Class 10 Science

Light Reflection and Refraction

REFLECTION

Reflection of Light: The phenomenon of bouncing back of light into the same medium by the
smooth surface is called reflection.

Incident light: Light which falls on the surface is called incident light.

Reflected light: Light which goes back after reflection is called reflected light.

The angle of incidence: The angle between the incident ray and the normal.

An angle of reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

Laws of reflection: There are two laws of reflection

(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in
the same plane.
(ii) Angle of incidence is always equal to the angle if reflection i.e. ∠i = ∠r
Image: Iflight rays coming from a point after reflection meet at another point or appear to meet
at another point, then second point is called image of the first point.There are two types of image,
i.e.

Real image: When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, actually meet at a point, then
the image formed by these rays is said to be real. Real images can be obtained on a screen.

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Virtual image: When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, appear to meet at a point,
then the image formed by these rays is said to be virtual. Virtual images can‘t be obtained on a
screen.

Mirror: The surface which can reflect the light is a mirror.

Plane Mirror: If the reflecting surface is a plane then the mirror is plane.

Spherical Mirror: If the reflecting surface is part of the hollow sphere then the mirror is a
spherical mirror.
The spherical mirror is of two types:

Convex mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is convex. It diverges the light so it is also
called a diverging mirror.

Concave mirror: In this mirror reflecting surface is concave. It converges the light so it is also
called converging mirror.

Some definitions related to Spherical Mirror:

Pole (Vertex): The central point of a mirror is called its pole.

Centre of curvature: The centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called the centre
of curvature. It is denoted by C.

Radius of curvature: The radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part is called the radius
of curvature. It is denoted by R.

Principal axis: The straight line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature of the
mirror is called the principal axis.

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Principal focus: It is a point on the principal axis at which the rays parallel to the principal axis
meet after reflection or seem to come from. For a concave mirror, the focus lies in front of the
mirror and for a convex mirror, it lies behind the mirror. In short, a concave mirror has a real
focus while aconvex mirror has a virtual focus.

Focal plane: A plane, drawn perpendicular to the principal axis and passing through the
principal focus.

Focal length: The distance between the pole and the focus is called the focal length. It is
represented by f. The focal length is half the radius of curvature.

F = R/2

Reflection by Spherical mirror:

A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a spherical mirror, after reflection
converges or diverges from focus.

A ray of light passing through or appearing from the center of curvature of spherical mirror is
reflected back along the same path.

A ray of light passing through or appearing from the focus of spherical mirror becomes parallel
to the principal axis.

A ray of light which is incident at the pole of a spherical mirror is reflected back making same
angle with principal axis.

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Image formation by Concave mirror

Image formation by Convex mirror

Sign Conventions of Spherical Mirror

 All the distances are measured from the pole of the mirror as the origin.
 Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive.
 Distances measured opposite to the direction of incident rays are taken as negative.
 Distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as positive.
 Distances measured downward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as
negative.

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 Mirror formula:1/f=1/v+1/u

Where f, v and u are focal length, image distance, and object distance

Magnification by Spherical Mirror:

This is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. Magnification,
m=hi/ho
Where m = magnification, hi = height of image, ho = height of object

REFRACTION

Refraction of Light: The bending of light at the interface of two different mediums is called
Refraction of light.

If the velocity of light in medium is more, then medium is called optical rarer.
Example, air or vacuum is more optical rarer.

If the velocity of light in medium is less, then medium is called optical denser.
Example, glass is denser than air.

Laws of refraction:

The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.

The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant.

Sin i/sin r = n (constant)

This constant is called the index of refraction or refractive index.

Refractive Index: If c is the speed of light in air and v is the speed of light in medium, then the
refractive index of the medium is

Refractive index of medium with respect to air or vacuum is called Absolute Refractive Index.

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Refraction through a Rectangular Glass Slab:

When light ray enters into a glass slab, then the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.
This perpendicular distance between the emergent ray and incident ray when the light passes out
of a glass slab is called lateral displacement.

i = angle of incidence, r = angle of refraction and e = angle of emergence

Angle of incidence = Angle of emergence, i.e. ∠i = ∠e
Lens: The transparent refracting medium bounded by two surfaces in which at least one surface
is curved is called lens. Lenses are mainly two types: Convex lens and Concave lens.

Difference between Convex and Concave Lenses

Convex Lens Concave Lens

On passing the light through the lens, it On passing the light through the lens, it
bends the light rays towards each other bends the light rays away from each
(i.e., it converges the rays). So due to other (i.e., it diverges the rays). So due to
this, it is called a converging lens. this, it is called a diverging lens.

A convex lens is thicker at the centre and A concave lens is thicker at the edges
thinner at the edges. and thinner at the centre.

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Due to the converging rays, it is called a Due to the diverging rays, it is called a
converging lens. diverging lens.

Use for correction of long-sightedness. Use for correction of short-sightedness.

It is also called a positive lens due to It is also called a negative lens due to
positive focal length nature. negative focal length nature.

e.g. Human Eye, Camera, etc. e.g. Lights, Flashlights, etc.

Center of Curvature: The centers of two spheres, of which lens is part is called the centre of
curvature.
Radii of Curvature: The radii of spheres, of which lens is part is called radius of curvature.
Principal Axis: The line joining the centers of curvature of two surfaces of lens is called
principal axis.
Optical Center: It is a special point on the principal axis. Light incident on the optical centre
passes through the lens without deviation.
Principal Focus: The point on the principal axis at which all incident rays parallel to the
principal axis converge or appear to diverge after refraction through the lens.
Refraction through a Lens:

 An incident ray, parallel to the principal axis, after refraction passes through (or appears to
come from), second focus of the lens.
 An incident ray, passing through the optical center of the lens, goes undeviated from the
lens.
 An incident ray, passing through the (first) principal focus of the lens, or directed toward
it, becomes parallel to the principal axis after refraction through lens.
Image formation by a convex lens

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Image formation by a concave lens

Sign conventions:

 All distances, object distance (u), image distance (v) and focal length (f) are measured
from the optical centre.
 The distances measured in the direction of incident ray are taken as positive and distances
measured against the direction of incident ray are taken as negative.
 All distances (heights) of objects and images above principal axis are taken as positive and
those below the principal axis are taken as negative.

Lens formula:

1/v-1/u = 1/f

Linear magnification: It produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the height of the image (hi)
to the height of the object (ho). It is represented by ‗m‘

m = i/o or m = v/u

(i) If the magnification of a lens is negative, then the image formed is inverted and real.
(ii) If the magnification of a lens is positive, then the image formed is erect and virtual.

Power of a Lens: The ability of a lens to converge or diverge light rays is called power of the
lens. It is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length. Power is measured in dioptre.

Power [in dioptre (D)] = 1/f (in m)

For combination of lenses,
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + …..
Remember the following points to solve any numerical for mirrors

MIRROR FORMULA

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Where u = position of object , v= position of image and f = focal length of the mirror

Take u = always negative

Focal length f = +ve for convex mirror , -ve for concave mirror

Position of image v= +ve for virtual image, -ve for real image

MAGNIFICATION (m) =

m= -ve for real image

= +ve for virtual image

FOR LENS

LENS FORMULA

Where u = position of object , v= position of image and f = focal length of the mirror
Take u = always negative
Focal length f = +ve for convex lens , -ve for concave lens
Position of image v= +ve for virtual image, -ve for real image

MAGNIFICATION (m) =

m= -ve for real image

= +ve for virtual image

QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

Question 1.
What is the magnification of the images formed by plane mirrors and why?
Answer:
The magnification of the image formed by a plane mirror is 1 because size of the image is equal
to the size of the object.
Question 2.
What is meant by power of a lens?
Answer: The power of a lens is a measure of the degree of convergence or divergence of light

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rays falling on it. The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in metres.
Power of a lens = 1 /Focal length (in m)
The SI unit of power is dioptre denoted by the letter D. One dioptre is the power of a lens whose
focal length is 1 metre.
Question 3
List four properties of the image formed by a concave mirror when object is placed between
focus and pole of the mirror.
Answer:
Image is virtual, erect, magnified, i.e., bigger than the object and behind the mirror.
Question 4
Draw a ray diagram to show the path of the reflected ray corresponding to an incident ray which
is directed towards the principal focus of a convex mirror. Mark on it the angle of incidence and
the angle of reflection.
Answer:

∠i = Angle of incidence
∠r = Angle of reflection
Question 5
List four characteristics of the images formed by plane mirrors.
Answer:
The characteristics of the images formed by plane mirrors are:

1. The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual and erect. It cannot be received on a
screen.
2. The image formed by a plane mirror is of the same size as the object.
3. The image formed by a plane mirror is at the same distance behind the mirror as the
object is in front of the mirror.
4. The image formed in a plane mirror is laterally inverted.

Question 6
List four specific characteristics of the images of the objects formed by convex mirrors.
Answer:
The images of the objects formed by convex mirrors are always-
1. Virtual
2. Erect
3. Diminished and
4. Formed behind the mirror between focus and pole of the mirror.

Question 7
The absolute refractive indices of glass and water are 32 and 43 respectively. If the speed of light
is 2 × 108 m/s, calculate the speed of light in (i) vacuum, (ii) water.
Answer:

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(i) Given: vg = 2 × 108 m/s (Speed of light in glass)
We know, Absolute Refractive Index of a Medium = Speed of light in Vacuum (c) Speed of
light in the Medium

Question 8
A ray of light is incident on a convex mirror as shown. Redraw the diagram and complete the
path of this ray after reflection from the mirror. Mark angle of incidence and angle of reflection
on it.
Answer:

Question 9
What is meant by power of a lens? What does its sign (+ve or -ve) indicate? State its S.I. unit.
How is this unit related to focal length of a lens?
Answer:

 The power of a lens is a measure of the degree of convergence or divergence of light

rays falling on it.
 +ve sign → converging lens/convex lens
-ve sign → diverging lens/concave lens
 The SI unit of lens is dioptre. One dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is
1 metre.
Question 10
―The magnification produced by a spherical mirror is -3‖. List four information you obtain from
this statement about the mirror/image.
Answer:
Magnification produced by a spherical mirror, m = -3

 Image is 3 times magnified than the object.

 Image is inverted (as m has negative sign)
 Image is real.
 Nature of the mirror is concave.
Question 11
The refractive indices of glass and water with respect to air are 3/2 and 4/3 respectively. if speed

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of light in glass is 2 × 108 m/s, find the speed of light in water.
Answer:

Question 12
An object is placed at a distance of 30 cm in front of a convex mirror of focal length 15 cm.
Write four characteristics of the image formed by the mirror.
Answer:
Four characteristics of the image formed are:

 Image is erect.
 Image is virtual.
 Image is diminished in size.
 The image is formed behind the mirror between P & F points of the mirror.
 The image is laterally inverted.

Question 13
A student places a candle flame at a distance of about 60 cm from a convex lens of focal length
10 cm and focuses the image of the flame on a screen. After that he gradually moves the flame
towards the lens and each time focuses the image on the screen.
(a) In which direction-toward or away from the lens, does he move the screen to focus the
image?
(b) How does the size of the image change?
(c) How does the intensity of the image change as the flame moves towards the lens?
(d) Approximately for what distance between the flame and the lens, the image formed on the
screen is inverted and of the same size?
Answer:
(a) He will move the screen away from the lens to focus the image.
(b) Size of the image goes on increasing.
(c) Intensity of image goes on decreasing.
(d) About 20 cm
Question 14
Draw the ray diagram and also state the position, the relative size and the nature of image formed
by a concave mirror when the object is placed at the centre of curvature of the mirror.
Answer:
When the object is at the centre of curvature of a concave mirror, i.e., point C:

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The image formed is

 real,
 inverted,
 same size as the object at C, and
 at C.

Question 15
Define, ‗refractive index of a transparent medium‘. What is its unit? Which has a higher
refractive index – glass or water?
Answer:

 The light bending ability of a transparent medium is called the refractive index of that
medium.
 The ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in a medium is called the
refractive index of that medium.
refractive index (of a medium) = Speed of light in vacuum Speed of light in medium
 Since refractive index is a ratio of two similar quantities therefore it has no units.
 The refractive index of glass is more than water.

Question 16
Draw a ray diagram to show the refraction of light through triangular glass prism and mark angle
of deviation on it.
Answer:
Refraction of light through triangular glass prism:

PF – Incident ray
EF – Refracted ray
FS – Emergent ray
∠A – Angle of the prism
∠i – Angle of incidence
∠r – Angle of refraction
∠e – Angle of emergence
∠D – Angle of deviation
Question 17
(i) ―The refractive index of diamond is 2.42‖. What is the meaning of this statement?
(ii) Name a liquid whose mass density is less than that of water but it is optically denser than
water.

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Answer:
(i) The refractive index of diamond is 2.42. It means that the ratio of the speed of light in air and
the speed of light in diamond is equal to 2.42.
Higher is the refractive index of a medium, lower is the speed of light in that medium. Because
the refractive index of diamond is very high, therefore the speed of light in diamond is very low.
(ii) Kerosene has the mass density less than water but it is optically denser than water.

Question 18
An object is placed between infinity and the pole of a convex mirror. Draw a ray diagram and
also state the position, the relative size and the nature of the image formed.
Answer:
Position, size and nature of image:
Image formed by a convex mirror is virtual, diminished, erect and behind the mirror between its
P (pole) and F (focus) point.

Question 19
The image of a candle flame placed at a distance of 45 cm from a spherical lens is formed on a
screen placed at a distance of 90 cm from the lens. Identify the type of lens and calculate its focal
length. If the height of the flame is 2 cm, find the height of its image.
Answer:
Object distance, u = -45 cm, Image distance, v = +90 cm (real) Focal length, f = ?,
Nature of lens = ?, Height of the object, h1 = 2 cm, Height of the image, h2 = ?
According to lens formula:

∴ f = 30 cm
The positive sign of f shows that the given lens is a convex lens of focal length 30 cm.
Magnification,

⇒ h2/h1 = -2 ⇒ h2/2 = -2
∴ h = -4
The height of the image is 4.
The negative sign shows that this image is in the downward direction below the axis, i.e., image
is inverted.
Question 20
State the type of mirror preferred as (i) rear view mirror in vehicles, (ii) shaving mirror. Justify
your answer giving two reasons in each case.
Answer:
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(i) Convex mirror is used as rear view mirror in vehicles because the image formed in a convex
mirror is highly diminished thus a convex mirror gives a wide field of view. Therefore a convex
mirror enables a driver to view a much larger area of the traffic behind him.
(ii) Concave mirror is used as shaving mirror because when face is held within the focus of a
concave mirror, an enlarged image of the face is seen in the concave mirror.
Question 21
The image of a candle flame placed at a distance of 36 cm from a spherical lens is formed on a
screen placed at a distance of 72 cm from the lens. Identify the type of lens and calculate its focal
length. If the height of the flame is 2.5 cm, find the height of the image.
Answer:
Object distance, u = -36 cm,
Images distance, v = +72 cm
[+ve sign is due to the image being formed on the screen hence it is real]
Focal length, f = ?, Nature of the lens = ?
Height of the object, h1 = 2.5 cm, Height of the image, h2 = ?
According to lens formula:

∴ f = +24 ⇒ +ve sign off shows that the lens is convex having focal Length 24 cm.

⇒ h2 = -2 × 2.5 = -5 cm

 -ve sign of h2 shows that the image is inverted.

 Thus an inverted, magnified, 5 cm long image is formed on the screen.

Question 22
A 4 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex lens of focal length 24
cm. The distance of the object from the lens is 16 cm. Find the position, size and nature of the
image formed, using the lens formula.
Answer:
Height of the object, h1 = 4 cm
Convex lens:
Focal length, f = +24 cm, Object distance, u = -16 cm, Image distance, v = ?
Height of the image, h2 = ?, Nature of the image = ?v

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According to lens formula:

 The image is formed at a distance of 48 cm from the convex lens.

 The minus sign for image distance shows that the image is formed on the left side of
the convex lens.
 Only virtual image is formed on the left hand side.
According to formula: m = h2h1, m = vu

∴ h2 = 3 × 4 = 12 cm.
Thus a magnified (12 cm high), virtual and erect image is formed.
Question 23.
A 2.4 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex lens of focal length
18 cm. The distance of the object from the lens is 12 cm. Find the position, size and nature of the
image formed.
Answer:
h1 = +2.4 cm (upright) (Concave lens) v = ? h2 = ?
f = +18 cm (for convex lens) u = -12 cm Nature of the image = ?
According to lens formula:

 Image is formed at a distance of 36 cm from the convex lens.

 The negative (-) sign of v shows that the image is formed on the left hand side of the
convex lens. Only virtual image is formed on the left hand side

⇒ h2 = 3 × 2.4 = 7.2 cm

 The height of the image is 7.2 cm.

 The positive (+) sign shows that the image is formed above the axis. Thus the image is
virtual and erect.
Question 24.
A 5 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex lens of focal length 12
cm. The distance of the object from the lens is 8 cm. Find the position, size and nature of the

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image formed.
Answer:
f = +12 cm (for convex lens), h1 = 5 cm, u = -8cm
v = ?, h2 = ?, Nature of the image = ?
According to lens formula:

 Image is formed at a distance of 24 cm from the convex lens.

 The negative (-) sign of v shows that the image is formed on the left hand side of the
convex lens and only virtual image is formed on the left hand side.
A virtual image is formed at 24 cm from the lens.

∴ h2 = 3 × 5 = 15 cm

 Thus size of the image is 15 cm.

 The positive (+) sign shows that the image is formed above the axis.

Question 25.
The image of a candle flame placed at a distance of 30 cm from a spherical lens is formed on a
screen placed at a distance of 60 cm from the lens. Identify the type of lens and calculate its focal
length. If the height of the flame is 2.4 cm, find the height of its image.
Answer:
Object distance, u = -30 cm,
Image distance, v = +60 cm
[+ve sign is due to the image formed on the screen, hence it is real]
f = ?, Type of lens = ?
Height of the object, h1 = 2.4 cm, Height of the image, h2 = ?
According to lens formula:

∴ f = + 20cm
The positive (+ve) sign of/shows that the lens is convex having focal length 20 cm.
Now Magnification,

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The negative (-ve) sign of h2 shows that the image is inverted.

Question 26
An object of height 5 cm is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a concave lens of focal
length 10 cm. Use lens formula to determine the position, size and nature of the image if the
distance of the object from the lens is 20 cm.
Answer:
Height of the object, h21 = 5 cm, Focal length of the concave lens, f = -10 cm
Position of the object, v = ?, Size of the object, h2 = ?
Object distance, u = -20 cm,
According to lens formula:

The negative (-) sign for image distance shows that image is formed on the left side of the
concave lens. So the image is virtual.

Since h2 < h1 therefore image is diminished. The positive (+) sign for the magnification shows
that image is erect and virtual.
Question 27
A spherical mirror produces an image of magnification -1 on a screen placed at a distance of 50
cm from the mirror.
(a) Write the type of mirror.
(b) Find the distance of the image from the object.
(c) What is the focal length of the mirror?
(d) Draw the ray diagram to show the image formation in this case.
Answer:
If magnification, m = -1; v = 50 cm
If the magnification has minus sign, then the image is real and inverted.
∴ v = -50 (for real image) ∵ m = −vu

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⇒ -1 = −(−50)u
u = -50 cm
(a) Since image is formed on the screen therefore the mirror formed real image which is formed
by concave mirror only.
(b) Image distance = 50 cm in front of the mirror.
(c)

(d)

Question 28
A spherical mirror produces an image of magnification -1 on a screen placed at a distance of 40
cm from the mirror:
(i) Write the type of mirror.
(ii) What is the nature of the image formed?
(iii) How far is the object located from the mirror?
(iv) Draw the ray diagram to show the image formation in this case.

Answer:

 Spherical mirror
 m = -1
 Image is formed on a screen
Image distance, v – 40 m
(i) Concave mirror
(ii) Real image (as it is formed on the screen)
(iii) m = -1
m = −vu
⇒ -1 = −(−40)u
⇒ -u = +40
⇒ u = -40 cm
∴ Object is placed at 40 cm from the mirror.
Question 29
A student wants to project the image of a candle flame on a screen 60 cm in front of a mirror by
keeping the flame at a distance of 15 cm from its pole.

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(i) Write the type of mirror he should use.
(ii) Find the linear magnification of the image produced.
(iii) What is the distance between the object and its
image?
Draw a ray diagram to show the image formation in this
case.
Answer:
Concave mirror
Linear magnification = – Image distance
Object distance
⇒ m = −vu
Object distance Object distance, u = -15 (u is always negative)
Image distance, v = -60 (n is negative for real image)
m = −(−60)(−15)
∴ m = -4
The minus sign in magnification shows that the image formed is real and inverted.
(iii) Distance between object and its image = 45 cm
(iv) Ray diagram:

The image formed is real, inverted, magnified and beyond 2f.

Question 30
Draw a ray diagram to show the path of the refracted ray in each of the following cases: A ray of
light incident on a concave lens is
(i) passing through its optical centre.
(ii) parallel to its principal axis.
(iii) directed towards its principal focus.
Answer:
(i) A ray of light passing through optical centre of a concave lens. An incident ray passing
through the optical centre of a lens (concave or convex) goes straight after refraction.

(ii) Light ray parallel to principal axis.

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(iii) A ray of light directed towards principal focus.

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 Chapter- 11
HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD
The Human Eye: It is a natural optical instrument which is used to see the objects by human
beings. It is like a camera which has a lens and screen system.

Structure of the Human Eye

The various parts of eye and their functions:

 Retina: It is a light sensitive screen inside the eye on which image is formed. It
contains rods and cones. Functions: Captures the light rays focussed by the lens
and sends
 Cornea: It is a thin membrane which covers the eye trail. It acts like a lens which
refracts the light entering the eye.
 Aqueous humour: It is fluid which fills the space between cornea and eye lens.
 Eye lens: It is a convex lens made of transparent and flexible jelly like material. Its
curvature can be adjusted with the help of ciliary muscles.
 Pupil: It is a hole in the middle of iris through which light enters the eye. It appears
black because light falling on it goes into the eye and does not come back.
Functions: Opens and closes in order to regulate and control the amount of light.
 Ciliary muscles: These are the muscles which are attached to eye lens and can
modify the shape of eye lens which leads to the variation in focal lengths.
 Iris: It controls the amount of light entering the eye by changing the size of the
pupil. Functions: Controls light level similar to the aperture of a camera.
 Optical nerve: These are the nerves which take the image to the brain in the form of
electrical signals.

How Pupil Works?

For Example, you would have observed that when you come out of the cinema hall after
watching the movie in the bright sunlight, your eyes get closed. And when you entered the hall
from the bright light, you won‘t be able to see and after some time you would be able to see.
Here, the pupil of an eye provides a variable aperture, whose size is controlled by iris.
(a) When the light is bright: Iris contracts the pupil, so that less light enters the eye.
(b) When the light is dim: Iris expands the pupil, so that more light enters the eye.
Pupil opens completely when iris is relaxed.

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Colour Blindness: A person having defective cone cells is not able to distinguish between the
different colours. This defect is known as Colour Blindness.

Defects of Vision:
Myopia (Short-sightedness): It is a kind of defect in the human eye due to which a person can
see near objects clearly but he cannot see the distant objects clearly. Myopia is due to
(i) excessive curvature of the cornea.
(ii) Elongation of eyeball.
Hypermetropia (Long-sightedness): It is a kind of defect in the human eye due to which, a
person can see distant objects properly but cannot see the nearby objects clearly. It happens due
to (i) decrease in the power of eye lens i.e., increase in focal length of eye lens.
(ii) Shortening of eyeball.
Presbyopia: It is a kind of defect in human eye which occurs due to ageing. It happens due to
the following reasons
(i) decrease in flexibility of eye lens.
(ii) Gradual weakening of ciliary muscles.
In this, a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia.

Astigmatism: It is a kind of defect in human eye due to which a person cannot see (focus)
simultaneously horizontal and vertical lines both.

Cataract: Due to the membrane growth over eye lens, the eye lens becomes hazy or even
opaque. This leads to a decrease or loss of vision. This problem is called a cataract. It can be
corrected only by surgery.

2. Refraction of light through a prism: When a ray of light is incident on a rectangular glass
slab, after refracting through the slab, it gets displaced laterally. As a result, the emergent ray
comes out parallel to the incident ray. Unlike a rectangular slab, the side of a glass prism are
inclined at an angle called the angle of prism.

Prism: A prism is a transparent refracting medium bounded by two plane surfaces, inclined to
each other at a certain angle. It has one triangular base and three rectangular lateral surfaces.

Angle of Prism: Angle between two lateral faces is called angle of prism.

Angle of Deviation: The angle between the incident deviations.

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Reflection if light through a triangular glass prism

3. Dispersion of white light by a glass prism: The phenomenon of splitting of white light into
its seven constituent colours when it passes through a glass prism is called dispersion of white
light. The various colours seen are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. The
sequence of colours remembers as VIBGYOR. The band of seven colours is called the spectrum.
The different component colour of light bends at a different angle with respect to the incident
angle. The violet light bends the least while the red bends most.

Dispersion of white light by a prism

For violet colour, wavelength is minimum and for red colour wavelength is maximum, i.e.
frequency for violet colour is maximum and for red colour frequency is minimum.

Composition of white light: White light consists of seven colours i.e., violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange and red.

Monochromatic light: Light consisting of single colour or wavelength is called monochromatic

light, example; sodium light.

Polychromatic light: Light consisting of more than two colours or wavelengths is called
polychromatic light, example; white light.

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Recombination of white light: Newton found that when an inverted prism is placed in the path
of dispersed light then after passing through the prism, they recombine to form white light.

Rainbow: It is the spectrum of sunlight in nature. It is formed due to the dispersion of sunlight
by the tiny water droplet, present in the atmosphere.

Formation of the rainbow: The water droplets act like small prism. They refract and disperse
the incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, and finally refract it again when it comes out of
the raindrop. Due to the dispersion of light and internal reflection, different colours reach the
observer‘s eye.

Conditions for the formation of rainbow are:

(i) The formation of rainbow involves a series of physical phenomena refraction,

dispersion and internal reflection
(ii) Rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the sun, i.e. sun is always
behind the observer.

Red colour appears on top and violet at the bottom of rainbow.

A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of Sun.
At ‗A‘ – Refraction and dispersion take place.
At ‗B‘ – Internal reflection takes place.
At ‗C‘ – Refraction and dispersion take place.

Rainbow formation

4. Atmospheric Refraction: The refraction of light caused by the Earth‘s atmosphere (having
air layers of varying optical densities) is called Atmospheric Refraction.

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Appearance of Star Position: It is due to atmospheric refraction of star light.
The temperature and density of different layer of atmosphere keeps varying. Hence, we have
different medium. Distant star act as point source of light. When the starlight enters the Earth‘s
atmosphere, it undergoes refraction continuously, due to changing refractive index i.e., from
Rarer to denser. It bends towards the normal.
Due to this, the apparent position of the star is different from actual position. The star appears
higher than its actual position.

Twinkling of Star: It is also due to atmospheric refraction. Distant star act like a point source of
light. As the beam of starlight keeps deviating from its path, the apparent position of star keeps
on changing because physical condition of earth‘s atmosphere is not stationary.
Hence, the amount of light enters our eyes fluctuate sometimes bright and sometime dim. This is
the ―Twinkling effect of star‖.

5. Scattering of light:According to Rayleigh‘ Law of Scattering, the amount of scattered light

∝ 1/λ4 (λ = wavelength). Scattering of light decreases with increase in wavelength.

Colour of the sky: The sunlight that reaches the earth‘s atmosphere is scattered in all directions
by the gases and dust particles present in the atmosphere.
Sky appears blue; this is because the size of the particles in the atmosphere is smaller than the
wavelength of visible light, so they scatter the light of shorter wavelength (blue end of
spectrum). The blue colour is scattered more and hence the sky appears blue.

Colour of Sun at Sunrise and Sunset: While sunset and sunrise, the colour of the sun and its
surrounding appear red. During sunset and sunrise, the sun is near to horizon, and therefore, the
sunlight has to travel larger distance in atmosphere. Due to this, most of the blue light (shorter
wavelength) is scattered away by the particles. The light of longer wavelength (red colour)
reaches our eye. This give rise to reddish appearance of the sun and the sky.

The danger signal or sign is made of red colour because red colour scatters the most when strikes
the small particle of fog and smoke because it has the maximum wavelength (visible spectrum).
Hence, from large distance also, we can see the red colour clearly.

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At noon sun appears white: At noon, the sun is overhead and sunlight would travel shorter
distance relatively through the atmosphere. Hence, at noon, the sun appears white as only little of
the blue and violet colours are scattered.

1. Define the power of accommodation?

Ans: The power of the eye lens to focus on objects near or far from the retina by adjusting its
focal length is called the power of accommodation.

2. Which part of the human eye provides most of the refraction for the light rays entering the
eye?
Ans: Cornea and Aqueous humor provides most of the refraction for the light rays entering the
eye.

3. What happens to the image distance in the eye when we increase the distance of an object
from the eye?
Ans: When the distance of an object from the eye is increased, the image distance remains the
same and the image is formed on the retina of the eye.

4. What happens to the pupil of the eye when the light is very bright?
Ans: When the light is very bright, the pupil‘s size becomes smaller and limits the extent of light
entering the eye.

5. Which part of the human eye conveys the electrical signals generated by the light sensitive
cells of the retina to the brain?
Ans: Optic nerves convey the electrical signals generated by the light sensitive cells of the retina
to the brain.

6. What would have been the colour of the sky if there had not been any atmosphere around the
earth?
Ans: The colour of the sky would be black if there had not been any atmosphere around the
earth.

7. For dispersion of light through a prism which colour has a maximum deviation?

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Ans: Violet has the maximum deviation for dispersion of light through a prism.

8. What is the least distance of distinct vision of a normal human eye?

Ans: The least distance of distinct vision of a normal human eye is 2525 cm.

9. Name the muscle responsible for bringing change in the focal length of the eye lens?
Ans: Ciliary muscles are responsible for bringing change in the focal length of the eye lens.

10. Name one defect of vision which cannot be corrected by any type of spectacle lens?
Ans: Cataract, clouding of the lens of the eyes is a vision defect that cannot be corrected by any
type of spectacle lens.

11. State one effect produced by the scattering of light by the atmosphere?
Ans: Tyndall effect is produced by the scattering of light by the atmosphere.

12. What is the nature of the image formed on the retina of the eye?
Ans: The image formed on the retina of the eye is real and inverted.

13. What type of lens is used for correcting hypermetropia?

Ans: Convex lens is used to rectify hypermetropia or long-sightedness.

14. Who was the first person to obtain the spectrum of sunlight?
Ans: Sir Isaac Newton was the first person to obtain the spectrum of sunlight.

15. As light rays pass from air into glass prisms, are they refracted towards or away from the
normal?
Ans: As light rays pass from air into a glass prism they are refracted towards the normal as glass
is denser than air.

16. Which colour has the largest wavelength?

Ans: Red colour of light has the longest wavelength in the visible spectrum of light.

17. Which defect of vision can be rectified using a concave lens?

Ans: Myopia (short-sightedness) can be rectified using a concave lens.

18. What phenomenon causes the twinkling of stars on a clear night?

Ans: Atmospheric refraction is the phenomenon that causes the twinkling of stars on a clear
night.

19. What is meant by scattering of light?

Ans: Scattering of light is defined as the change in the direction of light on striking an obstacle
such as dust, water vapour, etc.

20. Name the phenomenon responsible for the observed twinkling of stars. Will this twinkling be
observed by an observer on the moon?
Ans: The phenomenon responsible for the twinkling of stars is atmospheric refraction.

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Since the moon has no atmosphere, the observer on the moon will not be able to observe the
twinkling of stars.

21. Name the part of the eye that

a. determines the color of a person‘s eye
Ans: Iris
b. Controls the amount of light entering the eye
Ans: Iris

22. What is the role of the ciliary muscles?

Ans: The main role of the ciliary muscles is to hold the eye lens in its position. The ciliary
muscles contract and relax to focus on near or far away objects by changing the shape of the eye
lens which in turn increases or decreases the focal length of the eye lens.

23. Why is a convex lens called a converging lens?

Ans: A convex lens focuses all the parallel light rays at its focus after refraction. Hence, it is
called a converging lens.

24. State the role of the eye lenses in the human eye?
Ans: The eye lens focuses the light rays entering the eye on the retina forming a real and an
inverted image of the object on the retina.

25. A person with a myopic eye cannot see objects beyond 1.21.2 m distinctly. What should be
the corrective lens used to restore proper vision?
Ans: Since the person is myopic and cannot see objects clearly beyond 1.21.2 m, he should use a
concave lens having a focal length 1.21.2 m to restore his normal vision.

26. What is the far point and near the point of the human eye with normal vision?
Ans: For a human eye with proper vision, the near point is 2525 cm from the eye and the far
point is at infinity.

27. A student has difficulty reading the blackboard while sitting in the last row. What could be
the defect the child is suffering from? How can it be corrected?
Ans: Since, the student has difficulty reading the blackboard, sitting in the last row, he is
suffering from myopia or short-sightedness. A concave lens of suitable power should be used to
correct his vision defect.

28. Why is a normal eye not able to see clearly the objects placed closer than 25 cm?
Ans: The normal eye is unable to see the objects clearly placed closer than 2525 cm because at a
distance of 2525 cm power of accommodation gets exhausted. Hence, the eye is unable to focus
the light rays on the retina, when the object is placed closer than 2525 cm.

29. Why does the Sun appear reddish early in the morning?
Ans: During sunrise, the sun is at the farthest distance from the earth‘s surface. The light rays
travel a large distance in the Earth‘s atmosphere before reaching our eyes.

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While passing through the atmosphere, the light rays with shorter wavelengths get scattered by
the Earth‘s atmosphere and the red-colored light with the longest wavelength is able to reach our
eyes. Hence, the Sun appears reddish early in the morning.

30. Why do we observe random wavering or flicking of the objects near a fire or on a very hot
day?
Ans: We observe random wavering or flicking of the objects near a fire or on a very hot day
because of atmospheric refraction. The area above the fire is hot and is lighter than the cool air
above it due to which its refractive index is low and density also does not remain the same.
Therefore, the apparent position of the object flickers.

31. Why are we not able to see things clearly when we come out of a dark room?
Ans: In a dark room, the iris expands the pupil which allows more light to enter the eye. As we
come out of the darkroom, a large amount of light enters our eyes and because of the glare, we
are not able to see things clearly.

32. What is the function of the optic nerve in the human eye?
Ans: Optic nerve carries the visual information from the retina to the brain in the form of
electrical signals.

33. Why do different colours deviate through different angles on passing through a prism?
Ans: Different colours deviate through different angles on passing through a prism because
different colours with different wavelengths travel through glass at different speeds and the glass
has a different refractive index for different colours.
34. Name the defect of vision in the person
a. Whose near point is more than 2525 cm away?
Ans: Hypermetropia
b. Whose far point is less than infinity.
Ans: Myopia

35. What is a spectrum?

Ans: A continuum of colour obtained by dispersion of white light by passing through a prism is
called a spectrum.

36. Why does the clear sky look blue?

Ans: As white light passes through the atmosphere, the tiny particles held in the atmosphere
scatter the light of a shorter wavelength. Therefore, blue light having the shortest wavelength is
scattered the most and the clear sky appears blue.

37. Can visible light be scattered by atoms/molecules in the earth‘s atmosphere?

Ans: Yes, visible light is scattered by atoms/molecules in the earth‘s atmosphere as the size of
molecules/atoms is much less than the wavelength of visible light.

38. Why does the sky appear dark instead of blue to an astronaut?

100
Ans: Outer space does not have an atmosphere. As a result, the light does not scatter into its
constituent colors in outer space and hence the sky appears dark instead of blue to an astronaut.

39. What is the basic cause of atmospheric refraction?

Ans: Atmospheric refraction is caused by the bending of light when it passes through the layers
of the Earth‘s atmosphere with different optical densities.

40. What is the range of vision?

Ans: The range of vision of a normal human eye is the distance between the near point and far
point of the human eye. Hence, for a normal human eye, it ranges from 25cm to infinity.

101
 CHAPTER 12
ELECTRICITY
1. Charge: It is an inherent property of the body due to which the body feels
attractive and repulsive forces.There are two types of electric charges:
(i) Positive and (ii) Negative
(ii) Like charges are repelling each other.
(iii) Unlike charges attract each other.
2. Conductors and insulators: Those substances through which electricity can flow
are calledconductors. All the metals like silver, copper, aluminiumetc. are
conductors.
Those substances through which electricity cannot flow are calledinsulators.
Glass, ebonite, rubber, most plastics, paper, dry wood, etc., are insulators.
3. Electrostatic potential: The electrostatic potential at any point is defined as the
work done inbringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point. Potential is
denoted by the symbol V and its unit is volt. A potential of one volt at a point
means that 1 joule of work is done in bringing 1 unit positive charge from infinity
to that point.
4. PotentialDifference: The amount of work done in moving unit positive charge
from one pointto another in an electric field is known as potential difference.
Potential difference = Work done/Quantity of charge transferred
If a W joule of work has to be done to transfer Q coulombs of charge from one
point to another point, then the potential difference V between the two points is
given by the formula:
Potential difference, V = W/Q
The SI unit of potential difference is volt (V).
1 volt: One volt is defined as the potential difference between two points in a
current carrying conductor when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1
coulomb from one point to another.Therefore, 1 volt = 1joule/ 1 coulomb
5. Voltmeter: The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument
called voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected in parallel across the points where
the potential difference is measured. A voltmeter has high resistance.
6. Electric Current: The electric current is the rate of flow of electric charges (called
electrons) in a conductor.
If a charge of Q coulombs flows through a conductor in time t seconds, then the
magnitude I of the electric current flowing through it is given by
Current, I = Q/t
The SI unit of electric current is ampere and it is denoted by the letter A. Electric
current is a scalar quantity.

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7. Ammeter: Current is measured by an instrument called ammeter. The ammeter is
connected in series with the circuit in which the current is to be measured. An
ammeter should have very lowinternal resistance.
8. Voltaic Cell: It is one of the earliest devices which are capable of providing a
continuous flow of electric current. It is used for converting chemical energy into
electricalenergy. It was invented by Volta in the year 1800.
9. Ohm's Law: At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends. If 1 is the current
flowing through a conductorand V is the potential difference across its ends. Then
according to Ohm’s law
I∝V
This can also-be written as:
V∝ I
V = IR
Where R is a constant called 'resistance' of the conductor. The value of this
constant depends on the nature, length, area of cross-section and temperature of
the conductor.
10.Resistance of a Conductor: The property of a conductor due to which it opposes
the flow of current through it is called resistance. The resistance of a conductor is
numerically equal to ratio of potential difference across its ends to the current
flowing through it. i.e.
Resistance =Potential difference/Current
R = V/I
The SI unit of resistance is ohm, which is denoted by symbol Ω.
1 ohm: If V = 1 volt, I = I ampere, then
R = 1 volt/1 ampere= 1 ohm
Thus, the resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm if 1 ampere current flows
throughthe conductor when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across it.
11.Factors affecting the Resistance of a Conductor: The resistance of the conductor
depends:
(i) on its length,
(ii) on its area of cross-section
(iii) on the nature of its material.
12.Resistivity: It has been found by the experiments that:
(i) The resistance of a given conductor is directly proportional to its length.
R ∝ l ………(i)
(ii) The resistance of a given conductor is inversely proportional to its area
ofcross-section.
R ∝1/A …….(ii)

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 By combining the equations (i) and (ii),
R ∝l/A
R = 𝜌 (l/A)
Where 𝜌is called specific resistance or resistivity of the conductor.
When l = 1m, A = 1m2, we have 𝜌 = R
Thus, the resistivity of a conductor is the resistance of unit length and unit
area of cross-section of the conductor. The SI unit of resistivity is ohm
metre (Ωm).
13. Combination of Resistance: The resistance can be combined in two ways:
(i) In series
(ii) In parallel
(i) Resistance in series:

In series, the total potential difference,

V = V1 + V2 + V3 …….(i)
Applying Ohm’s law to the entire circuit
V = IR ……(ii)
Applying Ohm’s law to each resistance separately, we have
V1 = IR1; V2 = IR2; V3 = IR3 ….(iii)
From equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we have
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
R = R1 + R2 + R3

(ii) Resistance in parallel:

In parallel, the total current:

I = I1 + I2 + I3 …….(i)
Applying Ohm’s law to the entire circuit
I = V/R ……(ii)

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 Applying Ohm’s law to each resistance separately, we have
I1 = V/R1; I2 = V/R2; I3 = V/R3 ….(iii)
From equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we have
V/R = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
14.Electric Power: The rate at which work is done by an electric current is known as
electric power.
Power = Work done/Time
P = W/t = (V x Q)/t …..(i)
The work done by current I when it flows for time t under a potential difference V
is given by:
W = V x I x t joules [Because W = VQ and Q = It]
Putting the value of W in equation (i), we have
P = (V x I x t)/t = VI
P = I2R [Because V = IR]
P = V2/R [Because I = V/R]
The unit of electric power is watt.
Power = V x I
1 watt = 1 volt x 1 ampere
Thus, if a potential difference of 1 volt causes a current of 1 ampere to flow
through a wire, the electrical power consumed is one watt.

15.Electrical Energy:
Electrical energy = Power x Time
E=Pxt
The electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance depends upon
(i) Powerrating of the appliance
(ii) Time for which it (appliance) is used.
The SI unit of electrical energy is joule.
1joule is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an appliance of 1 watt
is used for 1 second.

16.Commercial Unit of Electrical Energy: Kilowatt hour is the commercial unit of

electrical energy. One kilowatt hour is the electrical energy consumed when an
electrical appliance having 1kW power rating is used for 1 hour.
Energy used = Power x Time
1 kWh = 1 kW x lh
= 1000 w x 60 x 60s
= 1000 Js-l X 3600 s

105
 = 3600000 J= 3.6 x 106 J
17.Heating Effect of Current: When an electric current is passed through a high
resistance wire, it becomes very hot and produces heat. This effect is called the
heating effect of current.
When an electric charge Q moves against a potential difference V, the amount
of work done is given by,
W=Qx V ……(i)
But, current, I = Q/t
Q = I xt
From Ohm's law: V = I x R
Now, putting all these values in equation (i), we have
Work done, W = 12 x R x t
This work done is converted into heat energy for maintaining the flow of current
I through the conductor for t second.
Heat produced, H = 12 x R x t joules.
18.Applications Of Heating Effect of Current:
(i) In electrical heating appliances: All electrical heating appliances are
based on heating effect of current. For example, appliances, such as
electric iron, water heaters and geysers, room heaters, toaster, hot
plates are fitted with heating coils made of high resistance wire such as
nichrome wire.
(ii) Electric filament bulb: The use of electric filament bulbs (ordinary electric
bulbs) is also based on the heating effect of current. Inside the glass
shell of electric bulb there is a filament. This filament is made from a very
thin high bulb resistance tungsten wire. When current flows through this
filament, it gets heated up. Soon, it becomes white hot and starts
emitting light.
QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
Question 1.
Define electric potential.
Answer:
Electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done in moving a unit
positive charge from infinity to that point in the electric field.
Question 2.
State the relation between work (W), change (q) and electric potential (V).
106
Answer:
V = W/q.
Question 3.
What is the S.I. unit of electrical potential ?
Answer:
volt.
Question 4.
Define 1 volt electric potential.
Answer:
Electric potential is said to be 1 volt if 1 Joule of work is done in moving 1 coulomb charge from
infinity to a point in the electric field.
Question 5.
Is electric potential a scalar or a vector physical quantity ?
Answer:
Electric potential is a scalar physical quantity.
Question 6.
What is meant by potential difference between two points ?
Answer:
Work done per unit charge in moving a unit positive charge from one point to another point in an
electric field is called potential difference between two points.
Question 7.
Name the instrument used to measure the electric potential difference.
Answer:
Voltmeter.
Question 8.
Write down the relation between the potential difference between two points A and B in a
conductor, work done W in moving a unit charge from point B to A and the charge q.
Or
State the relation between work, charge and potential difference for an electric circuit.
Or
Express work done in an electric field in terms of charge and potential difference.
Answer:

Question 9.
Mention the factor that maintains the flow of charge through a conductor.
Answer:
Potential difference across the ends of the conductor.
Question 10.
Define electric current.
Answer:
Electric current is defined as the amount of electric charge flowing through any cross-section of
a conductor per unit time.
Question 11.
Write down the relation between the electric current I passing in a conductor, change Q flowing
in the conductor and time t.
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 Or
Write the relation between coulomb and ampere?
Answer:

Question 12.
State the relation between the current I passing in a conductor, number of electrons (n) flowing
through any cross-section of the conductor, magnitude of charge on an electron (e) and time t.
Answer:
I = ne/t.
Question 13.
State SI unit of electric current.
Answer:
ampere (A)
Question 14.
Define 1 ampere electric current.
Answer:
Electric current through a conductor is said to be 1 ampere if 1 coulomb electric charge flows
through a cross-section of a conductor in 1 second.
Question 15.
How is the direction of electric current related to the direction of flow of electrons in a wire ?
Answer:
The direction of electric current in a wire is just opposite to the direction of flow of electrons in
the wire.
Question 16.
Name the instrument used to measure electric current in a circuit.
Answer:
Ammeter.
Question 17.
How is ammeter connected in the circuit to measure electric current ?
Answer:
Ammeter is connected in series in an electric circuit.
Question 18.
How is voltmeter connected in the circuit to measure electric potential difference ?
Answer:
Voltmeter is connected in parallel across a conductor or resistor in the electric circuit.
Question 19.
Define ohm‘s law.
Or
State the law that gives the relationship between the potential difference (V) across the two ends
of a conductor and the current (I) flowing through it.
Answer:
Ohm‘s law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference across the ends of the conductor, provided the temperature and . other
physical conditions of the conductor remain the same.

108
Question 20.
Define electrical resistance of a conductor.
Answer:
It is the property of a conductor to oppose the flow of electric charge through it.
Resistance of a conductor, R = V/I , where V is the potential difference across the conductor and
I is the current flowing through the conductor.
Question 21.
State SI unit of resistance.
Answer:
ohm (Ω).
Question 22.
―The resistance of a conductor is IΩ‖. What is meant by this statement ?
Or
Define 1 ohm resistance.
Answer:
The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1Ω if a potential difference of IV across the ends of
the conductor makes a current of 1A to flow through it.
Question 23.
What is the shape of the graph obtained by plotting potential difference applied across a
conductor against the current flowing through it ?
Answer:
A straight line passing through the origin and has constant slope.
Question 24.
What is the name the physical quantity which is equal to V/I ?
Or
Name the physical quantity whose unit is volt-ampere.
Answer:
y = R. Therefore, physical quantity is resistance of a conductor.
Question 25.
What does the slope of V-I graph at any point represent ?
Answer:

Therefore, slope of V-I graph represents reciprocal of the resistance of a conductor resistance of
a conductor.
Question 26.
What happens to resistance of a conductor when temperature is increased ?
Answer:
Resistance of a conductor increases with the increase in temperature.
Question 27.
The voltage — current (V-I) graph of a metallic circuit at two different
temperature T1 and T2 is shown. Which of the two temperatures is higher and why ?
Or
The voltage-current (V-I) graph of a metallic conductor at two different temperatures T1 and
T2 is shown in figure. At which temperature is the resistance higher ?

109
Answer:
Slope of I-V graph = resistance of metallic conductor.
Since, slope of I-V graph at temperature T2 is greater than the slope of I-V graph at temperature
T1, therefore, resistance at T2 is greater than resistance at T1 . Since, resistance of a metallic
conductor increases with increase in temperature, therefore, T2 > T1.
Question 28.
How does the resistance of a wire vary with its cross-section area ?
Answer:
Resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. More is cross-sectional
area of a conductor, less is the resistance of the conductor.
Question 29.
State the relation between the resistance R of a conductor, resistivity ρ of a conductor, length l of
a conductor and area of cross-section A of the conductor.
Or
Write an expression for the resistivity of a substance.
Answer:

where R is the resistance, A is the area of cross-section and l is the length of the substance.
Question 30.
What is electrical resistivity ?
Answer:
Electrical resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance of an object (made of the material)
of unit length and unit area of cross-section.
Question 31.
State SI unit of resistivity.
Answer
ohm-metre (Ω-m).
Question 32.
A wire of resistivity ‗ρ‘ is pulled to double its length. What will be its new resistivity ?
Answer:
New resistivity will also be ‗ρ‘ because resistivity of a wire does not depend on its length.
Question 33.
You have a metal, insulator and an alloy. Write these substances in the ascending order of their
electrical resistivity.
Answer:
Resistivity of metal < resistivity of alloy < resistivity of insulator.
Question 34.
n resistors each of resistance R are first connected in series and then in parallel. What is the ratio

110
of the total effective resistance of the circuit in series combination and parallel combination?
Answer:

Question 35.
You have two metallic wires of resistances 60 and 30. How will you connect these wires to get
the effective resistance of 20 ?
Answer:
In parallel.

Question 36.
Draw a schematic diagram of a circuit consisting of battery of two cells each of 1.5 V, 50
resistor, 100 resistor and 150 resistor and a plug key, all connected in series.
Answer:

Question 37.
What is heating effect of electric current ?
Answer:
The production of heat in a conductor due to the flow of electric current through it is called
heating effect of electric current.
Question 38.
Write down the relation between heat produced H in a conductor of resistance R through which
current I passes for t seconds.
Answer:
H = I2Rr.
Question 39.
State Joule‘s law of heating.
Answer:
According to Joule‘s law of heating, the amount of heat produced in a conductor is

1. directly proportional to the square of electric current passing through the conductor,
2. directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor, and
3. directly proportional to the time for which electric current passes through the
conductor.

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Question 40.
Write a mathematical expression for Joule‘s law of heating. Name one device which works on
this principle.
Answer:
H = I2 Rt. An electric heater and electric bulb work on Joule‘s law of heating.
Question 41.
What is meant by the statement that the rating of fuse in a circuit is 5A ?
Answer:
It means maximum current of 5A can pass through the fuse without melting it.
Question 42.
Name the material used for making the filament of a bulb.
Answer:
Tungsten.
on electric energy and electric power
Question 43.
Define electric energy.
Answer:
It is defined as the work done by a source of electricity to maintain electric current in an
electrical circuit.
Question 44.
Define electric power.
Answer:
It is defined as the amount of electric energy consumed in an electric circuit per unit time.
Question 45.
Name the physical quantity expressed as the product of potential difference and electric current.
Answer:
Electric power.
Question 46.
State SI unit of electric power.
Answer:
Volt x ampere (or Watt).
Question 47.
Name the unit used in selling electrical energy to consumers.
Or
What is the commercial unit of energy ?
Answer:
Kilowatt hour (kWh).
Question 48.
Which one is having lesser resistance : A 60 W bulb or a 40 W bulb ?

Answer:

Hence, bulb of higher wattage will have less resistance. In other words, resistance of 60W bulb is
less than the resistance of 40 W bulb.

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Question 49.
What is the difference between kilowatt and kilowatt hour.
Answer:
Kilowatt is the unit of electric power and kilowatt hour is the commercial unit of electric energy.
Question 50.
(a) Why an ammeter likely to bum out if you connect it in parallel ?
(b) Why is series arrangement not found satisfactory for domestic lights ?
Answer:
(a) Ammeter is a low resistance device. If it is connected in parallel, a large current flows
through it. Hence, large heat is produced and it may burn the ammeter.
(b) If domestic lights are connected in series, then all lights will be switched off even when only
one light fuses.
Question 51.
Draw diagrams to show series and parallel combinations of resistors. State three salient features
each of both the combinations.
Answer:

Salient features of series combination :

1. The net resistance of the combination is equal to the sum of the resistances of the
individual resistor.
2. The current flowing through each resistor is the same.
3. The voltage applied across the series combination of resistors is equal to the sum of
potential differences across the individual resistors.
Salient features of parallel combination :

1. The reciprocal of the net resistance of the combination is equal to the sum of the
reciprocal of the resistances of the individual resistors.
2. Different amount of current flows through each resistor.

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 3. The potential difference across each resistor is equal to the voltage applied across
the combination.

Question 52.
Why is the tungsten used almost exclusively for filament of electric lamps ?
Or
Why is Tungsten used for the filament in electric bulb ? (CBSE 2011, 2014, 2015)
Answer:
This is because

1. melting point of tungsten is very high (about 3380°C) and

2. it does not oxidise (or burn) even at higher temperatures.
Question 53.
Why do copper or aluminium wires usually used for electricity transmission and distribution
purposes ?

Or
Copper and aluminium wires are usually employed for electricity transmission. Explain reason.
Answer:
The resistivities of copper and aluminium are very low, so electric current flows easily through
them. Hence, copper and aluminium wires are usually used for electricity transmission and
distribution purpose.
Question 54.
Should the heating element of an electric iron be made of iron, silver or nichrome
wire Or
List two reasons why nichrome is used for making heating element of electrical appliances.
Answer:
It should be made of nichrome wire because

1. resistivity of nichrome is greater than that of iron and silver,so more heat is
produced in the nichrome wire due to the flow of current.
2. melting point of nichrome wire is greater than that of iron and silver and hence it
does not melt easily on heating.
3. nichrome wire does not oxidise (or burn) easily even at higher temperature.
Question 55.
Two identical immersion heaters are to be used to heat water in a large container. Which one of
the following
arrangement would heat the water faster,

1. connecting the heaters in series with the main supply,

2. connecting the heaters in parallel with the main supply ? Answer:
Heat produced in a heater, when connected to main supply,

When identical heaters (i.e. having same resistance) are connected in parallel, their

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 net resistance decreases as compared to when connected in series. Therefore, heaters
connected in parallel would heat the water faster as the heat produced in parallel
combination is more than the heat produced in series combination, on electric
energy and electric power
Question 56.
What is commercial unit of electrical energy ? Express it in joules.
Or
Define 1 kWh. How is this unit of energy related to 1 joule ?
Or
Establish the relationship between 1 kWh and SI unit of energy (joule).
Answer:
Commercial unit of electrical energy is kWh. 1 kWh is the amount of electric energy consumed
by 1000 W electric appliance when operates for 1 hour. 1 kWh = 1000 W x 3600 s = 1000 Js-1 x
3600 s = 3.6 x 106 J.
Question 57.
Two electric bulbs A and B are marked 220V, 40W and 220 V, 60W respectively. Which one of
the two has greater resistance ?
Answer:

Therefore, bulb A (40 W) has greater resistance than the bulb B (60 W)
Question 58.
Define electric power. A device of resistance R is connected across a source ofV voltage and
draws a current I. Derive an expression for power in terms of voltage and resistance.
Answer:
Electric power is defined as the amount of electric work or electric energy per unit time.
If W be the amount of electric energy consumed in a circuit in t seconds, then the electric power
is given by

Thus, electric power is defined as the product of potential difference applied across the circuit
and current flowing through it.

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Units of Power:

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 Chapter- 13
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT
Magnet: Magnetic field and magnetic field lines, Magnetic field due to a current carrying
conductor, Right hand thumb rule, Magnetic field due to current through a circular loop.
Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid.
Magnet is an object that attracts objects made of iron, cobalt and nickel. Magnet comes to rest in
North – South direction, when suspended freely.

Use of Magnets: Magnets are used

 in refrigerators.
 in radio and stereo speakers.
 in audio and video cassette players.
 in children‘s toys and;
 on hard discs and floppies of computers.

Properties of Magnet

 A free suspended magnet always points towards the north and south direction.
 The pole of a magnet which points toward north direction is called north pole or
north-seeking.
 The pole of a magnet which points toward south direction is called south pole or
south seeking.
 Like poles of magnets repel each other while unlike poles of magnets attract each
other.

Magnetic field: The area around a magnet where a magnetic force is experienced is called the
magnetic field. It is a quantity that has both direction and magnitude, (i.e., Vector quantity).

Magnetic field and field lines: The influence of force surrounding a magnet is called magnetic
field. In the magnetic field, the force exerted by a magnet can be detected using a compass or any
other magnet.
The magnetic field is represented by magnetic field lines.
The imaginary lines of magnetic field around a magnet are called
field line or field line of magnet. When iron fillings are allowed to
settle around a bar magnet, they get arranged in a pattern which
mimicks the magnetic field lines. Field line of a magnet can also be

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detected using a compass. Magnetic field is a vector quantity, i.e. it has both direction and
magnitude.

Direction of field line: Outside the magnet, the direction of magnetic field line is taken from
North Pole to South Pole. Inside the magnet, the direction of magnetic field line is taken from
South Pole to North pole.

Strength of magnetic field: The closeness of field lines shows the relative strength of magnetic
field, i.e. closer lines show stronger magnetic field and vice – versa. Crowded field lines near the
poles of magnet show more strength.

Properties of magnetic field lines

(i) They do not intersect each other.
(ii) It is taken by convention that magnetic field lines emerge from North pole and merge at the
South pole. Inside the magnet, their direction is from South pole to North pole. Therefore,
magnetic field lines are closed curves.

Magnetic field lines due to current a current carrying straight conductor

A current carrying straight conductor has magnetic field in the form of concentric circles, around
it. Magnetic field of current carrying straight conductor can be shown by magnetic field lines.
The direction of magnetic field through a current carrying conductor depends upon the direction
of flow electric current.

Let a current carrying conductor be suspended vertically and the electric current is flowing from
south to north. In this case, the direction of magnetic field will be anticlockwise. If the current is
flowing from north to south, the direction of magnetic field will be clockwise.
The direction of magnetic field, in relation to direction of electric
current through a straight conductor can be depicted by using the Right-Hand Thumb Rule. It is
also known as Maxwell‘s Corkscrew Rule.

Right-Hand Thumb Rule: If a current carrying conductor is held by right hand, keeping the
thumb straight and if the direction of electric current is in the direction of thumb, then the

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direction of wrapping of other fingers will show the direction of magnetic field.

Maxwell’s Corkscrew rule: As per Maxwell‘s Corkscrew Rule, if the direction of forward
movement of screw shows the direction of the current, then the direction of rotation of screw
shows the direction of magnetic field.

Properties of magnetic field

 The magnitude of magnetic field increases with increase in electric current and
decreases with decrease in electric current.
 The magnitude of magnetic field produced by electric current decreases with
increase in distance and vice – versa. The size of concentric circles of magnetic
field lines increases with distance from the conductor, which shows that magnetic
field decreases with distance.
 Magnetic field lines are always parallel to each other.
 No two field lines cross each other.

Magnetic field lines due to a current through a circular loop

In case of a circular current carrying conductor, the magnetic field is produced in the same
manner as it is in case of a straight current carrying conductor.

In case of a circular current carrying conductor, the magnetic field lines would be in the form of

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iron concentric circles around every part of the periphery of the conductor. Since, magnetic field
lines tend to remain closer when near to the conductor, so the magnetic field would be stronger
near the periphery of the loop. On the other hand, the magnetic field lines would be distant from
each other when we move towards the centre of the current carrying loop. Finally, at the centre,
the arcs of big circles would appear as a straight line.

The direction of the magnetic field can be identified using Right Hand Thumb‘s Rule. Let us
assume that the current is moving in anti-clockwise direction in the loop. In that case, the
magnetic field would be in clockwise direction, at the top of the loop. Moreover, it would be in
an anti-clockwise direction at the bottom of the loop.

Clock Face Rule: A current carrying loop works like a disc magnet. The polarity of this magnet
can be easily understood with the help of Clock Face Rule. If the current is flowing in anti –
clockwise direction, then the face of the loop shows north pole. On the other hand, if the current
is flowing in clockwise direction, then the face of the loop shows south pole.

Magnetic field and number of turns of coil: Magnitude of magnetic field gets summed up with
increase in the number of turns of coil. If there are ‗n‘ turns of coil, magnitude of magnetic field
will be ‗n‘ times of magnetic field in case of a single turn of coil.

The strength of the magnetic field at the centre of the loop(coil) depends on :
(i) The radius of the coil: The strength of the magnetic field is inversely proportional to the
radius of the coil. If the radius increases, the magnetic strength at the centre decreases
(ii) The number of turns in the coil : As the number of turns in the coil increase, the magnetic
strength at the centre increases, because the current in each circular turn is having the same
direction, thus, the field due to each turn adds up.
(iii) The strength of the current flowing in the coil: As the strength of the current increases,
the strength of three magnetic fields also increases.

Magnetic field due to a current in a Solenoid: Solenoid is the coil with many circular turns of
insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape of a cylinder. A current carrying solenoid
produces similar pattern of magnetic field as a bar magnet. One end of solenoid behaves as the
north pole and another end behaves as the south pole.

Magnetic field lines are parallel inside the solenoid, similar to a bar magnet, which shows that
magnetic field is same at all points inside the solenoid.
Magnetic field produced by a solenoid is similar to a bar magnet.

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The strength of magnetic field is proportional to the number of turns and magnitude of current.
By producing a strong magnetic field inside the solenoid, magnetic materials can be magnetized.
Magnet formed by producing magnetic field inside a solenoid is called electromagnet.

Electromagnet, Fleming‘s Left-Hand Rule, Electric motor, Electromagnetic induction, Fleming‘s

right hand rule, Electric generator and domestic electic circuits.
Electromagnet: An electromagnet consists of a long coil of insulated copper wire wrapped on a
soft iron.
Magnet formed by producing magnetic field inside a solenoid is called electromagnet.

Force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field: A current carrying conductor

exerts a force when a magnet is placed in its vicinity. Similarly, a magnet also exerts equal and
opposite force on the current carrying conductor. This was suggested by Marie Ampere, a French
Physicist and considered as founder of science of electromagnetism.

The direction of force over the conductor gets reversed with the change in direction of flow of
electric current. It is observed that the magnitude of force is highest when the direction of current
is at right angles to the magnetic field.

Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule: If the direction of electric current is perpendicular to the magnetic
field, the direction of force is also perpendicular to both of them. The Fleming‘s Left Hand Rule
states that if the left hand is stretched in a way that the index finger, the middle finger and the
thumb are in mutually perpendicular directions, then the index finger and middle finger of a
stretched left hand show the direction of magnetic field and direction of electric current
respectively and the thumb shows the direction of motion or force acting on the conductor. The
directions of electric current, magnetic field and force are similar to three mutually perpendicular
axes, i.e. x, y, and z-axes.
Many devices, such as electric motor, electric generator, loudspeaker, etc. work on Fleming‘s

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Left Hand Rule.

Electric motor: A device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. It is of two types
: AC and DC Motor.Electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy by using and electric
motor. Electric motor works on the basis of rule suggested by Marie Ampere and Fleming‘s Left
Hand Rule.

Principle of Electric Motor: When a rectangular coil is placed in a magnetic field and a current
is passed through it, force acts on the coil, which rotates it continuously. With the rotation of the
coil, the shaft attached to it also rotates.

Construction: It consists of the following parts ---

Armature: It is a rectangular coil (ABCD) which is suspended between the two poles of a
magnetic field.
The electric supply to the coil is connected with a commutator.

 Commutator or Split – ring: Commutator is a device which reverses the direction

of flow of electric current through a circuit. It is two halves of the same metallic
ring.
 Magnet: Magnetic field is supplied bv a permanent magnet NS.
 Sliding contacts or Brushes Q which are fixed.
 Battery: These are consisting of few cells.

Working: When an electric current is supplied to the coil of the electric motor, it gets deflected
because of magnetic field. As it reaches the halfway, the split ring which acts as commutator
reverses the direction of flow of electric current. Reversal of direction of the current, reverses the
direction of forces acting on the coil. The change in direction of force pushes the coil, and it

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moves another half turn. Thus, the coil completes one rotation around the axle. Continuation of
this process keeps the motor in rotation.
In commercial motor, electromagnet instead of permanent magnet and armature is used.
Armature is a soft iron core with large number of conducting wire turns over it. Large number of
turns of conducting wire enhances the magnetic field produced by armature.
Uses of motors:

 Used in electric fans.

 Used for pumping water.
 Used in various toys.

Electromagnetic Induction: Michael Faraday, an English Physicist is supposed to have studied

the generation of electric current using a magnetic field and a conductor.
Electricity production as a result of magnetism (induced current) is called Electromagnetic
Induction.

When a conductor is set to move inside a magnetic field or a magnetic field is set to be changing
around a conductor, electric current is induced in the conductor. This is just opposite to the
exertion of force by a current carrying conductor inside a magnetic field. In other words, when a
conductor is brought in relative motion vis – a – vis a magnetic field, a potential difference is
induced in it. This is known as electromagnetic induction.

Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule: Electromagnetic induction can be explained with the help of
Fleming‘s Right Hand Rule. If the right hand is structured in a way that the index (fore ginger)
finger, middle finger and thumb are in mutually perpendicular directions, then the thumb shows
direction of induced current in the conductor, in conductor The directions of movement of
conductor, magnetic field and induced current can be compared to three mutually perpendicular
axes, i.e. x, y and z axes.

The mutually perpendicular directions also point to an important fact that when the magnetic
field and movement of conductor are perpendicular, the magnitude of induced current would be

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maximum.
Electromagnetic induction is used in the conversion of kinetic energy into electrical energy.

Electric Generator: A device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is called an
electric generator.
Electric generators are of two types: AC generator and a DC generator. Principle of electric
generator: Electric motor works on the basis of electromagnetic induction.

Construction and Working: The structure of an electric generator is similar to that of an

electric motor. In case of an electric generator, a rectangular armature is placed within the
magnetic field of a permanent magnet. The armature is attached to wire and is positioned in a
way that it can move around an axle. When the armature moves within the magnetic field, an
electric current is induced. The direction of induced current changes, when the armature crosses
the halfway mark of its rotation.

Thus, the direction of current changes once in every rotation. Due to this, the electric generator
usually produces alternate current, i.e. A.C. To convert an A.C generator into a D.C generator, a
split ring commentator is used. This helps in producing direct current.
Electrical generator is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.

A.C and D.C Current

A.C – Alternate Current: Current in which direction is changed periodically is called Alternate
Current. In India, most of the power stations generate alternate current. The direction of current
changes after every 1/100 second in India, i.e., the frequency of A.C in India is 50 Hz. A.C is

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transmitted up to a long distance without much loss of energy is advantage of A.C over D.C.

D.C – Direct Current: Current that flows in one direction only is called Direct current.
Electrochemical cells produce direct current.
Advantages of A.C over D.C

 Cost of generator of A.C is much less than that of D.C.

 A.C can be easily converted to D.C.
 A.C can be controlled by the use of choke which involves less loss of power
whereas, D.C can be controlled using resistances which involves high energy loss.
 AC can be transmitted over long distances without much loss of energy.
 AC machines are stout and durable and do not need much maintenance.

Disadvantages of AC

 AC cannot be used for the electrolysis process or showing electromagnetism as it

reverses its polarity.
 AC is more dangerous than DC.

Domestic Electric Circuits: We receive electric supply through mains supported through the
poles or cables. In our houses, we receive AC electric power of 220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz.
The 3 wires are as follows

 Live wire – (Red insulated, Positive)

 Neutral wire – (Black insulated, Negative)
 Earth wire – (Green insulated) for safety measure to ensure that any leakage of
current to a metallic body does not give any serious shock to a user.

Short Circuit: Short-circuiting is caused by the touching of live wires and neutral wire and
sudden a large current flow.
It happens due to

 damage of insulation in power lines.

 a fault in an electrical appliance.

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Overloading of an Electric Circuit: The overheating of electrical wire in any circuit due to the
flow of a large current through it is called overloading of the electrical circuit.
A sudden large number of current flows through the wire, which causes overheating of wire and
may cause fire also.

Electric Fuse: It is a protective device used for protecting the circuit from short-circuiting and
overloading. It is a piece of thin wire of material having a low melting point and high resistance.

 Fuse is always connected to live wire.

 Fuse is always connected in series to the electric circuit.
 Fuse is always connected to the beginning of an electric circuit.
 Fuse works on the heating effect.
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1. State two properties of magnetic lines of force?
Ans. (i) Magnetic lines of force are closed continuous curves.
(ii)The tangent at any point on the magnetic line of force which gives the direction of magnetic field
at that point.
2. Why does a compass needle deflected when brought near a bar magnet?
Ans. Compass needle experience a force is the magnetic field of a bar magnet due to which it
deflects.

3. The magnetic field lines in a given region is uniform. Draw a diagram to represent.
Ans.

4. Write two ways to induce current in a coil?

Ans. (i) By moving a bar magnet toward or away from the coil.
(ii) By placing a coil near another coil connected across a battery.
5. Draw magnetic field lines around a bar magnet? Give one point of difference between uniform
and non- uniform magnetic field.

Ans. The space or region where field is same everywhere is known as Uniform magnetic field.
The magnetic field which is unequal in magnitude and direction at every point in the space is
called non- uniform magnetic field.
6. Why do not two magnetic field lines intersect each other?
Ans. The two magnetic field lines never intersect each other because at the point of intersection
there will be two directions of magnetic field, which is not possible.

126
7. Name and state rule used to determine the direction of magnetic field produced around a
straight conductor carrying current?
Ans. The rule is known as right hand thumb rule if a current carrying conductor is held in our
right hand such that thumb points in the direction of current, then the curled fingers of the hand
indicate the direction of magnetic field.

8. What is electric fuse? Where it is connected in a circuit?

Ans. An electric fuse is a safety device which is made up of a wire made of copper or aluminum
or a tin lead alloy. An electric fuse must be connected in the path of the circuit so that
overloading which can cause fire due to short circuit can be avoided.
9. State the factors on which strength of magnetic field at a point due to a current carrying
conductor depends?
Ans. The factors on which strength of a magnetic field at a point depends.
(1) Amount of current (I) flowing through the conductor
(2) Distance (r) from the current carrying conductor.

10. What is an electromagnet? Write two uses of an electromagnet?

Ans. When current is passed through a solenoid it behaves as a magnet and is called as an
electromagnet.
The two uses of an electromagnet are-
(1) They are used to lift heavy iron pieces.
(2) They are used in many devices like micro phone, radio sets, electric bell etc.
11. State and define S.I unit of magnetic field?
Ans. The S.I unit of magnetic field is Tesla (T). The magnetic field strength is said to be one
Tesla if 1meter long conductor carrying 1 ampere current experiences 1 Newton force, when
placed perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field.
12. A current carrying conductor is placed perpendicular to the uniform magnetic field. What
happens to displacement of the conductor if
(i) strength of current increases
(ii) If horse shoe magnet is replaced by a weak horse shoe magnet.
Ans. The displacement of the conductor
(i)will increase on increasing the current
(ii)Will decrease on using a weak horse shoe magnet.

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13. Draw magnetic field around a bar magnet.
Ans. Magnetic field lines are as follows:

14. Why don‘t two magnetic lines of force intersect each other?
Ans. No, two magnetic field lines can ever intersect each other. If they do, then it would mean
that at the point of intersection there are two directions of magnetic field, which is not possible.
15. Consider a circular loop of wire lying in the plane of the table. Let the current pass through
the loop clockwise. Apply the right-hand rule to find out the direction of the magnetic field
inside and outside the loop.
Ans. As per right-hand rule, we find that inside the loop, the magnetic field lines are directed
perpendicular to the plane of paper in the inward direction. Outside the loop magnetic field lines
are directed out of the plane paper.
16. The magnetic field in a given region is uniform. Draw a diagram to represent it.
Ans.The uniform magnetic field is represented by parallel equi-spaced lines of equal length as
follows:

17. What is the role of the split ring in an electric motor?

Ans. In electric motor, the split ring acts as commutator. Due to its action, the direction of
current flowing in motor coil reverses after half turn, giving rise to a continuous rotation of the
coil and the axle.
18. State the principle of an electric generator.
Ans. An electric generator is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When a
rectangular coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field, an induced emf is generated between the
ends of the coil.
19. Which sources produce alternating current?
Ans. A.C. generator and common inverter used in houses for emergency power supply produce
alternating current.
20. Name two safety measures commonly used in electric circuits and appliances.
Ans. Two safety measures are:
(a) use of earth wire and proper earthing.
(b) use of fuse.
21. State whether the following statements are true or false.
(a) An electric motor converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
(b) An electric generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
(c) The field at the centre of a long circular coil carrying current will be parallel straight line

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(d) A wire with green insulation is usually the live wire of an electric supply.
Ans. (a) False (b) True (c) True (d) False
22. When is the force experienced by a current-carrying conductor placed in magnetic field
largest?
Ans. The force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field is largest
when the conductor is placed with its length in a direction perpendicular to that of magnetic
field.
23. Name some devices in which electric motors are used.
Ans. Electric motors are used in all devices where we want to convert electrical energy into
Mechanical energy. In our houses, electric motors, coolers, mixer grinders, washing machines,
computers etc motor is used.
24.When does an electric short circuit occurs?
Ans. If either the insulation of wires used in an electric circuit is damaged or there is a fault in
the appliances, live wire and neutral wire may come in direct contact. As a result, the current in
the circuit abruptly rises and short circuiting occurs.
25. Why is the earth pin thicker and longer than the live and the neutral pins?
Ans. it is thicker so that it does not enter into the live or neutral sockets. It is made longer so that
it gets connected to the earth terminal earlier than the live and neutral pins. This ensures the
safety of the user.

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