (television, video).

Since it is difficult to inform objectively, the text appearance may expose objectivity by
means of extralinguistic signs whose existence permits us to speak about journalistic
semiotic. The following set of semiotic devices may be used to accompany an item of
news in order to guide and judge it, even though the linguistic expression may be the
narration of events in a totally impartial way (i.e. images in commercials).

Thus, the context where the text appears (page, radio dials, TV commercial). Actually,
in written texts, the most important location is the front page or the first page of each
section (home vs. International policy, domestic life, sports, fashion, culture). Note that
the pieces of news appearing on uneven pages, within each section, are rather relevant.
Also, the number of columns (or radio/TV commercials) expresses the hierarchy which
the text allows it. The item of news is, no matter what their length is, more relevant than
the one published in just one place. Then the way we highlight the news (typeface,
height of letters, intonation/emphasis in radio/TV) is also a sign of importance given by
the text. Finally, in audio-visual texts, photographs and images illustrating a piece of
news make it more relevant.

All these manipulations are the editorial staff’s responsibility so as to value, depreciate,
give prominence or reduce the importance of the text. As a result, the published text is
believed to present a general journalistic language which gathers several characteristics
unique to each type. For instance, since advertising is said to be expensive, a careful
study must be done in advance so as to provide the foundations for a good advertising
campaing. In doing so, it is essential for an advertiser to handle the following factors.

First of all, (1) language as a powerful device of persuasion and connotation of the
writer; (2) the product, to which the advertiser must be familiar so as to get a successful
campaign; (3) the purpose of the advertisement before launching the campaign, for
instance, to improve product sales, to change the audience’s attitude towards the
product, to reinforce its reputation, and so on; (4) the medium, which will be determined
by the audience since it must be best suited for the particular product; and finally, (5)
the visual aspect. Actually, when talking about the language of advertisements, the
visual aspect is perhaps the most important element within printed or broadcasting
advertising, that is, headline, subhead, body copy and closing. They may
differ in the form and specific features of each medium, for instance, broadcasting on
radio is determined by time, content and intonation whereas TV broadcasting allows
images.

Yet, the linguistic element is sometimes given greater importance than the visual aspect.
Attention and persuasive power are the two elements that shape the information content
of the commercial. Among the most important linguistic features regarding syntax we
include: readability given by simple, straightforward language, predominant nominal
groups, and verbal groups which are sometimes omitted, though the most frequent
tenses are imperative, present simple and future forms. With respect to lexis, we find a
lot of adjectives and adverbs (keywords), descriptive vocabulary, favouring emotive
words with specific connotation, and assertive uses. Finally, related to style, we can say
that it must be persuasive, appreciatory and hyperbolic so as to persuade the customer.

3.2. Advertising in English-speaking cultures nowadays.

Since the first soap advertisements appeared in the 1960s, advertising has changed
considerably. Nowadays, products receive expensive and highly polished exposure on
radio and television, not only through direct adverts but also indirectly through the
sponsorship of televised issues (sport, food, drinks, fashion). Obviously commercial
radio and television depends heavily not only on advertising revenue, but also on high
viewing figures. Efforts are made in the UK to prevent advertising from becoming
intrusive (as Spanish advertising is), that is, to avoid repetitive and continuous
advertising (15- minute gaps).

Also, advertisers have realized that quality is more attractive than quantity, so many
companies spend a lot of money on their television campaigns to create a brand image.
Yet, the sums spent by Guinness, British airways and Coca-Cola, for example, are
aimed at using advertising as part of an overall strategy for their business since these
companies do not need to be promoted. In short, they all aim to crete an image of
feeling which they hope will be associated with the product being advertised, hence the
wide variety of adverts: humourous (Barclaycard), spectacular (British Airways, Pepsi)
or ambiguous and intriguing (Guinness). They may be linked to music (Levi’s), a
spoken cataphrase (Heinneken), feature animals (Dulux, Andrex) or beautiful people
(Weetabix, Martini).

The message may be implicit or direct and relies on the customer’s mind making a
series of psychological links by association. The study of how symbols and visual/audio
aspects work on the human mind in this way is clearly related to semiology, as we have
seen. Actually, it is

known that certain colours may suit television (Labour political speeches against a red
backdrop vs. Coca-Cola red container), aesthetical images may be pleasing (watches
pictured at ten to two) as well as clothes (Martini and sexy clothes, Corn flakes and
white trousers, to indicate freshness, health and brightness). Obviously these advertising
techniques are common to all cultures.

Also, it is equally true that some associations will be exclusive to one culture and the
minds educated within it. Therefore the markers of an advertisement must try to work
out how the images of their ads might work within the framework of cultural references
which constitute the cultural make-up of the viewing audience. In short, an advert which
works in England might not be effective in other countries, such as Italy or Spain (i.e.
the bumbling Spanish waiter in an English advert, the bowler-hatted Englishman in a
Spanish advert). The wrong stereotype may not be transferred effectively to the country
whose inhabitants it is supposed to represent. Hence the Spanish Cola -Cao ads could be
offensive in multi-racial communities in Britain.

In general, as Europe moves towards a more unified cultural identity, such differences
tend to disappear and products and their advertising become more and more
cosmpolitan. However, it is still inevitable that a distinct type of advertising should arise
in each culture, and that the distinctive characteristics which constitute each stereotype
should consist not only of the products advertised but also of the semiotic aspect of the
commercial, both on radio or television.

4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

The mass media in English (press, radio, television) or the journalistic style is one of the
most outstanding aspects of educational activity and, for our purposes, we must
establish a distinction between the press (as a written means) and radio and television
(as audio and audio- visual means). In the classroom setting all kinds of social and
linguistic aspects of language may be brought to students in terms of means of
communication so as to bring them closer to the world’s reality. Yet, how is this issue
linked to our Spanish students? Basically, through the educational activity, both in and
out the classroom, the former being developed in terms of tutorial or classroom
activities and the latter by focusing on sociocultural aspects that exist within the
students’ environment (home, friends, the media).

We may handle in class news from the British radio or television which make relevant
the analysis of it in comparison to the Spanish media regarding the outstanding
differences (time,

intonation, visual images, style, contents). So, radio and television may become familiar
to Spanish students thanks to the similarity in terms of transmitting news in the fields of
fashion, music, sports, and so on. Hence it makes sense to examine the historical
background of both the radio and television in English, and check whether in Spain had
the same development.

Currently, educational authorities are bringing about relevant changes for the school
reality with the yearly international exchanges of British-Spanish language assistants in
schools so as to promote the learning of the English language with native speakers.
Actually, they can make students aware of certain sociocultural aspects of Britain
related to the radio and television and encourage them to use the British media to get
informed through new technologies, such as the Internet (through the Aula Plumier),
since we can acceed to radio and television on the web. Also, the integration of Spain
into the European Union makes relevant for students to become aware of the journalistic
style so as to be able to appreciate the main similarities and differences with the Spanish
one.

Also, this cultural dimension of the English language may be easily approached to
students by the increasing number of European programs (Comenius, Erasmus, school
trips) and technologies (the Internet, mobile phones, mail) which provide students with
authentic material in context so as to get acquainted with other forms of journalism
around Europe. Actually, among the stage objectives for both E.S.O. and Bachillerato
students (stated respectively in RD

112 and RD 113/2002, 13 September) there is a clear reference to the fact of getting
acquainted with other cultures so as to promote respect and, for our purposes, an attitude
of critical awareness of other language systems.

Thus, E.S.O. objectives (5, 6) make reference to first, “Know and value the scientific
and technological development. Its applications and importance in a physical and social
environment” (objective 5), and secondly, to “obtain, select, deal with and transmit
information using sources, methodologies and technological instruments, included the
technologies of information and communication, proceeding in an organised,
autonomous and critical way” (objective 6). Furthermore, within the Foreign Language
General Objectives (8, 9, 10), we find a closer approach to the culturaldimension of
English when saying that students are expected to “accede to the knowledge of the
culture transmitted by the foreign language, developing respect towards it and its
speakers, to achieve a better understanding between countries” (objective 8); “recognise
the value of foreign languages as a means of communication between people belonging
to different cultures and as an enriching element for social and interpersonal relations”
(objective 9); and “use the foreign language as a means of communication with a ludic
and creative attitude and enjoy its use” (objective 10).

On the other hand, Bachillerato students are expected to “understand and know how to
express oneself fluently and correctly in the foreign language or languages being
studied” (objective 2); and also, “to use the information and communication
technologies to acquire types of knowledge and transmit information, solve problems
and facilitate interpersonal relations, valuing its use critically” (objective 7).
Furthermore, within the Foreign Language General Objectives (6, 7), we find a closer
approach to the cultural dimension of English when saying that students are expected to
“know the sociocultural aspects of the target language as a means to improve
communication in the foreign language and for the critical knowledge of one’s own
culture” (objective 6) and also, to “value the importance of the study of foreign
languages as an element of understanding and encouragement of respect and
consideration towards other cultures.”

Actually, the success partly lies in the way this issue becomes real to the users since
theory about the radio and television only becomes relevant when students may check
by themselves a television guide or the frequency of an English or Scottish radio
programme in and out the classroom setting. This is to be achieved within the
framework of the European Council (1998) and, in particular, the Spanish Educational
System which establishes a common reference framework for the teaching of foreign
languages where students are intended to carry out several communication tasks with
specific communicative goals. Broadly speaking, the final aim is for students to be
aware of their current social reality through the use of the media in the English
language.

5. CONCLUSION.
The journalistic style in Britain has traditionally followed the model we have already
presented. Throughout most of the Commonwealth, the media in English has its roots in
the British version. In fact, English is used as a technical language around the world, in
medicine, computer science, air traffic control, and many other such areas of
concentrated expertise and international user populations. Hence, the relevance of the
English language makes of it the language of the media so as to transmit news all
around the world.

As we have seen, Unit 68 has aimed to provide a useful introduction to the mass media
in English and, in particular, radio and television. Chapter 2 has provided a general
introduction to (1) the mass media in English in terms of means (press, radio,
television), main aims regarding the audience, and broadcasting policy, regarding the
main broadcasting corporations. Next, we have focused on radio and television in terms
of definition, a brief history of the invention up to

the present day, its organization in the United Kingdom and also, out of it so as to better
understand the scope of the English language within the mass media.

Then, with this background in mind, Chapter 3 has addressed the phenomenon of
advertising in English-speaking countries has reviewed its main features in linguistic
and semiological aspects by examining the sources of advertising in terms of, first,
semiological aspects and linguistic aspects. Within the former issue, we have adressed
the science of semiology, which studies signs in society whereas within the latter we
have discussed the main features of journalistic language. Finally, we have analysed the
phenomenon of advertising in English-speaking cultures nowadays.

So far, we have attempted to provide the reader with a general overview of the media
within the United Kingdom, and its further influence out ot it. This information is
relevant for language learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, who do not
automatically detect differences between British and Spanish radio and television. So,
learners need to have these associations brought to their attention in socio-cultural
aspects within cross-curricular settings (Spanish language, history, technology –format,
presentation). As we have seen, understanding how these means of communication
work and are reflected in our world today is important to students, who are expected to
be aware of the richness of the English language, not only in English- speaking
countries, but also in worldwide terms.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

– Andren, G. 1978. Rethoric and Ideology in Advertising. Liber Förlag, Stockholm.

– B.O.E. 2002. Consejería de Educación y Cultura. Decreto N.º 112/2002, de 13 de

septiembre. Currículo de la

Educación Secundaria Obligatoria en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia.

– B.O.E. 2002. Consejería de Educación y Cultura. Decreto N.º 113/2002, de 13 de

septiembre. Currículo de

Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia.

– Bromhead, Peter. 1962. Life in Modern Britain. Longman.

– Council of Europ e (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A

Common European Framework of reference.

– McLean, A. 1993. Profile UK. Heinemann, Oxford.

– Vaughan-Rees, M. 1995. In Britain. Richmond Publishing Editors.

Other sources include:

“British Empire.” Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. 2004. Encyclopædia Britannica

Premium Service. 28 May 2004

<http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=383356>.

The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2003, Columbia

University Press

www.wikipedia.org (2004)

www.bbc.co.uk (2004)