Chapter 3

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.
K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 1
Software
Design
❖ More creative than analysis
❖ Problem solving activity
WHAT IS DESIGN
‘HOW’
Software design document (SDD)
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 2
Software
Design
Initial requirements
Gather data on user requirements
Analyze requirements data
Validate the design Obtain answers to

against the requirement
requirements questions
Conceive of a high level design
Refine & document the design
Completed design
Fig. 1 : Design framework
Software
Design
design
Satisfy
Customer Developers
(Implementers)
Software
Design
Conceptual Design and Technical Design
D
e
s How
What
i
Conceptual g Technical
design n design
e
r
s
A two part design System
Customer
process Builders
Fig. 2 : A two part design process
Software
Design
Conceptual design answers :
✓ Where will the data come from ?
✓ What will happen to data in the system?
✓ How will the system look to users?
✓ What choices will be offered to users?
✓ What is the timings of events?
✓ How will the reports & screens look like?
Software
Design
Technical design describes :
❖ Hardware configuration
❖ Software needs
❖ Communication interfaces
❖ I/O of the system
❖ Software architecture
❖ Network architecture
❖ Any other thing that translates the requirements in to a
solution to the customer’s problem.
Software
Design
The design needs to be
➢ Correct & complete
➢ Understandable
➢ At the right level
➢ Maintainable
Software
Design
Informal More
design Informal formal Finished
outline design design design
Fig. 3 : The transformation of an informal design to a

detailed design.
Software
Design
MODULARITY
There are many definitions of the term module. Range is from :
i. Fortran subroutine
ii. Ada package
iii. Procedures & functions of PASCAL & C
iv. C++ / Java classes
v. Java packages
vi. Work assignment for an individual programmer
Software
Design
All these definitions are correct. A modular

system consist of well defined manageable
units with well defined interfaces among
the units.
Software
Design
Properties :
i. Well defined subsystem
ii. Well defined purpose
iii. Can be separately compiled and stored in a
library.
iv. Module can use other modules
v. Module should be easier to use than to build
vi. Simpler from outside than from the inside.
Software
Design
Modularity is the single attribute of software that
allows a program to be intellectually manageable.
It enhances design clarity, which in turn
eases
implementation, debugging, testing,
documenting,and maintenance of software
product.
Software
Design
Fig. 4 : Modularity and software cost

Software
Design
Module Coupling
Coupling is the measureof the degree of
interdependence between modules.
(Uncoupled : no dependencies)
(a)
Software
Design
Loosely coupled: Highly coupled:

some dependencies many dependencies
(B) (C)
Fig. 5 : Module coupling
Software
Design
This can be achieved as:
❑ Controlling the number of parameters passed
amongst modules.
❑ Avoid passing undesired data to calling
module.
❑ Maintain parent / child relationship
between calling & called modules.
❑ Pass data, not the control information.
Software
Design
Consider the example of editing a student record in a
‘student information system’.
Edit student Edit student
record record
Student name,
Student Student Student
student ID,
record ID record
address,
EOF EOF
course
Retrieve Retrieve
student record student record
Poor design: Tight Coupling Good design: Loose Coupling
Fig. 6 : Example of coupling

Software
Design
Data coupling Best
Stamp coupling
Control coupling
External coupling
Common coupling
Content coupling Worst
Fig. 7 : The types of module coupling
Given two procedures A & B, we can identify number of

ways in which they can be coupled.
Software
Design
Data coupling
The dependencybetween module A and B is said
to be dataif their dependency is based on the fact they
coupled
communicate by only passing of Other than
communicating through data, data. the modules are
independent. two
Stamp coupling
Stamp coupling occurs between module A and B
when complete data structure is passed from one module to
another.
Software
Design
Control coupling
Module A and B are said to be control coupled if they
communicate by passing of control information. This is usually
accomplished by means of flags that are set by one module and
reacted upon by the dependent module.
Common coupling
With common coupling, module A and module B have shared
data. Global data areas are commonly found in programming
languages. Making a change to the common data means tracing
back to all the modules which access that data to evaluate the
effect of changes.
Software
Design
Fig. 8 : Example of common coupling

Software
Design
Content coupling
Content coupling occurs when module A changes data of
module B or when control is passed from one module to the
middle of another. In Fig. 9, module B branches into D, even
though D is supposed to be under the control of C.
Software
Design
Fig. 9 : Example of content coupling

Software
Design
Module Cohesion
Cohesionis a measure of thedegree to whichthe
elements of a module are functionally related.
Module
strength
Fig. 10 : Cohesion=Strength of relations within modules

Software
Design
Types of cohesion
➢ Functional cohesion
➢ Sequential cohesion
➢ Procedural cohesion
➢ Temporal cohesion
➢ Logical cohesion
➢ Coincident cohesion
Software
Design
Functional Cohesion Best (high)
Sequential Cohesion
Communicational Cohesion
Procedural Cohesion
Temporal Cohesion
Logical Cohesion
Coincidental Cohesion Worst (low)
Fig. 11 : Types of module cohesion

Software
Design
Functional Cohesion
➢ A and B are part of a single functional task. This is very good
reason for them to be contained in the same procedure.
Sequential Cohesion
➢ Module A outputs some data which forms the input to B. This is
the reason for them to be contained in the same procedure.
Software
Design
Procedural Cohesion
➢ Procedural occurs in modules whose
Cohesion although instructions different tasks yet have
accomplish
because there is a been combined
specific order in which the tasks
are to be completed.
Temporal Cohesion
➢ Module exhibits temporal cohesion when it contains tasks that
are related by the fact that all tasks must be executed in the
same time-span.
Software
Design
Logical Cohesion
➢ Logical cohesion occurs in modules that contain instructions
that appear to be related because they fall into the same logical
class of functions.
Coincidental Cohesion
➢ Coincidental cohesion exists in modules that contain
instructions that have little or no relationship to one another.
Software
Design
Relationship between Cohesion & Coupling
If the software is not properly modularized, a host of seemingly
trivial enhancement or changes will result into death of the project.
Therefore, a software engineer must design the modules with goal of
high cohesion and low coupling.
Fig. 12 : View of cohesion and coupling

Software
Design
STRATEGY OF DESIGN
A good system design strategy is to organize the program modules
in such a way that are easy to develop and latter to, change.
Structured design techniques help developers to deal with the size
and complexity of programs. Analysts create instructions for the
developers about how code should be written and how pieces of
code should fit together to form a program. It is important for two
reasons:
➢ First, even pre-existing code, if any, needs to be understood,
organized and pieced together.
➢ Second, it is still common for the project team to have to write
some code and produce original programs that support the
application logic of the system.
Software
Design
Bottom-Up Design
These modules are collected together in the form of a “library”.
Fig. 13 : Bottom-up tree structure

Software
Design
Top-Down Design
A top down design approach starts by identifying the major modules

of the system, decomposing them into their lower level modules and
iterating until the desired level of detail is achieved. This is stepwise
refinement; starting from an abstract design, in each step the design
is refined to a more concrete level, until we reach a level where no
more refinement is needed and the design can be implemented
directly.
Software
Design
Hybrid Design
For top-down approach to be effective, some bottom-up approach is
essential for the following reasons:
➢ To permit common sub modules.
➢ Near the bottom of the hierarchy, where the intuition is simpler,

and the need for bottom-up testing is greater, because there are
more number of modules at low levels than high levels.
➢ In the use of pre-written library modules, in particular, reuse of
modules.
Software
Design
FUNCTION ORIENTED DESIGN
Function Oriented design is an approach to software design where

the design is decomposed into a set of interacting units where each
unit has a clearly defined function. Thus, system is designed from
a functional viewpoint.
Software
Design
We continue the refinement of each module until we reach the statement
level of our programming language. At that point, we can describe the
structure of our program as a tree of refinement as in design top-down
structure as shown in fig. 14.
Fig. 14 : Top-down structure

Software
Design
If a program is created top-down, the modules become very specialized.
As one can easily see in top down design structure, each module is used
by at most one other module, its parent. For a module, however, we
must require that several other modules as in design reusable structure
as shown in fig. 15.
Fig. 15 : Design reusable structure

Software
Design
Design Notations
Design notations are largely meant to be used during the process
of design and are used to represent design or design decisions.
For a function oriented design, the design can be represented
graphically or mathematically by the following:
➢ Data flow diagrams
➢ Data Dictionaries
➢ Structure Charts
➢ Pseudocode
Software
Design
Structure Chart
It partition a system into block boxes. A black box means that
functionality is known to the user without the knowledge of internal
design.
Fig. 16 : Hierarchical format of a structure chart

Software
Design
Fig. 17 : Structure chart notations
Software
Design
A transaction centered structure describes a system that processes a
number of different types of transactions. It is illustrated in Fig.19.
Fig. 19 : Transaction-centered structure
Software
Design
In the above figure the MAIN module controls the system operation
its functions is to:
➢ invoke the INPUT module to read a transaction;
➢ determine the kind of transaction and select one of a number

of transaction modules to process that transaction, and
➢ output the results of the processingby calling OUTPUT
module.
Software
Design
➢ Purpose of an SDD
The SDD shows how the software system will be structured to
satisfy the requirements identified in the SRS. It is basically the
translation of requirements into a description of the software
structure, software components, interfaces, and data necessary for
the implementation phase. Hence, SDD becomes the blue print for
the implementation activity.
➢ Design Description Information Content

▪ Introduction
▪ Design entities
▪ Design entity attributes

Software
Design
Cont…
Software
Design
Table 1:
Organization of
SDD
Software
Design
Object Oriented Design
Object oriented design is the result of focusing attention not on the
function performed by the program, but instead on the data that are
to do manipulated by the program. Thus, it is orthogonal to function
oriented design.
Object Oriented Design begins with an examination of the real
world “things” that are part of the problem to be solved. These
things (which we will call objects) are characterized individually in
terms of their attributes and behavior.
Software
Design
➢ Basic Concepts
Object Oriented Design is not dependent on any specific
implementation language. Problems are modeled using
Objects have: objects.
▪ Behavior (they do things)
▪ State (which changes when they do things)
Software
Design
The various terms related to object design are:
i. Objects
The word “Object” is used very frequently and conveys different

meaning in different circumstances. Here, meaning is an entity able to
save a state (information) and which offers a number of operations
(behavior) to either examine or affect this state. An object is
characterized by number of operations and a state which remembers
the effect of these operations.
Software
Design
ii. Messages
Objects communicate by message passing. Messages consist of the
identity of the target object, the name of the requested operation and
any other operation needed to perform the function. Message are often
implemented as procedure or function calls.
iii. Abstraction
In object oriented design, complexity is managed using abstraction.
Abstraction is the elimination of the irrelevant and the amplification of
the essentials.
Software
Design
iv. Class
In any system, there shall be number of objects. Some of the objects
may have common characteristics and we can group the objects
according to these characteristics. This type of grouping is known as a
class. Hence, a class is a set of objects that share a common structure
and a common behavior.
We may define a class “car” and each object that represent a car
becomes an instance of this class. In this class “car”, Indica, Santro,
Maruti, Indigo are instances of this class as shown in fig. 20.
Classes are useful because they act as a blueprint for objects. If we

want a new square we may use the square class and simply fill in the
particular details (i.e. colour and position) fig. 21 shows how can we
represent the square class.
Software
Design
Fig.20: Indica, Santro, Maruti, Indigo are all instances of the class “car”
Software
Design
Fig. 21: The square class
Software
Design
v. Attributes
An attributes is a data value held by the objects in a class. The square
class has two attributes: a colour and array of points. Each attributes
has a value for each object instance. The attributes are shown as
second part of the class as shown in fig. 21.
vi. Operations
An operation is a function or transformation that may be applied to or
by objects in a class. In the square class, we have two operations: set
colour() and draw(). All objects in a class share the same operations.
An object “knows” its class, and hence the right implementation of the
operation. Operation are shown in the third part of the class as
indicated in fig. 21.
Software
Design
vii. Inheritance
Imagine that, as well as squares, we have triangle class. Fig. 22 shows
the class for a triangle.
Fig. 22: The triangle class
Software
Design
Now, comparing fig. 21 and 22, we can see that there is some
difference between triangle and squares classes.
For example, at a high level of abstraction, we might want to think of a
picture as made up of shapes and to draw the picture, we draw each
shape in turn. We want to eliminate the irrelevant details: we do not
care that one shape is a square and the other is a triangle as long as
both can draw themselves.
To do this, we consider the important parts out of these classes in to a
new class called Shape. Fig. 23 shows the results.
Software
Design
Fig. 23: Abstracting common features in a new class

This sort of abstraction is called inheritance. The low level classes
(known as subclasses or derived classes) inherit state and behavior
from this high level class (known as a super class or base class).
Software
Design
viii. Polymorphism
When we abstract just the interface of an operation and leave the
implementation to subclasses it is called a polymorphic operation and
process is called polymorphism.
ix. Encapsulation (Information Hiding)

Encapsulation is also commonly referred to as “Information Hiding”. It
consists of the separation of the external aspects of an object from the
internal implementation details of the object.
x. Hierarchy
Hierarchy involves organizing something according to some particular
order or rank. It is another mechanism for reducing the complexity of
software by being able to treat and express sub-types in a generic way.
Software
Design
Fig. 24: Hierarchy
Software
Design
➢ Steps to Analyze and Design Object Oriented System
There are various steps in the analysis anddesign of object

an oriented system and are given in fig. 25
Software
Design
Fig. 25: Steps for analysis & design of object

oriented system
Multiple Choice
Questions
Note: Choose most appropriate answer of the following questions:
5.1 The most desirable form of coupling is
(a) Control Coupling (b) Data Coupling
(c) Common Coupling (d) Content Coupling
2. The worst type of coupling is
(a) Content coupling (b) Common coupling
(c) External coupling (d) Data coupling
3. The most desirable form of cohesion is
(a) Logical cohesion (b) Procedural cohesion
(c) Functional cohesion (d) Temporal cohesion
4. The worst type of cohesion is
(a) Temporal cohesion (b) Coincidental cohesion
(c) Logical cohesion (d) Sequential cohesion
5. Which one is not a strategy for design?
(a) Bottom up design (b) Top down design
(c) Embedded design (d) Hybrid design
Multiple Choice
6. Questions
Temporal cohesion means
(a) Cohesion between temporary variables
(b) Cohesion between local variable
(c) Cohesion with respect to time
(d) Coincidental cohesion
7. Functional cohesion means
(a) Operations are part of single functional task and are placed in same procedures
(b) Operations are part of single functional task and are placed in multiple
procedures
(c) Operations are part of multiple tasks
(d)(a) External coupled
None of the above (b) Data coupled
(c) Content coupled (d) Common coupled
8. When two modules refer to the same global data area, they are related as
5.9 The module in which instructions are related through flow of control is
(a) Temporal cohesion (b) Logical cohesion
(c) Procedural cohesion (d) Functional cohesion
Multiple Choice
Questions
5.10The relationship of data elements in a module is called
(a) Coupling (b) Cohesion
(c) Modularity (d) None of the above
5.11 A system that does not interact with external environment is called
(a) Closed system (b) Logical system
(c) Open system (d) Hierarchal system
5.12 The extent to which different modules are dependent upon each other is called
(a) Coupling (b) Cohesion
(c) Modularity (d) Stability
Software Measurement: A measurement is an
manifestation of the size, quantity, amount or dimension
of a particular attributes of a product or process.
Software measurement is a titrate impute of a
characteristic of a software product or the software
process. It is an authority within software engineering.
Software measurement process is defined and governed
by ISO Standard.
Need of Software Measurement:

Software is measured to:
Create the quality of the current product or process.
Anticipate future qualities of the product or process.
Enhance the quality of a product or process.
Regulate the state of the project in relation to budget
and schedule.
Software
Metrics
Software Metrics: What and Why ?
1. How to measure the size of a software?
2. How much will it cost to develop a software?
3. How many bugs can we expect?
4. When can we stop testing?
5. When can we release the software?
Software
Metrics
6. What is the complexity of a module?
7. What is the module strength and coupling?
8. What is the reliability at the time of release?
9. Which test technique is more effective?
10. Are we testing hard or are we testing smart?
11. Do we have a strong program or a week test suite?
Software
Metrics
❖ Pressman explained as “A measure provides a quantitative
indication of the extent, amount, dimension, capacity, or size
of some attribute of the product or process”.
❖ Measurement is the act of determine a measure
❖ The metric is a quantitative measure of the degree to which
a system, component, or process possesses a
given
attribute.
❖ Fenton defined measurement as “ it is the process by which
numbers or symbols are assigned to attributes of entities in
the real world in such a way as to describe them according
to clearly defined rules”.
Software
Metrics
▪ Definition
Software metrics can be defined as “The continuous application of

measurement based techniques to the software development
process and its products to supply meaningful and timely
management information, together with the use of those techniques
to improve that process and its products”.
Software
Metrics
▪ Areas of Applications
The most established area of software metrics is cost and size
estimation techniques.
The prediction of quality levels for software, often in terms of

reliability, is another area where software metrics have an important
role to play.
The use of software metrics to provide quantitative checks on

software design is also a well established area.
Software
Metrics
▪ Categories of Metrics
i. Product metrics: describe the characteristics of the
product such as size, complexity, design features,
performance, efficiency, reliability, portability, etc.
ii. Process metrics: describe the effectiveness and
qualityof the processes that produce the software
product. Examples are:
• effort required in the process
• time to produce the product
• effectiveness of defect removal during development
• number of defects found during testing
• maturity of the process
Software
Metrics
ii. Project metrics: describe the project
characteristics and execution. Examples are :
• number of software developers
• staffing pattern over the life cycle of the software
• cost and schedule
• productivity
Software
Metrics
Token Count
The size of the vocabularyof a program, which consists
of the number of unique tokens used to build a program is
defined as:
η = η 1+ η 2
η : vocabulary of a program
where
η1 : number of unique operators
η2 : number of unique operands
Software
Metrics
The length of the program in the terms of the total number of tokens
used is
N = N1+N2
N : program length
where N1 : total occurrences of operators
N2 : total occurrences of operands
Object Oriented
TerminologiesMetrics
S.No Term Meaning/purpose
1 Object Object is an entity able to save a state (information)
and offers a number of operations (behavior) to
either examine or affect this state.
2 Message A request that an object makes of another object to
perform an operation.
3 Class A set of objects that share a common structure and
common behavior manifested by a set of methods;
the set serves as a template from which object can
be created.
4 Method an operation upon an object, defined as part of the
declaration of a class.
5 Attribute Defines the structural properties of a
class and unique within a class.
6 Operation An action performed by or on an object, available
to all instances of class, need not be unique.
Object Oriented
Metrics
Terminologies
S.No Term Meaning/purpose
7 Instantiation The process of creating an instance of the object
and binding or adding the specific data.
8 Inheritance A relationship among classes, where in an object
in a class acquires characteristics from one or
more other classes.
9 Cohesion The degree to which the methods within a class
are related to one another.
10 Coupling Object A is coupled to object B, if and only if A
sends a message to B.
Object Oriented
Metrics
Size Metrics:
• Number of Methods per Class (NOM)
• Number of Attributes per Class (NOA)
• Weighted Number Methods in a Class (WMC)

– Methods implemented within a class the sum of
or complexities of all methods the
Object Oriented
Metrics
Coupling Metrics:
• Response for a Class (RFC )
– Number of methods (internal and external) in a class.
• Data Abstraction Coupling(DAC)

- Number of Abstract Data Types in a class.
• Coupling between Objects (CBO)

– Number of other classes to which it is coupled.
Design Metrics
Metrics simply measures quantitative assessment that focuses on countable

values most commonly used for comparing and tracking performance of system.
Metrics are used in different scenarios like analyzing model, design model,
source code, testing, and maintenance. Metrics for design modeling allows
developers or software engineers to evaluate or estimate quality of design and
include various architecture and component-level designs.
In designing a product, it is very important to have efficient management of

complexity. Complexity itself means very difficult to understand. We know that
systems are generally complex as they have many interconnected components
that make it difficult to understand.
Three design complexity measures.
These are given below :

Structural Complexity
Data Complexity
System Complexity
Example:
Data Structure Metrics
Essentially the need for software development and other activities are to process data.
Some data is input to a system, program or module; some data may be used internally,
and some data is the output from a system, program, or module.
Program Data Input Internal Data Data Output
Payroll Name/Social Withholding rates Gross Pay

Security No./Pay Overtime Factors withholding Net Pay
rate/Number of Insurance Premium Pay Ledgers
hours worked Rates
Spreadsheet Item Names/Item Cell computations Spreadsheet of

Amounts/Relationsh Subtotal items and totals
ips among Items
Software Planner Program Size/No of Model Parameter Est. project effort

Software developer Constants Est. project
on team Coefficients duration
Data Structured Metrics.
A count of this data structure is called Data Structured

Metrics. In these concentrations is on variables (and
given constant) within each module & ignores the
input-output dependencies.
The Amount of Data.

The Usage of data within a Module.
Program weakness.
The sharing of Data among Modules.
Halstead’s Software
Metrics
A computer program is an implementation of an algorithm
considered to be a collection of tokens which can be classified
as either operators or operands. Halstead’s metrics are included
in a number of current commercial tools that count software
lines of code. By counting the tokens and determining which are
operators and which are operands, the following base measures
can be collected :
n1 = Number of distinct operators.
n2 = Number of distinct operands.
N1 = Total number of occurrences of operators.
N2 = Total number of occurrences of operands.
In addition to the above, Halstead defines the following :
n1* = Number of potential operators.
n2* = Number of potential operands.
Halstead refers to n1* and n2* as the minimum possible number of operators and
operands for a module and a program respectively.
This minimum number would be embodied in the programming language itself, in

which the required operation would already exist
(for example, in C language, any program must contain at least the definition of the
function main()), possibly as a function or as a procedure: n1* = 2, since at least 2
operators must appear for any function or procedure : 1 for the name of the
function and 1 to serve as an assignment or grouping symbol, and n2* represents
the number of parameters, without repetition, which would need to be passed on
to the function or the procedure.

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Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.

❖ Problem solving activity

Software design document (SDD)

Gather data on user requirements

Analyze requirements data

Validate the design Obtain answers to

Conceive of a high level design

Refine & document the design

Fig. 3 : The transformation of an informal design to a

All these definitions are correct. A modular

Fig. 4 : Modularity and software cost

Loosely coupled: Highly coupled:

Fig. 6 : Example of coupling

Given two procedures A & B, we can identify number of

Fig. 8 : Example of common coupling

Fig. 9 : Example of content coupling

Fig. 10 : Cohesion=Strength of relations within modules

Coincidental Cohesion Worst (low)

Fig. 11 : Types of module cohesion

Fig. 12 : View of cohesion and coupling

Fig. 13 : Bottom-up tree structure

A top down design approach starts by identifying the major modules

➢ To permit common sub modules.

➢ Near the bottom of the hierarchy, where the intuition is simpler,

Function Oriented design is an approach to software design where

Fig. 14 : Top-down structure

Fig. 15 : Design reusable structure

➢ Data flow diagrams

Fig. 16 : Hierarchical format of a structure chart

Fig. 17 : Structure chart notations

Fig. 19 : Transaction-centered structure

➢ invoke the INPUT module to read a transaction;

➢ determine the kind of transaction and select one of a number

➢ Design Description Information Content

▪ Design entity attributes

▪ Behavior (they do things)

▪ State (which changes when they do things)

The word “Object” is used very frequently and conveys different

Classes are useful because they act as a blueprint for objects. If we

Fig. 21: The square class

Fig. 22: The triangle class

Fig. 23: Abstracting common features in a new class

ix. Encapsulation (Information Hiding)

Fig. 24: Hierarchy

There are various steps in the analysis anddesign of object

Fig. 25: Steps for analysis & design of object

Need of Software Measurement:

1. How to measure the size of a software?

2. How much will it cost to develop a software?

3. How many bugs can we expect?

4. When can we stop testing?

5. When can we release the software?

7. What is the module strength and coupling?

8. What is the reliability at the time of release?

9. Which test technique is more effective?

10. Are we testing hard or are we testing smart?

11. Do we have a strong program or a week test suite?

Software metrics can be defined as “The continuous application of

The prediction of quality levels for software, often in terms of