INDIA & PAKISTAN

INFLUENCES

GEOGRAPHICAL

-On the North a barrier is formed by high

mountain ranges stretching from the Hindu Kush in the
West
-On the east, south and west, the area is
bounded by the sea.
-There was also a strong tide of influence from
Persia and Western.
-Good harbours along the Coast are few. - Rock-cut temples, known as "RATHS" were
-The great rivers in the North, the Indus and hewn out of amygdaloidal trap formations.
Ganges and their Tributaries, provided tradeways. - As far as timber is concerned. hard teak is
found in Burma and in the eastern and western
The chief commercial city of Pakistan in Karachi, mountains.
Excavations at Harappa and Rajasthan indicate close
links between the so called "Indus Valley-Harappan CLIMATIC
Culture" and ancient Mesopotamia.
- In the East, climate generally warm and
GEOLOGICAL humid. but not excessively hot.
- In the plains of the North, temperatures rise
- The lack of building stone along the Indus and high in the summer and drop markedly about the
Ganges Valleys, and the easily available timber which winter solstice.
was floated down the rivers. - Pierced or windows to exclude sunlight and
- In the North, Architectural forms, tended to be heat are general; and canals, reservoirs and tanks, for
simply the translation into stone of carpentry ceremonial use, for irrigation, and for comfort, in
techniques. religious and secular buildings.
- There is good white marble in "Rajasthan, - The high angle of the sun over much of the
fine red and cream sandstone in Agra for facing area. may well have helped to produce the
materials. characteristics external carved decoration which takes
- In the Centre and south, the "trap" and much of its effect from the contrasts of light and shade.
granite of the Deccan and the volcanic port stone of
Halebid. The Flat roof for summer sleeping, is almost
- In the Western Ghats, the horizontal rock universal except in the East.
strata which rise in perpendicular cliffs, made possible
the rock-cut sanctuaries of Karli, ajanta and elephanta. HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL
At mamallapuram and ellora.
- The earliest defined civilization in the sub-
continent is that of the so-called Indus Valley.
- The area from 2,000 B.C. until the nineteenth
century A.D. brought about art and architecture into
contact with many influences; Aryan, Persian, Graeco-
Roman, Sassanian, Moslem, Portuguese, French and
English.
 a stupa at one end. In modern texts on Indian
RELIGIOUS architecture, the term chaitya-griha is often used to
denote an assembly or prayer hall.
a. Hindu - a combination of the faiths of the indigenous
Dravidians and the Aryan invaders. BAS RELIEF
Hindu worship is essentially an individual act,
and except on certain specified communal worship is
foreign to it.
Hindu's life has been governed by religious
practice is its minutest details. Any major occasion
demands the services of one of the Brahman priesthood
who alone have the authority to officiate.
carving in low or shallow relief, on a
background. voluptuous form is often used.
b. Buddhist - buildings became concentrated in
monasteries and in shrines where relics of those who
GARBHAGRIHA
had achieved salvation (Nirvana) were deposited.

- These shrines took the form of "stupas", or

domical mounds which, grouped with their rails,
gateways, professional paths, and crowning "umbrella"
came to be regarded as symbols of the universe.
- The monasteries became places of
international pilgrimage and dissemination of learning.

c. Jain - The goal is salvation through successive is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost
rebirths, the ideal being rigid asceticism and the sanctum of a Hindu temple where resides the murti
avoidance of injury to every living creature. (idol or icon) of the primary deity of the temple.
- Jain temples differ little in essentials from the Literally the word means "womb chamber",
Hindu Temple, but are distinguished by the from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for
extraordinary richness and complexity of their sculptural house. Generally in Hinduism, only 'priests' (pujari) are
ornament. allowed to enter this chamber. Although the term is
- Mahavira and twenty-four other saints are often associated with Hindu temples, it is also found in
worshipped. Jain and Buddhist temples.

SHIKHARA
ARCHITECTURAL TERMINOLOGIES

CHAITYAS (ASSEMBLY HALL)

a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain

architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain
A chaitya is a Buddhist shrine or prayer hall with temples.
 A shikhara over the garbhagriha chamber where
the presiding deity is enshrined is the most prominent
and visible part of a Hindu temple of North India.

INDUS VALLEY

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), or Harappan

Civilization, was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300
The Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient
BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) mainly in the
civilization located in what is Pakistan and northwest
northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from
India today, on the fertile flood plain of the Indus River
what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and
and its vicinity.
northwest India. Along with Ancient Egypt and
Evidence of religious practices in this area date
Mesopotamia.
back approximately to 5500 BCE.
Farming settlements began around 4000 BCE
HISTORICAL PLACES
and around 3000 BCE there appeared the first signs of
urbanization. By 2600 BCE, dozens of towns and cities
MOHENJO-DARO
had been established, and between 2500 and 2000 BCE
the Indus Valley Civilization was at its peak.

Mohenjo-Daro is probably the most attractive historic

place inside the united states that's famous in the
course of the world.
It is a part of the Taxila District KPK. The
archeological ruins of the area take us again into the
records until 3000BC. So, this makes it a 5000 years
vintage metropolis that is the oldest civilization
acknowledged to man after the chinese language.

It was additionally the urbanized and the largest

civilization in South Asia. They were first located inside
the 12 months 1922 however, it become the yr 1965
while enormous excavations were finished.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

 depictions of battles and military campaigns have been
found, evidence pointing in either direction is not
conclusive.

The Life of the Indus Valley Civilization

Two cities, in particular, have been excavated at
the sites of Mohenjo-Daro on the lower Indus, and at
Harappa ruins - Ruins of the ancient city of Harappa in
Harappa, further upstream.
Punjab, Pakistan
The evidence suggests they had a highly
developed city life; many houses had wells and
bathrooms as well as an elaborate underground
drainage system.
The social conditions of the citizens were
comparable to those in Sumeria and superior to the
contemporary Babylonians and Egyptians.
These cities display a well-planned urbanization
system.

There is evidence of some level of contact

between the Indus Valley Civilization and the Near East.
Commercial, religious, and artistic
connections have been recorded in Sumerian
documents, where the Indus valley people are referred
to as Meluhhaites and the Indus valley is called
Meluhha. The following account has been dated to
about 2000 BCE.

The Indus Civilization had a writing system

which today still remains a mystery
the Indus Valley Civilization is one of the least
known of the important early civilizations of antiquity.
Examples of this writing system have been
found in pottery, amulets, carved stamp seals, and even
in weights and copper tablets.
Another point of debate is the nature of the
relationship between these cities. Whether they were
independent city-states or part of a larger kingdom is
not entirely clear. Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, with the Great Bath
in the foreground and the Buddhist Stupa in the
Because the writing of the Indus people remains
background. 
undeciphered and neither sculptures of rulers nor
Archaeological dig of a water reservoir at Dholavira.

Harappans are known for seal carving— the

cutting of patterns into the bottom face of a seal, a
small, carved object used for stamping.
They used these distinctive seals for the
identification of property and to stamp clay on trade
goods.
Seals—decorated with animal figures, such
as elephants, tigers, and water buffalos—have
been one of the most commonly discovered Gateway At Harappa: Indus Valley Civilization
artifacts in Indus Valley cities.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

• The Indus Valley Civilization (also known as

the Harappan Civilization) was a Bronze Age society
extending from modern northeast Afghanistan to
Pakistan and northwest India.

• The civilization developed in three phases:

Early Harappan Phase (3300 BCE-2600 BCE), Mature
Harappan Phase (2600 BCE-1900 BCE), and Late
Harappan Phase (1900 BCE-1300 BCE).

• Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley

developed new techniques in handicraft, including
Carnelian products and seal carving, and metallurgy
with copper, bronze, lead, and tin.

• Sir John Hubert Marshall led an excavation

campaign in 1921-1922, during which he discovered the
ruins of the city of Harappa.
By 1931, the Mohenjo-daro site had been
mostly excavated by Marshall and Sir Mortimer
Wheeler. By 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements of
the Indus Civilization were located. system of standardized weights and measures, some as
accurate as to 1.6 mm.
KEY TERMS
• Harappans created sculpture, seals, pottery,
• metallurgy: The scientific and mechanical and jewelry from materials, such as terracotta, metal,
technique of working with bronze. copper, and tin. and stone.

• seal: An emblem used as a means of • Evidence shows Harappans participated in a

authentication. Seal can refer to an impression in paper, vast maritime trade network extending from Central
wax, clay, or other medium. It can also refer to the Asia to modern-day Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, and Syria.
device used.
• The Indus Script remains indecipherable
without any comparable symbols, and is thought to
have evolved independently of the writing in
Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.
KEY POINTS
KEY TERMS
• The Indus Valley Civilization contained more • steatite: Also known as Soapstone, steatite is
than 1,000 cities and settlements. a talc-schist, which is a type of metamorphic rock. It is
very soft and has been a medium for carving for
• These cities contained well-organized
thousands of years.
wastewater drainage systems, trash collection systems,
and possibly even public granaries and baths. • Indus Script: Symbols produced by the ancient
Indus Valley Civilization.
• Although there were large walls and citadels,
there is no evidence of monuments, palaces, or • chalcolithic period: A period also known as
temples. the Copper Age, which lasted from 4300-3200 BCE.
• The uniformity of Harappan artifacts suggests
KEY POINTS
some form of authority and governance to regulate
seals, weights, and bricks. • One theory suggested that a nomadic, Indo-
European tribe, called the Aryans, invaded and
conquered the Indus Valley Civilization.
KEY TERMS
• Many scholars now believe the collapse of the
• granaries: A storehouse or room in a barn for
Indus Valley Civilization was caused by climate change.
threshed grain or animal feed.
• The eastward shift of monsoons may have
• citadels: A central area in a city that is heavily
reduced the water supply, forcing the Harappans of the
fortified.
Indus River Valley to migrate and establish smaller
• Harappa and Mohenjo-daro: Two of the villages and isolated farms.
major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization during the
• These small communities could not produce
Bronze Age.
the agricultural surpluses needed to support cities,
• urban planning: A technical and political which where then abandoned.
process concerned with the use of land and design of
KEY TERMS
the urban environment that guides and ensures the
orderly development of settlements and communities. • Indo-Aryan Migration theory: A theory
suggesting the Harappan culture of the Indus River
KEY POINTS Valley was assimilated during a migration of the Aryan
people into northwest India.
• The Indus River Valley Civilization, also known
as Harappan civilization, developed the first accurate
 • monsoon: Seasonal changes in atmospheric its narrowest point.
circulation and precipitation; usually winds that bring
heavy rain once a year.

• Aryans: A nomadic, Indo-European tribe

called the Aryans suddenly overwhelmed and
conquered the Indus Valley Civilization.

The "Great Bath" of Mohenjo-Daro is the earliest known

public water tank of the ancient world. Most scholars
believe that this tank would have been used in
conjunction with religious ceremonies.

Aryans in India: An early 20th-century depiction of

Aryan people settling in agricultural villages in India.

Seals such as these were used by merchants in

the Harappan civilization. Many experts believe that
they signified names.

Aryans probably used the Khyber Pass to cross the

mountains during their Indian invasion. Located in
present day Pakistan, the pass is about 16 yards wide at
 and shade, taking the place of mouldings.

Torus - The double convex shape, into which the cross-

pieces of Buddhist railings are cut, forms bands of light
and shade, taking the place of mouldings.
- a large convex moulding used principally in the
bases of columns.

Example of Buddhist Architecture

1. Stambhas or LATHS
• Monumental pillars standing free without any
structural function, with circular or octagonal shafts.
Inscriptions were carved on the shaft. The capital which
was usually persepolitan in form was bell shaped and
crownd with animal supporters bearing the buddhist
''challra" or Wheel of the Law.

2. Stupas- Sanchi
Photographs from Sir John Marshall's classic book
Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization (1931) covering
the very first excavations at this ancient Indus...

Mohenjo Daro, or "Mound of the Dead" is an ancient

Indus Valley Civilization city that flourished between
2600 and 1900 BCE.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

Buddhist Architecture (4th century B.C-9th

century A.D.)

Buddhist shrines are all designed for

congregational use. Monasteries, meeting halls
("chaityas") and stupa shrines are all planned to
accommodate large groups of worshippers.

Roof structures were of wood. In all three styles

mouldings have a bulbous character, often heavily
undercut. The height and brightness of the sun
produces strong shadow lines, and any subtlety of
moulding would be lost. In Buddhist Graeco-Bactrian
mouldings, in particular, the lack of refinement is
noticeable, when compared to the Greek & Roman
originals. A moulding made by overlapping rectangular
slabs is often used. In other cases, a. semi circular open
work moulding, like basketwork,. and also the torus, are
found. The double convex shape, into which the cross-
pieces of Buddhist railings are cut, forms bands of light
3. CHAITYAS - ASSEMBLY HALL former.
• The Jains, also, paid particular attention to
the sitting and environment of their monuments,
creating temple cities on sacred mountains. Specifically,
Jain ceilings in the Form of Flat domes. Stonework so
elaborately carved that it often loses all its own
character and can be compared to petrified foliage.

A chaitya is a Buddhist shrine or prayer hall with a

stupa at one end. In modern texts on Indian
architecture, the term chaitya-griha is often used to
denote an assembly or prayer hall.

4. BAS RELIEF

carving in low or shallow relief, on a background.

voluptuous form is often used.

5. Viharas - monasteries consist of a quadrangle

surrounded by a verandah on which open simple square
cells.

JAIN ARCHITECTURE

Early Jain - 3rd Century 8. C

• The earliest rock cut caves were ordered by
Emperor Asoka for the use of Ajivika (Jain).
• A technique inspired by persepolitan types
with highly polished mirrors walls.

Late Jain – (A.D. 1,000-1,700) HINDU ARCHITECTURE

• Jain Temples are found mainly in the northern • The fundamental plan consists of a small unlit
Central part of the peninsula. shrine called the “garbhagriha" crowned with the spire
• The Central Shrine, covered by a dome or a shaped "Sikhara" roof, formed of horizontal courses of
spire. Is introduced pillared by a portico, usually in the stone, and introduced by one or more porch-like halls
form of an octagon set within a square. (mandapas) used for religious dancing and music.
• There are thus twelve pillars supporting the
roof which is formed of successively diminishing squares Garbhagriha
laid diagonally to each other.
• The main difference between Jain and Hindu is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost
temple is the lighter and more elegant character of the sanctum of a Hindu temple where resides the murti
(idol or icon) of the primary deity of the temple.
Literally the word means "womb chamber",
from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for
house.
Generally, in Hinduism only 'priests' (pujari) are
allowed to enter this chamber. Although the term is
often associated with Hindu temples, it is also found in
Jain and Buddhist temples.
CHAPETER 18: SRI-LANKA ARCHITECTURE their great building works one stands out above the
rest, Kassapa 1 who left Anuradhapura to create a
unique city constructed on and around an immense
GEOGRAPHICAL rock-hill Sigiriya. b. The Polonnaruwa period
{11th-13th century). The building of this city was the
• Sri Lanka or Ceylon is a large island in the principal architectural undertaking of King Purakrama
Indian ocean 32 km (20 miles) off the southern tip of Baho "the great" (12th century).
the Indian ocean 32 km (20 miles) off the southern tip c. The Kandyan period (15th-19th century) This
of the Indian peninsula. Ceylon has been a Centre of 3rd period saw the division of the country into several
international trade, due to its strategic position on the kingdoms, with the capital at Kandy in an area initially
West-to-East Sea routes and its fine natural harbors. undisturbed by foreign interference.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
GEOLOGICAL
1. Anuradhapura Period - The earliest remains
• Many kinds of building material are exploited. are the natural rock chambers, built for the hermits,
Granite, limestone, laterite, and sandstone; clay for with drip-ledges to carry away rainwater.
bricks, roof tiles and pottery, widely used in the wet 2. Polonnaruwa Period- The outstanding
districts, which also encourage the quick growth of soft architectural creation was a cetiya-ghara, the “WATA-
and hard timber, bamboo grasses for thatch and mats, da-ge" (Circular relic house), built in stone and brick.
coconut trees, the wood of which is used for posts and
roofs the leaves for thatch and decoration.

CLIMATIC

• Ceylon is divided into three climatic zones,

which have given rise to special building characteristics:

- Dry hot zone, mainly in the north and east,

where in the early civilization vast irrigation tanks were
built to conserve rainwater. |
- A central wet region, cool and invigorating.
- a low-lying hot wet zone in the south and
southwest; with very heavy rainfall and high humidity,
where buildings are solid walled, with wide projectile
leaves and verandahs, and steeply pitched roofs to ward 3. Kandyan Period - In its typical form the
off rain and sun. Kandyan Style is an architecture of wood, catering to
the needs of a simple but well-to-do agricultural
civilization.
SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL

There were three significant periods in the

development of the island's cultural and political life:

a. The Anuradhapura period (4th century B.C.

to 10h century A.D.) during this period the foundations
were laid for political, social and artistic traditions,
among the several Sinhalese kings of this era noted for
CHAPTER 19: ARGHANISTAN. NEPAL. TIBET
ARCHITECURE AFGHANISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

GEOGRAPHICAL
• Land of towering mountains and parched
wastes where living has never been easy. The narrow
valleys of the Khyber River were the only
communication routes with India situated in the NW of
the Indo Pakistan sub-continent, with Iran on the West
and Russia and Central Asia to the N. Mainly a vast high
plateau 6,000 to 12,600 ft. above sea level.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

1. Bamiyan

• with its monasteries and temples. is

important, for its relationship to Persia and Central Asia
the huge group is carved out of a sandstone cliff face,
the interior honey combed with sanctuaries and Statue of Buddha, Bamiyan. Afghanistan
assembly halls extending for nearly 2 km with a painted • Other features are the cupola roofs spanning
niche at either end, each sheltering a vast Buddha with arched squinches the square chamber. angles, the
statue, hew n from the rock, the features modeled in idiosyncratic lantern roof, and hectofarad dome, an
mud mixed with straw with a lime plaster finish painted elaborate system of hexagons (each containing a seated
gilded Buddha image) and triangles rising to a central octagon.

NEPAL

GEOGRAPHICAL

• Mainly composed of high mountains, which

include Mount Everest, and is sparsely inhabited, except
in a small area in the Centre, the valley of Nepal. Nepal
forms an irregular parallelogram some 720 km long and
240 km in breadth extending across the Himalayas. It
contains three old capitals the Katmandu, Patan and
Bhatgaon.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

• Stupas, temples, picturesque townships and

intricate native craftsmanship are her characteristic
architectural heritage.
Two kinds of temple survive, the "Sikhara" and
"the pagoda".
The first reflection Indian and the second
Chinese (Burmese) influence. In either case the temple
is a shrine enclosing a cella for the god or divine
symbol.
A typical formal feature of the Nepalese town is
the monumental, generally supporting a metal
superstructure adorned with mystic symbols, groups of
divinities and specially, portrait statuary of royalties.
• Secular Architecture - is principally made of
wood, but brick is used for structural purposes and
metal for ornament. Such a floor is supported by
brackets and struts ornately carved and sometimes
painted.
- The windows have intricate lattice screens,
and the roof has red curved tiles metal gutters and a
projecting cornice for protection against the rain. Every
feature is fancifully decorated with carving, embossing,
tinkling bells and hanging lamps.
 leading ultimately at a form of theocratic government,
in which the chief abbot (the Grand or Dalai lama)
became ruler of Tibet.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
• architectural achievement is apparent in the
stupas, the monastery complex and the decorative
crafts.
• The usual stupa (Chorten) form consists of a
small bulbous dome on a many tiered plinth and, like
the Nepalese type, a square harmika with a most
supporting a Chattra (umbrella) surmounted by a Flame
Finial.

Plinth - the lowest square member of the base of a

column, also applied to the projecting stepped or
molded base of any building.

Finial - the upper portion of a pinnacle,

TIBET
Bench - end or another architectural feature.
GEOGRAPHICAL
• Bordered on the north and east by China, to Fresco - the term originally applied to a painting on a
the South by India Nepal and Bhutan. Tibet is the wall while the plaster is wet but is often used for any
highest country in the world, lying at the heart of the wall painting not in oil colors.
Himalayas. Much of this rugged land is a large plateau
varying in height between (12,000 and 16,000 feet) very
thinly pipefitter areas - generally centered upon
monastic settlements-are almost exclusively in the
south, where sheep, and Yaks and grazed and some
agriculture is possible.

HISTORICAL & SOCIAL

• King SRON-BTSANG had two wives who were
Nepalese & Chinese princesses and were both
Buddhists. Thereafter Tibetan rulers championed the
cause of Buddhism and Tibet's Cultural history has been
a direct reflection of the development of the faith.
Monasteries multiplied and were highly privileged,
CHAPTER 19: ARCHITECTURE IN BURMA,
CAMBODIA & THAILAND

BURMA

INFLUENCES

GEOGRAPHICAL, GEOLOGICAL & CLIMATIC

Burma is bounded on the NW by the Indo-
Pakistan subcontinent and on the SE and E by China,
Laos and Thailand; it forms a delta in the south, opening
into the Bay of Bengal and the India Ocean, whence
Indian culture and Buddhism entered the country. There
was also a land route from India to China, which passed
through upper Burma and was certainly used by
immigrants. Burma is rich in timber, ores and precious
stones, while teak and brick are much used in buildings.
The climate is tropical, with southwest monsoon rains in CAMBODIA
summer.
GEOGRAPHICAL, GEOLOGICAL & CLIMATIC
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER • This region of southern Indo-China covers the
The majority of Burma's important architectural areas of the Mekong-river delta and the China sea to
monuments date from the pagan period, and almost all the south, and the. Midwestern Mekong region
buildings of real distinction are religious . The basic bordering the Gulf of Siam in the West and separated on
stupa (zedi, later pagoda) and was a massive brick the east from ancient Vietnam by the eastern Moi
cylindrical construction, built upon a plinth of three or highlands and, in the North, by Mountains of Central
five diminishing terraces; the basic temple form was Laos.
square in plan with brick walls enclosing narrow vaulted • Timber was the principal building material in
corridors embracing a solid masonry core, which had the delta area, together with laterite, sandstone and a
centrally-placed niches on each side to accommodate terra-cotta brick in the hinterland.
Buddha statues, the walls decorated with frescoes or • The cooling rain and wind of the south -west
sculptured bas-reliefs. The central core rose in a series Monsoon provides the only break in the tropical humid
of receding storeys, and was crowned with a tapering heat.
sikhara-type finial of Orissan-lndian character. The true ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
Arch was much used in Burma - it was never exploited in
India - with radiating voussoirs to form semipointed The earliest recorded capital was Uyadhapura
barrel vaults. on the lower reaches of the Mekong River. It was an
Agglomeration of wooden houses on piles connected by
SHWE DAGON Pagoda, Rangoon BURMA (Stupa) little canals linked to larger waterways capable of taking.
Traditional rounded Tumulus of the
Stupa had now evolved into a tall, tenuous structure, A. Seagoing ships later, Furnanese and early
rising in this case by repeated enlargements to a height Khmer.
of 113m. (370feetl above the processional platform. The B. Architectural development was centered
supporting plinth is multi-planned, its many angles upon Sambor and Prei Kuls. in the forest near
bearing miniature Pagoda, the processional platform Kampong Thom on the road from Saigon to Angkor.
crowded with carved gilded and lacquered shrines and Wooden buildings gave way to' more substantial brick
spirelets. and stone imitations of Timber prototype which show a·
mixture· of Indian forms grafted on to indigenous
elements, and rich decorative sculpture derived. from together of many such units, and their interconnection
wood carving. At the beginning of the Early Classical. by galleries to create an impression of size to express
the verticality of the invariable mountain theme, these
C. Khmer period three important Architectural galleried groups were placed round and above the
events occurred. central pyramid. No mortar was used; the stone
masonry was stabilized by the sheer mass of the
1. Javanese influence in the emphasis upon the construction, and the fine joints of the roof fitted so
temple mountain and the concept of the god-King; and perfectly that they remain watertight after several
the raising of the Temple " Cella" to the summer of the hundred years of neglect. Everywhere sculptural
stepped pyramid. ornament breaks through the architectural lines, often
2. The bulding of another capital on the hilt and spreading over the whole wall surface.
round the temple-mountain of Phrom Bakeng, Close to
Phnom Kulen, terraced into the hill as a five leveUed
pyramid, with isolated towers on the topmost tier and
smaller towers at the lower levels.
3. Construction at Roluous, angkor of the
Archetypal Khmer urban irrigation system.An immense
artificial lake, "Baray" Lolei, about 3 km. long (2m} and
800 m widewas formed by earthen dykes to store water
from the stung rolvous river flowing into a network of
moats and waterways.

D. Transitional classical Khmer Period (10 th-11th C) - the

evolution of the Temple Mountain was continued in
Baksei Chamkrong, Angkor, the first to be builtup in
stone (laterite) in pyramidal terraces from flat ground, An architecturally simple stone pyramid, it
and Kohker North east of Angkor, Constructed onan comprises five superimposed terraces, decreasing in size
artificial lake by damming a stream a further stage in the from an almost square base with sides of 33M to'23 M
evolutionary process came in the Takeo in which the sides at the top, which is 16M from the ground.
classical five Trerraces and five colossal towers were
introduced.

E. The classical Khmer period (12th-13th Cl was

dominated by two majestic architectural achievements;
the creation of Angkor Vat, the Temple City of
Suryavarnam II and Y Angkor Thorn the remodeled
capital of Jayavarrnan Vii the latter, a fantastic, baroque
manifestation of a declining civilization Khmer.
architecture as expressed in these works, is
characterized by grandeur of conception, brilliant ln plan, it is a vast rectangle contained by a
landscaping, unsurpassed town planning in a strictly moat 4 km long, and in form it is the familiar stepped
formal sense, and exuberant sculptural decoration on a pyramid.
grandiose scale, but of exquisite refinement stone was
used like wood, and stone walls were often reinforced THAILAND
with concealed timber beams inserted in the hollowed-
out centres: When the wood rotted, the stone blocks INFLUENCE
fell. The corbelled vaulting was never modified and
permitted only the spanning of small spaces, hence the GEOGRAPHICAL, GEOLOGICAL & CLIMATIC
confined nature of each room and the grouping Siam - since 1939 has been generally translated
as Thailand-is bordered on the North and West by Southern Burma, who brought with them architectural
Burma, and in the North-East and East by laos and echoes of pagan. The Khmers introduced the use of
Cambodia. stone, in place of the traditional brick or rubble bonded
The country is immensely rich in durable and with vegetable glue.
decorative timbers, including teak and ebony, suitable
for all types of constructive work. The other principal c. THAI period (13th-17th century)- ln all phases of
building material is brick, stone was little used, except Siamese building, the part played by sculpture, and in
for foundations. interiors, by mural painting is important. Here there are
The climates is tropical, with monsoon rains three subdivisions of style.
and winds. 1. Sukhothai Style - Harmoniously eclectic,
employing Indian Mon dravidian, Mon pagan, sinhalese
HISTORICAL SOCIAL & RELIGIOUS and Khmer motifs. Buddhist Temple couples normally
In the 14th century, Ayudhya became the erected on a terrace. These had a central sanctuary,
capital, with direct access to the sea and the Cambodian which sheltered a colossal Buddha statue screened by a
Trade routes, a city destined to be renowned high wall. The wall had a narrow-arched aperture
throughout the Indo-Chinese world for wealth and through which the image was viewed and worshipped.
luxury, destroyed by the Burmese in 1767 and now a Over the sanctuary rose a tapering tower. The only
desolate ruin. usually rectangular surrounding stupas carried similar
In 1555 Ayudhya had fallen briefly into elongated finials.
Burmese hands, but foreign domination had always 2. Ayudhya style -the stupa was generally
been lived and apart from the Japanese occupation circular in plan, ring-based and bell-shaped.
during world war 2, Thailand remains unique among the 3. Chiengmai manner of the North,
south-east Asia in maintaining considerable measure of Cosmopolitan influences were conspicuous, although
independence throughout her natural history. here too, the custom of copying venerated monuments
Despite foreign intrusions, Thailand was always from abroad as "reminders" of the need for religious
suspicious of European intentions and managed to observance was the origin of some of the architecture.
evade colonialist occupation Buddhism for 1500 years
remained the prevailing influence on art and
architecture. d. Bangkok style-(18-19th century} - The New Capital
was designed to emulate the destroyed City of Ayudhya.
Many religious buildings and palaces were erected in
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER which Traditional forms were overlaid with
Architecture in Thailand reflects the influences ornamentation of Chinese character, introduced to Siam
of the Buddhist countries and is divided into: by refugees. Surfaces were often finished with porcelain
tiles. Sometimes the walls are white stuccoed brick
a. The Dvararati period - Central Thailand (sixth-10th) which contrasts with the brightly-colored glazed tiles of
characterized by Burman Buddhist forms. There are no the multi-levelled overlapping Timber roofs. Gables
other architectural remains except for fragments of and barge - boards are decorated with Angkor-Hindu
foundations which give some idea of plans but not the lconographv; 'nagas' vishnu, on a 'garuda' (a mythical
style of buildings, constructed of brick and stone, the bird) siva on a bull, Doors and window shutters are of
plinths, with mouldings similar to those of Buddhist carved wood, lacquered in black and gold; or painted or
structures have granite bases with mortise holes for inlaid with mother-of-pearl depicting themes of
pillars which must have supported timber guardian divinities, enchanted forests ferns, flowers and
superstructures. still life.

b. Man-Khmer period, Central and Eastern Thailand

(10th-13th century} - provincial manifestation of the
Khmer-Angkor style of architecture. It also mirrored
earlier building traditions of the mons and Talaings of
 INFLUENCES

GEOGRAPHICAL, GEOLOGICAL AND CLIMATIC

• The Malay peninsula is bounded by southern
Thailand in the North, and on the West and South by
the straits of Malacca which separate it from Sumatra,
which in turn is separated from on the SE by the Sunda
Straits. Java is the first of a Chain of Islands extending
eastward. Borneo is the largest island in this archipelago
separated by the straits of Macassar on the East from
Celebes, to the North of Borneo and Celebes lies the
Philippines.
• Much of this vast region is mountainous, a
long curving band of active and extinct volcanoes passes
through Sumatra, Java and Bali, and Volcanic rock has
been extensively used for construction work.
• Indonesia almost bestrides the equator, with a
tropical climate and not great seasonal variation in
temperature. The climate is also generally humid and
under the influence of both monsoons.

ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

In Middle Java, an architecture of solid stone

walls, corbelled arches and with no loadbearing
columns, which reached its consummation with the
stupa of and the Temple complex of Prambanam. This is
always associated with isolated religious communities
INDONESIA AND THE MALAY and never with large Centres of population.
ARCHIPELAGO A new development began with the shift of
power to East Java in the 11th century characterized by
a lessening of lndian Influence and increased evidence
of the native Indonesian tradition, reflected especially in
the sculpture which already foreshadows the folk-art of
the Javanese "wayang" puppet drama. Vat appears in the Binh-dinh style towers at NHA-
Timber is abundant and varied throughout TRANG. The dinh (Communal House) built by each
Indonesia, and has always been used for houses, the village., seemingly continued an ancient tradition of
traditional dwelling is a 'long house' generally raised on houses built on stilts. By the 19th century, Chinese and
stilts, and often sheltering an entire clan. It is seen at its French styles were apparent.
architectural best in the Menang Kabau homes of South
central Sumatra, which are carried on carved and
decorated wooden pillars, the facades adorned with
colour patterns of intertwined flowers in white, black
and red, the inward-sloping ridge (saddle back) roof
with high gables at each end ornamented with buffalo
horns.

Theatrically sited on the Java plains against a

background of smoking volcanoes. This extraordinary
building symbolizes the world mountain "Meru" of
Indian Cosmology and the Mahayana Buddhist cosmic
system through the nine stages there are nine storeys or
terraces - which lead to Nirvana. Basically square in
plan, with a stone plinth-foundation each 150 m side
having five slightly stepped faces, (diminishing 'to three
at 'the higher levels· Barabudur rises through five
rectangular closed galleries and three circular open
terraces The latter carrying 72 bell-like stupas) to the
crowning Central Stupa. The galleries display some
1,300 panes; of sculpture, depicting the life of the
f3uddha and legends from the sacred Buddhist texts.

VIETNAM AND LAOS

The architectural character of Vietnamese
buildings is seen in the "Kalam' roofs (Keel shaped in
the Chinese Pagoda Style) as at the shrines of Mi-son
and Po Nagar and in the 'Lu' Style of Tonkin province.
Southward the influence is Javanese at Dong Duang and
My-Due-, from the 12th centurv. the example of Angkor