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GUEST EDITORIAL Mapping talent

development
Mapping talent development:
definition, scope and architecture
5
Thomas N. Garavan, Ronan Carbery and Andrew Rock
Department of Personnel and Employment Relations, Kemmy Business School, Received 14 May 2011
University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland Revised 15 August 2011
Accepted 16 September
2011

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the concept of talent development, define its scope
and identify the issues involved in formulating talent development strategies in organisations.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper reviews the relatively scant and fragmented
literature on talent development processes.
Findings – The literature review revealed that talent development is usually discussed as part of a
wider talent management process. The literature highlights issues concerning who is the talent to be
developed, what competencies should be developed, who drives development, what is the appropriate
pace of development and what is the architecture to support the development.
Research limitations/implications – The paper is solely theoretical in nature; however, it does
identify gaps for further research.
Practice implications – The paper raises a number of important questions that should be
considered by organisations when they engage in talent development.
Originality/value – The paper contributes to a perceived gap in the literature and highlights the
issues that come within the terrain of talent development.
Keywords Human resource management, Employee development, Talent development,
Talent management, Talent development architecture
Paper type Literature review

Introduction
Talent management is increasingly discussed in the HRM and HRD literature (Stahl
et al., 2007; Collings et al., 2011). It is a set of practices that are implemented in
organisations (CIPD, 2011; McDonnell et al., 2010), and refers to how organisations
attract, select, develop and manage employees in an integrated and strategic way
(Scullion and Collings, 2011). Talent development represents an important component
of the overall talent management process (Novations, 2009, Cappelli, 2009). While it is
possible for organisations to pursue a strategy that focuses on talent acquisition from
the external labour market, such a strategy is unlikely to be successful in the long term.
It is well established that there are significant advantages to be gained from an internal
development approach and that organisations need to acquire and develop industry –
and firm-specific knowledge and skills (Lepak and Snell, 1999) in order to be European Journal of Training and
competitive. As a consequence, organisations are likely to make significant Development
Vol. 36 No. 1, 2012
investments in talent development activities, so that talented employees possess the pp. 5-24
competencies to successfully implement business strategy. Talent development q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
2046-9012
activities are typically undertaken by organisations to ensure that there are zero talent DOI 10.1108/03090591211192601
EJTD outages, to ensure planned succession rather than replacement, and to enhance the
36,1 organisations’ reputation as a talent magnet (Gandz, 2006).
There are relatively few academic papers that focus primarily on talent
development. It is with this intention that this special issue was proposed. We
sought to ensure that the parameters of the special issue were sufficiently broad to
encourage a diversity of submissions. The majority of papers submitted discussed
6 talent development from a European perspective and focused on a particular talent
development initiative or dimension of the talent management architecture. It is our
hope that through the empirical insights gained from the various papers, we will shed
some light on the issues involved in talent development and the challenges encountered
in implementing talent development in organisations.
In this paper we set the scene for the special issue by considering the scope of talent
development within a wider talent management strategy, the issues to be addressed
and the implications of those issues for talent development policy and practice. We also
provide a summary overview of the individual contributions in this special issue.

Defining the scope of talent development

There is surprisingly little published research on global talent development issues and
literature that defines the scope and sets the boundaries of the concept (Cohn et al.,
2005; Younger and Cleemann, 2010; Garavan et al., 2009; Cook, 2010). However, it is
acknowledged that talent development represents an important component of global
talent management (Scullion and Collings, 2011; Barlow, 2006; CIPD, 2011). We suggest
that in order to understand the scope of talent development, the following questions
should be posed: What is talent for the purposes of development? Does talent
development focus on technical or generic competencies or both? What are the learning
needs that are the primary focus of talent development, organisational or individual or
some combination? Does talent development occur in an accelerated or normal way?
What are the pathways, programmes and processes that contribute the architecture of
talent development? Answers to these questions should help to bring some coherence
to the scope of the concept.
For the purpose of this paper we define talent development as follows:
Talent development focuses on the planning, selection and implementation of development
strategies for the entire talent pool to ensure that the organisation has both the current and
future supply of talent to meet strategic objectives and that development activities are aligned
with organisational talent management processes.
Our knowledge base concerning talent development is currently weak. However, the
existing evidence suggests that organisations are designing talent development
processes unique to their organisations. However, it is also clear that many definitions
or descriptions of talent development focus on exclusive models and emphasise
emphasises leadership talent development. We examine a number of questions posed
in this section in the remainder of this paper.

Defining talent for development purposes

A reading of the talent management literature suggests that, at an individual level,
talent is something exemplary that certain people possess. Gladwell (2010) proposed
that “talent is equal to ten years or 10,000 hours invested in a specific field”. However,
when one considers organisational level definitions, a narrower view of talent emerges. Mapping talent
Michaels et al. (2001) argues that, in the context of management positions, talent is development
conceptualised as:
A code for the most effective leaders and managers at all levels, who can help a company
fulfil its aspirations and drive its performance. Managerial talent is some combination of a
sharp strategic mind, leadership ability, emotional maturity, communications skills, the
ability to attract and inspire other talented people, entrepreneurial instincts, fundamental 7
skills and the ability to deliver results (Michaels et al., 2001, p. 111).
A similar notion is proposed by Ready et al. (2010). They articulate the characteristics
of high potentials as follows: they consistently deliver strong results credibly; they
master new types of expertise quickly; and they recognise that behaviour counts. They
also suggest that high potential talent is hardwired with the drive to achieve
excellence, a relentless focus on learning, an enterprising spirit, and a capacity to make
careful assessments of risk. Therefore, “talent” can be viewed as referring to a limited
pool of organisational members who possess unique managerial and leadership
competencies. Iles et al. (2010) have highlighted the lack of consensus concerning what
talent may fall within the scope of a talent development process. They emphasise four
possible scenarios: an inclusive approach that focuses on developing each potential
employee; an inclusive approach that emphasises the development of social capital
more generally in the organisation; an exclusive approach that focuses on developing
specific elite individuals or an exclusive approach that focuses on key positions, roles
and develops talent to fulfil these roles.
The empirical evidence suggests a mixture of approaches in organisations. A CIPD
(2011) study found that many organisations have adopted an exclusive approach that
focuses on developing senior managers. There is a lot of focus on high potentials,
future stars, future leaders and high-fliers. However, while the McKinsey Consulting
Group initially advocated an exclusive approach to talent development, they now
advocate a more inclusive approach that targets development for not just “A players”
but also “B players” (Ernst & Young, 2010). However, relatively few organisations
adopt inclusive approaches. A study reported in Public Personnel Management (Reilly,
2008) suggested that inclusive approaches to talent development are more likely to be
found in public sector organisations. Bersin (2010) calls this inclusive approach a form
of talent segmentation but with recognition that all groups of employees have a
contribution to make to the organisation. Such an approach is consistent with an
innovation perspective on talent (Christensen et al., 2010). This suggests that all
employees should be regarded as great talent given their potential to generate creative
ideas. Van der Sluis and van de Bunt-Kokhuis (2009) advocates a hybrid approach
because it enables organisations to reap the advantages of both approaches. Ford et al.
(2010) also suggest that a hybrid approach to talent development may be more
appropriate in terms of fairness and employee motivation.

Talent development: technical or generic competencies or both?

Whether talent development processes should focus on the development of technical or
generic competencies or both represents a significant debating point within the
literature. Traditionally authors posited that the overriding factors leading to effective
performance included technical credibility and the ability to use systems and processes
to meet performance standards. Managers in the initial stages of their careers often
EJTD place more focus on technical competencies while giving generic competencies less
36,1 credence. As a consequence, they frequently fell short on the performance expectations
required of the role. Traditional talent development processes such as training are
extremely effective at imparting technical competencies. They can in many cases be
developed in isolation from the workplace (Lahti, 1999; Hirsh, 2009)
However, it is increasingly emphasised that high potential talent must be proficient
8 in working in diverse work contexts (Dierdorff and Morgeson, 2007), and are
inextricably linked to features or characteristic of context. As a consequence, there is
an increased focus on generic competencies. The shift to generic competencies is
something that has occurred in the past 10-15 years. The term “generic competencies”
emphasises a range of qualities and capabilities that are important in the workplace.
These include skills such as problem solving and analytical skills, communication
skills, teamwork competencies and skills to identify access and manage knowledge.
Generic competencies also include personal attributes such as imagination, creativity
and intellectual rigour and personal values such as persistence, integrity and tolerance
(Garavan et al., 2009; Sandberg, 2000).
Generic competencies are considered to be important for potential and career
advancement; however, it is clear that such generic competencies are also highly
contextual (Dierdorff et al., 2009). Context consists of task, social and physical
dimensions. Task context emphasises informational and structural features of the role,
ambiguity, uncertainty levels of accountability and autonomy (Johns, 2006). Social
context dimensions focus on aspects of the role that are interpersonal in nature such as
interpersonal conflict, the degree of interdependence and density of human interaction.
Physical context focuses on issues such as the working conditions like degree of risk,
hazard, noise etc, which influences work performance and behaviour. Unlike technical
competence, generic competencies provide more significant development challenges.
They tend to be holistic, to overlap, and interweave (Capaldo et al., 2006), and they are
intrinsically related to the kind of person that one is. They are clearly related to issues
such as self-confidence and self-esteem of the learner.
It is therefore clear that the new workplace places emphasis on skills that go beyond
the technical and include a full spectrum of soft skills. Talented employees are
expected to display these generic competencies in combinations that meet the demands
of a unique and continually changing work environment (Garazonik et al., 2006). It
suggests that on-going talent development processes need to be flexible, adaptable, and
capable of scalability and in tune with the evolving context. As a consequence, talent
development must increasingly be work-based in order to develop capabilities to cope
with the temporality or dynamism of work context.

Whose talent development needs and whose responsibility?

Organisational restructuring, globalisation and competition highlight the need for both
organisations and individuals to be focused on investment in learning (Garofano and
Salas, 2005). Organisational talent development processes almost invariably focus on
organisational needs. Pruis (2011) states that talent development does not represent a
“pro-bono” investment on the part of organisations. It is an investment in
organisational needs. Organisational driven talent development focuses on a
multiplicity of organisational needs such as succession planning (Lawler, 2008), the
achievement of business strategy (Scullion and Collings, 2011), the enhancement of
leadership bench-strength (Bryan and Joyce, 2007) and the development of star Mapping talent
employees ( Jones, 2008; Groysberg et al., 2010). CIPD (2009) recommended that during development
these difficult times, it is important for organisations to focus on developing employee
capabilities and skills so that it will stand the organisation in good stead when the
upturn happens. They should also focus on the development of employees that occupy
pivotal roles to meet current and future development challenges. Garavan (2012) found
that executives in science-based organisations almost exclusively justified investment 9
in talent development in terms of potential to capitalise on business opportunities and
facilitate global expansion into emerging markets. The resource-based view provides
an explanation of why investment in talent development is a potential source of
competitive advantage when it results in valuable, rare, inimitable and
non-substitutional human resources. The resource-based view is particularly useful
in the talent development context because of its focus on content issues (Eisenhardt
and Martin, 2000).
It is increasingly recognised that employees are responsible for managing their own
development to prepare themselves for future career and job changes (Simmering et al.,
2003). A review of the literature reveals that developmental behaviours by individuals
can result in a multiplicity of outcomes related to performance, rewards and career
(Benson, 2006; McCauley and Hezlett, 2001; Kang et al., 2007). The talent development
literature is less explicit in how it addresses individual needs. It is clear that much of
the literature is highly managerialist in nature and primarily focuses on attributes of
individuals in the context of how they fit organisational requirements (Haskins and
Shaffer, 2010; Farndale et al., 2010). It essentially comes down to a requirement that
organisations develop the “right talents in the right people, at the right time, in the
right way, to ensure their talent pipeline has an abundant supply of management
talents” (Wang-Cowham, 2011, p. 392).
The emergence of the new career has highlighted the need for employees to be
concerned with career management and employability (Rasdi et al., 2011). Such a focus
on career is argued to be the function of both individual agency and context. This does
not, however, suggest that organisations do not have responsibilities in this respect.
The role of the organisation tends to be diminished in the context of individual career
management and employability (Scholarios et al., 2008). It is clear that new notions of
careers depend on employees’ continuous learning and demonstrated adaptability to
new job demands (Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden, 2006). It is also likely that
organisationally provided talent development activities will enhance self-management
and proactivity (De Vos et al., 2009).

Accelerated or traditionally-paced talent development

Advocates of an integrated talent management approach emphasise the need to speed
up the development of talent in order to respond to current and anticipated business
pressures (Abell, 2005; Backus et al., 2010; Korotov, 2007). Whereas a traditional
approach emphasises a focus on blending classroom development, e-learning and
on-the-job development enhance the competencies of talent to perform effectively and
enhance their potential. Conger (2010) is a particularly strong supporter of the blended
approach. He highlights four components of formal development: individual skill
development, socialising development interventions, action and strategic learning
initiatives. However, traditional talent development approaches are frequently passive
EJTD rather than active, they tend to be slow, they emphasise natural experiential learning,
36,1 and the blend of development strategies needs to be carefully managed to engage the
employee in a genuine experiential development process (Tansley et al., 2006).
Traditional learning timeframes are typically five to seven years (Williams-Lee, 2008).
Accelerated talent development programmes focus on ensuring that talent is
competent to perform, and there is a strong emphasis on accelerating the learning
10 curve. Such programmes are premised on a highly motivated learner; ongoing
intensive training, extensive use of simulation tools, structured projects and
experiences to drive learning and self-managed development processes. Critical
objectives that drive accelerated development include the enhancement of knowledge
and skills (Lombardo and Eichinger, 2000); identify development (Ibarra, 2003); the
development of new networks (Wang-Cowham, 2011) and the development of new
stories about self (Ibarra and Lineback, 2005). Accelerated development time frames
are considerably shorter typically between one to three years. It is assumed that high
potential individuals will be sufficiently developed to assume higher or broader roles
(Silzer and Church, 2010). There are significant gaps in our knowledge concerning the
value of accelerated development models and whether they are more effective than
more traditional approaches.

The architecture of talent development

Gandz (2006) suggests the notion of a talent development pipeline architecture. This
architecture consists of a clear statement of talent development needs, developmental
pathways, effective HR systems to support identification, assessment and development
of talent and a blend of developmental strategies. The notion of an architecture is
central to the arguments made by Lepak and Snell (1999) who suggested different
approaches according to the different contributions employees make to the business.
Therefore, the talent development architecture is not a one size fits all approach but
should be differentiated.
It is argued that it is necessary to understand the processes that support talent
development in order to understand its contribution to achieving competitive
advantage (Festing and Eidems, 2011). Consistent with the dynamic capabilities
perspective, it is important to consider how those responsible for managing talent
development manage the architecture. In particular, it focuses on issues of stakeholder
engagement, communication activities and decisions concerning the target groups for
talent development activities and the extent of standardisation of talent development
processes and systems across the organisation (Kim, 2003; Lewis and Heckman, 2006).

Articulation of talent needs

Many MNCs utilise competency maps to guide competence development and provide a
common language around which to discuss talent development needs (Isrealite, 2010).
These maps or frameworks are typically standardised across all units of the
organisation and are used to identify individual and business unit development needs.
There is a set of mixed views concerning the use of competency models especially in
the context of identifying and developing high potentials (Hollenbeck et al., 2006).
However, they are very popular in many organisations. Competency models typically
articulate behavioural standards that frequently look to the past rather than the future
(Tornow and Tornow, 2001).
 Many organisations make use of systematic, formal talent review processes, which Mapping talent
focus on assessing future development potential. These processes typically focus on development
the identification of high potentials and their unique development needs. Many of those
processes tend to be complex and the main aim is to strategically align talent with
critical organisational capabilities. Mäkelä et al. (2010) suggest that talent review
processes usually involve senior management in identifying development needs.
McDonnell (2011) suggests that such processes may lead to cloning and there may be 11
too much of a focus on the current rather than the future. He also highlights the issue of
organisational politics. Senior management may characterise particular high potential
candidates in overly positive terms. There may be a lack of candour concerning other
people’s strengths and development needs and information about the best performers
and those with most potential may be suppressed in an effort to protect particular
individuals who they do wish to choose (Mellahi and Collings, 2010). There are also
definitional problems particularly with what constitutes potential. Silzer and Church
(2010) highlight that the term high potential is over used and it is not always clear what
people mean when they use the term in organisational discourse.

Creating developmental pathways

Developmental pathways are defined as “experiences, exposures and challenges” (Gandz,
2006, p. 2) that talent must work through in order to emerge as the talent of the future.
There exists a major gap in the literature concerning these pathways and how they are
designed for different categories of talent. Experiences are however highlighted as central
to the design of talent development pathways (Carpenter et al., 2000). They can lead to
significant career advancement and confer strategic advantage on the organisation.
Ruddy and Anand (2010), for example, cite an interview with Erin Lap from Hay
Associates in which she emphasised four key strengths of a series of experiences in the
context of talent development: the development of an enhanced understanding of complex
business issues and a broader perspective; enhanced organisational and cultural
awareness, enhanced respect for differences and a greater sense of curiosity and the
opportunity to build relationships and enhance networking skills.
The concept of exposure is also highlighted as an important dimension of
development. Exposures in this context mean opportunities to work in different contexts
and situations. These may be achieved through job rotation, secondments, project and
international assignments (Evans et al., 2011). These exposures provide talent with
opportunities to experience different organisational, cultural, cross-cultural and work
practice situations. Exposures help to develop technical expertise, judgement and
decision making, drive for results, strategic thinking and business acumen (Yost and
Mannion-Plunkett, 2010).
Developmental challenges or hardship challenges are an important component of
the talent development process. These may include challenges such as business
turnaround, a business start-up, downsizing or business closure. These challenges
allow employees to address blind spots, learn from mistakes and failures, deal with
stressful situations and recognise personal limitations (Garavan et al., 2009).

Effective HR systems to support identification, assessment and development of talent

The components of an effective HR system to support talent development are well
documented in the literature. It includes human resource planning, effective selection of
EJTD talent, performance management, career management processes and succession
36,1 planning (Dickmann et al., 2011; McDonnell and Collings, 2011). McDonnell and
Collings (2011) advocate a contingency approach to the design of HR systems to support
talent development. These systems should be based on business strategy imperatives
and objectives. They also highlight the importance of cultural fit and the involvement of
stakeholders in the full spectrum of talent management processes. Avedon and Scholes
12 (2010) suggests four levels of talent integration. They point out that in the initial stages
the HR system will consist of separate programmes and a strong emphasis on tools. At
level two, there will be evidence of a more systematic approach emphasising integrated
and aligned processes and programmes. At level three, the organisations business
strategy will drive HR system integration and alignment. At level four, there exists a
talent management mindset within the organisation.
Kaye (2002) conceptualise talent development as a three way process. The
individual, the manager, and the organisation have particular accountabilities for
talent development. The organisation provides resources, tools, values and culture.
Managers play a role in assessing needs, clarify and discuss goals, support
development, provide feedback and monitor development. Employees set career goals,
seek development opportunities and implement development action plans.

Programmes to enable talent development

The types of programmes that organisations utilise to develop talent fall into four
categories:
(1) formal programmes;
(2) relationship based developmental experiences;
(3) job-based developmental experiences; and
(4) informal/non-formal developmental activities (Conger, 2010; McCall et al., 1988;
Byham et al., 2002; Garavan et al., 2009).

Some commentators have suggested a 70:20:10 strategy whereby 70 per cent of talent
development takes place through work activities; 20 per cent through relationships and
10 per cent through formal development activities (Wilson et al., 2011). It is an
extremely popular framework; however, it is rarely implemented in a systematic way.
The model is largely too high-level and does not offer much in terms of detailed
guidance nor does it specify the lessons learned from each experience. Wilde (2010)
argues that this model overstates the role of experience in talent development and it
underestimates the value of learning from others. Day (2010) has also highlighted the
difficulties involved in learning from experience and other researchers have
highlighted the tendency to fall back on the 10 per cent component, which then
becomes the 70 per cent (Wilson and Van Velsor, 2011; Wilson and Yip, 2010).
Therefore, in reality the reverse is the case with the majority of talent development
activities concentrated in the 10 per cent category.
Formal talent development programmes. Formal talent development programmes
cover a broad spectrum of strategies including conceptual and skill-based development
programmes, personal growth development programmes, feedback-based development
interventions and action focused development interventions (Conger, 2010). The majority
of formal programmes are designed to enhance generic skills and behaviours. These
types of programmes are typically targeted towards middle and senior managers and Mapping talent
technical/professional talent categories. Action learning interventions are typically development
directed at management talent groups and are designed to enhance generic competencies
such as teamwork, problem solving and strategic awareness. The research on this group
of development strategies is mixed and it fails to establish whether it enhances talent
effectiveness and potential (Baruch, 2006; Ready and Conger, 2007).
Relationship-based talent development interventions. Relationships are increasingly 13
considered central to the talent development process (McCauley and Douglas, 2004; Rock
and Garavan, 2006). The relationships considered most significant include peers, senior
leaders, customers and suppliers. They are considered important to the talent
development context because they have helped talented employees see new perspectives
and understand bigger picture issues (Balkundi and Kilduff, 2006). Developmental
relationships are conceptualised by Higgins and Kram (2001) as relationships where an
individual takes an active interest and action to advance the career of another individual.
They provide a variety of developmental functions such as sponsorship, coaching,
mentoring, psycho-social support and career advice (Friday et al., 2004). Developmental
relationships are increasingly used to develop high potential talent (CIPD, 2011;
Novations, 2009). Developmental relationship strategies present a number of significant
challenges for organisations: finding the appropriate number of individuals who can
perform roles as coaches and mentors, specific gender issues when matching mentors
and mentees. Higgins et al. (2010) has highlighted the role of optimism may be important
in explaining both the structure and quality of an individuals’ developmental network.
Lombardozzi and Casey (2008) found that the processes in developmental relationships
involved an iterative interplay between specific designer-led learning activities,
learner-led activities interaction with others and learner action and cognition processing.
They represent an important and effective talent development strategy because
development takes place in context and learning is embedded in the learners’ work.
Using the job as the basis for development. The job represents a primary source of
development and various aspects of the job are highlighted. Wilson et al. (2011) suggest
that the job provides five significant developmental opportunities: bosses and
superiors, turnaround situations, increases in job scope, horizontal job moves and new
initiatives such as doing a stretch task, implementing change and developing new
practice. These job-based experiences need to meet a number of design requirements to
be effective (Ohlott, 2004: Lombardo and Eichinger, 1989). Job tasks need to have high
instability and the potential to be successful; they should involve some form of
cross-functional influence; take learners outside of their comfort zones, have a major
strategic component and involve dealing with different bosses.
Job experiences are frequently taken for granted as talent development strategies
(Van Velsor and Guthrie, 1998; Garavan et al., 2009). They are often viewed as
opportunities to get work done and the mindset of key managers may be
anti-development. They require significant levels of self-confidence on the part of the
learner and the climate and culture of the organisation may not be conducive to the
recognition of job activities as development opportunities.
Informal and non-formal talent development opportunities. The majority of the talent
development literature emphasises formal development strategies; however, Raelin
(1998) suggests that it is important to challenge conventional thinking. The contingent
nature of work in organisations suggests that talent development strategies should also
EJTD focus on the informal and non-formal (Marsick and Watkins, 2001). Marsick and
36,1 Watkins (2001) make a number of important distinctions between informal, incidental
and implied development. Informal development is unplanned, ad-hoc with no specified
outcomes. It is predominantly experiential. Incidental development is unintentional, a
bi-product of another activity. They see it as a sub-category of informal learning. Implicit
development consists of learning that occurs independent of conscious attempts to learn.
14 Eraut (2004) suggests that it is development that occurs without awareness or explicit
knowledge. Sadler-Smith (2006) suggests that implicit development is broadly equivalent
to incidental learning. Non-formal learning is structured in terms of learning outcomes
and it is considered intentional development (Colley et al., 2002). Billett (2001) suggests
that there is no such thing as informal learning because whatever people do will result in
learning. With the increasing emphasis on a social capital perspective and collective
learning processes, informal talent development processes will become more used and
researched (Wang-Cowham, 2011; Wenger et al., 2002).

Some tentative conclusions and avenues for research

Based on this review of the terrain of talent development it is possible to draw a
number of tentative conclusions. Talent development is a significantly
under-developed and under-researched concept. It is almost invariably highlighted
as a key component of talent management, which in turn is put forward as one of the
most significant challenges facing organisations today. There is also a degree of
scepticism as to whether talent development differs from learning and development or
whether it represents a significant paradigm shift in terms of how learning and
development is conceptualised and practiced in organisations. It is our view that there
is scope in the talent development concept. It raises a number of important questions
concerning who should be developed, to what degree and in what way. These represent
fundamental questions that we have considered in this paper and to which we have in
some cases provided the most tentative of conclusions. However, our review does point
to a number of conclusions and useful avenues for future research.

An exclusive focus on strategic talent

There is a particularly strong focus in current writings on talent management to
consider the development of strategic or pivotal talent as a key concern of talent
development. Talent development strategies can be considered a key dimension of a
bundle of high performance work practices that are associated with superior
organisational performance. The key issue in this context concerns the way talent
development processes are implemented and how they are communicated in
organisations. It is not just their presence that is of significance. There is a clear
requirement for talent development processes to be integrated with business strategies.
There is considerable debate concerning the merits and demerits of exclusive and
inclusive approaches to talent development; however, there is significant scope to more
fully understand how these two generic approaches influence business performance
and the engagement of employees who are not included in an exclusive approach.

A shift towards customisation and personalisation

The notion of a one-size fits all approach in terms of talent development is considered
to be ineffective. There is an increased emphasis on customising talent development
strategies to meet the needs of individuals. These talent development strategies will Mapping talent
need to take account of individual needs, learning styles and current work priorities. development
Talent development processes therefore need to be less prescriptive and far more about
the needs of individual talent. Such a strategy represents a major investment for
organisations. It places a significant reliance on effective talent assessment processes
and the utilisation of the information generated to select best-fit talent development
strategies. Personalisation and customisation bring to the fore the value of individual 15
development planning processes and the design of development pathways suited to
current and future needs of individual learners. There is a paucity of research on how
these customised and personalised strategies work and the types of talent development
architecture required to support them.

A shift from organisationally managed to self-managed development

Increasingly the onus is shifting to the individual to plan and implement
development activities. The locus of decision-making has shifted towards the
individual learner making informed choices concerning development. Self-directed
talent development activities highlight the need for learner insight and
self-awareness, self-confidence and persistence. It also raises questions concerning
the developmental stability of individuals. There are significant challenges for
organisations to develop technologies to support self directed development. There
are also challenges involved in linking self-development activities to organisational
goals. Self-directed learning concepts highlight the value of community of practice
approaches to talent development, and the notion that development is organised
through the practices by which employees’ structure conversations. Indeed, there is
a major gap in our understanding of individual characteristics that facilitate
self-directed learning, the nature of self-development behaviour and the influence of
group and organisational factors that facilitate self-development in the context of
talent development.

Continuous, just-in-time, blended talent development processes

There will be a continuous demand for talent development processes with the result
that such processes will need to be flexible and to move away from the classroom.
Talent development must also be delivered just-in-time. This has led to talent
development processes that focus on delivering learning in bite-size chunks. It means
instant access to development. This imperative has resulted in an increasing emphasis
on the use of online resources and signposting to learners the most appropriate
learning strategy given the amount of time they have available to learn. Blended
learning that combines the formal with the informal represents a key challenge for
organisations. However, it is clear that while some organisations say they utilise a
70:20:10 approach, in reality there still exists a strong focus on the classroom.
Increasingly the lines between work and non-work have become blurred resulting in a
24/7 philosophy on access to talent development resources. Technology is increasingly
used as a means to provide this access; however, there is much to be learned
concerning the effectiveness of on-line development strategies.
Table I summarises some of the issues that merit consideration in the context of
talent development in organisations.
EJTD
Dimension Key questions
36,1
Defining talent for talent What drives an organisation to nominate particular employees as
development talented?
Does the organisation encourage narrow or broad inclusion?
Is talent natural or developed?
16 Does the organisation believe in satisfying or maximising talent?
Focus on technical or generic Should the talent development process focus on generic or technical
competencies or both competencies, or both?
When should the organisation focus on both sets of competencies?
How should both sets of competencies be developed?
Which competencies are more important for performance, potential
and career advancement?
Whose talent development What needs take priority in the talent development process
needs and whose (organisational or individual)?
responsibility What is the proportion of organisationally driven versus self-directed
development activities?
Accelerated or traditionally What are the demands of the business strategy in respect of
paced development development?
What is the time frame required to develop talent and particularly,
high potential talent?
How should development strategies be combined in both traditional
and accelerated models?
The architecture of talent What are the talent development needs of the organisation?
development What are the key objectives of talent development process?
How appropriate are competency models?
What sequence of experiences, exposures and challenges are
appropriate for different categories of talent?
How are talent development processes linked to talent selection,
assessment and retention processes?
What is the appropriate blend of talent development programmes to
achieve talent development objectives?
Table I. How customised or personalised are talent development strategies?
Key dimensions of talent Does the talent development architecture provide on time access and
development facilitate self-directed learning?

The contributions to the special issue

The first paper in this collection is “Employability and talent management: challenges
for HRM practices” by Staffan Nilsson and Per-Erik Ellström. The key objective of this
paper is to explore the link between talent development and enhanced employability.
They examine the substance of talent and the problems associated with its
identification in terms of three distinct concepts: employability, knowledge, and
competence. The authors propose that employability is central to employee
performance and organisational success. Individual employability includes general
meta-competence and context-bound competence that is related to a specific profession
and organisation. This concept of employability is broader than that of talent alone,
but the possession of talent is critical to being employable. They propose a
three-dimensional model of talent that incorporates an individual dimension, an
institutional dimension, and an organisational-social dimension.
 The next paper is “Information pathways for the competence foresight mechanism Mapping talent
in talent management framework”, written by Lena Siikaniemi and it explores the development
concept of competency foresight, how it operates and its relevance to talent
development. Its objective is to address a lacuna in the literature on competence
foresight and it synthesises theories and perspectives of strategic human resource
management and development, talent management, competence management and
foresight in order to develop a framework for competence foresight. This framework 17
proposes three pathways for detecting the needed competences for strategy
implementation, the pathways for detecting rapid changes and the loss of
competences. This research has significant potential for HRD practitioners by
providing new perspectives on the use of systematic foresight processes in talent
management. The research also has the potential for modelling the information
pathways for the competence foresight mechanism in talent management software.
The third paper in this issue is “Developing managerial talent: exploring the link
between management talent and perceived performance in multinational corporations
(MNCs)” by Maura Sheehan. She presents the findings of a large study of UK
subsidiaries of multi-national corporations examining the link between investment in
the development of managers and perceived subsidiary performance. The author
specifically addressed the issue of whether there was a positive relationship between
investment in management development and perceived subsidiary performance; and to
extent to whether the national context mediated any relationship between management
development and perceived subsidiary performance. The findings suggest that
investing in talent development, in this context, the development of the key talent
group of line managers, is positively associated with perceived organisational
performance. The national context in which this investment is undertaken is also found
to affect the associated returns. Given the current economic climate, this research has
important implications for organisational budgetary considerations and suggests that
on-going investment in talent management is likely to be crucial for sustained
competitive advantage.
The fourth paper is “HRD practices and talent management in the companies with
the employer brand”, written by Dmitry Kucherov and Elena Zavyalova. It
investigates the use of talent management and development practices for the purposes
of employee branding. They define employer brand as the qualitative features of the
employing company, which are attractive to a target audience (current employees,
prospective employees, competitors and intermediaries). They suggest that these
qualitative features are comprised of material (economic) and non-material
(psychological and symbolic) advantages distinguishing a company in the labour
market. Employer branding is proposed as a strategy and a set of HRD activities that is
geared toward managing the corporate identity by creating a positive image of the
organisation as a distinct and desirable employer. The authors hypothesised that:
.
economic and organisational features of HRD systems in companies with
employer brand (CEB) differ from economic and organisational features of HRD
systems in companies without employer brand (CWEB); and
.
employer brand could be a key factor for attracting talent to the company.

It was found that CEBs had lower turnover and invest more in training and
development. They also identified a number of positive qualitative features of CEBs
EJTD that could improve labour relations and organisational culture such as involvement,
36,1 communication, training and development, rewards, and recruitment and selection
practices. The findings also indicate that CEBs gained not only stronger talent
attraction, but also certain economic advantages as there were lower salary
expectations in the CEBs compared to the CWEBs. These findings provide evidence in
support of the benefits of investing in employer brand through HRD and talent
18 management practices, in addition to suggesting how positive employer branding can
be established.
The final paper in this issue is “Developing ethnic talent in the Dutch national tax
administration: a case study” by Folke Glastra and Martha Meerman. The main
objective of their research is to report the findings of a case study investigating the
development of ethnic minorities within the Dutch National Tax Administration, and
how the achievement of organisational diversity goals can be realised in a talent
management context. The authors findings suggest that key success factors usually
identified in the literature, e.g. top level commitment and strategic integration, are
insufficient and overrated aspects. Of significantly more importance are “non-issues”
in the formulation of diversity strategies, organizational alignment of relevant
organisational players, strategic coherence and organizational culture. The
implications of the research suggest that talent management activities targeted at
fostering ethnic diversity in talent development require specific awareness at the outset
of cultural and organisational conditions and processes underpinning standard
practices of talent and career development. They suggest that it is insufficient to solely
seek strategic integration and top management commitment, but to also leverage
broader organisational alignment.

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Further reading
Collings, D. and Mellahi, K. (2009), “Strategic talent management: a review and research agenda”,
Human Resource Management Review, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 304-13.
Silzer, R. and Church, A.H. (2009), “The pearls and perils of identifying potential”, Industrial and
Organisational Psychology, Vol. 2 No. 4, pp. 377-412.
EJTD About the Guest Editors
Professor Thomas N. Garavan is a Professor at the Kemmy Business School, University of
36,1 Limerick where he specialises in both the research and teaching of Human Resource
Development, Leadership Development and Vocational Training and Education. A graduate of
the University of Limerick (BBS, 1982; MBS, 1985) and the University of Bristol (Doctor of
Education, 1996), he has authored or co-authored 14 books and over 100 refereed journal papers
and book chapters. Currently he is Editor-in-Chief of European Journal of Training and
24 Development and Associate Editor of Human Resource Development International. He is a
member of the editorial board of Human Resource Development Review, Advances in Developing
Human Resources, and Human Resource Development Quarterly. Thomas N. Garavan is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: Thomas.Garavan@ul.ie
Dr Ronan Carbery lectures in Human Resource Development and Human Resource
Management at the University of Limerick. He is a Chartered Member of CIPD Ireland (MCIPD)
and is also a member of University Forum for Human Resource Development (UFHRD) and the
Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD). He is Associate Editor of the European
Journal of Training and Development. His research interests include careers, career development,
workplace learning, and participation in training and development.
Andrew Rock teaches Human Resource Development, Human Resource Management, and
Organizational Behaviour and Psychology at the University of Limerick. He graduated the
University of Limerick with a BBS (2003) and MBS in HRM (2004) and is completing his doctoral
thesis in the area of mentoring in organizations. He is a member of the Academy of Human
Resource Development (AHRD), Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD), and
University Forum for Human Resource Development (UFHRD).

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