The programmable logic controller

(PLC)

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 The programmable logic controller
(PLC)

• The programmable logic controller (PLC) is an

inexpensive, flexible, reliable replacement of
hard-wired relay panels.
• It is required to control a sequence of events or
achieve some changes of action behavior of an
engineering system in the prescribed manner.
• A typical problem : Detection and sorting of
components in a packing line

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 Detection and sorting of components in a packing line

• The objective of this application is to detect and sort P and Q, geometrically different
components, as they move along a conveyor.

• The components are deflected into two different pathways based on their size.

• The taller component P is to be deflected by a sort solenoid, while the smaller

component Q is to be allowed to pass the sort area.

• Two sensors S1 and S2 are used to sense the height and to produce a sorting signal.

• When component P is in the sort area, both sensors turn ON which will energize the
sort solenoid, thereby deflecting the component down a different conveyor.

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 Detection and sorting of components in a packing line
• When component Q is in sort area, sensor S1 registers the signal and prevents the
solenoid from being energized or deactivated to revert to its original position and
hence the direct conveying of component Q.
• The problem of control engineering here is slightly difficult in traditional terms, as the
registration of the sort solenoid coil is interpreted based on the logic of signals from
the sensors S1 and S2.
• The hard-wired relay wiring and connectivity of the system determine the rules
governing the control system and actions.
• These rules are subjected to change; therefore, the traditional form of controlling the
machine involves tedious and complex configurations.
• The relay has to be hardwired to perform a specific function and often relay wiring has
to be changed or modified in order to accommodate any changes in the system
requirement.

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 The programmable logic controller (PLC)
• A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a digital electronic device that
uses a programmable memory to store instructions and to implement
functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic in
order to control machines and processes and has been specifically
designed to make programming easy.

• The term logic is used because the programming is primarily concerned

with implementing logic and switching operations.

• The PLCs find vast applications in the control and operation of automated
manufacturing process equipment and machinery, packaging and filling
equipment, chemical mixing, conveyor systems and distillation.

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The programmable logic controller (PLC)

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 The programmable logic controller (PLC)
• Most automated factories employ PLCs in plant control
applications such as the automations of production and
assembly process.

• Initially, the PLC has been used to replace logic functions, but
its ever-developing features offer several advantages over a
conventional relay type of control.

• Owing to the fact that the structure of PLC is based on the same
principles of computer architecture, it is capable of performing
other functions such as counting, logistics, numerical
applications, comparing andMED,
processing
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of signals. 7
 The programmable logic controller (PLC)
• The PLC is designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity
and noise.

• The interfacing of inputs and outputs is available within the controller,

and they can be designed with communication capabilities that allow
them to interface with a computer system or human.

• PLC has a great advantage in that the controller can be used with a
wide range of control systems and rules can be easily modified.

• Here the programming is primarily concerned with implementing

logic and switching operations.
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 The hardwired circuit
• A hardwired circuit used for a simple application
consisting of two independent switches and motor.

• They are wired parallel to generate a simple logic

of when the switch is ON; Motor 1 is ON
otherwise OFF.

• If we introduce more complex logic, say, Motor 2

should be OFF when the Motor 1 is switched ON,
this will require the redesigning of circuit and
hence rewiring.

• Plant machine control involves such a complex

process and hence controller system inherently
requires hundreds of relays and circuits.
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 Example for PLC system
• The switches are not connected directly to
lamps; instead the switches are connected to
the input modules and lamps are connected to
the output modules.

• Therefore, the input devices such as sensors

are connected to PLC and form switching
devices.

• The output devices such as motors and valves

are connected to the PLC.

• Only when the program conditions have been

met, the output devices are switched ON or
OFF based on logics of inputs.
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 Basic Structure of a PLC

• A typical PLC system has

five parts.
➢ 1. central processing unit
(CPU);
➢ 2,3. the input/output (I/O)
unit;
➢ 4. the programming
device;
➢ 5. memory unit.
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Internal architecture of a PLC

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Architecture of a PLC.

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 CPU
• The CPU is the brain of the PLC, consisting of a microprocessor which interprets
the input signals and carries out the control actions according to the program
stored in its memory, communicating the decisions as an action signal to the
outputs.
• Memory required for desired program is EPROM, or EEPROM plus random
access memory (RAM).
• The user normally enters the desired programs in relay ladder logic to the CPU.
• The processor receives the input data from various sensing devices, executes the
instructions according to the stored program from memory and sends appropriate
output commands to the actuators and output devices.
• The power supply unit is needed to convert the AC voltage to the low DC voltage
necessary for the processor and to supply power to other circuits in the input and
output interface modules.
•
EPROM- erasable programmable read-only memory
EEPROM - a read-only memory whose contents can be erased and reprogrammed using a pulsed
voltage.
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 CPU
• The function of the CPU is to control and process all the operations of
memory and I/O data in the system in accordance with the program.
• The CPU also houses the communication of circuits and power supply.
• The CPU executes the operating system, manages memory, monitors inputs,
evaluates the user logic and turns ON appropriate outputs. In order to do this, the
PLC is provided with a clock signal to sequence its internal operations.
• The internal paths along which signals flow are called buses. These buses
essentially carry the information in the digital form.
• There are three types of buses required in a PLC:
• 1. Data buses for communicating data between elements.
• 2. The address buses to read the address of locations for accessing stored data.
• 3. Control buses for internal control actions.

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 CPU
• The essential elements of a microprocessor are as follows:
• 1. The CPU module contains the microprocessor and its associate
control circuitry. The control circuitry includes all the components
(excluding memory and peripherals) that must be connected to the
microprocessor to enable it to function.
• The CPU therefore must perform the following three tasks:
➢ provide a mechanism for fetching instructions from memory prior to
execution (communication with memory);
➢ include logic which decodes the operation code of each instruction
to generate a low-level control signal which performs data
manipulation specified by the instruction (interpretations of
instructions);
➢ mechanism for performing the data manipulation required by the
instruction set of the computer (execution of instruction).
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 CPU
• 2. Monitors or registers are parts of the microprocessor, used for temporary
storage of data and address within CPU. A register is a byte (8 bits) or a word
(16 bits) or a long word (32 bits) of a memory.

• 3. Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): The ALU is responsible for data manipulation
and performs arithmetic and logical operations such as addition and subtraction.
In addition, the ALU contains a number of control inputs which specify the data
manipulation function to be performed. ALU is a combinational logic circuit,
whose output is an instantaneous function of its data and control inputs. It has no
storage facility.

• 4. Control unit: The control unit is used to control the timing of operation and to
control the units within the microprocessor to ensure that operations are carried
out in the correct order.
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 The Programming Device
• The programming device is used to enter the required program

using ladder logic into the memory of the processor.

• The sequence of operation and ultimate control of equipment or

machinery is specified and determined by the ladder program.

• While entering the ladder program, the program device is

normally connected to the controller.

• Actual programming is usually achieved by pushing keys or a

keyboard and can be programmed by people without much

computer programming experience.

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 The Programming Device
• There are normally three approaches followed by the program

• A)use of hand-held programmer;

• B). terminal with video display unit;

• C). a PC with appropriate software.

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 Memory Unit
• The memory unit is where the rules are stored in the form of binary digits at

individual locations that are to be used for the control actions by the

microprocessor.

• There are two main types of memory, namely RAM and read-only memory

(ROM).

• RAM is used for program and data storage.

• There is a need to provide a battery backup in order to prevent loss of any data

when power is removed from the system.

• The ROM is designed for PC operating system so that the information stored in

memory can only be read. MED, VAST 20

 Memory Unit
• Memory devices are where the control plan or program is held or

stored in the controller or store groups of binary digits of 1s and 0s

in the form of bytes at individual locations identified by their

addresses.

• The memoryof a PLC is divided into many sections based on

specific functions:

• 1. sectors to store the status of inputs and outputs;

• 2. sectors to store system information such as scan time, fault status,

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fault codes and watch dog timers.
 Memory Unit
• MemoryTypes

• There are several memory elements in the PLC system and they are divided into two

categories:

• 1. volatile;

• 2. non-volatile.

• The volatile memory will lose its stored information if power is disrupted and can be

easily altered, whereas non-volatile memory could provide the ability to retain the

information if the power is disrupted.

• Some of the PLCs are used to hold system memory and some are used to hold user

memory.

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 The broad classification of memory
unit.

programmable read-only memory (PROM)

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 Memory Unit

• 1. RAM:
• RAM is for the user's program and data storage.
• It is designed so that information can be written into or read from the
memory and normally incorporated in the solid-state form contained in
an integrated circuit.
• Dynamic RAMs refreshed typically by external refresh circuits can
hold data for few million seconds. Pseudo-static RAMs are refreshed
internally, whereas the static RAM stored the data flip-flops.
• 2. ROM: (read-only memory ) The internal use and operation of the
PLC require ROM to give permanent storage for the operation
system.
• This non-volatile memory normally is designed so that the
information stored in the memory can only be read and cannot be
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changed.
 Memory Unit
• 3. Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM):

• PROM is a special type of ROM and allows initial and/or additional information to be

written into the chip and can be written into only once after being received from the

manufacturer.

• EPROM: EPROM is a specially designed PROM, and is programmed using a dedicated

programmer.

• EPROM : erasable programmable read-only memory.

• It can be reprogrammed after having entirely erased with the use of an ultraviolet light

source.

• EEPROM: EEPROM is a non-volatile memory that can be erased using electrical pulses
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rather than ultraviolet light. The EEPROM can be electrically overwritten with new data.
 I/O Unit
• The input and output sections are where
the processor receives information from
external devices and communicates
information to the external devices.

• The input and output units are normally

incorporated into the PLC in two ways:
one is the fixed I/O, typically a small unit
that comes in one piece with processor
and other is the modular input where I/O
units packed together.

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 I/O Unit
• In fixed I/O module the I/O terminals cannot be changed,
whereas in the modular system, there are several compartments
into which the I/O modules can be plugged.

• This feature makes it possible to choose and use the I/O

modules in a flexible manner.

• In both methods, the input system consists of modules that

form the interface by which field devices are connected to the
controller.

• The objective of interface here is to interface the various input

signals received from sensors or switches, selector switches or
to send the output signal to output devices such as motors,
solenoid and indicator lights.

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 I/0 Processing
• The I/O unit provides the interface between the system and the outside
world, allowing for connections to be made through I/O channels to input
devices such as sensors and output devices such as motors and solenoids.
• The I/O unit provides the interface between the PLC and the I/O file
devices.
• The I/O channels provide signal interface so that sensors and actuators can
be directly connected to the PLC without the need for other circuitry.
• The input/output interfaces provide isolation and signal conditioning
functions so that sensors and actuators can often be directly connected to
them without the need for other circuitry.
• The input signal from sensors and output to actuating devices can be
anyone of the following or a combination:
• 1. analog;
• 2. discrete/digital.
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 Various input devices/sensors
• 1. Digital/discrete input • 2. Analog input devices:
devices: • potentiometer;
• mechanical switches; • linear variable
differential transformer;
• proximity switches; . • strain gauges;
• photoelectric switches; . • Temperature sensors;
• encoders; • Pressure sensors;
• liquid-level detector;
• temperature switches; .
• fluid flow measurement
• pressure switches. devices.

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 Input/output
processing
• A PLC is continuously running through its
program and updating it as a result of the input
signals.
• Each such loop is termed a cycle.
• There are two methods that can be used for
input/output processing: continuous updating
and mass input/output copying.
Points
➢continuous updating
➢mass input/output copying
➢I/O addresses
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 Continuous updating
• Continuous updating involves the CPU scanning the input
channels as they occur in the program instructions.
• Each input point is examined individually and its effect on
the program determined.
• There will be a built-in delay, typically about 3 ms, when
each input is examined in order to ensure that only valid
input signals are read by the microprocessor.
• This delay enables the microprocessor to avoid counting an
input signal twice, or, more frequently, if there is contact
bounce at a switch.
• A number of inputs may have to be scanned, each with a 3
ms delay, before the program has the instruction for a logic
operation to be executed and an output to occur.
Disadvantage : Because, with continuous updating, there has to be a 3 ms delay on each input,
the time taken to examine several hundred input/output points can become comparatively long
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 Mass input/output copying
• To allow a more rapid execution of a program, a specific area of
RAM is used as a buffer store between the control logic and the
input/output unit.
• Each input/output has an address in this memory.
• At the start of each program cycle the CPU scans all the inputs
and copies their status into the input/output addresses in RAM.
• As the program is executed the stored, input data is read, as
required, from RAM and the logic operations carried out.
• The resulting output signals are stored in the reserved
input/output section of RAM.
• At the end of each program cycle all the outputs are transferred
from RAM to the output channels.
• The outputs are latched so that they retain their status until the
next updating.

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 Mass input/output copying
• The sequence is:
• 1 Scan all the inputs and copy into RAM.
• 2 Fetch and decode and execute all program
instructions in sequence, copying output
instruction to RAM.
• 3 Update all output
• 4 Repeat the sequence.
➢A PLC takes time to complete a cycle of scanning inputs and updating
outputs according to the program instructions and so the inputs are not
watched all the time but only examined periodically.
➢A typical PLC cycle time is of the order of 10 to 50 ms and so the inputs
and outputs are updated every 10 to 50 ms.
➢Thus for a PLC with a cycle time of 40 ms, the maximum frequency of
digital impulses that can be detected will be if one pulse occurs every 40
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ms.
 Ladder programming.
• PLC programming based on the use of ladder diagrams involves
writing a program in a similar manner to drawing a switching circuit.
• This involves each program task being specified as though a rung of
a ladder.
• The ladder diagram consists of two vertical lines representing the
power rails.
• Circuits are connected as horizontal lines, i.e. the rungs of the
ladder, between these two verticals.
• In drawing the circuit line for a rung, inputs must always precede
outputs and there must be at least one output on each line.
• Each rung must start with an input or a series of inputs and end with
an output. MED, VAST 34
 Ladder programming.

(a), (b) Alternative ways of drawing an electric circuit, (c) comparable rung in a ladder program.

A rung could specify that the state of switches A and B, the inputs, be examined and if A
and B are both closed then a solenoid, the output, is energized.

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Ladder programming.

• The sequence followed by a PLC when carrying out a program can be

• 1 Scan the inputs associated with one rung of the ladder program.
• 2 Solve the logic operation involving those inputs.
• 3 Set/reset the outputs for that rung.
• 4 Move on to the next rung and repeat operations 1,2,3.
• 5 Move on to the next rung and repeat operations 1,2,3.
• 6 Move on to the next rung and repeat operations 1,2,3.
• 7 And so on until the end of MED,
the program
VAST with each rung of the ladder program scanned
36
in turn.
Symbols used in ladder diagram.

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 Temperature control system

➢ On/off temperature control in which the input goes from low to high when the temperature
sensor reaches the set temperature.
➢ The output is then to go from on to off
➢ The temperature with output to an operational amplifier connected as a comparator
➢ The program shows the input as a normally closed pair of contacts, so giving the on signal and
hence an output.
➢ When the contacts are opened to give the off signal then the output is switched off.

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 Logic functions

(a) AND, (b) OR, (c) NOR MED, VAST 39

 Logic functions

, (d) NAND, (e) XOR.

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Design a ladder program where a normally open switch A
must be activated and either of two other, normally open,
switches Band C must be activated for a coil to be energized.

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 Latch circuit

• There are often situations where it is necessary to

hold a coil energised, even when the input which
energised it ceases.
• The term latch circuit is used for the circuit which
carries out such an operation.
• It is a self-maintaining circuit in that, after being
energised, it maintains that state until another
input is received.
• It remembers its last state
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 Latch circuit

• When Input 1 is energised and closes, there is an

output.
• However, when there is an output, a set of contacts
associated with the output is energised and closes.
• These contacts OR the Input 1 contacts.
• Thus, even if Input 1 contacts open, the circuit will still
maintain the output energised.
• The only way to release the output is by operating the
normally closed contact Input 2.
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 Internal relays
• These behave like relays with their associated contacts, but
in reality are not actual relays but simulations by the
software of the PLC.
• Some have battery back-up so that they can be used in
circuits to ensure a safe shut-down of plant in the event of a
power failure.
• Internal relays are often used when there are programs with
multiple input conditions.
• Another use of internal relays is for the starting of multiple
outputs.
• Internal relays are used
– (a) An output controlled by two input arrangements
– (b) starting of multiple outputs.

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 Internal relays

(a) An output controlled by two input arrangements, (b) starting of

multiple outputs.
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 Timer
• PLC timers are output instructions that activate or de-
activate a device after a preset interval of time.
• PLC timers offer the advantage that their setting can be
altered easily or the number of them used in a circuit
can be increased or decreased.
• In fact, timers count second or fractions of a second by
using an internal microprocessor clock.
• They are used to delay the operations of PLC outputs
or to hold the outputs energized for a preset time.
• There are two methods used to represent a timer with
the PLC ladder program.
– Coil-formatted timer
– Block-formatted timer.
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Coil-
formatted
timer
instruction
• In this method the timer is assigned an address as well
as being recognized as a timer with a preset value or
time delay period.
• When the timer logic is set, the timer begins counting
time-based intervals, until accumulated value equals
the preset value.
• If the accumulated value time equals the preset time,
the output is activated which in turn actuates the
associate contacts to dose.
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 Block-formatted timer.
Retentive refers to the device's
ability to remember its exact
status such that when the circuit
is again activated,
the timer continues from the
previous point.
Non-retentive timers reset to
zero and start from zero
each time the timer function
block is energized.

• It is extensively used as retentive timers (RTOs)

requiring input lines.
• These two lines are recognized as control and
reset conditions.
• The reset line resets the timer's accumulated
value to zero. MED, VAST 48
 Different forms of timers
1. ON delay timer (TON);
2. OFF delay timer (TOF);
3. RTO;
4. Pulse delay

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(a, ON delay; (b) OFF delay; (c) pulse delay
 TON

• The timer here is like a relay with coil which is

energized when the input A becomes true.
• It then doses the time contact on Rung 2, after
some preset time has elapsed, as shown in the
timing diagram.
• The timer is reset when the input goes OFF.
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 TOF

• When switch Xo is closed, the contacts would energize

the timer TI and hold the output lamp ON for a
specified set value of 10 s.
• The action of a TOF is to delay setting the lamp OFF.
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 On Shot Timers

• This timer is used to produce output for a fixed duration

after initiating input.
• There are two Outputs energized with an input X1, When
there is an input, both timer and outputs are switched ON.
• When the pre-determined time has elapsed, the timer
contact opens and switches OFF the output.
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 Retentive TON.

• An RTO accumulates time as and when it receives the power.

• Time due to loss of power will not be accounted for the timer coil
operation.
• Retentive on delay timer (RTO) will hold its accumulated value when the
timer rung goes false and will continue timing where it was left OFF when
the timer rung goes true again.
• When the pushbutton X1 is closed, the timer starts accumulating the time.
• If the pushbutton is opened after 3 s, the timer accumulated value status
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remains at 3 and starts timing when the pushbutton is again closed. 53
 Sequencing and Cascading of Timers

• Timers are programmed to obtain timed sequence of output .

• When the input switch X1 ON, the output device Y1 is energized
and associated contact initializes the timer coil T1.
• The contacts of the timer coil T1 will close after the preset time
delays and switch ON the output device 1.
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 Sequencing and Cascading of Timers

• Longer delay time can be achieved by linking the timers

together, which would be longer than just possible with
one timer.
• The output here occurs for 800 s after the input of X0

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 Counters
• Counters allow a number of occurrences of input signals to count
or record the number of times some event occurs.
• Counters are used when there is a need to count a specified
number of contact operations.
• e.g. where items pass along a conveyor into boxes, and when the
specified number of items has passed into a box, the next item is
diverted into another box.
• PLCs include some form of counting element and are set to some
preset number value.
• When this value of input pulses has been received, it will operate
its contact, the NO contacts would be closed and an NC contact
would be opened.
• There are two types of counters, namely, down counters and up
counters.
• Down-counters count down from the preset value to zero and up-
counters count from zero up to the preset value.
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 Counters

• When there is a pulse input to In I, the counter is reset.

• When there is an input to In 2, the counter starts counting.
• If the counter is set for, say, 10 pulses, then when 10 pulse
inputs have been received at In 2, the counter's contacts will
close and there will be an output from Out I.
• If at any time during the counting there is an input to In I, the
counter will be reset and start all over again and count for 10
pulses. MED, VAST 57
 Shift Registers
• Shift registers can be used where sequence of operations is
required or it simulates movement or it tracks the flow of
parts and information.
• Shift register essentially consists of a number of internet
relays grouped together that allows the shifting of bits serially
(from bit to bit) through an array, in an orderly fashion.
• Common applications for shift registers include the following:
1. tracking parts through an assembly line;
2. controlling machine or process operations;
3. inventory counter;
4. system diagnostics.
The numbers of internal relays grouped together normally are 8,16 and
32.
The relay ON and OFF states are designated as 0 and 1.
A common shift pulse or clock causes each bit in the shift register to
move one position to the right. MED, VAST 58
• In order to give a "shift" instruction, normally we are required to provide the
processor with the following information:
1. File: Address of the bit array.
2. Control: The address of the control structure.
3. Bit address: The addresses of the source bit.
4. Length: Number of bits in the bit array.

• A shift register requires three inputs:

1. to load data into the first location of the register;
2. to shift data by one location with a command;
3. to reset or clear the register of data.
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Consider an electrical decoration system in which green, red, blue and
yellow bulbs are to be switched ON sequentially. By pressing the second
pushbutton repeatedly the red, blue and yellow light should get ON and
by pressing the third pushbutton all lights should get OFF.
• By pressing the X3 button, all
internal relays are set to
status "0" (OFF) and all bulbs
are OFF.
• If we now press button X1, it
sets the status of internal
relay" 1" and hence produces
output from Yo(green light ON
and Y2,Y3 are OFF).
• By now pressing pushbutton
X2 with momentary input, we
shift the status of shift register
along by one location, with
internal relay switch M11
closed, producing output at Y1.
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Status of signal.

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Control of a Process Tank

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Ladder diagram to achieve the operation of process tank

1. A start pushbutton is pressed to start

the operation and the water valve" V1" is
being operated to open in order to fill the
tank up to a preset level sensed by a level
switch "A".
2. As the tank fills, a level switch "A" closes
the NO contact to energize the stirrer
motor to start automatically and operate it
for 5 s to mix the fluid.
3. When the stirrer motor stops, the
solenoid operated water valve "V;" is
energized to empty the tank.
4. When the tank is completely empty the
level switch "B" opens and de-energizes
the solenoid operated valve "V2".
5. A stop button is pressed to stop the
operation. MED, VAST 63
Ladder diagram to achieve the operation of process tank

• Pressing start button X100 latches the circuit of internal

relay M100 and the circuit for the solenoid-operated inlet
valve V1 will be closed if the level switch A is turned OFF
through an NC contact to start filling the tank.
• The water inlet valve V1 will be stopped as soon as the level
switch "A" is actuated the NC contact.
• As the water is filled, an NO contact of level switch "A" is
energized which in turn is connected to operate both timer
coil and a motor device.
• The motor output is switched OFF after 5 s automatically
through an NC timer contact.
• The timer contact is latched with an internal relay contact
M200 having an NC contact of level switch B for emptying
the tank through water valve V2.
• The operation can be stopped with a pushbutton X200. 64
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• Develop a PLC ladder program for the following
sequence: Start a motor with push switch, and then
after a delay of 90s, start a pump. When the motor
is switched off, the pump will get switched off after
a delay of 5s. Mention the logic used for each rung
in the program to substantiate your answer.

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